MODULE 8
LOGICAL DATABASE DESIGN
Learning Units
8.1 Entity-relationship(E-R) modelling of data elements of an
application.
8.2 Organization of data as relations
8.3 Normalization of relations
8.4 Creation of logical relational database
8.5 Objectives of database management system(DBMS)
8.6 Overview of DBMS.
Systems Analysis And Design
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LEARNING GOALS
In this module we will learn:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The Entity-Relationship(ER) modelling to develop a conceptual model of
data.
How to organize data required in an application as relations
The need for normalizing relations
The various normal forms and their relevance
How to normalize relations to successive higher normal forms to form a
relational database
The need for an integrated database in organizations
The goals of Data Base Management systems (DBMS)
The structure and organization of DBMS.
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MOTIVATION
When a DFD is developed we have a knowledge of
all data elements required by an application
Data dictionary lists all data elements but does not say
anything about relationships between data elements
Relationships are needed to logically group data
elements into related sets or tables
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MOTIVATION
Such an organization
- Reduces data duplication
- Simplifies adding, deleting and updating data
- Simplifies retrieval of desired data
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MOTIVATION
Logical databases give conceptual model.
Logical databases need to be stored in physical media
such as a hard disk for use by applications
A system is needed to map the logical database to a
physical medium which is transparent to an application
program.
Database management systems achieve this purpose
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LOGICAL DATABASE DESIGN-INTRODUCTION
Purpose to develop conceptual model of data
This model specifies relationships among data items
Using this, raw data are organized into tables of related data
These tables are organized in such a way that:
a) duplication of data is reduced
b) operations of adding,deleting, changing
data(together know as updating data) is simplified and
systematized
c) systematization reduces accidental errors
d) Retrieval of data is facilitated
Collection of these tables are called the database for the
application
8.1.1
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LOGICAL DATABASE DESIGN-INTRODUCTION
Loosely one may call organization of related data put in a table as a
RELATION
Systematization by which related data are put in a table is called
NORMALIZATION
A method called entity-relationship analysis facilitates creation of
relations
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ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP MODEL
ENTITY: SPECIFIES DISTINCT REAL WORLD ITEMS IN AN
APPLICATION
For example: vendor,item,student,course,teachers
RELATIONSHIP: MEANINGFUL DEPENDENCIES BETWEEN
ENTITIES
For example: vendor supplies items
teacher teaches courses
Relationships are underlined above
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ENTITY SETS
An entity set is collection of similar entities
Examples : * Set of all vendors of an organization is a vendor set
* Set of all items in a store is an item set
Every member of an entity set is described by its attributes
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ATTRIBUTES
Attributes specify properties of members of entity set
Attributes also specify properties of relationships
Examples:
Entity : Vendor
Attributes : vendor code,vendor name,address
Relationship : supplies
Attributes : vendor code, item code,order no., qty. supplied,date of
supply,price/unit
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ENTITES AND ATTRIBUTES
Example
Entity : Teacher
Attributes : Teacher code,teacher name,department,building,room
no,phone no.
Relationship : Teaches
Attributes : Teacher code,Course no,course name,semester offered,
credits, prerequisites
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ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM
Some entities depend on one another
For example: entity vendor and entity items are related as vendors supply items
These relationships are described by entity-relationship diagrams (or ER
diagrams)
In an ER diagram entities are represented by rectangles and relationships by
diamond shaped boxes
EXAMPLES
ENTITY
VENDOR
ORDERS
SUPPLIES
PLACED
WITH
RELATIONSHIP
ENTITY
ITEMS
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HOW TO IDENTIFY ENTITIES AND RELATIONSHIPS
No algorithms to identify entities and relationship
When a word statement is used to describe an applications
nouns normally are entities and verbs relationships
Students attend courses
Noun
ENTITY
Verb
RELATIONSHIP
Noun
ENTITY
Teachers teach Courses
Noun
ENTITY
8.1.8
Verb
RELATIONSHIP
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Noun
ENTITY
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ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAMS
ONE ENTITY MAY BE RELATED TO MANY OTHER
ENTITIES BY MULTIPLE RELATIONSHIPS
Order no
Order date
ORDERS
Order no
Item code
Placed
for
Placed
with
Order no
Vendor code
Item code
Qty ordered
Price/unit
Item code
Item name
Vendor code
items
vendors
Vendor name
address
Underlined attributes are unique identifiers
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RELATION CARDINALITY
Relation cardinality - number of relationships in which an entity can appear
An entity may appear in
- Only one relationship or
- In fixed number of relationships or
- In a variable number of relationships
V1
Vendor1 supplies
items il,i3,i5
i1
i2
i3
i4
i5
V2
V3
Vendor
supplies
Vendor2 supplies
items il and i2
items
Vendor3 supplies
items i4 and i5
Observe a vendor can supply many items
Observe also that many vendors can supply the same item
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RELATION CARDINALITY REPRESENTATION
vendor
vendor
N
supplies
N
supplies
6
items
items
A vendor cannot supply more
than 6 items
N vendors can supply a
given item
vendor
2
An item cannot be supplied by more than 2 vendors
supplies
M
items
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EXAMPLES
Teacher id
teacher
1
Name
Dept
address
Teacher id
student id
advises
N
students
Student id
Name
Dept
address
1 Teacher advises N students
Observe that in the advises relationship the identifier need not be
composite
If it is N : M relationship then the relationship will have the
identifier of both participating entities sets
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EXAMPLES (CONTD)
Not all teachers may be required to advise
A teacher can advise not more than 3 students
Represented by ER diagram , small open circle specifies that some
teachers may not participate in advises relationship
Teacher
1
advises
3
students
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WHY IS FINDING CARDINALITY NECESSARY
The identifier of the relationship will be composite if cardinality is
N:M
It will be single if cardinality is 1:M
If an entity has attached to it ,not all entities in the set may be
present in the relationship
Will be useful later in designing data base
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RELATIONS
Entity sets and relationship sets are useful in designing data bases
Entity - relationship sets may be put as a table of values. This is
called a relation
Relation name is entity name
A row of a relation has a member of an entity or a relationship set
8.2.1
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EXAMPLES OF A RELATION
VENDOR CODE
VENDOR NAME
1456
1685
1284
1694
Ram & co
Gopal & sons
Sivaraj brother
Gita ltd
ADDRESS
112, 1st cross Bangalore-12
452,4th main, Delhi-8
368 M.G Road, Pune-8
495 N.S.C Road,Calicut
RELATION name:Vendor(same name as entity name)
RELATION ATTRIBUTES: vendor code, vendor name address
Row of relation is called a tuple
In a RELATION rows can be in any order
columns can be of any order
No two rows are identical
No two columns are identical
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RELATION NOTATION
Relation is an entire table
However a concise notation used
Notation uses: relation name and attributes
Vendor relation:
Vendor(Vendor code, Vendor name,address )
Relation Relation
name
Identifier
8.2.3
Relation attributes
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EXAMPLES OF RELATIONS
Item (Item code, Item name)
Supplies (vendor code, Item code ,order no ,
qty supplied ,date of supply ,price/unit)
Relationship
Teacher (Teacher_id ,name ,dept ,address )
Advises (Teacher_id ,student_id)
Student (Student_id ,name ,dept ,,address)
Bold faced attributes are key attributes
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WHY RELATION ?
Ease of storage of entity set as flat file in a computer's storage
Sound theory of relations allows systematic design of relational
data base
Theory of normalizing relations
Reduces duplication of data
Tries to eliminate errors in adding, deleting, altering items in a
data base
Simplifies retrieval of data
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NORMALIZING RELATIONS
What is normalization of relations ?
Why normalize relations ?
How are relations normalized ?
Normalizing is the process of restructuring relations to a form
which:* Minimizes duplication of data in a database
* Operations of adding, deleting,modifying data in a database
do not lead to inconsistent data in a database
* Retrieval of data simplified
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WHY NORMALIZE ?
A collection of relations relevant for an application constitute a
relational database
Relations are normalized to ensure that:
Collection of relations do not unnecessarily hold duplicate data
When a data item is modified it is modified in all relations
where it appears - no inconsistency is there
When data is deleted accidentally, required data is not deleted
Simplifies retrieval of required data
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HOW ARE RELATIONS NORMALIZED ?
UNNORMALIZED RELATION
Order no
Item lines
Item code Qty
Price/unit
1456
26021999
3687
4627
3214
52
38
20
50.40
60.20
17.50
1886
04031999
1788
04111999
4629
4627
4627
45
30
40
20.25
60.20
60.20
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
8.3.3
order date
Observe order for many items
Item lines has many attributes-called composite attributes
Each tuple has variable length
Difficult to store due to non-uniformity
Given item code difficult to find qty-ordered
Called Unnormalized relation
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FIRST NORMAL FORM
Identify composite attributes
Convert composite attributes to individual attributes
Duplicate common attributes as many times as lines in composite attribute
Every attribute describes single property -no composite attribute
Some data duplicated
This is called First normal form (1NF) also called flat file
FIRST NORMAL FORM 1NF
Order No
Order date
Item code
Qty
Price/unit
26021999
3687
52
50.40
1456
26021999
4627
38
60.20
1456
26021999
3214
20
17.50
1886
04031999
4629
45
20.25
1886
04031999
4627
30
60.20
1788
04111999
4627
40
60.20
8.3.4
1456
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HIGHER NORMAL FORMS
First normal form is first essential step in normalization
Higher normal forms known as 2NF,3NF,BCNF,4NF,5NF exist
Each is an improvement of the preceding one
A higher normal form also satisfies requirements of a lower normal
form
5NF
4NF
BCNF
3NF
2NF
1NF
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HIGHER NORMAL FORMS
Higher normalization steps based on :
Detecting dependence between attributes
Identifying key attributes
Detecting multivalued dependency between attributes
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FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY
Given X,Y as two attributes in a relation
Given X if only one value of Y corresponds to it then Y is
functionally dependent on X
X
e.g. Given Item code - Item name known
Therefore Item code
Item name
Functional dependence may be based on a composite attribute
X,Z
composite attribute
Order no. ,item code --------- Qty , price
composite attribute
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DEPENDENCY DIAGRAM
Student (Roll no, name, address, dept., year of study )
Name
Address
Roll no
Department
Called relation key
Year of study
Roll no. determines uniquely values of all other attributes in the relation
Therefore it is called a key
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DEPENDENCY DIAGRAM
Vendor code
Item code
Qty.supplied
Date of supply
Price/unit
Composite key
Composite key enclosed in one box in diagram
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WHY NORMALIZE RELATIONS-REVISITED
To ensure that while operating on data base we do not
- Lose data
- Introduce inconsistencies
Operations on data base
Insertion of new data should not force leaving blank fields for
some attributes
Deletion of a tuple should not delete vital information
Updating - changing value of an attribute should be possible
without exhaustively searching all tuples of relation
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EXAMPLE TO SHOW NEED FOR
NORMALIZATION
FIRST NORMAL FORM 1NF
Order No
Order date
Item code
Qty
Price/unit
1456
26021999
3687
52
50.40
1456
26021999
4627
38
60.20
1456
26021999
3214
20
17.50
1886
04031999
4629
45
20.25
1886
04031999
4627
30
60.20
1788
04111999
4627
40
60.20
INSERTION : Enter new item with code 3945 and price 30.50 for which no order has been
placed. Inserted tuple will have no values(i.e have to be left blank) for order no and order date
DELETION: If order no1886 is deleted the fact that item code 4629 costs 20.25 is lost
UPDATE: If price of item 4627 is changed,all instances of this item code
have to be changed by exhaustive search-errors possible
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IDEAL NORMALIZATION
At the end of normalization a normalized relation
Should have no data values duplicated in rows
Every attribute in a row must have a value
Deletion of a row must not lead to accidental
loss of information
Adding a row should not affect other rows
A value of an attribute in a row can be changed independent of
other rows
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SECOND NORMAL FORM (2NF)
A relation is in 2NF if
It is in 1NF
Non key attributes functionally dependent on key attribute
If key composite then no non-key attribute can functionally
depend on one part of the key.
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2NF FORM NORMALIZATION-EXAMPLE
INF : itemorder (Order no,Item code, Order date,Qty,Price/unit)
Composite key
Dependency diagram
Order date
Order no
Qty
Item code
Price/unit
Not in 2NF as non key attribute dependent on part of a key attribute(Price/unit dependent
on Item code)
2NF relations are Order(order no,order date)
Prices(item code,price/unit)
Order details(order no,item code,qty)
Observe a single 1NF relation split into three 2NF relations
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2NF FORM
1 NF Orders Relation
Order No
1456
1456
1456
1886
1886
1788
Order date
26021999
26021999
26021999
04031999
04031999
04041999
Item code
3687
4627
3214
4629
4627
4627
Qty
52
38
20
45
30
40
Price/unit
50.40
60.20
17.50
20.25
60.20
60.20
2 NF Relations
ORDERS
Order No Order date
1456
26021999
1886
04031999
1788
04041999
8.3.15
ORDER DETAILS
Order No
Item code
1456
3687
1456
4627
1456
3214
1886
4629
1886
4627
1886
4627
Systems Analysis And Design
Qty
52
38
20
45
30
40
PRICES
Item code Price/unit
3687
50.40
4627
60.20
3214
17.50
4629
20.25
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ADVANTAGES OF 2NF
* NON KEY ATTRIBUTES WHOLLY DEPENDENT ON KEY
Repetition of order date removed
If order 1886 for item 4629 is cancelled the price/unit is
lost in INF as the whole tuple would be deleted
In 2NF item price not lost when order 1886 for item 4629
cancelled. Only row 4 in order details deleted
Duplication of data in a relation is not there
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THIRD NORMAL FORM
Relation in 2NF
There is functional dependence between some Non-key attributes
This needs further normalization as the non-keys being dependent
leads to unnecessary duplication of data
EXAMPLE
Student( Roll no, name, dept, year, hostelname )
- If students in a given year are all put in one hostel then year and the hostel are
functionally dependent
- Year implies hostel-hostel name unnecessarily duplicated
- If all students of the year 1 changed to another hostel many tuples need change
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NORMALIZATION TO 3NF
Student( Roll no, name, dept, year )
Hostel (year, hostel)
This is in 3NF
Example : Employee (empcode,name,salary,project no,termination
date of project)
* termination date (non-key attribute)
Dependent on project no. another non-key attribute
Thus needs normalization
3NF relations : Employee(empcode,name,salary,projectno)
Project( Projectno ,termination date of project)
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NORMALIZATION TO 3NF
Passenger(Ticket code,Passenger name,Train no,Departure
time,Fare)
Train no. and departure time are non-key attributes and are
functionally dependent
3NF Relations :
Passenger(Ticket code ,Passenger name,Train no, Fare)
Train details (Train no., departure time)
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BOYCE-CODD NORMAL FORM
Assume
* Relation has more than 1 possible key
* Keys composite
* Composite keys have common attribute
* Non-key attributes not dependent on one another
Thus relation in 3NF, still there could be problems due to
unnecessary duplication and loss of data accidentally
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EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
Professor (Prof code, Dept, Head of Dept, Percent time)
RELATION
Professor code
P1
P1
P2
P2
P3
P4
P4
Dept
Physics
Maths
Chem
Physics
Maths
Maths
Physics
Head of dept
Ghosh
Krishnan
Rao
Ghosh
Krishnan
Krishnan
Ghosh
Percent time
50
50
25
75
100
30
70
Observe two possible composite keys (Prof code, Dept) or (Prof
code,Head of Dept)
Observe Head of dept name is repeated
If professor P2 resigns the fact that Rao is Head of Chemistry is lost as lines
3 & 4 will be deleted
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EXAMPLE (CONTD)
The dependency diagrams are:
Prof code
Percent time
Dept
Dept
Head of Dept
Head of Dept
Percent time
Prof code
Dept
Head of Dept
Percent time a Prof.spends in the department is dependent on Prof code and Department
Head of Dept depends on department
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NEED FOR BCNF
Observe the given relation is in 3NF as non key attributes are
independent of one another and wholly dependent on key
However there are problems pointed out
Problem due to the fact that there are two possible composite
keys
An attribute of one of the composite key depends on a attribute
of the other possible composite key
This leads to the problem indicated
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NORMALIZING TO BCNF
Identify the dependent attributes in the possible composite keys
Remove them and create anew relation
EXAMPLE
Composite keys
1. Prof code ,Dept
Dependency : Dept
2. Prof code,Head of Dept
Head of dept
New relations
Professor
(Prof code, Dept, Percent time )
Department ( Dept, Head of Dept)
8.3.24
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NORMALIZED BCNF RELATIONS
Professor code
P1
P1
P2
P2
P3
P4
P4
Dept
Physics
Maths
Chem
Physics
Maths
Maths
Physics
Percent time
50
50
25
75
100
30
70
Dept
Physics
Maths
Chem
Head of Dept
Ghosh
Krishnan
Rao
Observe there is no redundancy
If P2 resigns information of Head of dept of chemistry is not lost
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FOURTH NORMAL FORM
Needed when there are multi-valued dependencies
Example : (Vendor, Project, Item) relations
Assumptions :
-A vendor capable of supplying many items to many projects
-A project needs many items
-Project may order the same item from many vendors
Vendor
Project
Items
Item
P
Multivalued dependency
Vendor-Project-Item supply capability relation
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FOURTH NORMAL FORM (CONTD)
Vendor code
Project code
Item code
VI
PI
I1
VI
PI
I2
VI
P3
I1
VI
P3
I2
V2
PI
I2
V2
PI
I3
V3
PI
I1
V3
P2
I1
Problems
Item I1 duplicated for VI and also for V3
If VI is to supply to project P2 but the item to be supplied is not decided
there will be blank in item column
Relation in BCNF but still has above problem and need normalization to 4NF
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NORMALIZATION TO 4NF
Split vendor-project-item relation into two relations
Resulting relation must have not more than one independent multivalued
dependency
RESULTING RELATIONS
Vendor
VI
Item
11
VI
12
V2
12
V2
13
V3
11
Project
Item
P1
P1
P1
P2
P3
P3
I1
I2
I3
I1
I1
I2
OBSERVE NO UNNECESSARY DUPLICATION
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NEED FOR 5NF
In 4NF relations vendor capability to supply items and projects
need for items are there.
They are obtained by splitting the given relation
Looking at relation project-item we see that project P2 requires
item I1
From vendor item relation we see that I1 is supplied by V1.
This would lead us to infer that(V1,P1,I1)must be a tuple in the
original relation but it is not.In other words V1 does not supply
item I1 to project P2.
This spurious tuple has occurred because vendor V1 may not be
allowed to supply item I1 to project P2
Similarly another spurious tuple is (V3,P3,I1)
We thus need a third relation which specifies the vendors who
are allowed to supply to projects
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OBTAINING 5NF RELATIONS
We add a third relation to the two 4NF relations
This is vendor-project relation shown below
VENDOR CODE
V1
V1
V2
V3
V3
PROJECT NO
P1
P3
P1
P1
P2
With this relation added we will not get the spurious tuples (V1,P2,I1),(V3,P3,I1)
The two 4NF relations together with the vendor-project relation called 5NF relations
obtained by decomposing the original vendor-project-item relation which has a BCNF
relation
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EXAMPLES OF DATA BASE DESIGN
ORDER - VENDOR - ITEMS ORDERED EXAMPLE IN CASE
STUDY
Information on dependencies given :
Orders for item placed with many vendors
A given order no is only to one vendor
Many items supplied against a given order no
A vendor has capacity to supply many items but only some items may
be ordered
ER - DIAGRAM
Orders
Placed
for
Placed
with
Items
Vendors
Supply
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RELATIONS-UNNORMALIZED
RELATIONS-UNNORMALIZED
1. ORDERS(Order no,Order date)
2. ORDERS PLACED FOR(Order no,item code,qty ordered,delivery time allowed)
3. ORDERS PLACED WITH(order no,vendor code,item code)
4. VENDOR(Vendor code,vendor name,vendor address)
5. ITEM( item code,item name,price/unit)
6. SUPPLIES(vendor code,item code,order no,qty.supplied,date of supply)
NORMALIZATION:
Relation 1,4,5 are in 3NF and need no change
Relation 2 has a composite key,attributes of composite key not related.
Non key attributes dependent on composite key,need no change.
Relation 3: order no and item code have multivalued dependency.Relation2
already has order no,item code as composite key.Relation 3 is reduced to:
7.ORDER PLACED WITH(order no,vendor code)
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NORMALIZATION OF SUPPLIES RELATION
Consider relation 6 :
6.
SUPPLIES (vendor code, item code, order no, qty supplied, date of
supply)
It has a composite key with three attributes
Attributes item code and order no have multi-valued dependency as
many items can be supplied in one order
Need normalization to 4NF
Normalized to
8. ACTUAL SUPPLIES (order no, item code, qty supplied, date of supply)
9. VENDOR CAPABILITY (vendor code, item code )
The second relation may have items not yet ordered with a vendor but which
could be supplied by vendor
The Normalized relations are : 1,2,4,5,7,8,9
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STUDENT-TEACHER-COURSES EXAMPLE
Information on dependence
A teacher may teach more than one course in a semester
A teacher belongs to only one dept.
A student may take many courses in a semester
A course may have many sections taught by different teachers
E-R Diagram
Teacher
Students
M
Teaches
Attends
P
Courses
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RELATION-UNNORMALIZED
1 TEACHER (Teacher code,teacher name, address, rank, dept)
2 TEACHER_COURSES (Teacher code,Course no,no of students, section no )
3 COURSE (Course no , semester taught ,Course name, credits)
4 STUDENT (Student no, student name, dept, year )
5 STUDENT COURSES (Student no, Course no, semester no )
a)Relations 1,3,4 in 3NF
b)Relations 2 and 5 have multi-attribute key which has multi-valued dependency but do not need
normalization
c)However information on which teacher teaches a given student a specified course cannot be
found from relations 1 to 5
Therefore Add relation
6
TEACHER_STUDENT (Teacher code, Student no, Course no)
THIS SET NORMALIZED
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CONCLUSIONS
We have seen how data relevant to applications are organized
logically into set of relations
The process of normalization depends on the semantics, i.e,
meanings of data and an understanding of how various data
elements are related
It is thus a human intensive activity-it cannot be automated
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CONCLUSIONS (CONTD)
In most problems in practice one is satisfied with 3NF.Higher
normal forms are theoretically important and in some cases
becomes essential.
There is a mathematical theory which underpins the idea of
relations and normalization giving it a sound basis. We have not
discussed it in this module.
A full fledged course in Data Base will describe in detail the
mathematical basis and methods of querying a database
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PROBLEMS WITH FILE BASED SYSTEMS
If programs and files independently developed for each application in the
organization it leads to the following problems
DATA REDUNDANCY-Some data may be duplicated in many files.
e.g.: Address of customer
LACK OF DATA INTEGRITY- Duplicated data may be different in
different files (New address in one file and old address in another file)
DATA AVAILABILITY- May require search of number of files to access a
specified data
CONTROL BY MANAGEMENT-Difficult as data scattered across files.
All files should be accessed to find specified data
Aim of data base management systems is to reduce above problems
8.5.1
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DATABASE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
DATA BASE - A Collection of related data necessary to manage
an organization (Excludes transient data)
- Models data resource and is independent of
applications
DATA BASE MANAGEMENT- A set of procedures that manage the database and
provides access to the database in the form required by
the application program
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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Application1
Database
Application2
Database Management
System
DBMS
Application1
Organized collection of data
for several applications
Procedures to provide data
in the form required by
applications. Applications
need not know physical organization
of data
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OBJECTIVES OF A DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Data is an organizational resource. It should be
collected, validated, protected, logically organized and
stored with controlled redundancy. This is the
organizational database
One of the main objectives of DBMS is to facilitate
sharing of a database by current and future applications
DBMS must ensure data independence for programs
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OBJECTIVES OF DBMS
Data independence to be provided to application programs
Data independence allows
-Change of database without affecting application programs
-Change of hardware or system software without affecting
application programs
-Sharing of data by different applications by providing views
appropriate for the application
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OBJECTIVES OF DBMS
Control of Redundancy - Avoid unnecessary duplication
Relations between data items specified
Data integrity - Preserve consistency of data values
Data Security - Permit access to data to authorized users only
Performance - Provide timely information when needed
Ensure management control on addition, deletion, change and
dissemination of data
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OVERVIEW OF DBMS
Data needs of current and possible future applications determined
Using E-R data modelling conceptual data model found
Converted to relations if Relational DBMS used
- called logical data model
Application programmers access subset of logical data model
- called external data model
Logical model mapped to physical model for storage in disk store
- called internal model
External data model kept invariant
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VARIOUS TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING
DBMS
Current
1
applications 2
Future
Applications
p
q
Application
programs
8.6.2
Conceptual
model
1
2
p
q
External
Model
Systems Analysis And Design
logical
model
Internal
Model
Database
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COMPONENTS OF DBMS
Data Definition Languages (DDL) to define conceptual, logical
and external models
Data manipulation and query language called Structured Query
Language (SQL)
Features to implement security
Checkpointing and roll back recovery procedures
Record of accesses. Audit trail of changes
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DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR
Database Administrators responsibilities
Controller of data recourse
Ensure integrity,security and privacy
Maintenance of data dictionary
Coordination of development and maintenance of data
base
Determining access rights
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STEPS IN DESIGNING DATABASE
INPUTS
E-R Diagram based on existing
and potential applications
DESIGN STEPS
Design conceptual model
Of database
Design logical model of
Data base
Features of DBMS to be used
User
Feedback
to improve
Design physical model of database
Data on frequency of access, volume
Additions/deletion
Evaluate performance of physical
model
Implement
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CHARACTERSTICS OF A GOOD DATA BASE
DESIGN
Satisfy current and future needs of organization
Cater to unanticipated user requirements in the best possible way
Expandable with growth and changes in organization
Easy to change when hardware and software change
Ensure data security by allowing only authorized persons to access
and modify database
8.6.6
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