26/10/2015

TheMoralInstinctNewYorkTimes

January13,2008

TheMoralInstinct
BySTEVENPINKER

Whichofthefollowingpeoplewouldyousayisthemostadmirable:MotherTeresa,BillGatesor
NormanBorlaug?Andwhichdoyouthinkistheleastadmirable?Formostpeople,itsaneasyquestion.
MotherTeresa,famousforministeringtothepoorinCalcutta,hasbeenbeatifiedbytheVatican,awarded
theNobelPeacePrizeandrankedinanAmericanpollasthemostadmiredpersonofthe20thcentury.Bill
Gates,infamousforgivingustheMicrosoftdancingpaperclipandthebluescreenofdeath,hasbeen
decapitatedineffigyinIHateGatesWebsitesandhitwithapieintheface.AsforNormanBorlaug...
whotheheckisNormanBorlaug?
Yetadeeperlookmightleadyoutorethinkyouranswers.Borlaug,fatheroftheGreenRevolutionthat
usedagriculturalsciencetoreduceworldhunger,hasbeencreditedwithsavingabillionlives,morethan
anyoneelseinhistory.Gates,indecidingwhattodowithhisfortune,crunchedthenumbersand
determinedthathecouldalleviatethemostmiserybyfightingeverydayscourgesinthedevelopingworld
likemalaria,diarrheaandparasites.MotherTeresa,forherpart,extolledthevirtueofsufferingandranher
wellfinancedmissionsaccordingly:theirsickpatronswereofferedplentyofprayerbutharshconditions,
fewanalgesicsanddangerouslyprimitivemedicalcare.
Itsnothardtoseewhythemoralreputationsofthistrioshouldbesooutoflinewiththegoodtheyhave
done.MotherTeresawastheveryembodimentofsaintliness:whiteclad,sadeyed,asceticandoften
photographedwiththewretchedoftheearth.Gatesisanerdsnerdandtheworldsrichestman,aslikelyto
enterheavenastheproverbialcamelsqueezingthroughtheneedleseye.AndBorlaug,now93,isan
agronomistwhohasspenthislifeinlabsandnonprofits,seldomwalkingontothemediastage,andhence
intoourconsciousness,atall.
IdoubttheseexampleswillpersuadeanyonetofavorBillGatesoverMotherTeresaforsainthood.Butthey
showthatourheadscanbeturnedbyanauraofsanctity,distractingusfromamoreobjectivereckoningof
theactionsthatmakepeoplesufferorflourish.Itseemswemayallbevulnerabletomoralillusionsthe
ethicalequivalentofthebendinglinesthattricktheeyeoncerealboxesandinpsychologytextbooks.
Illusionsareafavoritetoolofperceptionscientistsforexposingtheworkingsofthefivesenses,andof
philosophersforshakingpeopleoutofthenavebeliefthatourmindsgiveusatransparentwindowonto
theworld(sinceifoureyescanbefooledbyanillusion,whyshouldwetrustthematothertimes?).Today,
anewfieldisusingillusionstounmaskasixthsense,themoralsense.Moralintuitionsarebeingdrawnout
ofpeopleinthelab,onWebsitesandinbrainscanners,andarebeingexplainedwithtoolsfromgame
theory,neuroscienceandevolutionarybiology.
Twothingsfillthemindwithevernewandincreasingadmirationandawe,theoftenerandmoresteadily
wereflectonthem,wroteImmanuelKant,thestarryheavensaboveandthemorallawwithin.These
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/magazine/13Psychologyt.html?_r=0&pagewanted=print

1/14

26/10/2015

TheMoralInstinctNewYorkTimes

days,themorallawwithinisbeingviewedwithincreasingawe,ifnotalwaysadmiration.Thehumanmoral
senseturnsouttobeanorganofconsiderablecomplexity,withquirksthatreflectitsevolutionaryhistory
anditsneurobiologicalfoundations.
Thesequirksareboundtohaveimplicationsforthehumanpredicament.Moralityisnotjustanyoldtopic
inpsychologybutclosetoourconceptionofthemeaningoflife.Moralgoodnessiswhatgiveseachofus
thesensethatweareworthyhumanbeings.Weseekitinourfriendsandmates,nurtureitinourchildren,
advanceitinourpoliticsandjustifyitwithourreligions.Adisrespectformoralityisblamedforeveryday
sinsandhistorysworstatrocities.Tocarrythisweight,theconceptofmoralitywouldhavetobebigger
thananyofusandoutsideallofus.
Sodissectingmoralintuitionsisnosmallmatter.Ifmoralityisameretrickofthebrain,somemayfear,our
verygroundsforbeingmoralcouldbeeroded.Yetasweshallsee,thescienceofthemoralsensecan
insteadbeseenasawaytostrengthenthosegrounds,byclarifyingwhatmoralityisandhowitshouldsteer
ouractions.
TheMoralizationSwitch
Thestartingpointforappreciatingthatthereisadistinctivepartofourpsychologyformoralityisseeing
howmoraljudgmentsdifferfromotherkindsofopinionswehaveonhowpeopleoughttobehave.
Moralizationisapsychologicalstatethatcanbeturnedonandofflikeaswitch,andwhenitison,a
distinctivemindsetcommandeersourthinking.Thisisthemindsetthatmakesusdeemactionsimmoral
(killingiswrong),ratherthanmerelydisagreeable(Ihatebrusselssprouts),unfashionable(bell
bottomsareout)orimprudent(dontscratchmosquitobites).
Thefirsthallmarkofmoralizationisthattherulesitinvokesarefelttobeuniversal.Prohibitionsofrape
andmurder,forexample,arefeltnottobemattersoflocalcustombuttobeuniversallyandobjectively
warranted.Onecaneasilysay,Idontlikebrusselssprouts,butIdontcareifyoueatthem,butnoone
wouldsay,Idontlikekilling,butIdontcareifyoumurdersomeone.
Theotherhallmarkisthatpeoplefeelthatthosewhocommitimmoralactsdeservetobepunished.Not
onlyisitallowabletoinflictpainonapersonwhohasbrokenamoralruleitiswrongnotto,toletthem
getawaywithit.Peoplearethusuntroubledininvitingdivineretributionorthepowerofthestatetoharm
otherpeopletheydeemimmoral.BertrandRussellwrote,Theinflictionofcrueltywithagoodconscience
isadelighttomoraliststhatiswhytheyinventedhell.
Weallknowwhatitfeelslikewhenthemoralizationswitchflipsinsideustherighteousglow,the
burningdudgeon,thedrivetorecruitotherstothecause.ThepsychologistPaulRozinhasstudiedthe
toggleswitchbycomparingtwokindsofpeoplewhoengageinthesamebehaviorbutwithdifferentswitch
settings.Healthvegetariansavoidmeatforpracticalreasons,likeloweringcholesterolandavoidingtoxins.
Moralvegetariansavoidmeatforethicalreasons:toavoidcomplicityinthesufferingofanimals.By
investigatingtheirfeelingsaboutmeateating,Rozinshowedthatthemoralmotivesetsoffacascadeof
opinions.Moralvegetariansaremorelikelytotreatmeatasacontaminanttheyrefuse,forexample,to
eatabowlofsoupintowhichadropofbeefbrothhasfallen.Theyaremorelikelytothinkthatotherpeople
oughttobevegetarians,andaremorelikelytoimbuetheirdietaryhabitswithothervirtues,likebelieving
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/magazine/13Psychologyt.html?_r=0&pagewanted=print

2/14

26/10/2015

TheMoralInstinctNewYorkTimes

thatmeatavoidancemakespeoplelessaggressiveandbestial.
Muchofourrecentsocialhistory,includingtheculturewarsbetweenliberalsandconservatives,consistsof
themoralizationoramoralizationofparticularkindsofbehavior.Evenwhenpeopleagreethatanoutcome
isdesirable,theymaydisagreeonwhetheritshouldbetreatedasamatterofpreferenceandprudenceoras
amatterofsinandvirtue.Rozinnotes,forexample,thatsmokinghaslatelybeenmoralized.Untilrecently,
itwasunderstoodthatsomepeopledidntenjoysmokingoravoideditbecauseitwashazardoustotheir
health.Butwiththediscoveryoftheharmfuleffectsofsecondhandsmoke,smokingisnowtreatedas
immoral.Smokersareostracizedimagesofpeoplesmokingarecensoredandentitiestouchedbysmoke
arefelttobecontaminated(sohotelshavenotonlynonsmokingroomsbutnonsmokingfloors).Thedesire
forretributionhasbeenvisitedontobaccocompanies,whohavebeenslappedwithstaggeringpunitive
damages.
Atthesametime,manybehaviorshavebeenamoralized,switchedfrommoralfailingstolifestylechoices.
Theyincludedivorce,illegitimacy,beingaworkingmother,marijuanauseandhomosexuality.Many
afflictionshavebeenreassignedfrompaybackforbadchoicestounluckymisfortunes.Thereusedtobe
peoplecalledbumsandtrampstodaytheyarehomeless.Drugaddictionisadiseasesyphiliswas
rebrandedfromthepriceofwantonbehaviortoasexuallytransmitteddiseaseandmorerecentlya
sexuallytransmittedinfection.
Thiswaveofamoralizationhasledtheculturalrighttolamentthatmoralityitselfisunderassault,aswe
seeinthegroupthatanointeditselftheMoralMajority.InfactthereseemstobeaLawofConservationof
Moralization,sothatasoldbehaviorsaretakenoutofthemoralizedcolumn,newonesareaddedtoit.
Dozensofthingsthatpastgenerationstreatedaspracticalmattersarenowethicalbattlegrounds,including
disposablediapers,I.Q.tests,poultryfarms,Barbiedollsandresearchonbreastcancer.Foodalonehas
becomeaminefield,withcriticssermonizingaboutthesizeofsodas,thechemistryoffat,thefreedomof
chickens,thepriceofcoffeebeans,thespeciesoffishandnowthedistancethefoodhastraveledfromfarm
toplate.
Manyofthesemoralizations,liketheassaultonsmoking,maybeunderstoodaspracticaltacticstoreduce
somerecentlyidentifiedharm.Butwhetheranactivityflipsourmentalswitchestothemoralsettingisnt
justamatterofhowmuchharmitdoes.Wedontshowcontempttothemanwhofailstochangethe
batteriesinhissmokealarmsortakeshisfamilyonadrivingvacation,bothofwhichmultiplytheriskthey
willdieinanaccident.DrivingagasguzzlingHummerisreprehensible,butdrivingagasguzzlingold
VolvoisnoteatingaBigMacisunconscionable,butnotimportedcheeseorcrmebrle.Thereasonfor
thesedoublestandardsisobvious:peopletendtoaligntheirmoralizationwiththeirownlifestyles.
ReasoningandRationalizing
Itsnotjustthecontentofourmoraljudgmentsthatisoftenquestionable,butthewaywearriveatthem.
Weliketothinkthatwhenwehaveaconviction,therearegoodreasonsthatdroveustoadoptit.Thatis
whyanolderapproachtomoralpsychology,ledbyJeanPiagetandLawrenceKohlberg,triedtodocument
thelinesofreasoningthatguidedpeopletomoralconclusions.Butconsiderthesesituations,originally
devisedbythepsychologistJonathanHaidt:
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/magazine/13Psychologyt.html?_r=0&pagewanted=print

3/14

26/10/2015

TheMoralInstinctNewYorkTimes

JulieistravelinginFranceonsummervacationfromcollegewithherbrotherMark.Onenighttheydecide
thatitwouldbeinterestingandfuniftheytriedmakinglove.Juliewasalreadytakingbirthcontrolpills,
butMarkusesacondom,too,justtobesafe.Theybothenjoythesexbutdecidenottodoitagain.They
keepthenightasaspecialsecret,whichmakesthemfeelclosertoeachother.Whatdoyouthinkaboutthat
wasitO.K.forthemtomakelove?
AwomaniscleaningoutherclosetandshefindsheroldAmericanflag.Shedoesntwanttheflaganymore,
soshecutsitupintopiecesandusestheragstocleanherbathroom.
Afamilysdogiskilledbyacarinfrontoftheirhouse.Theyheardthatdogmeatwasdelicious,sotheycut
upthedogsbodyandcookitandeatitfordinner.
Mostpeopleimmediatelydeclarethattheseactsarewrongandthengropetojustifywhytheyarewrong.
Itsnotsoeasy.InthecaseofJulieandMark,peopleraisethepossibilityofchildrenwithbirthdefects,but
theyareremindedthatthecouplewerediligentaboutcontraception.Theysuggestthatthesiblingswillbe
emotionallyhurt,butthestorymakesitclearthattheywerent.Theysubmitthattheactwouldoffendthe
community,butthenrecallthatitwaskeptasecret.Eventuallymanypeopleadmit,Idontknow,Icant
explainit,Ijustknowitswrong.Peopledontgenerallyengageinmoralreasoning,Haidtargues,but
moralrationalization:theybeginwiththeconclusion,coughedupbyanunconsciousemotion,andthen
workbackwardtoaplausiblejustification.
Thegapbetweenpeoplesconvictionsandtheirjustificationsisalsoondisplayinthefavoritenewsandbox
formoralpsychologists,athoughtexperimentdevisedbythephilosophersPhilippaFootandJudithJarvis
ThomsoncalledtheTrolleyProblem.Onyourmorningwalk,youseeatrolleycarhurtlingdownthetrack,
theconductorslumpedoverthecontrols.Inthepathofthetrolleyarefivemenworkingonthetrack,
oblivioustothedanger.Youarestandingataforkinthetrackandcanpullaleverthatwilldivertthe
trolleyontoaspur,savingthefivemen.Unfortunately,thetrolleywouldthenrunoverasingleworkerwho
islaboringonthespur.Isitpermissibletothrowtheswitch,killingonemantosavefive?Almosteveryone
saysyes.
Considernowadifferentscene.Youareonabridgeoverlookingthetracksandhavespottedtherunaway
trolleybearingdownonthefiveworkers.Nowtheonlywaytostopthetrolleyistothrowaheavyobjectin
itspath.Andtheonlyheavyobjectwithinreachisafatmanstandingnexttoyou.Shouldyouthrowthe
manoffthebridge?Bothdilemmaspresentyouwiththeoptionofsacrificingonelifetosavefive,andso,
bytheutilitarianstandardofwhatwouldresultinthegreatestgoodforthegreatestnumber,thetwo
dilemmasaremorallyequivalent.Butmostpeopledontseeitthatway:thoughtheywouldpulltheswitch
inthefirstdilemma,theywouldnotheavethefatmaninthesecond.Whenpressedforareason,theycant
comeupwithanythingcoherent,thoughmoralphilosophershaventhadaneasytimecomingupwitha
relevantdifference,either.
Whenpsychologistssaymostpeopletheyusuallymeanmostofthetwodozensophomoreswhofilled
outaquestionnaireforbeermoney.Butinthiscaseitmeansmostofthe200,000peoplefromahundred
countrieswhosharedtheirintuitionsonaWebbasedexperimentconductedbythepsychologistsFiery
CushmanandLianeYoungandthebiologistMarcHauser.Adifferencebetweentheacceptabilityofswitch
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/magazine/13Psychologyt.html?_r=0&pagewanted=print

4/14

26/10/2015

TheMoralInstinctNewYorkTimes

pullingandmanheaving,andaninabilitytojustifythechoice,wasfoundinrespondentsfromEurope,
AsiaandNorthandSouthAmericaamongmenandwomen,blacksandwhites,teenagersand
octogenarians,Hindus,Muslims,Buddhists,Christians,Jewsandatheistspeoplewithelementaryschool
educationsandpeoplewithPh.D.s.
JoshuaGreene,aphilosopherandcognitiveneuroscientist,suggeststhatevolutionequippedpeoplewitha
revulsiontomanhandlinganinnocentperson.Thisinstinct,hesuggests,tendstooverwhelmany
utilitariancalculusthatwouldtotupthelivessavedandlost.Theimpulseagainstroughingupafellow
humanwouldexplainotherexamplesinwhichpeopleabjurekillingonetosavemany,likeeuthanizinga
hospitalpatienttoharvesthisorgansandsavefivedyingpatientsinneedoftransplants,orthrowing
someoneoutofacrowdedlifeboattokeepitafloat.
Byitselfthiswouldbenomorethanaplausiblestory,butGreeneteamedupwiththecognitive
neuroscientistJonathanCohenandseveralPrincetoncolleaguestopeerintopeoplesbrainsusing
functionalM.R.I.Theysoughttofindsignsofaconflictbetweenbrainareasassociatedwithemotion(the
onesthatrecoilfromharmingsomeone)andareasdedicatedtorationalanalysis(theonesthatcalculate
liveslostandsaved).
Whenpeopleponderedthedilemmasthatrequiredkillingsomeonewiththeirbarehands,severalnetworks
intheirbrainslightedup.One,whichincludedthemedial(inwardfacing)partsofthefrontallobes,has
beenimplicatedinemotionsaboutotherpeople.Asecond,thedorsolateral(upperandouterfacing)
surfaceofthefrontallobes,hasbeenimplicatedinongoingmentalcomputation(includingnonmoral
reasoning,likedecidingwhethertogetsomewherebyplaneortrain).Andathirdregion,theanterior
cingulatecortex(anevolutionarilyancientstriplyingatthebaseoftheinnersurfaceofeachcerebral
hemisphere),registersaconflictbetweenanurgecomingfromonepartofthebrainandanadvisory
comingfromanother.
Butwhenthepeoplewereponderingahandsoffdilemma,likeswitchingthetrolleyontothespurwiththe
singleworker,thebrainreacteddifferently:onlytheareainvolvedinrationalcalculationstoodout.Other
studieshaveshownthatneurologicalpatientswhohavebluntedemotionsbecauseofdamagetothefrontal
lobesbecomeutilitarians:theythinkitmakesperfectsensetothrowthefatmanoffthebridge.Together,
thefindingscorroborateGreenestheorythatournonutilitarianintuitionscomefromthevictoryofan
emotionalimpulseoveracostbenefitanalysis.
AUniversalMorality?
Thefindingsoftrolleyologycomplex,instinctiveandworldwidemoralintuitionsledHauserandJohn
Mikhail(alegalscholar)toreviveananalogyfromthephilosopherJohnRawlsbetweenthemoralsense
andlanguage.AccordingtoNoamChomsky,wearebornwithauniversalgrammarthatforcesusto
analyzespeechintermsofitsgrammaticalstructure,withnoconsciousawarenessoftherulesinplay.By
analogy,wearebornwithauniversalmoralgrammarthatforcesustoanalyzehumanactionintermsofits
moralstructure,withjustaslittleawareness.
Theideathatthemoralsenseisaninnatepartofhumannatureisnotfarfetched.Alistofhuman
universalscollectedbytheanthropologistDonaldE.Brownincludesmanymoralconceptsandemotions,
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/magazine/13Psychologyt.html?_r=0&pagewanted=print

5/14

26/10/2015

TheMoralInstinctNewYorkTimes

includingadistinctionbetweenrightandwrongempathyfairnessadmirationofgenerosityrightsand
obligationsproscriptionofmurder,rapeandotherformsofviolenceredressofwrongssanctionsfor
wrongsagainstthecommunityshameandtaboos.
Thestirringsofmoralityemergeearlyinchildhood.Toddlersspontaneouslyoffertoysandhelptoothers
andtrytocomfortpeopletheyseeindistress.AndaccordingtothepsychologistsElliotTurielandJudith
Smetana,preschoolershaveaninklingofthedifferencebetweensocietalconventionsandmoralprinciples.
FouryearoldssaythatitisnotO.K.towearpajamastoschool(aconvention)andalsonotO.K.tohita
littlegirlfornoreason(amoralprinciple).ButwhenaskedwhethertheseactionswouldbeO.K.ifthe
teacherallowedthem,mostofthechildrensaidthatwearingpajamaswouldnowbefinebutthathittinga
littlegirlwouldstillnotbe.
Thoughnoonehasidentifiedgenesformorality,thereiscircumstantialevidencetheyexist.Thecharacter
traitscalledconscientiousnessandagreeablenessarefarmorecorrelatedinidenticaltwinsseparatedat
birth(whosharetheirgenesbutnottheirenvironment)thaninadoptivesiblingsraisedtogether(who
sharetheirenvironmentbutnottheirgenes).Peoplegivendiagnosesofantisocialpersonalitydisorderor
psychopathyshowsignsofmoralityblindnessfromthetimetheyarechildren.Theybullyyounger
children,tortureanimals,habituallylieandseemincapableofempathyorremorse,oftendespitenormal
familybackgrounds.Someofthesechildrengrowupintothemonsterswhobilkelderlypeopleoutoftheir
savings,rapeasuccessionofwomenorshootconveniencestoreclerkslyingonthefloorduringarobbery.
Thoughpsychopathyprobablycomesfromageneticpredisposition,amilderversioncanbecausedby
damagetofrontalregionsofthebrain(includingtheareasthatinhibitintactpeoplefromthrowingthe
hypotheticalfatmanoffthebridge).TheneuroscientistsHannaandAntonioDamasioandtheircolleagues
foundthatsomechildrenwhosustainsevereinjuriestotheirfrontallobescangrowupintocallousand
irresponsibleadults,despitenormalintelligence.Theylie,steal,ignorepunishment,endangertheirown
childrenandcantthinkthrougheventhesimplestmoraldilemmas,likewhattwopeopleshoulddoifthey
disagreedonwhichTVchanneltowatchorwhetheramanoughttostealadrugtosavehisdyingwife.
Themoralsense,then,mayberootedinthedesignofthenormalhumanbrain.Yetforalltheawethatmay
fillourmindswhenwereflectonaninnatemorallawwithin,theideaisatbestincomplete.Considerthis
moraldilemma:Arunawaytrolleyisabouttokillaschoolteacher.Youcandivertthetrolleyontoa
sidetrack,butthetrolleywouldtripaswitchsendingasignaltoaclassof6yearolds,givingthem
permissiontonameateddybearMuhammad.Isitpermissibletopullthelever?
Thisisnojoke.LastmonthaBritishwomanteachinginaprivateschoolinSudanallowedherclassto
nameateddybearafterthemostpopularboyintheclass,whoborethenameofthefounderofIslam.She
wasjailedforblasphemyandthreatenedwithapublicflogging,whileamoboutsidetheprisondemanded
herdeath.Totheprotesters,thewomanslifeclearlyhadlessvaluethanmaximizingthedignityoftheir
religion,andtheirjudgmentonwhetheritisrighttodivertthehypotheticaltrolleywouldhavediffered
fromours.Whatevergrammarguidespeoplesmoraljudgmentscantbeallthatuniversal.Anyonewho
stayedawakethroughAnthropology101canoffermanyotherexamples.
Ofcourse,languagesvary,too.InChomskystheory,languagesconformtoanabstractblueprint,like
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/magazine/13Psychologyt.html?_r=0&pagewanted=print

6/14

26/10/2015

TheMoralInstinctNewYorkTimes

havingphrasesbuiltoutofverbsandobjects,whilethedetailsvary,likewhethertheverbortheobject
comesfirst.Couldwebewiredwithanabstractspecsheetthatembracesallthestrangeideasthatpeoplein
differentculturesmoralize?
TheVarietiesofMoralExperience
WhenanthropologistslikeRichardShwederandAlanFiskesurveymoralconcernsacrosstheglobe,they
findthatafewthemeskeeppoppingupfromamidthediversity.Peopleeverywhere,atleastinsome
circumstancesandwithcertainotherfolksinmind,thinkitsbadtoharmothersandgoodtohelpthem.
Theyhaveasenseoffairness:thatoneshouldreciprocatefavors,rewardbenefactorsandpunishcheaters.
Theyvalueloyaltytoagroup,sharingandsolidarityamongitsmembersandconformitytoitsnorms.They
believethatitisrighttodefertolegitimateauthoritiesandtorespectpeoplewithhighstatus.Andthey
exaltpurity,cleanlinessandsanctitywhileloathingdefilement,contaminationandcarnality.
Theexactnumberofthemesdependsonwhetheryourealumperorasplitter,butHaidtcountsfive
harm,fairness,community(orgrouployalty),authorityandpurityandsuggeststhattheyarethe
primarycolorsofourmoralsense.Notonlydotheykeepreappearingincrossculturalsurveys,buteach
onetugsonthemoralintuitionsofpeopleinourownculture.Haidtasksustoconsiderhowmuchmoney
someonewouldhavetopayustodohypotheticalactslikethefollowing:
Stickapinintoyourpalm.
Stickapinintothepalmofachildyoudontknow.(Harm.)
AcceptawidescreenTVfromafriendwhoreceiveditatnochargebecauseofacomputererror.
AcceptawidescreenTVfromafriendwhoreceiveditfromathiefwhohadstolenitfromawealthyfamily.
(Fairness.)
Saysomethingbadaboutyournation(whichyoudontbelieve)onatalkradioshowinyournation.
Saysomethingbadaboutyournation(whichyoudontbelieve)onatalkradioshowinaforeignnation.
(Community.)
Slapafriendintheface,withhispermission,aspartofacomedyskit.
Slapyourministerintheface,withhispermission,aspartofacomedyskit.(Authority.)
Attendaperformanceartpieceinwhichtheactorsactlikeidiotsfor30minutes,includingflubbingsimple
problemsandfallingdownonstage.
Attendaperformanceartpieceinwhichtheactorsactlikeanimalsfor30minutes,includingcrawling
aroundnakedandurinatingonstage.(Purity.)
Ineachpair,thesecondactionfeelsfarmorerepugnant.Mostofthemoralillusionswehavevisitedcome
fromanunwarrantedintrusionofoneofthemoralspheresintoourjudgments.Aviolationofcommunity
ledpeopletofrownonusinganoldflagtocleanabathroom.Violationsofpurityrepelledthepeoplewho
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/magazine/13Psychologyt.html?_r=0&pagewanted=print

7/14

26/10/2015

TheMoralInstinctNewYorkTimes

judgedthemoralityofconsensualincestandpreventedthemoralvegetariansandnonsmokersfrom
toleratingtheslightesttraceofavilecontaminant.Attheotherendofthescale,displaysofextremepurity
leadpeopletoveneratereligiousleaderswhodressinwhiteandaffectanauraofchastityandasceticism.
TheGenealogyofMorals
Thefivespheresaregoodcandidatesforaperiodictableofthemoralsensenotonlybecausetheyare
ubiquitousbutalsobecausetheyappeartohavedeepevolutionaryroots.Theimpulsetoavoidharm,which
givestrolleyponderersthewillieswhentheyconsiderthrowingamanoffabridge,canalsobefoundin
rhesusmonkeys,whogohungryratherthanpullachainthatdeliversfoodtothemandashocktoanother
monkey.Respectforauthorityisclearlyrelatedtothepeckingordersofdominanceandappeasementthat
arewidespreadintheanimalkingdom.Thepuritydefilementcontrasttapstheemotionofdisgustthatis
triggeredbypotentialdiseasevectorslikebodilyeffluvia,decayingfleshandunconventionalformsofmeat,
andbyriskysexualpracticeslikeincest.
Theothertwomoralizedspheresmatchupwiththeclassicexamplesofhowaltruismcanevolvethatwere
workedoutbysociobiologistsinthe1960sand1970sandmadefamousbyRichardDawkinsinhisbook
TheSelfishGene.Fairnessisveryclosetowhatscientistscallreciprocalaltruism,whereawillingnessto
benicetootherscanevolveaslongasthefavorhelpstherecipientmorethanitcoststhegiverandthe
recipientreturnsthefavorwhenfortunesreverse.Theanalysismakesitsoundasifreciprocalaltruism
comesoutofarobotlikecalculation,butinfactRobertTrivers,thebiologistwhodevisedthetheory,argued
thatitisimplementedinthebrainasasuiteofmoralemotions.Sympathypromptsapersontoofferthe
firstfavor,particularlytosomeoneinneedforwhomitwouldgothefurthest.Angerprotectsaperson
againstcheaterswhoacceptafavorwithoutreciprocating,byimpellinghimtopunishtheingrateorsever
therelationship.Gratitudeimpelsabeneficiarytorewardthosewhohelpedhiminthepast.Guiltprompts
acheaterindangerofbeingfoundouttorepairtherelationshipbyredressingthemisdeedandadvertising
thathewillbehavebetterinthefuture(consistentwithMenckensdefinitionofconscienceastheinner
voicewhichwarnsusthatsomeonemightbelooking).Manyexperimentsonwhohelpswhom,wholikes
whom,whopunisheswhomandwhofeelsguiltyaboutwhathaveconfirmedthesepredictions.
Community,theverydifferentemotionthatpromptspeopletoshareandsacrificewithoutanexpectation
ofpayback,mayberootedinnepotisticaltruism,theempathyandsolidaritywefeeltowardourrelatives
(andwhichevolvedbecauseanygenethatpushedanorganismtoaidarelativewouldhavehelpedcopiesof
itselfsittinginsidethatrelative).Inhumans,ofcourse,communalfeelingscanbelavishedonnonrelatives
aswell.Sometimesitpayspeople(inanevolutionarysense)tolovetheircompanionsbecausetheir
interestsareyoked,likespouseswithcommonchildren,inlawswithcommonrelatives,friendswith
commontastesorallieswithcommonenemies.Andsometimesitdoesntpaythematall,buttheirkinship
detectorshavebeentrickedintotreatingtheirgroupmatesasiftheywererelativesbytacticslikekinship
metaphors(bloodbrothers,fraternities,thefatherland),originmyths,communalmealsandotherbonding
rituals.
JugglingtheSpheres
Allthisbringsustoatheoryofhowthemoralsensecanbeuniversalandvariableatthesametime.The
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/magazine/13Psychologyt.html?_r=0&pagewanted=print

8/14

26/10/2015

TheMoralInstinctNewYorkTimes

fivemoralspheresareuniversal,alegacyofevolution.Buthowtheyarerankedinimportance,andwhichis
broughtintomoralizewhichareaofsociallifesex,government,commerce,religion,dietandsoon
dependsontheculture.Manyoftheflabbergastingpracticesinfarawayplacesbecomemoreintelligible
whenyourecognizethatthesamemoralizingimpulsethatWesterneliteschanneltowardviolationsof
harmandfairness(ourmoralobsessions)ischanneledelsewheretoviolationsintheotherspheres.Think
oftheJapanesefearofnonconformity(community),theholyablutionsanddietaryrestrictionsofHindus
andOrthodoxJews(purity),theoutrageatinsultingtheProphetamongMuslims(authority).IntheWest,
webelievethatinbusinessandgovernment,fairnessshouldtrumpcommunityandtrytorootout
nepotismandcronyism.Inotherpartsoftheworldthisisincomprehensiblewhatheartlesscreepwould
favoraperfectstrangeroverhisownbrother?
Therankingandplacementofmoralspheresalsodividestheculturesofliberalsandconservativesinthe
UnitedStates.Manybonesofcontention,likehomosexuality,atheismandoneparentfamiliesfromthe
right,orracialimbalances,sweatshopsandexecutivepayfromtheleft,reflectdifferentweightingsofthe
spheres.InalargeWebsurvey,Haidtfoundthatliberalsputalopsidedmoralweightonharmandfairness
whileplayingdowngrouployalty,authorityandpurity.Conservativesinsteadplaceamoderatelyhigh
weightonallfive.Itsnotsurprisingthateachsidethinksitisdrivenbyloftyethicalvaluesandthatthe
othersideisbaseandunprincipled.
Reassigninganactivitytoadifferentsphere,ortakingitoutofthemoralspheresaltogether,isnteasy.
Peoplethinkthatabehaviorbelongsinitssphereasamatterofsacrednecessityandthattheveryactof
questioninganassignmentisamoraloutrage.ThepsychologistPhilipTetlockhasshownthatthementality
oftabooaconvictionthatsomethoughtsaresinfultothinkisnotjustasuperstitionofPolynesians
butamindsetthatcaneasilybetriggeredincollegeeducatedAmericans.Justaskthemtothinkabout
applyingthesphereofreciprocitytorelationshipscustomarilygovernedbycommunityorauthority.When
Tetlockaskedsubjectsfortheiropinionsonwhetheradoptionagenciesshouldplacechildrenwiththe
coupleswillingtopaythemost,whetherpeopleshouldhavetherighttoselltheirorgansandwhetherthey
shouldbeabletobuytheirwayoutofjuryduty,thesubjectsnotonlydisagreedbutfeltpersonallyinsulted
andwereoutragedthatanyonewouldraisethequestion.
Theinstitutionsofmodernityoftenquestionandexperimentwiththewayactivitiesareassignedtomoral
spheres.Marketeconomiestendtoputeverythingupforsale.Scienceamoralizestheworldbyseekingto
understandphenomenaratherthanpassjudgmentonthem.Secularphilosophyisinthebusinessof
scrutinizingallbeliefs,includingthoseentrenchedbyauthorityandtradition.Itsnotsurprisingthatthese
institutionsareoftenseentobemorallycorrosive.
IsNothingSacred?
Andmorallycorrosiveisexactlythetermthatsomecriticswouldapplytothenewscienceofthemoral
sense.Theattempttodissectourmoralintuitionscanlooklikeanattempttodebunkthem.Evolutionary
psychologistsseemtowanttounmaskournoblestmotivesasultimatelyselfinterestedtoshowthatour
loveforchildren,compassionfortheunfortunateandsenseofjusticearejusttacticsinaDarwinian
struggletoperpetuateourgenes.Theexplanationofhowdifferentculturesappealtodifferentspheres
couldleadtoaspinelessrelativism,inwhichwewouldneverhavegroundstocriticizethepracticeof
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/magazine/13Psychologyt.html?_r=0&pagewanted=print

9/14

26/10/2015

TheMoralInstinctNewYorkTimes

anotherculture,nomatterhowbarbaric,becausewehaveourkindofmoralityandtheyhavetheirs.And
thewholeenterpriseseemstobedraggingustoanamoralnihilism,inwhichmoralityitselfwouldbe
demotedfromatranscendentprincipletoafigmentofourneuralcircuitry.
Inreality,noneofthesefearsarewarranted,anditsimportanttoseewhynot.Thefirstmisunderstanding
involvesthelogicofevolutionaryexplanations.EvolutionarybiologistssometimesanthropomorphizeDNA
forthesamereasonthatscienceteachersfinditusefultohavetheirstudentsimaginetheworldfromthe
viewpointofamoleculeorabeamoflight.Oneshortcuttounderstandingthetheoryofselectionwithout
workingthroughthemathistoimaginethatthegenesarelittleagentsthattrytomakecopiesof
themselves.
Unfortunately,thememeoftheselfishgeneescapedfrompopularbiologybooksandmutatedintotheidea
thatorganisms(includingpeople)areruthlesslyselfserving.Andthisdoesntfollow.Genesarenota
reservoirofourdarkunconsciouswishes.Selfishgenesareperfectlycompatiblewithselflessorganisms,
becauseagenesmetaphoricalgoalofselfishlyreplicatingitselfcanbeimplementedbywiringupthebrain
oftheorganismtodounselfishthings,likebeingnicetorelativesordoinggooddeedsforneedystrangers.
Whenamotherstaysupallnightcomfortingasickchild,thegenesthatendowedherwiththattenderness
wereselfishinametaphoricalsense,butbynostretchoftheimaginationisshebeingselfish.
Nordoesreciprocalaltruismtheevolutionaryrationalebehindfairnessimplythatpeopledogood
deedsinthecynicalexpectationofrepaymentdowntheline.Weallknowofunrequitedgooddeeds,like
tippingawaitressinacityyouwillnevervisitagainandfallingonagrenadetosaveplatoonmates.These
burstsofgoodnessarenotasanomaloustoabiologistastheymightappear.
Inhisclassic1971article,Trivers,thebiologist,showedhownaturalselectioncouldpushinthedirectionof
trueselflessness.Theemergenceoftitfortatreciprocity,whichletsorganismstradefavorswithoutbeing
cheated,isjustafirststep.Afavorgivernotonlyhastoavoidblatantcheaters(thosewhowouldaccepta
favorbutnotreturnit)butalsoprefergenerousreciprocators(thosewhoreturnthebiggestfavortheycan
afford)overstingyones(thosewhoreturnthesmallestfavortheycangetawaywith).Sinceitsgoodtobe
chosenasarecipientoffavors,acompetitionarisestobethemostgenerouspartneraround.More
accurately,acompetitionarisestoappeartobethemostgenerouspartneraround,sincethefavorgiver
cantliterallyreadmindsorseeintothefuture.Areputationforfairnessandgenerositybecomesanasset.
Nowthisjustsetsupacompetitionforpotentialbeneficiariestoinflatetheirreputationswithoutmaking
thesacrificestobackthemup.Butitalsopressuresthefavorgivertodevelopevermoresensitiveradarto
distinguishthegenuinelygenerouspartnersfromthehypocrites.Thisarmsracewilleventuallyreacha
logicalconclusion.Themosteffectivewaytoseemgenerousandfair,underharshscrutiny,istobe
generousandfair.Inthelongrun,then,reputationcanbesecuredonlybycommitment.Atleastsome
agentsevolvetobegenuinelyhighmindedandselfsacrificingtheyaremoralnotbecauseofwhatit
bringsthembutbecausethatsthekindofpeopletheyare.
Ofcourse,atheorythatpredictedthateveryonealwayssacrificedthemselvesforanothersgoodwouldbe
aspreposterousasatheorythatpredictedthatnooneeverdid.Alongsidethenichesforsaintsthereare
nichesformoregrudgingreciprocators,whoattractfewerandpoorerpartnersbutdontmakethesacrifices
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/magazine/13Psychologyt.html?_r=0&pagewanted=print

10/14

26/10/2015

TheMoralInstinctNewYorkTimes

necessaryforasterlingreputation.Andbothmaycoexistwithoutrightcheaters,whoexploittheunwaryin
oneshotencounters.Anecosystemofniches,eachwithadistinctstrategy,canevolvewhenthepayoffof
eachstrategydependsonhowmanyplayersareplayingtheotherstrategies.Thehumansocial
environmentdoeshaveitsshareofgenerous,grudgingandcrookedcharacters,andthegeneticvariationin
personalityseemstobearthefingerprintsofthisevolutionaryprocess.
IsMoralityaFigment?
Soabiologicalunderstandingofthemoralsensedoesnotentailthatpeoplearecalculatingmaximizersof
theirgenesorselfinterest.Butwheredoesitleavetheconceptofmoralityitself?
Hereistheworry.Thescientificoutlookhastaughtusthatsomepartsofoursubjectiveexperienceare
productsofourbiologicalmakeupandhavenoobjectivecounterpartintheworld.Thequalitative
differencebetweenredandgreen,thetastinessoffruitandfoulnessofcarrion,thescarinessofheightsand
prettinessofflowersaredesignfeaturesofourcommonnervoussystem,andifourspecieshadevolvedina
differentecosystemorifweweremissingafewgenes,ourreactionscouldgotheotherway.Now,ifthe
distinctionbetweenrightandwrongisalsoaproductofbrainwiring,whyshouldwebelieveitisanymore
realthanthedistinctionbetweenredandgreen?Andifitisjustacollectivehallucination,howcouldwe
arguethatevilslikegenocideandslaveryarewrongforeveryone,ratherthanjustdistastefultous?
PuttingGodinchargeofmoralityisonewaytosolvetheproblem,ofcourse,butPlatomadeshortworkof
it2,400yearsago.DoesGodhaveagoodreasonfordesignatingcertainactsasmoralandothersas
immoral?Ifnotifhisdictatesaredivinewhimswhyshouldwetakethemseriously?SupposethatGod
commandedustotortureachild.Wouldthatmakeitallright,orwouldsomeotherstandardgiveus
reasonstoresist?Andif,ontheotherhand,Godwasforcedbymoralreasonstoissuesomedictatesand
notothersifacommandtotortureachildwasneveranoptionthenwhynotappealtothosereasons
directly?
Thisthrowsusbacktowonderingwherethosereasonscouldcomefrom,iftheyaremorethanjust
figmentsofourbrains.Theycertainlyarentinthephysicalworldlikewavelengthormass.Theonlyother
optionisthatmoraltruthsexistinsomeabstractPlatonicrealm,thereforustodiscover,perhapsinthe
samewaythatmathematicaltruths(accordingtomostmathematicians)arethereforustodiscover.On
thisanalogy,wearebornwitharudimentaryconceptofnumber,butassoonaswebuildonitwithformal
mathematicalreasoning,thenatureofmathematicalrealityforcesustodiscoversometruthsandnot
others.(Noonewhounderstandstheconceptoftwo,theconceptoffourandtheconceptofadditioncan
cometoanyconclusionbutthat2+2=4.)Perhapswearebornwitharudimentarymoralsense,andas
soonaswebuildonitwithmoralreasoning,thenatureofmoralrealityforcesustosomeconclusionsbut
notothers.
Moralrealism,asthisideaiscalled,istoorichformanyphilosophersblood.Yetadilutedversionofthe
ideaifnotalistofcosmicallyinscribedThouShalts,thenatleastafewIfThensisnotcrazy.Two
featuresofrealitypointanyrational,selfpreservingsocialagentinamoraldirection.Andtheycould
provideabenchmarkfordeterminingwhenthejudgmentsofourmoralsensearealignedwithmorality
itself.
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/magazine/13Psychologyt.html?_r=0&pagewanted=print

11/14

26/10/2015

TheMoralInstinctNewYorkTimes

Oneistheprevalenceofnonzerosumgames.Inmanyarenasoflife,twopartiesareobjectivelybetteroffif
theybothactinanonselfishwaythanifeachofthemactsselfishly.YouandIarebothbetteroffifweshare
oursurpluses,rescueeachotherschildrenindangerandrefrainfromshootingateachother,compared
withhoardingoursurpluseswhiletheyrot,lettingtheotherschilddrownwhilewefileournailsorfeuding
liketheHatfieldsandMcCoys.Granted,ImightbeabitbetteroffifIactedselfishlyatyourexpenseand
youplayedthesucker,butthesameistrueforyouwithme,soifeachofustriedfortheseadvantages,wed
bothendupworseoff.Anyneutralobserver,andyouandIifwecouldtalkitoverrationally,wouldhaveto
concludethatthestateweshouldaimforistheoneinwhichwebothareunselfish.Thesespreadsheet
projectionsarenotquirksofbrainwiring,noraretheydictatedbyasupernaturalpowertheyareinthe
natureofthings.
Theotherexternalsupportformoralityisafeatureofrationalityitself:thatitcannotdependonthe
egocentricvantagepointofthereasoner.IfIappealtoyoutodoanythingthataffectsmetogetoffmy
foot,ortellmethetimeornotrunmeoverwithyourcarthenIcantdoitinawaythatprivilegesmy
interestsoveryours(say,retainingmyrighttorunyouoverwithmycar)ifIwantyoutotakemeseriously.
UnlessIamGalacticOverlord,Ihavetostatemycaseinawaythatwouldforcemetotreatyouinkind.I
cantactasifmyinterestsarespecialjustbecauseImmeandyourenot,anymorethanIcanpersuadeyou
thatthespotIamstandingonisaspecialplaceintheuniversejustbecauseIhappentobestandingonit.
Notcoincidentally,thecoreofthisideatheinterchangeabilityofperspectiveskeepsreappearingin
historysbestthoughtthroughmoralphilosophies,includingtheGoldenRule(itselfdiscoveredmany
times)SpinozasViewpointofEternitytheSocialContractofHobbes,RousseauandLockeKants
CategoricalImperativeandRawlssVeilofIgnorance.ItalsounderliesPeterSingerstheoryofthe
ExpandingCircletheoptimisticproposalthatourmoralsense,thoughshapedbyevolutiontoovervalue
self,kinandclan,canpropelusonapathofmoralprogress,asourreasoningforcesustogeneralizeitto
largerandlargercirclesofsentientbeings.
DoingBetterbyKnowingOurselves
Morality,then,isstillsomethinglargerthanourinheritedmoralsense,andthenewscienceofthemoral
sensedoesnotmakemoralreasoningandconvictionobsolete.Atthesametime,itsimplicationsforour
moraluniverseareprofound.
Attheveryleast,thesciencetellsusthatevenwhenouradversariesagendaismostbaffling,theymaynot
beamoralpsychopathsbutinthethroesofamoralmindsetthatappearstothemtobeeverybitas
mandatoryanduniversalasoursdoestous.Ofcourse,someadversariesreallyarepsychopaths,andothers
aresopoisonedbyapunitivemoralizationthattheyarebeyondthepaleofreason.(TheactorWillSmith
hadmanyhistoriansonhissidewhenherecentlyspeculatedtothepressthatHitlerthoughthewasacting
morally.)Butinanyconflictinwhichameetingofthemindsisnotcompletelyhopeless,arecognitionthat
theotherguyisactingfrommoralratherthanvenalreasonscanbeafirstpatchofcommonground.One
sidecanacknowledgetheothersconcernforcommunityorstabilityorfairnessordignity,evenwhile
arguingthatsomeothervalueshouldtrumpitinthatinstance.Withaffirmativeaction,forexample,the
opponentscanbeseenasarguingfromasenseoffairness,notracism,andthedefenderscanbeseenas
actingfromaconcernwithcommunity,notbureaucraticpower.Liberalscanratifyconservativesconcern
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/magazine/13Psychologyt.html?_r=0&pagewanted=print

12/14

26/10/2015

TheMoralInstinctNewYorkTimes

withfamilieswhilenotingthatgaymarriageisperfectlyconsistentwiththatconcern.
Thescienceofthemoralsensealsoalertsustowaysinwhichourpsychologicalmakeupcangetintheway
ofourarrivingatthemostdefensiblemoralconclusions.Themoralsense,wearelearning,isasvulnerable
toillusionsastheothersenses.Itisapttoconfusemoralitypersewithpurity,statusandconformity.It
tendstoreframepracticalproblemsasmoralcrusadesandthusseetheirsolutioninpunitiveaggression.It
imposestaboosthatmakecertainideasindiscussible.Andithasthenastyhabitofalwaysputtingtheself
onthesideoftheangels.
Thoughwisepeoplehavelongreflectedonhowwecanbeblindedbyourownsanctimony,ourpublic
discoursestillfailstodiscountitappropriately.Intheworstcases,thethoughtlessnessofourbrute
intuitionscanbecelebratedasavirtue.InhisinfluentialessayTheWisdomofRepugnance,LeonKass,
formerchairofthePresidentsCouncilonBioethics,arguedthatweshoulddisregardreasonwhenitcomes
tocloningandotherbiomedicaltechnologiesandgowithourgut:Wearerepelledbytheprospectof
cloninghumanbeings...becauseweintuitandfeel,immediatelyandwithoutargument,theviolationof
thingsthatwerightfullyholddear....Inthisageinwhicheverythingisheldtobepermissiblesolongasit
isfreelydone...repugnancemaybetheonlyvoiceleftthatspeaksuptodefendthecentralcoreofour
humanity.Shallowarethesoulsthathaveforgottenhowtoshudder.
Thereare,ofcourse,goodreasonstoregulatehumancloning,buttheshuddertestisnotoneofthem.
Peoplehaveshudderedatallkindsofmorallyirrelevantviolationsofpurityintheirculture:touchingan
untouchable,drinkingfromthesamewaterfountainasaNegro,allowingJewishbloodtomixwithAryan
blood,toleratingsodomybetweenconsentingmen.Andifourancestorsrepugnancehadcarriedtheday,
weneverwouldhavehadautopsies,vaccinations,bloodtransfusions,artificialinsemination,organ
transplantsandinvitrofertilization,allofwhichweredenouncedasimmoralwhentheywerenew.
Therearemanyotherissuesforwhichwearetooquicktohitthemoralizationbuttonandlookforvillains
ratherthanbugfixes.Whatshouldwedowhenahospitalpatientiskilledbyanursewhoadministersthe
wrongdruginapatientsintravenousline?Shouldwemakeiteasiertosuethehospitalfordamages?Or
shouldweredesigntheIVfittingssothatitsphysicallyimpossibletoconnectthewrongbottletotheline?
Andnowhereismoralizationmoreofahazardthaninourgreatestglobalchallenge.Thethreatofhuman
inducedclimatechangehasbecometheoccasionforamoralisticrevivalmeeting.Inmanydiscussions,the
causeofclimatechangeisoverindulgence(toomanyS.U.V.s)anddefilement(sullyingtheatmosphere),
andthesolutionistemperance(conservation)andexpiation(buyingcarbonoffsetcoupons).Yetthe
expertsagreethatthesenumbersdontaddup:evenifeverylastAmericanbecameconscientiousabouthis
orhercarbonemissions,theeffectsonclimatechangewouldbetrifling,iffornootherreasonthanthattwo
billionIndiansandChineseareunlikelytocopyourbornagainabstemiousness.Thoughvoluntary
conservationmaybeonewedgeinaneffectivecarbonreductionpie,theotherwedgeswillhavetobe
morallyboring,likeacarbontaxandnewenergytechnologies,oreventaboo,likenuclearpowerand
deliberatemanipulationoftheoceanandatmosphere.Ourhabitofmoralizingproblems,mergingthem
withintuitionsofpurityandcontamination,andrestingcontentwhenwefeeltherightfeelings,cangetin
thewayofdoingtherightthing.

http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/magazine/13Psychologyt.html?_r=0&pagewanted=print

13/14

26/10/2015

TheMoralInstinctNewYorkTimes

Farfromdebunkingmorality,then,thescienceofthemoralsensecanadvanceit,byallowingustosee
throughtheillusionsthatevolutionandculturehavesaddleduswithandtofocusongoalswecanshare
anddefend.AsAntonChekhovwrote,Manwillbecomebetterwhenyoushowhimwhatheislike.
StevenPinkeristheJohnstoneFamilyProfessorofPsychologyatHarvardUniversityandtheauthorof
TheLanguageInstinctandTheStuffof
Thought:LanguageasaWindowIntoHumanNature.
Copyright2008TheNewYorkTimesCompany
PrivacyPolicy

Search

Corrections

RSS

FirstLook

Help

ContactUs

WorkforUs

SiteMap

http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/magazine/13Psychologyt.html?_r=0&pagewanted=print

14/14