LANDSCAPING

tram the Ground Up

LANDSCAPING
from the Ground Up

LANDSCAPING
from the Ground Up

Sara Jane von Trapp

rn

ThcTaunton Press

Cover photo: Rich Ziegner

Taunton

BOOKS & VIDEOS

for fellow enthusiasts

1997

by Sara Jane von Trapp

All rights reserved.

First printing: 1997

Printed in the United States of America
The Taunton Press, Inc., 63 South Main Street,
PO Box 5506, Newtown, CT 06470-5506
e-mail: tp@taunton.com

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

von Trapp, Sara Jane.
Landscaping from the ground up
p.

/ Sara Jane von Trapp.

cm.

Includes index.
ISBN 1-56158-185-2
1. Landscape gardening.

1.

2. Landscape architecture

Title.

SB473.V67

1997

712'.6 - dc21

97-6978
CIP

To my mother and father,

whom I love dearly,
and who have never let me down

Acknowledgments

I want to give special thanks to

my children, Kate, Jakob, and
Rebecca, for their strength, maturi
ty, and clarity about life despite
their tender ages. I learn from you
every day, and you are more pre
cious to me than you know.
Thank you to T, without whom
this book would not have been
written. Thump, thump, thump.
I would like to say thank you to a
few people at The Taunton Press:
to Helen Albert for giving me this
opportunity; to Cherilyn DeVries
for her patience and understanding
throughout this process; and to
Tom Johnson for the use of his
yard, shown in some of the photos.

Many thanks to Barry Estabrook

and Regula Noetzli for technical
wisdom. For allowing us access to
job sites and for giving us permis
sion to photograph their work,
kudos to Joseph Scott, Ralph
Malanca, and Don Bashak of Glen
Gate Company in Wilton,
Connecticut, and to Bob Bociek
and his crew of Laflamme Services,
Inc., in Bridgeport, Connecticut.
Thanks to Tim and Mary Volk for
many kindnesses, but most recent
ly, for allowing me to include their
patio in this book.
Others who offered assistance and
materials along the way were Dave
Negri and Ed SakI of Tilcon
Connecticut, Inc., Anthony
Nazzaro of Bethel Sand and
Gravel Co. in Bethel, Connecticut,
and Lexington Gardens in
Newtown, Connecticut.

Contents

Introduction

How to Use This Book

CHAPTER 1

Making the Grade

CHAPTER 2

Down and Dirty

17

CHAPTER

Your Neighborhood and Your Yard

25

CHAPTER

The Landscape Plan

34

CHAPTER 5

A Retaining- Wall Primer

45

CHAPTER 6

Walkways, Patios, and Decks

60

Fences

76

CHAPTER 8

Adding Garden Features

96

CHAPTER 9

Establishing a Lawn

108

CHAPTER 10

Planting Beds

117

CHAPTER 11

Specialty Gardens

135

CHAPTER 12

Hiring a Landscape Architect,

CHAPTER

Designer, or Contractor

156

USDA Plant-Hardiness Zone Map

160

Further Reading

161

Sources

162

Credits

164

Index

165

Introduction

No matter the size of the challenge,

I never tire of gardening and
creating new landscapes-it
replenishes my spirit. I am sure I am
not alone in my reveling. Millions of
people across the United States are
awakening to the thrill of gardening
and are hungry for the knowledge
and expertise needed to fulfill their
fantasy landscapes.
For the last 20 years I have been
helping homeowners realize their
landscaping goals. Now it's your
turn to realize the potential of your
landscape. Perhaps you are having
a home built or are living in a new
home, and you have a barren lot in
desperate need of a makeover. Or
maybe you have a tired, overgrown
yard that's begging for a face-lift.
This book can help you change your
situation for the better. In it I will
explain how to develop a landscape
that works well with your neighbor
hood and with the architecture of
your home-one that combines
both function and form to create a
yard that reflects the personality and
lifestyle of you and your family.
This is not an easy job. It will take
time, patience, and oftentimes
muscle. But all your efforts will be
reflected in the beauty of the
landscape.

To achieve a successful landscape

makeover, it is essential to have a
well-developed plan divided into
steps and performed in logical order.
I will show you how to create an
efficient and economical plan that,
even if phased in over a period of
years, will harmonize when the job
is completed.
You'll also learn how to assess and
adjust the grade of your site and
how and when to perform a soil
test. You'll see how to integrate
yard structures such as retaining
walls, walkways, patios, fences, and
shade structures into the landscape
and how to design and build them
to last.
I'll show you how to start a lawn
from scratch and how to design
planting beds that blend color,
texture, shape, and size to create
year-round interest in the yard. I'll
also give you a few ideas on how to
jazz up the yard with specialty
gardens, such as rock gardens and
water gardens.
You can create the yard of your
dreams with imagination and good
planning. I hope this book provides
you with enough information about
tools, technique, and theory that
you have the confidence to build
your own landscape from the
ground up.

How to Use This Book

I recommend using this book as you

would a cookbook. Just as a chef
would take a recipe from a book
and add his own twists, experienced
gardeners will be familiar with basic
gardening techniques, and so they
will take the subjects from within
these pages and add their own
flavor and ideas. Inexperienced
gardeners, on the other hand, will
use this book as a starting point to
gather more information about the
techniques.
Both the seasoned and novice
gardener will find the Sources and
Further Reading sections very
useful. Sources will guide you to
companies that sell plant seeds
and bulbs, garden tools and
equipment, materials for retaining
walls and patios, fences, and garden
structures. Further Reading provides
a list of books that can give you
more information about specific
subjects within each chapter, such as
building water gardens or decks.
Also in the back of the book is
the USDA Plant-Hardiness Zone
Map, which will help you pick
plants that are appropriate for
your climate. This map will be a
great help to anyone drawing up
a landscape plan.

Although most gardeners will find

this book useful for its strategic
approach to various landscape
techniques, such as installing a patio
or drawing a landscape plan, some
of these techniques will be beyond
the reach of the novice gardener.
What I have done is lay out the
basic steps in the process so that
anyone can understand what is
involved. This will help you evaluate
costs and work effectively with a
contractor or landscape profes
sional. This information will also
help you make informed decisions
about the landscape design and how
its elements should be built.
For those wanting to hire a
professional to do the job, I will tell
you where you can save money
by splitting tasks or by offering
assistance. For example, many
homeowners hire a contractor to
do the rough grading of the
landscape, but they'll do all the
finish grading themselves. Doing
so can save significant money,
which can be spent on plants. I'll
also give some common-sense
guidelines to hiring and working
with a landscape architect, designer,
or contractor.

C H A PT E R 1

Making the Grade

very landscaping project begins at ground level. The existing land must
first have the proper grade to achieve successful results. Grade is simply
the degree of inclination of a land area. It determines which direction water
will flow through the yard and how fast. A ditch or valley will harbor or
catch water, a slope will move water, and level ground will cause water to
stand still until it is absorbed by the soil, provided the soil drains well.

Because grade determines the

direction and speed of water flow
in your yard, it will largely
influence your landscape design.
For instance, standing water may
well mean certain death for shrubs
or trees in a planting bed and could
also become a breeding area for
mosquitoes or other insects. A patio
or walkway must shed water to
avoid puddling and ice, which will
eventually cause cracks in the stone
or concrete. Moisture near the
house foundation may cause
mildew and deterioration of siding,
or even the foundation. Any of
these factors could necessitate
regrading of the yard.
If you are constructing an
outbuilding, a pool, or other
structure, like an addition to your
house, regrading to change the
direction of water flow also is
necessary. But redirection of water
flow may not be the only instances
where regrading is necessary. For
example, ditches and hummocks in
the lawn area are not only difficult
to mow and dangerous to traverse,
but if severe, they can be unsightly.
To remedy this situation, you may
want to level these areas or make
the slopes less severe.
In this chapter I'll illustrate the
importance of grade and its relation
to your landscape plan. I'll also
show you how to determine the
grade of your yard and offer a few
suggestions on how to fix it, if
needed. I'll also illustrate how to
deal with sloped sites. But before I
show you how to change the grade,
let's take a look at how the grade
has taken shape.

HOW SETTLING
AFFECTS GRADE
The grade of any yard is subject to
the whims of nature. It can be
altered by tree roots, rocks, or even
burrowing animals. All of these
things will ultimately redirect water
flow and thus will influence your
yard. However, grade is most
affected by settling, which occurs
after new construction or after a
new excavation. Air pockets left
in the soil gradually work their
way out, causing the soil level to
drop. Settling occurs all over the
yard, and it's the amount of
compaction that dictates how
much settling will occur.

If your site was graded and

compacted carefully, resulting in a
positive grade, regrading to correct
water flow will be minimized. A
positive grade is achieved by
sloping the land away from the
foundation, allowing water to flow
away from the house (see the
drawing below). To minimize
settling, the soil should be carefully
compacted with a flat-headed hand
tamper or with a plate compactor, a
motor-driven walk-behind machine
that mechanically tamps the soil.
If you have water leaking into
your basement, it might be because
your yard has a negative grade, in
which the land slopes toward the

POSITIVE GRADE
A positive grade is established when the soil is highest at the foundation and
slopes away from the house.

'"

Direction of water flow

'I

'"

Making the Grade

NEGATIVE GRADE
When the soil is graded so that the low point is at the foundation, it is called
negative grade.

Direction of water flow

SETTLED SOIL
It is obvious that an electrical line was buried on the property because the soil
on the excavation has settled, resulting in a depression from the street to the
meter base on the house. Additional soil is necessary to fill the depression and
to disguise the excavation.

foundation (see the top drawing at

left). Water flows toward the
foundation from the yard, slides
down the wall, finds a flaw in the
concrete or block, and then flows
inside. Patching the concrete won't
solve the problem. But regrading
the yard so that it slopes away from
the foundation will help.
A negative grade can be caused
simply by an existing slope in the
yard, but most often it's the result
of hasty excavation work around
the foundation. Sometimes the
backfill around the foundation is
not compacted enough by the
bulldozer because it is unable to get
very close to the house to run over
those areas. Rather than hand
tamping or using a plate compactor,
the excavator loosely backfills and
tamps the soil against the
foundation with the bucket of the
bulldozer. Over time, the soil in
these areas settles and drops below
the level of the surrounding yard.
Settling does not j ust occur around
the foundation. If an underground
pipe, an electric line, or a tank in a
yard has been replaced, and the soil
is not backfilled and compacted
sufficiently, settling will occur,
leaving a distinctive gully for the
length of the excavation (see the
bottom drawing at left). A client of
mine has spent years replenishing
the soil around an auxiliary septic
tank installed in her yard. In her
case, the right degree of compaction
was difficult to achieve after the
tank was installed because the
excavation around this type of tank
had to be carefully backfilled, or
the tank could collapse. Even after
careful hand-tamping, a little
settling has gone on for years. This
settling has eventually slowed as

Chapter One

soil has been added and as the

grade has been adjusted over time.
This may seem to be a relentless,
annoying job, but if my client did
not maintain and adjust the grade
occasionally, an unsightly and
unsafe depression would result,
marring the middle of her yard.

DETERMINING GRADE
In some yards, you can tell by eye
whether the grade is positive or
negative and where the major
slopes are. But in other yards,
grade may be wholly imperceptible
to the eye. In either situation, you
need to measure the grade to
determine the degree of slope.
There are two basic ways to do
this: with a transit or with stakes
and string. Which method you
choose will largely depend on the
size of your yard, but it may
depend on which method you
are most comfortable using.
Transit

If your yard is large (over a quarter

acre), the best way to determine its
grade is to use a transit (see the
photo at right). You can rent a
transit at a rental center for about
$30 per day. The job requires two
people: one to look through the
transit's lens and another to hold a
measuring stick at various locations
in the yard.
To use a transit, first make sure
it is level. Then focus it on the
measuring stick, which is held at
various high and low points in the
yard. Start by experimenting with
obvious measurements, such as the
front-door threshold vs. the bottom
of the steps, j ust to get the hang of
using the tool. After a few easy
measurements, sketch a map of the
yard, including landmarks like

A transit can be used to determine the highs and lows of a yard. The tool
requires two people: one to look through the lens and another to hold a
measuring stick.

trees, the house, the garage, and

plot your measurements on this
map. Use the high point of the yard
as your reference and subtract each
measurement from that. You will
quickly see a pattern and where low
points will need to be regraded.

around it. Pull the string taut

toward the foundation or house.
Use a construction level to make
sure the string is level and then nail
it to a high point on the foundation
or house, making sure the string is
still taut and level (see the photos
on p. 8 ) .

Stake-and-string method

If your yard is small, or a transit is

too daunting, you can determine
the grade simply by using stakes
and string. Drive a stake in a low
area of the yard and tie a string

Sketch a map o f your yard,

including landmarks. Measure from
the string to the ground at various
intervals to find the low points and
mark them on the map. Then pull

Making the Grade

When determining grade with the stake-and-string method, make sure the
string is level, then take the measurement at the house, conti nuing outward
(left). The low point in this yard is measured short of the stake (above),
where the grade begins to climb again .

the stake at the low point and drive

it into another area in the yard.
Again, make sure the string is
taut and level, then take the
measurements and plot them.
Repeat as necessary. Subtracting the
low-point measurements from the
high-point measurement will show
you the contour of the yard and
will help you j udge whether there's
a negative or positive grade.

CORRECTING GRADE
Once you've determined the
existing grade of your yard, you
can begin correcting it, if needed.
But before you go outside and
begin moving earth or hire a pro to
do it, it's important to have in your
mind a general landscape plan.

Chapter One

Determine what areas o f your yard

will be lawn and planting beds and
what areas will become walkways,
decks, patios, pools, or other
landscape elements. You don't need
to be very specific just yet, but you
must have enough of a plan that
you avoid unnecessary work where
a swimming pool will be excavated
or where a deck or patio will be
built at a future date. The plans can
be fine-tuned later.
Rough grading

The first job is rough grading,

which consists of regrading the
yard so that water flows in the
direction you want it to-most
important, away from the
foundation. Ideally, to move water
adequately, the grade must have
1 in. of slope in 8 ft. of distance.
For example, to achieve a positive

grade from the foundation, the

soil level 8 ft. from the house all
the way around needs to be at
least 1 in. lower than at the
foundation, more to be safe and
to allow for settling.
If your yard is small, or if the
amount of regrading is not
substantial, you can rent a skid
steer loader (often called a Bobcat,
after one of the manufacturers)
from the local rental center and
regrade the area yourself. The skid
steer loader will cost about $250
per day-it could be more or less,
depending on where you live and
whether you need a trailer to haul
it. If you plan ahead with a
neighbor, you may be able to share
the cost and the machine. After
regrading, the slope should be
checked a couple times with a

transit or with the stake-and-string

method to make sure the necessary
adjustments have been made.
Although a skid-steer loader is a
simple machine to run, regrading
takes skill and precision. So if your
yard is large, or if you're not
comfortable with doing the rough
grading yourself, hire a landscaper
or excavator. To save money, have
the professional do j ust the rough
grading, leaving the finish grading
to you, which consists of smoothing
the surface and sifting out the rocks
from the soil.
Before digging anywhere in your
yard, it's a good idea to notify the
local utility companies so you can
make sure there are no electrical
lines or gas or water pipes in the
way. The utilities will send a
representative out to the site, who
will locate pipes or wires and
indicate how far away from them
you can dig.

about what needs to be added to

the existing soil or whether it needs
to be replaced altogether (I'll
discuss soil and soil testing in
Chapter 2 ) .
I n new construction, i t is not
unusual for contractors to move the
topsoil of your building site to
another site where a lawn is being
put in. Later, when your house is
finished, the contractor will bring
in topsoil from another site to your
site. What is brought in may be
perfectly good soil-but it might
not be. If you're having a home
built, ask that the existing soil
remain on the property until you
have it tested. Don't j ust have it
respread on the site. If you do
need to bring in better topsoil, you
will avoid paying twice for soil to
be spread.

Compacting the soil

After the topsoil has been spread,

it's important to make sure that the
yard is compacted sufficiently so
that settling will not be a problem
later on. I don't advocate running
heavy machinery like a bulldozer or
skid-steer loader all over the yard,
especially if the soil is heavy and/or
wet. Pounding the soil repeatedly
with heavy machinery can alter the
soil texture and damage the soil
enough to make plant growth
difficult and nutrient uptake
impossible. But a certain amount of
compaction is necessary to avoid
excess settling, particularly around
the foundation, under areas where
you plan to build a patio or
walkway, and beneath areas where
retaining walls will be constructed.
Compacting the soil is best
achieved by hand-tamping or with
a plate compactor. There are no

Spreading topsoil

Once the grade is set, topsoil will

need to be spread, if you are
establishing a lawn (see Chapter 9 ) .
A good lawn is best established
with at least 4 in. of topsoil. If the
existing soil on the property is light
and relatively free of debris, it may
be good enough. But if the existing
soil is not acceptable-if it is
gravelly, heavy (meaning it is
mostly clay), or deplete of organic
matter-it may be necessary to
bring in topsoil from another site to
augment or replace it.
The best way to determine if you
need to bring in topsoil is to have a
soil test done by your local
university or state agricultural
station. The test results will allow
you to make informed decisions

These rakes are all tools used in the finish-grad ing process. The grading rake
(the one with the wide head on the right) is used to pick out small rocks and
debris. The others are used to smooth the su rface.

Making the Grade

hard-and-fast rules to j udge

whether the soil is compacted
enough. All I can say is that it
comes with experience.
Finish grading

Once the rough grading has been

completed, the areas are finish
graded. The best way to do this is
with a grading rake, which has a
wide head with teeth that catch
small rocks and debris near the
surface (see the photo on p. 9 ) .
Tackle small areas, say 1 0 ft. by
1 0 ft. Drag the rake toward you,
scraping only the surface to pull
rocks free. Digging too deep could
alter the grade you j ust established.
If you must move large amounts of
soil, use an ordinary straight rake.
A leaf rake is helpful for very
light scraping.

flow. On a large lot, it may not

matter where the water flow is
redirected because there is plenty of
space for it to move through. On a
small lot, however, be wary of
neighboring properties, vegetation,
and existing catch basins. You
would not want to create a path
leading to your neighbor's yard or
an existing hedgerow or planting,
which may result in puddling or the
ultimate drowning of the plants.
Whenever possible, water should be
directed toward a catch basin or a
dry well. A catch basin is a
receptacle that holds water runoff
or drainage and directs it to a sewer
system. It is typically made of
concrete and has a cast-iron grate
on top. Catch basins are usually
located in the street, near the curb,

although they are sometimes

installed within a landscape. A dry
well is simply a hole in the ground
filled with aggregate material like
gravel or stone, which allows the
water to percolate away (see the
drawing on the facing page) .
There are a couple methods that
you can use to redirect water from
a severe slope to a catch basin or
dry well: create a swale or build a
subsurface drainage system.
Creating a swale

I've found that the easiest method is

to create a swale in the yard (see
the drawing below). A swale is a
very shallow channel that will carry
the water to the catch basin, dry .
well, or existing waterway, such as
a pond or stream (you may need

DEALING WITH
SEVERELY SLOPED SITES
Correcting the grade is a relatively
simple job on a site that is pretty
much flat. But what if the site is
severely sloped ? Severe slope
creates special problems for the
landscaper. One of the biggest
problems is that slope may carry
water where you do not want it to
go and could create swampy areas
in the yard, usually at the base of
the slope.
In this section I'll show you how
to redirect water flow in a yard
with a severe slope, how to ease a
severe slope, and how to create a
slope in a level yard-and why
you'd want to.
Planning

When dealing with a severely

sloped site, planning is important.
One of the first things to consider is
where you want excess water to

10

Chapter One

SWALE
A swale is a shallow trench that directs water to another location,
such as a catch basin in the street.

permission from local and/or state

authorities to direct water to an
existing waterway). This technique
is especially effective in a large yard
because the swale is easily hidden.
In general, the larger the space with
which you have to work, the more
invisible the swale will be.
You don't need heavy machinery to
make a swale. The job simply
requires a shovel and a straight
rake. Simply dig a shallow channel,
pitched so that water will flow
where you want it to, and finish
grade the soil with the rake. Then
plant grass seed.

components. These jobs are

most often better handled by
professionals. But you can save
money by doing some of the easier
tasks yourself, such as laying pipe,
backfilling, or finish grading.
There are a few subsurface drainage
systems that are effective. Which
option you choose will depend on
how well your soil drains.

Dry well

If the soil is not too

heavy, a dry well may be sufficient
(see the drawing below). It is
installed at the base of a severe
slope. The size of the dry well will

depend on the amount of water to

be moved and on whether your soil
drains well. The dry well is filled
with gravel to within 4 in. of the
surface, which will percolate the
water down through the ground.
Four inches of topsoil is laid on top
of that, then grass seed is planted.

Dry well and drainage tiles

If your soil is not too heavy, a dry
well can be installed and connected
to underground drainage pipes,
called tiles, which are perforated to
distribute water along the run of
piping ( I recommend using 4-in.
plastic field drainage tile) .

Installing a subsurface
drainage system

Although it is less expensive and

more desirable to reshape the land
to provide drainage and the proper
grade, sometimes a subsurface
drainage system is the only option
for redirecting water.
A subsurface drainage system is
often used when a neighbor's house
is close to your property or when
an obstacle like a grove of trees
blocks the way. In these instances
you need to move water but at the
same time keep it away from the
neighbor'S house and the trees, all
the while trying to avoid creating a
swamp. A subsurface drainage
system may also be employed in
situations where regrading won't
help: for instance, in areas where
the slope is severe, where the soil is
heavy ( meaning it does not drain
well), or where there's an
underground spring on the site.
A subsurface drainage system could
include installing a dry well, a catch
basin, piping, or building a system
that includes some or all of these

DRY WELL
Construct a dry well at the base o f a severe slope, which will draw water away
from the surface.
- -

- -----

Water percolates
into the ground.

Making the Grade

11

DRY WELL AND DRAINAGE TILES

Drainage tiles (which are perforated) distribute water from the dry well along
their run.

Dry well

The minimum pitch of the

trench is 1 in. in 8 ft.
Drainage tiles are clothed in a
filter fabric (omitted for clarity).

After the dry well is installed, a

trench is dug deep enough to set
drainage tiles at the bottom of the
dry well ( see the drawing above)
and long enough to reach its
destination, usually another dry
well, a catch basin, a pond
(remember to check with the
authorities about whether this is
legal), or just away from the
problem area (depending on the
size of the lot). The depth of the
trench will depend on the grade
drop between the inlet and the
outlet. The minimum pitch of the
trench is 1 in. in 8 ft.-more to be

12

Chapter One

1 in. of washed gravel at

bottom of trench

safe, say 2 in. in 8 ft.-and it

should be checked continuously
during the dig.
After the trench is finished, at least
1 in. of washed gravel is added at
the bottom before the drainage tiles
are installed. The gravel prevents
the tiles from sitting directly on the
soil at the bottom of the trench and
facilitates drainage. The tiles should
be clothed in a plastic filter fabric,
which repels soil and pebbles that
will clog the openings but allows
water to pass through. Once the
fabric is in place, a few more inches

of gravel is added, then the trench

is carefully backfilled and covered
with at least 4 in. of topsoil.

Dry well and solid pipe

The
worst-case scenario is the need to
move a lot of water without dis
tributing it along the way, which
may be the case with an under
ground spring, or if the soil is very
heavy and therefore does not drain
well. In any of these instances, a
dry well is installed at the problem
area, and 4-in. solid pipe (with a
filter-fabric sock on the open end)
is run underground from the well
to another dry well or catch basin
(see the drawing on the facing
page ). In areas with city sewer sys
tems, the pipe can be attached
directly to a catch basin if there's
one nearby. Another option is to
pipe the water to a pond or stream,
if there's one available and if it's
legal to use as a receptacle.

A trench is dug from the dry well to

the destination. As before, the
depth of the trench will depend on
the grade drop between the inlet
and the outlet. The pipe must be
pitched away from the dry well ( at
least 1 in. in 8 ft. ) . If a catch basin
is the destination, the pipe can
connect directly to knockouts in
the basin.
Holding back severe slopes

If a yard is severely sloped, water

movement might not be the only
consideration: aesthetics is another.
I find that a graduated slope is
much more attractive and offers
more landscape design possibilities.

Terraces The most graceful way

to deal with slope is to create a
series of terraces that graduate the

slope. Each terrace can serve as a

space for plantings, patios, and
decks. Adding steps through the
terraces make each level easily
accessible (see the photo below).
The stairs can be informally
designed to strike a mood of mean
dering through the plantings, or
they can have a businesslike
approach, moving straight from
top to bottom. Either way, the
strain of climbing will be eased by
the flat areas between the slopes of
the terraces.
The terraces are easily shaped with
a skid-steer loader and need not be
straight or uniform. (If you prefer,
you can hire an excavator to do the
rough work, leaving the finish work
to you.) In most cases, you will
need excess soil with which to
work, whether recycled from the
slope or another area of the yard or
brought in. If you don't want to
employ retaining walls in the

DRY WELL AND SOLID PIPE

To move a lot of water in a soil that is heavy, dig a dry well and run 4-in. solid
pipe from it to a catch basin.

Catch
basin

4-in. solid pipe pitched

1 in. in 8 ft. minimum

Steps in a
terraced area
make different
levels readily
accessible. A
landing is
sometimes
necessary to
bridge the
space between
steps.

Making the Grade

13

SMALL-YARD RETAINING WALL

A retaining wall is an ideal method of holding back slope in a small yard.

design, the terraces must be

gradual and shallow, which
requires a great deal of space to
distribute the slope.

Retaining walls

If you don't
have a lot of space to make the ter
racing gradual and shallow, retain
ing walls may be necessary (see the
drawing above) . Retaining walls
can be built from a variety of
materials: Large boulders can be

14

Chapter One

used to form a rip-rap wall (see the

drawing on the facing page ); small
er dry-laid stone allows for serpen
tine or straight walls (see the draw
ing on p. 1 6 ); wood can be
installed to form angles or a series
of straight walls; concrete wall sys
tems can also be used (retaining
walls will be discussed in detail in
Chapter 5 ) . The decision on which
materials to use should balance

economy, ease of installation, and

aesthetics.
A retaining wall can have steps
through it and plants at the top,
hanging down over it to make the
wall less imposing. Plantings at the
bottom of the wall will break up
the height as well. No matter what
the method or the material, weep
holes (if not inherent to the
structure, as in a stone wall) should

RIP-RAP TERRACING
Retain a large yard with terracing using boulders. This is called rip-rap.

be incorporated into the wall(s) for

water to pass, and the area below
the wall must then be treated as a
separately graded space, taking all
the rules of pitch and water
movement into account once more.
Creating slope

Slope is not always a bad thing in a

landscape. As a matter of fact, there

may be times when you would

actually want to create slope in the
yard. An example would be raised
planting beds. The most difficult
problem to address is making the
higher level look natural. A former
employer of mine loved mounded
island plantings, but cautioned that
if made too high, they looked like
gravesites in high-water areas.

The best way to disguise raised soil

levels is to build a retaining wall,
preferably in a serpentine fashion,
and to put soil behind it, making a
raised bed on the back side that
creates the illusion of height from
the front. This differs from a free
standing wall because you are
actually backfilling and planting a
mounded bed that is visually two

Making the Grade

15

STONE-WALL TERRACING
Dry-laid stone-wall terraces are refined but time-consuming to build.

sided, albeit giving an entirely

different effect depending on which
side you are standing. Both ends
should gradually blend into the
existing soil level.
The width of the raised bed on the
back side depends on the space you
have. But no matter what length or

16

Chapter One

width of the raised bed, the height

of the wall should be low, below
3 ft. at its highest point.
I once had a client with a perfectly
flat, suburban yard who wanted to
break up the front yard. Instead of
building a two-sided stone wall to

break up the yard, we built a short

wall and backfilled to create a
raised bed with a gradual slope,
which added dimension and interest
to an otherwise static, boring area.

C H A PT E R 2

Down and Dirty

oil Science 1 0 1 was the bane of my existence during my j unior year in

college. Not only was it an inherently boring course, but the class also
started at 8 A.M. in a dim auditorium with comfortable, theater-type seats.
The class was taught by a tyrant who delighted in singling out those who
dared doze during his monologues. He was no Jay Leno, and doze I did.
However, I managed to ingest enough information to realize how important
soil is to plant life. From the soil, plant roots obtain nutrients, water,
oxygen, and support-all that are needed for successful plant growth.

HOW A PLANT TAKES IN NUTRIENTS

A plant gets its essential nutrients from certain chemical elements. which are
taken into the plant in the form of ions either through the leaves or the roots.

Hydrogen.
carbon. and

I
I

I
,
J

UNDERSTANDING SOILS

J
I

Soils are divided into groups,

identified according to their
makeup, which includes
permeability ( how well water and
air move through it), texture
(whether it is fine or coarse), and
chemical elements. These
properties, and their relationship to
one another, all factor into whether
your soil will successfully support
plant life. A delicate balance is
necessary. This information is
important to understanding the
results of a soil test, which I'll
discuss later.

Iron. calcium.
sulfur. nitrogen.
phosphorus.
potassium. and
trace elements are
taken in through
the roots.

In this chapter, I'll pass on the

essentials of what I learned from
that soil-science class as well as
what I've learned from years of
working with the soil. You'll learn
about soil testing and how to use
the information from that test.
First, let's get down to the basics.

Permeability

To grow healthy plants, soil must be

loose enough to allow water to
penetrate but not so open as to let
the water leach right through. It
must hold water for roots but not to
such a degree as to create a standing
pool. It also must be aerated enough
for roots to take in oxygen at all
times but not so much that it
prevents roots from continuous
contact with moist soil particles.
Texture

The texture of soil is dictated by the

mixture of "separates"-the solid
particles that compose the soil. The
three basic types of separates are
sand-which is broken down into
five textures: very coarse, coarse,
medium, fine, and very fine-silt,
and clay. Of these, sand is the

18

Chapter Two

largest, with silt being about 100

times smaller than sand, and clay
being about 1,000 times smaller
than sand.
The type of soil in your yard is
determined by the relative
percentages of sand, silt, and clay
that are present. And there are an
infinite number of possible
combinations of these separates.
Understanding what type of soil
you have allows you to predict
many aspects of its behavior, such
as how easily it can be worked and
how well it will hold water and
nutrients. I have seen soil so
slippery, gooey, and claylike, that I
could make pottery with it. I've
also seen soil so sandy that the yard
was like the Sahara. In general,
good planting soil is somewhere
between these extremes.
Chemical elements

Along with soil permeability and

texture, plant growth is influenced
by chemical elements. Plants receive
essential nutrients from 16 chemical
elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen,
sulfur, calcium, iron, magnesium,
boron, manganese, copper, zinc,
molybdenum, and chlorine. Plants
take in these elements in the form of
ions through either their leaves or
roots (see the drawing on the facing
page), and a delicate balance of
these elements is required to offer
the best conditions for plant growth.
The amount of some elements a
plant receives is dependent on
the pH (the level of acidity or
alkalinity) of the soil (see the
graph at right) . Several factors
influence soil pH: the source or
earthly origination of the soil, the

The level of acidity or alkalinity is

measured on a scale of 1 to 14,
with 7 being neutral. A pH below 7
means the soil is more acidic; a pH

addition of nitrogen fertilizers, rain,

and the secretion of hydrogen ions
by plant roots.

EFFECT OF pH ON SOME PLANT NUTRIENTS

Neutral

Acidic

Alkaline

Extreme range of pH for most U.S. soils

Soil pH

3
Very
strong

Width of bars
represents
availability of
the nutrients.
The narrower
the bar, the
less available
the nutrient.

Strong

Common range

Common range

of pH in

of pH in

humid regions

arid regions

6
Moderate

7
SlIght

Slight

Moderate

11

10

Strong

Very
strong

r--,------.,-- --r7----.----j Nitrogen

Calcium and
magnesium

Suitable pH
for acid-loving
plants

Phosphorus

==::===:==:==J

potassium

r__-,-__-.-__--....-__-__1

Sulfur

=
==

Suitable pH
for most
garden plants

t===
=
=

==

r= ======:===:==j
=
==

lron , manganese, zinc,

copper

MOlybdenum

Boron

Down and Dirty

19

above 7 means the soil is more

alkaline. In general, a pH of 6.5 to
7 is best for most plants.

Adjusting pH

If a soil is too
acidic, it can cause nutrient
deficiencies and toxicities. Most
plants do not grow to their
potential in soil that is acidic, a
couple of exceptions being
rhododendrons and blueberries
(see the photos below).

Many plants are particular about

the pH of the soil in which they
thrive. like these acidic soil lovers.
highbush blueberry (above) and PJ M
rhododendron (right).

20

Chapter Two

Acidity is lessened or neutralized by

adding lime to the soil. When
added in the proper quantities, lime
balances plant nutrients, adds
calcium, and makes the essential
nutrients of nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium more available. The
most common types of lime are
ground limestone, ground dolomitic
(high magnesium) limestone, and
hydrated lime.

soil texture) . For instance, if your

soil is clay or if it contains a lot of
organic matter, more lime is needed
to change the pH than if your soil is
sandy. It's also possible to add too
much lime. Adding too much lime
will seriously deplete certain
essential nutrients, especially
phosphorus, so heed the results of
the soil test and follow directions
carefully on how much lime to add.

Knowing the soil texture is essential

to adding the right quantity of lime
(the soil-test results will tell you the

If the soil has a high alkaline

level, some elements that provide
essential nutrients, such as

phosphorus, become unavailable

to plants. To lower the pH, add
sulfur to the soil, following the
amount recommended by the soil
testing lab. You can buy sulfur in
spray or dust form at your local
garden center.

TESTING SOIL
Now that you have an under
standing of basic soil science,
you can take the first-and most
important-step in your land
scaping project: Test the soil.
Any college or university with an
agriculture department can test
your soil, and all states have soil
testing labs. The lab will determine
what kind of soil you have, what
nutrients are present and deficient,
and the pH of the soil. The lab will
even recommend what nutrients to
add and at what rates, depending
on what you want to grow. A soil
test usually costs from $ 1 0 to $20,
depending on where you live and
how many samples you send, but
it's money well spent. It will take
about three weeks to get the results
back. (If you're so inclined, you can
buy a soil-testing kit from a garden
catalog or a garden center and do
the test yourself. )
If you're testing the soil for the
whole yard, take samples from
different parts of the yard. Use a
spade or trowel and dig a few
V2-in. slices of soil (see the drawing
at right) . Mix the slices together
in a pail, and extract a small rep
resentative sample for each area
and send it to the lab. Label each
sample so that you'll remember
where it came from. If you are

interested in sampling just a small

portion of the yard, say for a
vegetable garden, you would still
dig up several soil slices and mix
them together, but dig only from
that one patch of ground where the
garden will be located.

DIGGING A SOIL SAMPLE

To receive the most pertinent

information for your circumstances,
be specific about the plants you
want to grow. Don't just say trees
and shrubs; say roses, yews,
tomatoes, or grass. The lab will tell
you whether the soil is good for
your planned plantings and
whether you need to add certain
nutrients to support them.

WORKING THE SOIL

After you've received the soil-test
results, you can begin working the
soil, which encompasses grading,
planting, and adding nutrients. I
discussed grading in the previous
chapter, and I'll be more specific
about planting later in the book.
Right now let's talk about adding
nutrients to the soil.

Use a spade or trowel to take a

/2-in. slice of soil.

Adding nutrients

There are two ways to add

nutrients to the soil: through
organic material and through
chemical fertilizers. I am not of one
school or the other-as a matter of
fact, I have used both. I have used
rotted manure and compost for
perennials and chemical fertilizers
in the form of slow-release tablets
for trees and shrubs. I have used
organic materials on lawns for
clients concerned about their
children and pets playing on grass
treated with chemicals.

Down and Dirty

21

SOIL-WORKING GUIDELINES
Before you gra b your shovels and rakes and begin working the soil
in your yard, I want to pass along a few important words of advice
on how to proceed.
Never work the soil when it's wet. You will ruin the structure. A
clay soil will become an unpenetrable mass, and even the best sandy
loam will become so compacted that water and air will be unable to
penetrate the surface.
Use the results of your soil test to determine which plants will

do well on your property. Don't try to grow plants that are not
compatible with your soil conditions. I once had a client who
adored rhododendrons and azaleas, which thrive in acidic soil,
and she spent a lot of money at my garden center replacing them
on an annual basis. When we chatted about the situation, she
said she was finally giving in to her soil. It turns out that her yard
had been the site of a limestone quarry, and no amount of acid
additives was going to make a difference. You cannot expect to
change the soil in your entire yard without spending a fortune.
Also, it's hard to tell how far down to dig out the old soil so that
the plant roots won't reach it.
It is uneconomical and almost impossible to completely change the
texture of your existing soil. You'd have to add 6,000 lb. to 10,000 lb.
of sand per 1,000 sq. ft. of clay soil just to adjust the top 6 in. But you
can improve the water-holding capacity of your soil, its drainage, and
its nutrient levels by improving the soil structure. For instance, you
can add organic matter to sandy soil for better water-holding capa
city, or you can add sand to clay soil to make it more workable.
Follow the directions and warnings on any product you use,
including fertilizer, lime, and pesticides. This is not a case where if a
little works, more will work better. Using more than the
recommended dosages may be harmful not just to plants but also to
wildlife and people, as some additives leach into the water system
sooner or later.

Each method has its own

advantages. For instance, organic
matter adds nutrients to the soil
and improves its texture and water
holding capacity naturally. The
drawback is that organic matter
requires frequent applications.
Chemical fertilizers, on the other
hand, are more concentrated, so

22

Chapter Two

less is needed to be effective, and

fewer applications are necessary.
The choice of additives is yours.

Organic matter Supplementing

the existing soil with organic matter
is not only a good way to provide
nutrition for plants-especially

nitrogen-but it also has other

benefits.
For instance, shredded bark, straw,
or compost can be spread on the
surface of the soil as a mulch to
reduce erosion, to deter weeds, to
lower soil temperature in summer
or raise it in winter, and to hold in
moisture around plant roots.
You can buy shredded bark and
straw at your local nursery. But
compost is the least-expensive way
to add organic matter into the soil,
because you can make it yourself in
your own backyard. Composting is
a great way to recycle both yard
waste and kitchen waste. Food
waste (except for meat products
and bones) , grass clippings, garden
weeds, hay, tree leaves, and sawdust
(except that from pressure-treated
wood) are all good components of
a compost pile.
The most efficient way to compost
is to buy a commercial composting
bin or to make one yourself. It
doesn't have to be large-4 ft. by
4 ft. is probably sufficient for most
small- to medium-size yards. The
drawing on the facing page shows
plans for a compost bin that's
pretty easy to build. If you prefer,
you can substitute chicken wire for
the I x slats on the sides of the bin.
To make a compost pile, alternate
6-in. layers of the waste with 2 in.
of soil. Adding lime to the layers
will hasten the decomposition of
the waste. Turn the pile once a
month with a pitchfork or shovel to
make the components break down
faster. Humidity is needed for
composting activity, so after
completing a level, make sure
the top of the pile is concave to
catch rainwater.

As the decomposition ensues, the

temperature of the pile will be as
high as 1 50F in the center, high
enough to kill microorganisms and
any diseases present in the yard
waste so that they do not harm the
plants later when the compost is
spread. The compost pile is ready
for use when all the elements have
decomposed.
If you have the space ( and the
waste), it's a good idea to have more
than one compost pile going at the
same time. Keeping them all at

different stages will ensure that you

always have a ready supply of
mature (well-decomposed) compost.
Use only well-decomposed organic
matter around your plants, whether
it be compost or manure. Fresh
organic matter generates high
temperatures as it breaks down and
robs the soil of nitrogen, which will
be harmful to the plants. Noncom
posted pruning debris may harbor
diseases that ordinarily would be
killed by the high temperatures of
composting. Fresh sawdust will

cause the same problems and may

even burn the ground beneath if
you are not careful (fresh sawdust
is perfect for annihilating weeds or
grass that you want to eliminate) .

Chemical fertilizers

There are
no hard-and-fast rules for adding
nutrients with chemical fertilizers.
All plants differ in their nutritional
requirements (what chemical
elements are needed) . Worst of all,
the nutritional requirements could
change as the plant's life cycle
changes. The best advice I can give

A SMALL COMPOST BIN

MATERIALS LIST
Quantity

Description

Size

2x4 posts

4 ft.

2x4 brace

4 ft.

33
14

2x4 blocks

3Y2 in.

1 x4 slats

4 ft.

1 x 4 slats

Removable
2x4 brace

7 in.

2x4 post

3 ft. 6 in.

(for front)
4

1 x2s

4 ft.

First assemble the side

panels on a flat surface.
Then stand them up and nail
on the back slats.

4 ft.

Form the groove for the

front slats by nailing two
1 x2s about % in. apart,
allowing enough room for
the 1 x4s to fit loosely.

1 x2s

2x4 post

Down and Dirty

23

be planted was removed and

replaced with better soil. The tree's
roots loved the new soil so much
that they wrapped around each
other in the new soil, never
extending beyond, until they
girdled themselves. Ultimately, the
tree died.
Hauling in topsoil to help improve
the soil you have is another story.
This is common to help support
new lawns or vegetable gardens. If
you opt to bring in new soil to your
yard, it should be free of debris and
weeds, and you should know the
source. It should also be tested
before it is brought in, so that you
know what you're dealing with.

The th ree major components of lawn and garden fertilizer are nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). A balanced fertilizer incl udes all three,
often in different amounts, depending on the application of the fertilizer.

is that you should follow the

recommendations of the lab that
performed your soil test. If you
were specific about what plants
you wanted to grow in the soil, the
lab will tell you exactly what to
add and at what rates. That's why
it's important to specify what
plants you plan to grow.
Chemical fertilizers generally use
their element symbols to describe
what is in the bag (see the photo
above) . Nitrogen (N), phosphorus
(P), and potassium (K) are the
components of most commercially
produced fertilizers. A fertilizer
with components of 20-11- 12
means there is almost twice the
amount of nitrogen as phosphorus,
and half the amount of potassium
as nitrogen. A fertilizer labeled
10- 10- 10 means there are equal
parts of all three elements in the

24

Chapter Two

bag. It is possible to purchase

simply phosphorus ( 0-20-0) if it is
your only requirement.
Before applying a chemical fertil
izer, check your town ordinances:
Some towns require the home
owner to place a warning sign in
the yard if chemical fertilizers have
been added to the soil.

BRINGING IN NEW SOIL

If the soil test indicates that your
soil is in really bad shape, you can
bring in new (and hopefully better)
soil from another site.
I don't recommend the wholesale
exchange of soil in any yard. It is
not only costly, but you also never
know how deep to go when
removing the existing soil. For
example, in one instance, the soil in
an area where a shade tree was to

A friend of mine told me a story

about some neighbors who had
built a home and ordered new
topsoil for the lawn area. No
sooner had it arrived and been
spread for seeding than a strange
smell emanated from the yard.
What had been passed off as clean
topsoil was actually fill from an old
gas station with leaky tanks.
Needless to say, not only would the
homeowners not want their
children to play in it, but also no
grass or plant would ever grow in
it. It also required guys in white
space suits to truck it away at
exorbitant cost.
Don't assume that soil coming from
a local farm is good soil. If the soil
was scraped from a corn field,
atrozine, a common herbicide used
on corn, could be present. It
remains in the soil for at least six
years, and your plants will not
survive it. Unfortunately, the soil
test will not search for atrozine, so
if you know the soil is coming from
a corn field, it's probably best to
avoid it altogether.

C H A PT E R 3

Your Neighborhood
and Your Yard

eople have different reasons for landscaping their yards, whether it be

for beauty or for function. But one thing homeowners often overlook is
the monetary benefit of a well-landscaped yard. Statistically, landscaping
adds 1 5 % to 20% to the value of your home and helps a home sell faster.
I've read many a real-estate ad that boasted of a lovely landscaped yard, a
roomy deck, or a shaded nook.

If a landscape is to gain back your

investment in time and money and
to provide you with long-term
enjoyment and satisfaction, it must
be carefully planned. One of the
first steps in designing a landscape
involves analyzing your family's
needs-both present and future
and observing your neighborhood
and its overall style. Another factor
is the climate in which you live.

FROM THE INSIDE OUT

How does the landscape look from
your living-room window? When
planning a landscape, remember that
it will be seen from inside the house
as well as from the outside.

INVOLVING FAMILY
IN DESIGN
As a landscape designer, I realize
that the home is a reflection of its
owners, so I literally do my
homework with them. First I spend
time walking around the yard
alone, visualizing how I would use
the areas. Then I walk around with
the homeowners and ask them
how they envision the spaces. We
feed ideas back and forth, talk
about "what ifs," and try to learn
what we can about each other's
tastes. This is not only a good
way to get acquainted, but it's also
a wonderful way to begin
generating ideas.
I also note traffic patterns around
the property, from house doors,
garages, and existing decks and
patios. These patterns should be
considered in designing the
landscape, but they can be altered
with careful planning.
Even without asking, I usually get a
tour of the inside of the house.
Once inside, I seize the opportunity
to see how the landscape looks-or
could look-from the inside, say
from the kitchen window or from
the living-room couch (see the
drawing at left).
While inside, I get a feel for how
the family lives. I can tell whether
their lifestyle is formal or informal,
and I can get a good idea of their
tastes by observing how the home is
decorated. I am insistent about
spending time with all members of
the household-including pets-to
learn about their lifestyle and
habits. I ask about color
preferences and about plant likes
and dislikes. I ask about their
gardening experience and find out

26

Chapter Three

what kind of garden they would

like to grow, whether it's a
functional vegetable garden or a
decorative rock garden. I ask if they
want to spend their free time taking
care of the garden or if they would
rather leave the maintenance to
someone else.
When planning a garden, it's
important to get the family
involved so that everyone can enjoy
the fruits of the labor. Before
putting your landscaping plan on
paper, interview your family,
including children, to find out how
they would like to use the yard.
Don't ignore your pets, either,
because they have habits that will
impact the landscape. Also consider
whether the landscape will be a
place for entertaining guests.
Finally, in your analysis, try to look
ahead and consider the family's
future plans.
Family members

If you have children, no matter

what age, they will most certainly
impact the landscape. So, along
with conducting interviews with the
adult members of the family, talk to
the children in the house.
Children have special needs in a
landscape. When young, they may
need confined play areas, play
equipment, and safe surfaces to
play on. You will want the play
area easily accessible and viewable
from inside the house, preferably
from a room in which you spend a
lot of time.
As kids mature, they need more
open space to play in. For instance,
a confined space may later give
way to a baseball diamond or a
volleyball court, so trees and
planting beds should be located to

CANINE ROUTE
Being a creature of habit, your dog will beat a path through a garden regardless of attempts to keep him out. Plan gardens
outside of Rover's usual path.

ensure there will be room for open

spaces in the future.
Pets

If you have pets that spend time in

the yard, observe their habits and
traffic patterns. You don't want a
planting bed blocking your dog's
habitual path from the house to the
yard. I can't tell you how many
planting beds I have shaped or
moved to accommodate a pet's

habits. Some people use low mesh

fencing to keep the dog out of the
bed, but it's tacky to put a fence in
the middle of a beautiful, new
landscape ( see the drawing above) .
I f you keep a dog o r other animals
in a pen, site it for convenience by
making it easily accessible. But keep
aesthetics in mind, too, by building
the pen in a location that's not
prominent. You want people to

focus on your beautiful flower

beds, not on Rover's pen.
Entertaining

Many people entertain guests in the

yard. If you do, think about how
many people typically join you.
You should consider the normal
party, not the once-a-year large
gathering, and plan the spaces to
accommodate the average number
of people you entertain.

Your Neighborhood and Your Yard

27

If you're planning a patio or deck,

its size will be determined by your
lifestyle: Will it be an eating and
cooking area, a place for
sunbathing on a chaise lounge, a
place for entertaining, or a nook for
drinking early-morning coffee and
reading the paper?

A PATIO FOR LIVING

Plan a patio large enough for the whole family and all your furniture. Leave
room for pulling out chairs and for walking around furniture.

Size the patio or deck to accom

modate not only people but also the
furniture (see the drawing at right) .
Measure any furniture that will be
located on it-don't forget the
barbecue-and draw the pieces on
your plan. Remember to leave extra
space to allow chairs to be pushed
away from any tables. And don't
forget to allow extra space in the
yard for convenient pathways
around the deck or patio.
If you have a large yard, you have
more flexibility to accommodate
your entertaining and lifestyle
needs. But if your yard is small, like
in a city, economy of space is a
critical issue. In a small space, de
sign the landscape to serve multiple
purposes ( see the drawing on the
facing page ) . There are a few ways
you can do this. One method is to
plant vegetables and flowers in con
tainers or in small planting beds.
For a small patio or deck area,
build storage areas into benches or
other furniture, and put wheels on
furniture so that they can easily be
moved around to make room for a
play space.
Future plans

With your present needs figured

out, look ahead. What future plans
do you have for the yard ? Most
homeowners phase in their
landscaping over time-some even
take years. Planning ahead doesn't
mean it's necessary to leave parts
unfinished. It simply allows you to

28

Chapter Three

make future plans easier and more

economical to achieve, and allows
the parts to be well integrated.
To make a long-term project come
together effectively, it's important
to consider any additions you may
make to the house. Study the spots
you would most likely add on to
and plan the landscape around it.
Don't plant a tree in that area or
build a deck in the way.
Do you plan on adding any other
structures to the yard, such as a
swimming pool, a pond, or a
storage shed? If so, don't put a
patio, deck, or garden in the path
of any heavy machinery you'll need
to dig the pool or pond with. And
don't plant any trees or flower beds
in these areas.

If you don't have the money to

install a patio now, but you plan to
do it five years down the line, you
have time to get some shade trees
started so that they will be of
decent size when the patio is finally
built. Allow sufficient room for
root and branch growth, and site
the trees for optimum shade on the
future patio or deck.

LOOKING AT THE
NEIGHBORHOOD
After you've made a careful study
of your family and its needs, it's
time to take a careful look at the
character of your home and your
neighborhood. There are no hard
and-fast rules about keeping to the
urban, suburban, or rural style of
the neighborhood, but I believe

MULTIPURPOSE SPACE
In a small space, furniture can also serve as storage space. It 's also a good
idea to have wheels on the furniture so that it can be moved around
to make room for play space.

Indigenous materials like native

stone blend with the natural
landscape.

that landscaping should look and

feel like an integral part of the
surroundings-like it has always
been there.

paving patterns that are in keeping

with the architecture or period of
the house or neighborhood (see the
bottom photo at right) .

I am of the "natural-look" school,

which doesn't mean I don't like a
groomed, well-eared-for yard with
cultivated plants and formal sitting,
living, and entertaining areas. I just
want the landscaping to fit like an
old shoe. To achieve that, I use indi
genous materials: stone that's found
in the region (see the top photo at
right); man-made pavers and blocks
that blend with the colors of the
natural surroundings; some native
plants; and fencing, lighting, and

I drew a landscape plan for a

Vermont client who built a home
on a mountainside that resembled a
Greek temple. Luckily, it was
situated on several hundred acres of
land, completely segregated from
the rest of the rural, white
clapboard farmhouses of the area.
Though I tried as hard as I could to
integrate the structure with its site,
it still took on a Disneyworldish
appearance. You want the land
scaping to feel, 19ok, and be lived

Fencing should be in keeping

with the architecture or period
of the neighborhood or house.
The yard of this Colonial home
in the Georgetown section of
Washington, D.C., has a fence
that matches the house style.

Your Neighborhood and Your Yard

29

in; you don't want it to look like a

Hollywood set. Think of the
landscaping as outdoor rooms
extensions of the inside-where you
spend leisure and fun time.
The big picture

U rban landscapes are usually solitary, with each house having its
own little plan.

DEFINING THE YARD

Post-and-rail fencing defines this rural yard, setting off the mowed area from
the "wild" areas.

What surrounds your yard ? To get

an idea of how your house looks
within the neighborhood, step
across the street or into a neighbor's
yard and look at your house as part
of a whole scheme. Start with the
fringes of the landscape, the
borders or limits of your scope, and
then work your way back to the
foundation of the house. This
exercise will ultimately help you
focus on the small parts of your
yard and then put them in
perspective with the whole scheme.
What you do with your landscape
will depend on where you live,
whether it's in suburbia, a city, or
the country. Large yards may blend
from house to house in suburbia, so
doing something out of sync with
the neighborhood will really stand
out. An urban landscape will
usually be solitary, each house its
own little plan (see the photo above
left). Often, that is by necessity as
well as by design. A country home
with acreage may be so expansive
that it requires some enclosure,
such as post-and-rail fencing or
shrubs or small trees, to create a
more intimate yard space or to set
the landscaped area off from the
wild space (see the drawing at left).
Formal or informal

As I said before, the yard is a

reflection of the homeowner. The
way you arrange the plants, the
shape of the gardens and patio or
deck, the types of materials you
use, and the pattern in which you
set the materials not only work

30

Chapter Three

STRAIGHT WALK, CURVED WALK

Straight walkways and planting beds accentuate the uni
form lines of the house and make the yard more formal.

Curved walkways and planting beds mimic nature's way

and soften the straight lines of the house.

(
\

I"

III
,,<,

I"

.. ,...). ".-i:!.... ' W- ....\...

together to determine the degree of

formality or informality of the
yard, but they also say something
about the owners.
For instance, most curved and
serpentine shapes imply a relaxed,
informal lifestyle, mimicking
nature's way. Flowing lines are
found with a meandering brook,
with the undulating edge of a
forest, and in the graceful sweep of
a hillside. A landscape that
incorporates those lines will ebb
and flow with the surrounding
environment and break up the
uniform lines and angles of the
house (see the drawings above) .
A formal look i s one i n which
nature is "controlled." The lines of
gardens, walkways, and patios are
straight and symmetrical, and
shrubs are kept trimmed. This
technique is very effective for
formal architecture, such as
Georgian and Federal style, which
beg for symmetrical lines, trimmed

A formal house begs for symmetry and formal gardens.

hedges, and formal gardens (see the

photo above ).

CONSIDERING CLIMATE
Analyses of the yard and
neighborhood are keys to a well
designed landscape, but you also
must look at the climate in which
you live. The U.S. Department of

Agriculture (USDA) has divided

North America into planting regions,
called hardiness zones, that indicate
a range of the average minimum
temperatures in any given area.
Plants are assigned zone desig
nations based on tests conducted by
researchers and hybridizers.
Nurseries, garden centers, and

Your Neighborhood and Your Yard

31

landscapers attempt to grow, plant,

or sell only those plants that will
live or perform well in their
particular hardiness zone.
To find out which hardiness zone
you live in, see the USDA Plant
Hardiness Zone Map on p. 160.
Choose plants for your yard that
are tagged "hardy" for your zone.
These plants should stand up well
in your landscape year-round. If
you choose plants that are
borderline hardy for your zone,
they will probably need winter
protection in cold climates (see the
photo below) or sun protection in
hot climates. For information about
specific plantings, talk to your
landscaper or the local garden
center staff.

In a cold climate, plants that are

borderline hardy will require winter
protection. M ulch wil l keep the
roots warm, and burlap wrapped
around the plant will protect it from
the wind and sun.

32

Chapter Three

Microclimates

Within each hardiness zone are mi

croclimates, areas in which climatic
conditions differ from surrounding
areas. Microclimates can be created
by natural conditions or by man.
A lake may moderate the tempera
ture of areas immediately sur
rounding it. A microclimate such as
this may be a whole zone warmer
in the wintertime than other areas
in the same hardiness zone. Around
Lake Champlain, for instance, the
autumn is longer, but if the lake

freezes, the winter is prolonged as

well, although it is usually less
severe in temperature than in areas
away from the lake.
In the city, the heat of asphalt,
masonry, and metal can elevate
temperatures considerably.
Temperatures even vary from street
level to the tops of cars, and above.
In fact, one study done in New
York City showed the temperature
over the roofs of cars to be 10F to
1 5F higher than the surrounding
temperature.

WIND TUNNEL
Wind can create a cold microclimate in a small, open area of the yard and could
dry out shrubs planted in its path.

Your yard probably has more than

one microclimate. An unusual wind
pattern may make a portion of the
yard colder (see the drawing on the
facing page), while a very protected
space within a fence or courtyard, a
corner niche where two walls meet
(see the drawing at right), or even
the foundation of the house may
create warm microclimates.
Big influences on microclimates in
your yard are sun and shade
patterns. As you look over your
site, analyze these patterns. The
heaviest shade will be on the north
side of trees and houses, but watch
the way the shadows travel around,
depending on the time of day and
the season (see the drawing below).
Unless the house is on a perfect
compass point, the shadiest orien
tation may allow a few hours of
morning or afternoon sun, the latter
being of greater intensity. This
might be a great spot for a patio or
a deck, which will enjoy both sun
and shade.

the temperature in this spot be

higher than the surrounding
temperature during summer, but
the plant will also receive harsh
winter sun and wind.
Unfortunately, there are no
guidebooks or hardiness zone maps
for your yard. It is possible to

encounter a microclimate
anywhere. If a hardy plant is not
performing well, it may be that it is
sitting in an unsuitable micro
climate. The solution is to move
the plant to a different spot to see
if it thrives there.

WARM NICHE
Where the two walls of this home meet is a warm microclimate. This area
would be a good place to experiment with planting borderline-hardy plants.

What may appear to be the best

place for a plant because it is
sunny and open may, in fact, be
the harshest place. Not only will

SHADE PATTERNS
Unless your house is on a perfect compass point, shade patterns will travel around trees, depending
on the time of day. The shade patterns may affect what plants you can grow successfully and where
you locate patios, pools, or decks.

Your Neigh borhood and Your Yard

33

C H A PT E R 4

The Landscape Plan

ven the simplest project requires some planning, and, indeed, benefits by
design and engineering. When driving a car, you follow a route. When
cooking a meal, you follow a recipe or at least devise the dish in your head.
Likewise, when landscaping the yard, you should follow a plan.

Design informs even the

simplest structure, whether
of brick-and-steel or of prose.
You raise a pup tent from one
vision, a cathedral from
another. This does not mean
that you must sit with a
blueprint always in front of
you, merely that you had best

landscape features you plan on

keeping (there is absolutely no need
for accuracy at this point), then go
outside and measure them.

You've tested the soil and have

made certain it can nourish plants
appropriate to your hardiness zone.
You have talked with family
members about their needs and
know how the yard will be used.
And you are clear on how to
integrate the character and style of
the neighborhood and your home
into the new landscape. Now you
are ready to create a working
landscape plan.

For most of the measurements, you

can use a long tape measure (to
make the job easier, ask a friend
or family member to help you) .
But for the longer perimeter yard
measurements, a walk-beside
measuring wheel will work
better (you can borrow one at
a rental center) .

anticipate what you are

TAKING MEASUREMENTS

getting into.

(E. B. White,
Elements of Style)

When planning a landscape, don't

be afraid to scour what's already
out there for inspiration. I must
confess that some of my best designs
were inspired by photos of
landscapes in magazines and books,
by features I've seen in other
landscapes, or by just observing
nature's shapes. I once designed a
fence based on a photo I took of an
old barn with a stone foundation
and board-and-batten siding above
that. From that inspiration, I built a
rustic fence with a 2-ft.-high dry
laid stone wall topped with 4 ft. of
gray-stained, board-and-batten
cedar fencing with the posts actually
embedded in the wall. Lesson
learned: If the idea looks good to
you somewhere else, it's probably
because it is a design that works and
is worth adapting to fit your needs.
The picture of what you want your
landscape to look like and how you
want it to function was started
when you began the evaluation of
your yard. Up to this point, you
have determined existing grade and
have corrected it, if necessary.

Begin by measuring the house (see

the drawing below). Start at the
corners and measure in. Mark

If you haven't already done so,

draw freehand a bird's-eye view of
the house, yard, and any existing

HOUSE MEASUREMENTS

.J,

11

8"
3'C;' 9'3" 311." //' { ;

/l. ;4"

"3" , II

I'"
I"

3"
3" '"

;;... '
3''"

8 'q lf
-I-

et.. E. CTR.1
/'-fe T/Ii!.uP 'I ;

-.t

"' 1 3''; ''

I I ti"

-H
u--u,

7'8"

').. '

3''2.'' W
.
I""
3'2." '1'8" i!l':z. # 2'
"
W 3"
31t W
3" "

;JOI<- TI-/

"
7 '8

- J t::: 8"

"

(;7"
GA !2.A 6 lE"
3/'"

.
3'4"
l'
718"

fe," /'

3'
7 '8"

2-

''' ' --7

'--

bi!!.LI}E vJ4'f

r-

--

The Landscape Plan

35

locations of all windows and doors,

steps, decks, and patios in the
drawing. Measure and label the
garage and driveway as well. These
measurements don't have to be
exact-they just have to be close.
Be careful with angled surfaces that
are created by bay windows and
other irregularly shaped house
protrusions; they are tricky to
measure. But I found a simple way
to estimate that is pretty close ( see
the drawing below), and that's all
you need.
First butt a straightedge against the
wall, perpendicular to the house, at
the end of the window. Then stretch
the tape measure to the straightedge
from the corner where the middle
glass pane meets the side pane.
Measure the distance from the

intersection point to the window

corner and to the house, and
measure the middle pane. Then plot
these distances on the drawing.
These measurements will give you
a good idea of the length of the
window and how far it projects
out into the yard.
Once you have all the house
measurements on paper, measure
to the outlying structures or
landscape features you are keeping,
using the house as your anchor for
measuring ( see the drawing on the
facing page ).
Start from the corners of the house.
For instance, to measure to a
couple of outlying trees, start at a
corner, walk straight ahead in one
direction until you are aligned with
the middle of the closest tree, and

MEASURING ANGLED SURFACES

then record that measurement.

Then measure straight from that
point to the center of the tree and
write down the measurement. Walk
straight out in one direction until
you are aligned with the center of
the second tree and record that
measurement. Then measure and
record the distance from that point
to the center of the second tree.
Repeat this procedure for all
outlying objects.

ORGANIZING THE DESIGN

Once you have the measurements
of the existing design on the rough
drawing, you can use it to help
organize the new design to make all
the components work together.
How you arrange the landscape
elements in your yard is really a
matter of personal taste. But when
organizing your ideas, you should
consider composition, scale,
balance, color, and texture. It's best
to work on this part of the plan
while you're still outside.
Composition

@ l, ,/>I/ (i)

l'

1' 1"

--->
.

1 . Measure out from the house to points A

and 0 to find out how far the window
projects into the yard.
2. Measure from A to B, from 0 to C, and
from C to B to find the width of the window.

36

Chapter Four

1 8"

Your first goal in designing the

plan should be achieving good
composition. How will the separate
components relate to each other
the walkway to the front door, the
planting beds to the walkway, a
retaining wall to the planting
beds-and how will they work
together to create a pleasing
landscape?
The difference between a design
that looks professional and one
that looks amateurish is in how
the separate components work
together. For instance, in a front
yard, a planting bed should not be
treated as a separate entity, nor
should the walkway, or even a tree.
Integrating the outside lines of the

MEASURING TO OUTLYING OBJECTS

1. Record the measurement from the
house corner straight out to point A,
which is aligned with the center of
the first tree.
2. Measure from point A to the
center of the first tree, point B.
3. Measure straight out from point B
to the point that aligns with the
center of the second tree, point C.
4. Measure straight out from point C
to the center of the second tree,
point D.

o '{lIr
8 ---t
Cd

/8

l'
vJ

b '2"

'

-/fo () S c

3' , 1/

planting bed with the parameters of

the walkway makes one smooth
line and links the two components.
The tree should balance with
plantings near it or be incorporated
into a bed to tie it to the planting
bed near the walkway.
At this point it's also important to
analyze the big picture if you
haven't already done so. Consider
how the composition of the yard
will relate to the house and how the
house and yard will relate to the
entire neighborhood. It may be
necessary to step into the street or
into a neighbor's yard to take in the
entire composition. You may want
to use props such as a flexible
garden hose or stakes and string to
lay out lines on the ground for
walkways, planting beds, or patios
( see the photo below).
As you're walking around the yard,
write down ideas or sketch them
out so that you remember them
when you are ready to begin
drawing the landscape plan.

To help visualize the lines of curved wal kways, patios, or planting beds, use a prop. Here, a garden hose helps to
outline a planting bed.

The Landscape Plan

37

Splay the walkway where it meets the d riveway or street to make it inviting and to soften the
harsh meeting of perpendicular lines.

Scale and balance

Next, consider how the new

landscape components will relate in
scale and balance to the existing
components of the yard.

Splaying or flaring a walkway at its

origination or destination makes it
inviting and softens the harsh
meeting of perpendicular lines (see
the photo above) .

For example, if you are adding a

walkway, think about its size and
shape in relation to the size and
shape of the house and yard. Is the
walkway the right size for the
entry? Is it too small, too narrow,
too unimportant in relation to the
house and yard ? Or is it too big,
claiming too much attention? Will
it be curved or straight? And how
will the walkway meet the street or
the driveway where it originates?

Consider the shapes o f all the

components and think about how
they relate to one another. Do
you want an informal yard, with
lots of curves throughout, or do
you want a formal yard with
straight lines? Maybe you want
a combination of both. If you
prefer a straight walkway but don't
want a totally formal yard, add
curved planting beds and arrange
plants in a serpentine manner to

38

Chapter Four

relax the straight lines of the house

and the walkway.
Is symmetry the look you want, or
do you prefer an asymmetrical
look ? For instance, if you are
putting plantings on both sides of a
walkway, do you want them to be
the same size and shape? Or would
you prefer to place a tall, pointy
plant on one side and balance it on
the other side with three short,
round plants ? I think the latter
design provides more interest
because of the contrast.
It's also important to look at the
house facade and foundation. Look

Cool blues recede in the landscape while hot colors d raw attention.

for areas where you can place

planting beds close to the house to
conceal the foundation. Also look
for places near the house where
planting beds can be pulled away to
add depth and perspective. If you
want tall plantings to add interest
to the horizontal walls, look for
breaks in the house facade and
locate the taller plants where they
won't block window views.
Color

After thinking about composition,

scale, and balance, next consider
what colors you want to incor
porate into your design and how
to make them work together.
Colored plantings spice up a yard

and add depth to your design. But

with myriad colors from which to
choose, figuring out what you
want can seem overwhelming.

color, say red, every few feet, your

eyes will be drawn across the
planting bed, allowing you to take
in the whole picture.

I can't give you any hard-and-fast

rules, but remember that cool
colors-blues, greens, and pastels
recede in the landscape, while
warm colors-reds, oranges, and
yellows-stand out. When you
place warm colors to the rear of a
planting bed, you will add
dimension or depth to the image
because your eyes will be drawn
toward the back of the bed
gradually as they catch the color.
Similarly, if you repeat the warm

Combine whites and reds with dark

greens. Shades of purple work well
with pinks and bright yellows (see
the photo above) . But don't feel like
you must be conservative when
combining colors. Experiment.
Take risks. Time and again clients
insist that I not use orange or a
combination of orange and purple.
But in the right spot, this is a
gorgeous combination-my bright
orange poppies look spectacular
next to my purple-edged white iris.

The Landscape Plan

39

And in spring, after a dark, dreary,

cold winter, there is no better
combination to brighten and warm
the feel of the yard.

Texture
When designing a landscape, use
textures to draw the eye and to
create a mood. If textures are
combined correctly, you should be
able to " feel" them with your eyes.
Texture can be a difficult concept to
grasp. If your are having trouble,
try this: Close your eyes and try to

feel with your mind. Imagine

touching smooth moss and then
a rough brick walkway, or
envision looking at a smooth
weeping willow next to a needled
spruce tree.
Simple texture differences-like
tall, spiky flowers combined
with round, daisylike flowers,
evergreens with deciduous trees,
smooth slate combined with rough
concrete, bark mulch and gravel
contribute to a diversity of sensa
tions that delight the eyes and

enhance the composition, scale,

balance, and colors you have
chosen for your design.

DRAWING UP THE PLAN

With a clear picture of how your
landscape will be organized, you're
now ready to sit down inside and
draw up the working plan. The first
step is to draw to scale the existing
landscape. From that drawing, you
can create the new design.

D R AWING TOO L S
Before beginning, you'll need to purchase a few
drawing tools. Graph paper makes it pretty easy
to make scale drawings-tracing paper or vellum
makes the job a little more adventurous.
My mother always said to use a pencil for
crossword puzzles-nobody is that good the first
time. And the same rule applies here, but keep
the pencil sharp and have a good eraser on hand.
I change my mind often and make mistakes here
and there, so I have an electric eraser that gets
more use than my toothbrush.
A ruler will help you measure and draw straight
lines. If you have not chosen graph paper, you'll
need an architect's or engineer's scale, which
makes it easy to create scale drawings and can
also serve as a straightedge.
To make perfect circles, you may want to have
on hand a few circle templates of varying size,
from small to large, a template with plant
shapes, or a compass (drawing circles freehand
should work just fine, though). To create
serpentine lines of any shape, I use a flexible
curve, a tool made of rubber-coated lead.

40

Chapter Four

Drawing tools make it easier to put the plans on

paper. From top to bottom: a pencil sharpener,
d raftsman's triangle, scales, lead pencil, templates,
compass, masking tape, and a flexible curve.

To d raw straight lines, align two straightedges perpendicular to one another, using the edge of the table as a guide.

Start with the old

The first thing to do is to make a

scale drawing of the existing yard,
including only elements you plan
on keeping. To keep the paper from
sliding around as you draw, attach
the corners to the table with
masking tape. To ensure that the
paper is straight, measure up evenly
from the edge of the table when
affixing the paper, making sure it's
parallel to the table edge.
With that done, transfer the house
and yard measurements-keeping
them in scale-from the rough
drawing to the paper. If you're
using graph paper, this is easy.
Simply assign a dimension to each
box: For example, if 2 ft. is equal to

one box, a 1 0-ft. section of the

house or yard could be drawn to
scale simply by connecting five
boxes on the graph paper.
With an architect's scale, measure
ments are assigned to I-in.
increments. For instance, a 1 : 8
scale means 1 in. equals 8 ft. An
engineer's scale works the same
way, but it uses larger increments,
such as 1 in. equals 1 0 ft. or 1 in.
equals 20 ft. With a 1 :20 scale, a
whole acre could fit on one 8-in. by
l l -in. sheet of paper. I typically use
a 1 : 8 architect's scale or 1 : 1 0
engineer's scale for residential
plans. To get a close view of one
section of the yard, I use a 1 :4
architect's scale.

From the rough drawing, add up

the horizontal measurements and
then the vertical measurements to
get totals. This will help locate the
house so that it fits on the paper in
the right place. If there is more
front yard than back, the house
should be drawn toward the back
of the paper, and vice versa.
To ensure that all the lines you
draw on the paper are straight,
lay a straightedge vertically against
the edge of the table and place
another one horizontally, per
pendicular to the vertical one ( see
the photo above) . Create right
angles at the house corners using
the same method.

The Landscape Plan

41

CURNG THE WALKWAY

House

4 ft. 6 in.
Driveway
North

Splay the end

of the walkway.

If all of this is too detailed for you,

and if you don't mind if the house
looks like a trapezoid, then don't
worry about it. An out-of-square,
slightly off-scale drawing will only
be a problem if it will be used to
figure out engineering specs,
material needs, or cost estimates.
Simple planting plans don't require
the same level of accuracy.
Add the new

After putting all the existing

elements on paper, make a V-turn.
Totally clear your mind of any
preconceived ideas and forget what
your yard looks like now. If the
fundamental parts of the front yard
landscape exist, like a walkway and
planting beds, try to ignore them.
Pretend you're working with a
blank slate. Be limited only by how
far your imagination can go. Take
risks and explore options you have
never dreamed possible.

42

Chapter Four

Place a piece of tracing paper over

the existing layout and play with
the spaces. Find the beginning and
end of the walkway: Curve it, loop
it-draw a veritable yellow brick
road. Make a walkway that is in
scale with the house, and be
generous with its width-allow at
least 4 ft. for two people to walk
comfortably side by side (see the
drawing above) . Pull the walkway
out from the house, leaving plenty
of space for planting beds in
between. When you're satisfied
with the design, transfer your
sketch to the scale drawing.
Experiment with shapes for
decks and patios as well as for
planting beds and vegetable
gardens. Oval, kidney, or free
form shapes make it easier to
combine elements than squares
and rectangles. As you finish
designing each component, transfer
the sketch to the scale drawing.

When drawing a deck or patio,

remember to leave room for
furniture-the barbecue, the dining
table and chairs, chaise lounges
and for people. It helps to make
scale cutouts of all the furniture
so you can move them around on
your drawing to get an accurate
picture of the space (see the photo
on p. 34).
Take advantage of existing shade
trees. Look at the shade patterns
you studied earlier and place the
patio in a comfortable spot in the
shade. Also, place the pool and play
areas away from shaded spaces.
When planning the planting beds
and vegetable gardens, remember
the dog's habits and try to place
these spots out of the way of the
dog. Draw the beds with serpentine
edges that meander along the walk
way and tie back into the walls of
the house, wrapping around the

ADDING A PLANTING BED

House

Medium shrub

Large shrub

Driveway

North

Small shrubs
Skirt of perennial
ground cover

corners ( see the drawing above) .

Draw them wide enough to have
layers of plantings-short ones in
front of tall ones-skirts of ground
covers, and big flares for small trees
you wouldn't want too close to
the house. Use the windows of the
house to help locate the beds, and
think about what you want to see
from inside the house. Go wild with
the planting beds. Don't limit
yourself. The planting beds can
always be scaled back to fit the
budget and then augmented later
according to this plan.
Choosing plants

Once you have the main compo

nents of the landscape drawn in
scale on the plan, it's time to get
down to details: choosing and
arranging plants, including trees,
shrubs, and flowers.
Get out your plant books and make
a list of your favorite plants. Of

Medium
shrub

for the exposure-whether it be sun

or shade-and the hardiness zone
you live in. Decide how much
upkeep you are interested in doing,
and consider drought tolerance,
pruning requirements, and disease
and pest resistance. Pay attention to
ultimate heights and spreads when
choosing plants that are next to the
house or plants that will be located
under electric lines or near the
perimeters of the yard.
Again, use a piece of tracing paper
over the layout, and draw circles to
represent the plants. Draw them to
their mature sizes, so you can see
how close to place them.
Plants look more natural when used
in odd numbers. One specimen or
three plants in a group works better
than two or four because it looks
less contrived, more natural. If
there is a good spot for a focal
point at the turn of a walkway

or at the end of an aWe, choose a

plant with an eye-catching shape
or color.
Add layers of perennials, annuals,
or ground covers in front of shrubs
and around the bottom of trees (see
the drawing on p. 44), and dress up
bare walls with vines. Pick plants
for year-round interest and color
winter berries or sculptural
branching, spring or summer
flowers, and fall foliage colors. If
one plant is at its best in spring,
make sure the one next to it has
another season of interest so that
something will be happening
throughout the year. Use repetition
of color, shape, or actual plants
to draw the eye from one side of
the planting bed to the other.
Repetition-which is what the
professionals do-integrates
the whole picture and makes the
composition successful.

course, only list those appropriate

The Landscape Plan

43

REPEATING COLORS TO UNIFY THE DESIGN

North

Rudbeckia 'Goldsturm'

Chrysanthemum 'Snowcap'

Daylily 'Stella D'Oro'

Coreopsis 'Moonbeam'

Viburnum ' M ariesii'

Seagreen juniper

Liatris ' Kobold'

Euonymus 'Emerald Gaiety'

Salvia 'East Friesland'

Weigela ' Rhumba'

Make sure all of your plant choices

are available at the local garden
center or through a catalog. You
should also be aware of growth
rates so that individual plants
within the landscape will mature at
the rate you want them to. If you
buy young, slow-growing plants,
such as dwarf conifers, and
combine them with older, fast
growing plants, such as deciduous
flowering shrubs, the more
vigorous plants will outgrow the
slower ones in no time. Here's
where budget comes into play.
Although a slower-growing plant is
usually more expensive, you should

44

Chapter Four

buy an older, larger one and cut

back on the sizes or quantities of
fast-growing plants. This will not
only balance the budget, but it
will also help keep your landscape
in balance.
Also, keep in mind that unlike an
interior-designed room in your
home, which looks its best the
day the furniture arrives, the
landscaping in the yard will be
at its peak 5 to 10 years from the
day of installation. You can
minimize or maximize that time
period depending on your budget.
If you have more money to spend

and can start with larger plants,

they will mature in less time, and
the landscape will be at its peak in
a shorter amount of time.
If you find that all of this detail
work is overwhelming, that the
rough sketch is about all you can
handle, or that you are having
trouble putting all your great ideas
to paper, you may want to hire a
landscape designer or architect who
will skillfully translate your ideas to
pictures. For help in finding the
right professional, see Chapter 12.

C H A PT E R 5

A Retaining- Wall
Primer

once gave a design talk to a group of rhododendron growers in

Columbus, Ohio. When I came to my slides about retaining walls and
began to speak on the basics of building them correctly, a hand shot up in
the audience. "Haven't you noticed, Jane, there is no slope in Columbus.
We don't need retaining walls. "

GENERAL GUIDELINES
When planning a retaining wall, the
four things you need to address up
front are its height, length, shape,
and width.
Ideally, a retaining wall should not
exceed 4 ft. in height. If you have a
slope that is higher than 4 ft., you'd
be better off constructing a terraced
system of retaining walls if you
have the space. That's because
retaining walls that are higher than
4 ft. typically require advanced
building techniques and utilize
high-tech materials to help the wall
withstand the pressure of a lot of
earth and water. High retaining
walls really only belong along
highways or in small-space gardens
where there is no distance to terrace
the land.

Rip-rap can be used to form an excel lent and inexpensive retaining system.
Planting pockets are left between the rocks to add interest.

After reddening with embarrass

ment from my seeming unpre
paredness and lack of observation,
I recovered by reminding the
audience that although retaining
walls are used mostly to ease or
hide a severe slope, they can also be
used for decorative purposes.
People like to incorporate retaining
walls into their yards for many
reasons. As I mentioned in Chapter
1, some people may need to hide or
lessen the severity of a sloped yard.
Other folks may have homes with
too much foundation showing,
causing the house to pop out of the
ground visually, so they incorporate

46

Chapter Five

in the landscape a retaining wall

with a raised planting bed that
shields the foundation. Many
gardeners like to plant in raised
beds because they are attractive and
ease the strain of working at
ground level. Some homeowners
j ust want an excuse to build a stone
wall because they like them.
There are four types of retaining
wall systems that I prefer: rip-rap
walls, timber walls, concrete wall
systems, and dry-laid stone walls.
Regardless of the type you choose,
there are a few building guidelines
that apply to all of them.

The only limitation for the wall's

length is to satisfy the retainage of
the slope and to best exploit the
materials being used. It is not
advisable to stop a retaining wall
short of completing the job or
without solidly propping and
securing the timbers, stone, or other
material being used.
Both shape and width depend on
what is providing the main
infrastructure of the wall. For
instance, landscape timbers make a
straight or geometrically angled
wall, and while they may be the
narrowest of materials, the
underground reinforcement
structure that provides their
integrity is actually wider than a
dry-laid stone retaining wall. Rip
rap, concrete wall systems, and dry
laid stone walls can be curved or
straight, and width will vary with
height and materials.

RIP-RAP WALLS

RIP-RAP

Boulders can be used to form an

excellent and inexpensive retaining
system that I call rip-rap (see the
drawing at right) . Because of the
size and weight of the boulders,
building this type of wall may
require renting a skid-steer loader
to put the boulders in place (you'll
also need pry bars and a shovel).
But rip-rap is a very natural, long
lived, and attractive way to retain
the earth. The boulders are dug into
the slope, and planting pockets can
be left between them to add color
and texture and to make the wall
blend in with the natural landscape
(see the photo on the facing page ) .

Boulders form an inexpensive retaining-wall system called rip-rap. Steps

can be incorporated into a rip-rap wall, and plants are placed around the
boulders. When the slope is gradual, boulders can be placed farther apart.
On a severe slope, boulders should be spaced closer together.

Rip-rap i s a perfect solution for

a rather severe slope that gradu
ates back as it rises, has been a
maintenance nightmare, or has
caused an erosion problem.
Terracing with rip-rap can be
difficult, unless there is ample
room on the flat plateaus between
the levels to anchor machinery and
to build the next level. The terraces
will have to be carefully graded
ahead of time to allow for the flat
plateaus between.
Steps may be incorporated into the
design, but the areas where they
will be located must be graded to
accommodate them. Save long, flat
boulders for steps. Keep the stair
height (rise) comfortable (6 in. to
8 in. ) and dig in any boulders that
are thicker than that. I like to
meander steps through rip-rap,
which is a little more difficult to
execute, but it's a very natural way
to move up and down the slope.

A Retaining- Wall Primer

47

Finding boulders

You can get boulders from local

farmers who rid their fields of them
and often have stockpiles on their
property. You will probably have to
provide a truck, but you may be
able to persuade the farmer to load
it with his tractor, for a price or a
barter, of course.
Another place to get boulders is
from a quarry, which cuts different
types and sizes of stone. The type
you can get depends on where the
quarry is located. You will pay by

the ton or sometimes by the cubic

yard for the material, and you'll
also pay for the trucking.
To determine how many cubic
yards of boulders you will need,
measure the square footage of the
slope, divide by 27 (the number
of feet in a cubic yard), and
subtract about 1 0 % for planting
space between the boulders.
Order by the cubic yard, and
someone at the quarry will figure
the conversion to tons for the
density of material you choose.

Ideally, rip-rap should be made

from rounded boulders at least the
size of a charcoal kettle grill.
Squarer boulders will work, but the
final look may be more of a rock
outcropping (see the photo below).
Whenever possible, use boulders
that are indigenous to your area (or
at least look like they are) . Rip-rap
should disappear in the landscape,
not become the focal point by
looking out of place. The plants
placed between the boulders should
be the accent that draws the eye,
not the boulders themselves.
Placing the boulders

After grading the slope correctly,

prepare it by removing any leftover
sod and weeds, either with hand
tools or, in larger areas, with a
nonresidual, systemic herbicide like
Round-up. On a high, steep slope,
the boulders should be placed close
together. If the slope is gradual and
fairly low, the boulders should be
placed farther apart.
As I said before, rip-rap walls may
require a skid-steer loader equipped
with a bucket and forks ( like those
of a forklift). You can rent one on a
daily or weekly basis. Building rip
rap walls is hard work and requires
at least two people to help move
the boulders, so ask friends or
family members to help.

A severe slope can be retained with square boulders placed to look like
natural outcroppings.

48

Chapter Five

A typical skid-steer loader will only

handle 1 ,200 lb. or less. If your
boulders are very large, it may be
necessary to hire a landscaper, who
can install the boulders with a
larger machine like a backhoe or
bucket loader. If the slope makes
safe access difficult, you may want
to hire a contractor to install the
boulders. To save costs, you can
offer to be the helper.

Here's how to build a rip-rap wall.

Use the bucket of the skid-steer
loader to dig out the spots for the
boulders (this job could also be
done by hand or with the forks of
the machine ) . You can expect to dig
in or bury each boulder up to one
third its thickness. Then put the
forks on the machine to carry the
boulders to their locations. With
the help of a pry bar, direct the
boulders into place (see the drawing
at right)-some tweaking with the
pry bar may be required to get the
boulder to sit correctly.
Start building from the bottom up.
Stack the boulders in a somewhat
random way, although the best rip
rap is fitted and matched without
appearing obviously " done . " Part
of the j ob is picking which side of
the boulder looks best and making
that the exposed face. Another
aspect is trying to get the boulder to
fit with the ones next to it or above
it. As the stack builds, all faces
should look similar and be directed
in a similar direction so that no
one stands out. This increases the
subtlety of the structure and looks
more natural. If there is a partic
ularly interesting face you like,
and it doesn't fit with the other
boulders, try to place it where it
can become a focal point or accent,
much like a brightly colored plant
would stand out among dark
colored plants. I have found
boulders with veins of quartz or
with interesting nooks and crannies
and placed them where I knew they
would be seen and appreciated.
I mentioned digging in the
boulders: it is essential not only
for stabilizing the boulders in the
ground but also for decreasing

RIP-RAP IN PROGRESS
Use the forks of the skid-steer loader to transport the large boulders. As you
near the boulder's intended spot in the wall, lower the forks and have a partner
use a pry bar to move the boulder into place.

potential erosion problems when

water runs down the slope and for
making them look like a part of the
earth, not teetering on top. You'll
also find that digging in the
boulders will help you prop them in
the direction you want and will
help expose the faces at the proper
angle. Try to direct the faces a little
upwards because people will be
looking down or directly at the
finished product.

TIM BER WALLS

I choose landscape timbers as
retaining material when I want a
straight or angled wall, when there
is no room to terrace, or when
there is a limited budget.
Buying materials

I prefer using pressure-treated

timbers, either 6x6s or 8x8s. I do
not recommend railroad ties for

A Retaining- Wall Primer

49

any use. They are not uniform in

shape or size, as they are usually
well worn from use, and the
creosote with which they are
treated burns skin and ruins
clothing. I don't like the crude
look and dark color, either. It
really stands out.
To retain a long, gradual slope, you
may elect to step the height of the
timber wall at regular intervals or
with the lay of the land, which may
reduce the amount of materials and
backfill needed. More involved
walls can incorporate steps and
planting boxes in their structure,
which will add to the amount of
materials needed.
To plan and purchase the materials,
figure the length and height of the
wall for the amount of timbers
running parallel to the slope. Add
to that the number of timbers
needed for reinforcement (timber
walls are reinforced on every other
level with 4-ft. timbers called
deadmen) . You will need a heavy
duty 1 6-in. circular saw to cut the
timbers (which can be rented). I
don't even consider using a
chainsaw because the cuts are
crude, making a smooth, gapless
meeting of the timbers impossible.
You'll also need a drill large enough
to accommodate a Ys-in. spade bit,
which is used to start holes for the
12-in. common spikes that tie the
timbers together; a level; 12d
common galvanized nails and a
hammer to toenail timbers together;
%-in. washed gravel for drainage;
and plastic filter fabric.
It is always a good idea to protect
yourself from the sawdust of
pressure-treated wood by using a
dust mask and gloves. Shield your
eyes from flying debris with safety

50

Chapter Five

glasses and use ear protection when

operating any loud machinery, like
a power saw.
Building the wall

is compacted well with a hand

tamper or a plate compactor before
you place the first timbers. You
may need to adjust the base to level
the first timbers.

Constructing a timber retaining

wall is not a lazy person's job (see
the drawing below). You first must
dig a trench that is 12 in. deep by
12 in. to 1 8 in. wide and fill it
with 6 in. to 12 in. of %-in. gravel.
This will serve as a wide base for
the wall. Make sure that the gravel

The key ingredient of a timber

retaining wall is the infrastructure,
or cribbing, behind it that provides
the integrity of the structure and
prevents it from buckling. Tie every
other level of the wall back into
the slope with reinforcing timbers

TIMBER RETAINING WALL

Use 6x6 or 8x8 pressure-treated timbers
and step the wall to follow the slope.
Timber anchors
the deadmen.

\,':.\, ')

Filter fabric is
placed behind
the wall (not
shown).

Base of

Oeadmen reinforce
the structure.
Bevel the ends of the exposed
timbers for a smooth finish.

Toenail deadmen
in place.

Bevel the exposed ends of a timber retaining wall for a neater finish and no protruding corners.

called deadmen, which run perpen

dicular to the wall. When you see a
deteriorating wall, look for dead
men, and I bet you'll not see a one.
Many a timber retaining wall has
lurched forward from the weight of
earth and water because it lacked
that structure behind it.
The length of the deadmen is
determined by the height of the
wall: The taller the wall, the longer
the deadmen. For instance, a 4-ft.
high wall should be anchored at
4-ft. intervals with deadmen that
are 6 ft. to 8 ft. long. A 2-ft.-high
wall would require deadmen that
are 4 ft. to 6 ft. long and spaced
farther apart. Spike the deadmen to
"
the wall and then fasten them
together at their ends with a timber
running parallel to the wall.

Place the filter fabric against the

back of the timbers, with a 6-in.- to
1 2-in.-wide layer of %-in. gravel
added behind the fabric. The gravel
facilitates drainage, and the fabric
lets water through but keeps silt
from infiltrating the timbers. After
adding the gravel and fabric,
backfill with soil.
Backfill after placing each level of
timbers to make it easier to level
the deadmen and the supporting
timber. Place the deadmen,
beginning with the second level.
Attach the levels by drilling holes
and driving the spikes down
through the timbers at each level.
To hold the timbers in place for
drilling and spiking, toenail them
at the ends. Although most of the
toenails will not show once the

structure is finished, remove any

nails that would be exposed. For
strength, alternate the joints and
deadmen so that no joints are
directly on top of one another. As a
finish detail, bevel-cut the exposed
ends of the timber using the circular
saw (see the photo above) . This will
provide a smooth transition to the
earth and will also prevent people
from bumping into a sharp corner.
If you are unfamiliar with saws and
carpentry, it is advisable to hire a
contractor or a professional
landscaper for this work. You may
be able to provide the brawn the
contractor needs and learn a lot at
the same time. If the structure will
integrate steps and planting boxes,
a detailed plan should be drawn by

A Retaining- Wall Primer

51

a professional to minimize waste

and to maximize the potential of
the space and timbers. The plan
should include a materials list, so
you can buy efficiently and
economically.

CONCRETE
WALL S YSTEMS
Less expensive and labor intensive
than building a stone wall, concrete
wall systems offer homeowners a
more tailored, easy-to-construct
alternative to stone walls (see the
photo below). Concrete wall sys
tems can be designed with curves,
both outside and inverse radii, and
can be ordered in many shapes and
colors. For this job you'll need
some simple tools: a shovel (or
skid-steer loader), a plate compac-

tor, a few rakes, and a partner saw,

which is a circular saw with a
stone-cutting or diamond blade.
I have yet to find a manufacturer
with a system reliable enough to go
higher than 4 ft., although many
make claims otherwise. The more
industrial systems used on highway
embankments incorporate oversized
blocks and detailed infrastructures,
out of scale with the usual home
owner project. Some systems look
like split granite blocks with rough
faces, while others are smooth and
have curved faces. The main body
blocks are usually about 8 in. thick
with ridges on the top and grooves
on the bottom to fit the stones
together (see the top right photo
on the facing page). Some use
fiberglass pins to hold the blocks

together (see the top left photo on

the facing page). Most systems
provide capstones to provide a
smooth top surface.
Follow the manufacturer's recom
mendations for materials and the
amount needed for your project.
You will need to know the finished
length and height of the wall to
make the calculations.
The most important part of the job
is preparing the base (see the
bottom photo on the facing page) .
You will need t o dig a trench to
make a level base for the wall, at
least 1 ft. deep and 2 ft. to 3 ft.
wide, depending on the size of the
blocks. A small backhoe or shovel
with muscle behind it will do the
job. Fill the trench with %-in.

A concrete wall system looks less artificial when the capping is done with natural bl uestone. The
step risers here are made of the same block as the walls, and the treads are made of bluestone.

52

Chapter Five

Concrete wall systems fit together

differently, depending on the
manufacturer. The system above
has interlocking ridges and grooves.
The infrastructure of the system
at left is held together with
fiberglass pins and netti ng.

gravel (not peastone, which is only

one size aggregate), which will pack
well with a plate compactor.
Compact halfway through the
backfilling, then again when the
trench is full, and check for level
constantly and adjust, if needed.
Once you have placed the first row
of blocks and have checked them
for level, the rest is easy.
As the wall builds in height, place
plastic filter fabric behind it, adding
6 in. to 12 in. of %-in. washed
gravel behind that (see the drawing
on p. 54). The blocks are porous
and will allow the soil to drain.
Any of the systems need continuous
backfill for structural integrity, so
backfill after each level goes up.

No matter which system you use, it's important to prepare a proper base
and make sure the first level of blocks is level.

Cap the wall with the manufac

turer's capstones or with a flat,
natural stone like bluestone or slate
(see the photo on the facing page). I
use bluestone that's at least 1 Y2 in.

A Retaining- Wall Primer

53

CONCRETE WALL SYSTEM

With a concrete wall system. a level base and careful backfilling are required. as
with other retaining-wall systems. but no guesswork is involved in building the
wall itself. Just stack the blocks after the base has been installed. The system has
its own locking mechanism to hold the blocks together.

thick, and I leave it overhanging the

top block by about 1 in. To hold
the bluestone in place, mastique it
to the top level of blocks. Use a
partner saw to cut the stone. If the
wall is radiused, cut the stone to
follow the curve.
Stack the blocks to the desired
height, leaving room for the
capstones and stepping the blocks
on the ends of the wall to follow
the slope. One big advantage to
concrete wall systems is that some

Filter fabric in
back of wall

Backfill

6 in. of %-in.
washed gravel
behind filter
fabric
Level base of %-in.
washed gravel

designs allow you to create steps

with the blocks through the wall
system (see the photo below).
The main difficulties in using
concrete wall systems are the
weight of the pallets of blocks,
which you may need to unload by
hand or use a machine to move
around, and incorporating the
blocks into trickier designs with
steps or terracing. With good
planning, concrete wall systems
should be uncomplicated enough
to build without the expertise of
a professional.

Steps can be made of the wall material if the blocks are the proper height for step risers. If not,
as in this case, granite curbing and pavers are fit between retaining walls.
54

Chapter Five

DRY-LAID STONE WALLS

No scene is more idyllic or
evocative of the country than that
of a meandering stone wall. Many
people love the look but don't
appreciate the time and skill in
volved in building one correctly and
for longevity. The stone is not the
major cost in this endeavor. It is
labor, labor, and more labor, re
quiring time, concentration, and
dedication. Not everyone has
the j igsaw puzzle head for this
task, either.
You don't need a lot of tools for the
job, but some of them are not
common (see the photo at right):
a brick hammer used for cutting
and shaping stone; a large
sledgehammer and a smaller one
for moving or cutting large stones;
pry bars for moving stones; wide
chisels for splitting; a level and
yardstick; and a tape measure. It's
possible to rent these hand tools,
but you may be able to borrow
from friends. You will also need
a way to move the stones around.
A hand truck or tree cart and pry
bar works; a skid-steer loader is
also an option.
I do not like the look of round
boulder walls or flat, thin slate
walls, but they are perfectly
acceptable if you like the look. My
preference is fieldstone that's at
least 4 in. thick. Stone may be
obtained from a local farmer or a
quarry, and for this j ob, square
edged stones cut by a quarry might
be better than uncut ones,
especially for corners, end stones,
and capstones.

Tools needed to build d ry-laid stone wal ls are, from left to right: sledge
hammer, brick hammer, yardstick, small sledgehammer, pry bars, and a
large sledgehammer. You'll also need chisels and a level.

Laying out the stones

Spread the stones out on the

ground so you can see what you
have. Leaving the stones on the
ground for a prolonged period
will kill the grass and litter the
area with stone shards. So choose
a place where you don't mind a
mess and where eventual re
grading for a lawn or driveway will not be a problem.

Look for large, flat stones and set

them aside for capstones and end
stones. Use the largest, most
substantial stones for the base. Save
stones already cut with 90 angles
for the ends and corners of the
wall. As you build up the wall,
you'll have to search for stones that
will fit certain spots. Patience will
be very important here.

A Retaining- Wall Primer

55

To split a stone, place it on its side and d rive a chisel

into one end, just enough to make a crack (above). Then
d rive another chisel into the opposite end. Then rap the
chisels evenly until the stone splits (right).

If you don't have many flatter

stones, you can split the ones you
have with a hammer and a couple
of wide chisels. Look for "split
table" stones-those that are lay
ered evenly. You can see the levels
by looking at the grain and color
differences on the side of the stone.

DRY-LAID STONE WALL

4 in. of topsoil

\!

Fill stones and

washed gravel

When you have a splittable stone,

place it on its side and drive a chisel
into one end, just enough to make a
crack. Then drive another chisel
into the opposite end. Then rap the
chisels evenly until the stone splits
( see the photos above) . If you don't
hit the chisels evenly, the stone
might not split evenly.

Base stone
Making the footing

Angle the face of the

wall toward the slope.

The width of the gravel foundation equals the height

of the wall. The foundation should be leveled and
compacted from front to back.

56

Chapter Five

As in most retaining-wall systems,

dry-laid stone walls require sure
footing. The footing of a dry-laid
stone wall consists of a gravel
foundation and the base stones (see
the drawing at left). The footing
should be equal in width to the
height of the wall. For example,
a 4-ft.-high wall should have a

4-ft.-wide footing. The width of

this size wall will taper toward the
top to about 2 ft. Dig a I-ft.-deep
trench wide enough to accom
modate the width of the base
and fill it with %-in. washed gravel
for drainage. Make sure the
gravel foundation is level and
well compacted.

BUILDING A LEVEL WALL

String a level line between stakes at the proper height of the finished wall and
use it as a gUide during construction.

Stringline
Wood stake

Building the wall

With the gravel foundation

completed, place the large stones
you've chosen for the base on top
of it. Then start building the wall
up from there.
To help keep the wall straight and
at the right finished height, string a
level line on stakes from one end of
the wall to the other ( see the top
drawing at right). If the wall is
curved, use the line and stakes to
keep track of the finished level and
a flexible garden hose on the
ground to outline the curves to
be followed.

CUTTING STONE
You must fit stones together
perfectly, like a j igsaw puzzle.
You'll have to cut some stones
using hammers and chisels or a
brick hammer ( see the bottom
drawing at right), but make sure
you can't see any raw, chiseled
edges on the face of the wall.
Intermingle stretcher stones that
span the entire distance across the
wall with those that don't and
cover joints with a full stone on
top. Stretcher stones tie the wall to
the ground and give integrity to the
finished product. Use stones of
different thicknesses to give the
wall character.
Fill the back of the wall as you go
with smaller stones-usually what's
unusable for the face of the wall-

Sometimes you need to chisel away stone to make the pieces fit together.

Brick hammer
Place stone to be cut

1. Chip away at the

bottom of the stone,
which will fracture to
the point where the
stone is supported.
2. Strike the top to
break off the stone to
get a flat face.

A Retaining- Wall Primer

57

Corners and ends should be square, and capstones should stretch the entire width of the wall,
fitting perfectly with the ones beside them.

and washed gravel, but leave about

6 in. to 12 in. of space between the
stones and the backfill. Place plastic
filter fabric against the stones and
fill the space with 4-in. washed
gravel. The inherent spaces in a
dry-laid wall will serve as weep
holes to ease drainage, but without
the filter fabric, silt and soil would
plug the holes and cause the wall to
lose integrity. Use flat, small stones
as shims on the face of the wall to
keep the stones straight within the
wall and to fill gaps.

Corners and ends should be square

(see the photo above) , and you
should pick from the square stones
you set aside earlier. If you don't
have a lot of 90 stones, square up
some stones with a hammer and
chisel or with a brick hammer.
You may step the wall up or down
to follow a slope (see the photo on
the facing page) , keeping the step
square and finished down to the
next level of capping.
Cap the wall with large, flat stones
that stretch the entire width of the
wall and fit perfectly with the ones

58

Chapter Five

beside them. You may want to

adhere the capstones to the top
layer of wall with adhesive. I think
a wall isn't a good wall if you can't
sit or walk on it, and the adhesive
will keep the capstones in place.
The top of the gravel backfill
should stop 4 in. from the top of
the wall, and the rest of the space
should be topsoil so that grass can
be planted right up to the wall. If a
planting bed will grace the top of
the wall, go ahead and fill with
gravel to the top, and start the
plantings beyond the gravel, at least
1 ft. away. This is far enough to
allow for proper drainage behind

Step a wall to follow a slope or to make returns on stai rways. keeping the steps square and
fi nished looking on all sides.

the wall, yet close enough to allow

plants to hang over or cover the top
of the wall, if desired.
Stonework requires skill and
patience. My landscape crews have
been known to wander frustrated
among the stones, looking for the
perfect fit. Try a small wall first to
see if you have the knack and the
patience. It is such a large
undertaking that unless you are
prepared to give up most every

weekend of the summer, it may be

worthwhile to hire a contractor to
build the wall. You can help by
preparing the base, moving the
stones around, and doing the
cleanup, backfilling, and planting.
This is one job that cannot be
rushed, and you don't want to do it
twice if it falls down because the
base is too small or the rocks don't
fit together well. It is also one job
that looks obviously amateurish if
not done by a craftsman.

A Retaining- Wall Primer

59

C H A PT E R 6

Walkways, Patios,
and Decks

hen you drew your landscape plan in Chapter 4, I told you to be

creative when designing any walkways, patios, or decks that would
be included in your landscape. I encouraged you to employ curves wherever
possible to make these structures flow with the landscape and to provide
interesting planting spaces.

The secondary wal kways here are narrower than the main walkway and fade into the landscape.

Years ago, you may have thought I

was crazy, telling you to build a
curved walkway, patio, or deck.
The amount of time and the
difficulty of building curved
structures would have been out of
the question-and budget-of most
people. But today, we no longer
have to follow the straight and
narrow, as many of our parents did.
Modern building technology has
provided us with the materials and
techniques to build walkways,
patios, and decks to almost any
shape we want at little or no extra
expense. Perhaps the best thing
about these building systems is that
they are simple enough that almost
any homeowner can use them. All it
takes are some rented tools, some
know-how, and a willing partner.

DESIGNING WALKWAYS
AND PATIOS
A well-designed walkway or patio
is one that integrates form with
function. Walkways and patios
should not only be attractive, but
they also must accommodate
people and should be in keeping
with the architecture of the house
and your style of living. Here are
some specific design criteria to
consider as you plan walkways
and patios.
Walkways

The front entry of your home

should suit your family's needs and
create a positive, lasting first
impression with your guests. The
walkway is the most important

element of the front entry, and it

should be the focal point that all
the other landscape components are
built around.
A walkway should be at least 4 ft.
wide to allow two people to walk
comfortably side by side. Secondary
walkways may be narrower (see the
photo above ). In fact, if two doors
are on the front of the house, the
walkway to a secondary entrance
should fade into the landscape and
be a bit narrower than the main
walkway, which will direct guests
naturally toward the front door.
This can be accomplished by
building the secondary walkway
out of a different material than the
main walkway, by making it
meander a bit, or by concealing the

Walk ways, Patios, and Decks

61

TOO MANY STEPS

To avoid having too many steps at one spot, as in the example shown here,
regrade the yard so you can make the steps shorter (see the photo below).
Regrading will also hide the ugly exposed foundation.

entrance to the walkway with a

vertical plant, such as an evergreen.
A curved walkway is more graceful
than a straight one and allows for
adjacent planting beds to create a
natural-looking edge. A straight
walkway mimics the geometry of
the house and offers no relief from
the flat planes of the walls.
Sweeping the walkway away from
the walls allows your guests a
perspective view of the whole
landscape and house facade as they
approach the entry. Also, splaying
the walkway at the street or
driveway where it originates serves
as an invitation to your guests.
A walkway should be level except
for proper grading to shed water. If
there is a slope in the yard, steps
should be incorporated in the
walkway to eliminate it, but not all
of the steps should be at the house.
Actually, the house does not look
"planted " in the ground if there are
several steps at the door and too
much foundation is revealed, as
shown in the drawing at left. It's
better to backfill to within 4 in. of
the siding, then add two or three
steps to get to the walkway, as
shown in the photo at left.

A retaining wall on the right side of the house retains the soil level, and soil
added to the front yard hides the foundation. Now the foundation is
covered, and only a few steps are needed to reach the front door.

62

Chapter Six

With a long slope, plan one step

down from the threshold onto a
large landing, at least 4 ft. to 5 ft.
out from the door. From the land
ing, add two or three more steps of
equal rise (6 in. to 8 in. ) to the
walkway. Add more steps and land
ings farther down the walkway as
needed. Grading may have to be
done to create this situation, but it
will be easier to climb two or three
small sets of steps with long land
ings in between than one long set of
steps, and it will look better (see the
top photo on the facing page) .

In a yard with a long sloped area, incorporate steps with long landings into the walkway. This
makes the climb more gradual and easier to negotiate than climbing several steps in one area.

Patios

Because I talked a lot about

designing patios in Chapter 4, I'm
not going to go into great detail
here. Instead, I j ust want to re
mind you of a few things. As I
mentioned, patios can be round,
oval, kidney-shaped, or free form.
A curved patio takes advantage of
every foot of space available, unlike
a square or rectangle with unusable
corners. It also makes it easy to be
creative with planting beds and
walkways.
A patio can also have more than
one level to accommodate a
sloping site (see the photo at right) .
This allows you t o create separate
nooks for dining, hot tubs, or any
number of activities.

A free-form patio on two levels creates areas for different uses

and disguises a long, gradual slope.

Walk ways, Patios, and Decks

63

When designing a patio, you

should consider the average
number of guests you usually
entertain and allow space for
them. You should also allow space
for furniture-not forgetting the
barbecue-and have a sense of the
degree of formality you want.
What you figure here will
determine the size patio you
need (the same design criteria
are applied to wooden decks,
which I'll discuss later).

C HOOSING MATERIALS
FOR WALKWAYS
AND PATIOS
A meandering path through the
woods is best made of bark mulch
or gravel, but walkways need a

more substantial surface. A front

walkway must provide secure
footing to accommodate people
of all sizes and ages, including
toddling young children and less
than surefooted elderly people, and
must be easily cleared of snow, ice,
and rain, especially if it is to be
used often.
There are many materials to
choose from for a walkway or
patio. I have chosen to discuss a
representative group of surfaces
that you can install, or at least
help install, because they do not
need deep concrete footings and
major equipment. These include
poured concrete, bluestone, field
stone, bricks, and concrete pavers.

Which you choose will depend on

your color choices, on the design,
and, of course, on your budget.
Poured concrete

Poured concrete is the least

expensive solid surface. With
poured concrete, it's possible to
curve the walkway or patio, color
it, and give it texture by stamping
it. ( Stamping is the process of
imprinting shapes and colors in the
concrete to make it look like
natural stone or pavers. ) Some
stamped surfaces are so well done
that it is very hard to tell that the
material is really concrete.
Any custom work will, of course,
raise the price of the job. If you
plan on having the concrete

This wide bluestone walkway blends with nature's colors and the colors of the house. It is pulled
away from the house to allow for planting beds.
64

Chapter Six

stamped to look like concrete

pavers, it's worthwhile to check the
price of having real pavers installed.
You might discover that the real
thing is less expensive than the
look-alike.
If you have no experience pouring
concrete, it's a good idea to hire a
professional. To save money, ask
the contractor if you can work with
him. He may allow you to design
the shape of the walkway or patio
and prepare the base according to
his specifications, which will cut
back on costs considerably. Then all
the concrete contractor will need to
do is form, pour, and level the
concrete, and add color or texture
if you desire them.
Bluestone

Bluestone can be laid on a proper

base of dry materials for a con
temporary, natural walkway or

patio that blends with nature's

colors (see the photo on the facing
page) . The material can be cut in
squares or rectangles, randomly
edged, and even sawn into curves.
Most stone suppliers import
bluestone from quarries in eastern
states, including New York and
Pennsylvania. Bluestone is bought
in 6-in. increments, in squares and
rectangles of varying sizes, and you
can request exactly how many of
what sizes you want. I've used
pieces up to 4 ft. in length for stair
treads. In general, the larger the
piece, the greater the cost and the
more difficult it is to handle. I
normally use pieces up to 3 ft. for a
main walkway or patio.
Bluestone can be mixed with other
materials as an edging. For
instance, the body of the patio or
walkway can be brick, with a 6-in.-

to 12-in.-wide bluestone edging for

a finishing touch. Bluestone can
also be used as stepping stones for a
secondary walkway. Choose pieces
for stepping stones that are at least
1 in. thick and 1 8 in. to 24 in. long
or wide so that they will be heavy
enough to stay in place.
Plan the pattern you want before
hand (see the drawings below) so
that you can order pieces cut to
size. Using square stones all the
same size will give a checkerboard
effect. You can make a symmetrical
pattern using two or three different
size pieces, which creates a
somewhat formal look. I like to
create a random pattern using dif
ferent-size stones, which creates a
relaxed look.
Fieldstone

Fieldstone, which is a flat, quarried

natural stone, makes a rustic,

LAYING OUT BLUESTONE

'r
,

./

.,': '.'

Checkerboard

.::

c.

Symmetrical

Random

Walk ways, Patios, and Decks

65

A rustic fieldstone patio has space between the stones for low ground covers like creeping thyme.

country walkway. Personally, I feel

it is not the best choice for a main
walkway or patio because of its
uneven surface. A tripping guest or
a rocking table will cure your
doubt. If you have access to a
quarry and can be sure you will
receive perfect stones, fieldstone
may be fine.
Again, I recommend using stone
that is indigenous to your area to
reinforce and integrate with the
surrounding environment. In the
East and Midwest, grays and gray
blues will blend well and recede
from your eye, so that your
plantings and other accents will be
the focal points of the yard. In the

66

Chapter Six

Southwest and West, pink sandstone

will mix well with adobe and sun
drenched succulents and cacti.
Building with fieldstone is similar
to making a j igsaw puzzle because
the pieces are not cut exactly square
or rectangular, and it is hard to
meet the edges as closely as you
may want, which is another factor
to consider for unsteady walkers
and spike-heeled shoe wearers. I
recommend using stone dust (very
coarsely ground rock) in between
the stones, which packs and can set
up almost as well as concrete after
several soakings from rain. Some
people opt for grass or low-growing
ground covers between the stones

(see the photo above), which looks

charming and informal, but shovel
ing and maintaining the walkway
or patio will be difficult at best.
Bricks

Bricks offer a smooth, close-knit,

colorful alternative to poured
concrete. Typical building bricks or
old bricks will be okay for a
pathway through a garden, but
bricks used in maintained
walkways and patios will crumble
and deteriorate over time, especially
in cold climates, where freezing
and-thawing cycles heave the
ground and crack the bricks. A
better alternative is to use paving
bricks, which are made of clay with
additives to help them withstand

freezing-and-thawing cycles and

which will stand up better to nature
(see the photo at left), Paving bricks
are a bit more expensive than
building bricks.
You must not run heavy machinery
over any kind of brick, and you
must lay an adequate base beneath
the bricks for a smooth, long
lasting result. Rectangular bricks
may be laid in many patterns ( see
the drawings below), the most
popular being running bond,
basketweave, and herringbone.
Depending on the size of your
patio or walkway, installing
bricks can be labor intensive and
time-consuming.
Precast concrete pavers

Paving bricks for outdoor use will withstand freezing-and-thawing cycles.

Precast concrete pavers are by far

more durable and reliable than
building or paving bricks. They are
uniform in size, come in many
colors and shapes, can be mixed
and matched, and some can even
withstand the weight of a car.

LAYING OUT BRICK

,.
c' ' c
,' ,
(,
"
( (r ' (
.' "
( '. ,

(,
,cc ,'
c(
("
"
c(
C( [t
c c,c '
c,

(
l
, r" ( c,
,

r"
'",c

f; (( c
( (
({

Running bond

'c c

(c r"
e"
"

"

( i, (

Basketweave

Herringbone
Walk ways, Patios, and Decks

67

Some precast concrete pavers are shaped to make a perfect circle without gaps.

Each paver edge is designed to act

like an expansion joint, allowing
fluctuations from freezing and
thawing without paver movement.
With proper base preparation,
installation, and edging, concrete
pavers are appropriate for country
and city properties and can be used
to create any level of formality or
informality you can imagine. One
paver design is specifically shaped
to create curves and circles without
gaps (see the photo above).
I have used precast concrete pavers
for walkways, patios, driveways,
and even shopping-mall sidewalks.
Wherever you use them, they

68

Chapter Six

should be installed on a dry base

and edged with an underground
system so that driveways, grass,
and planting beds meet the pavers
with a smooth transition.

INSTALLING A DRY-LAID
WALKWAY OR PATIO
In my early days of landscaping,
before precast concrete pavers
made the scene, I experimented
with base preparation for dry-laid
systems, usually overdoing it with
too much handwork, too much
sand, or too deep a base. Although
methods may continue to evolve as
new materials are introduced and

used, I believe there are certain

keys to proper dry-laid construction
that will never change, and to be
successful, you must not cut corners
or vary too much from these
instructions, regardless of the
surface material being used.
The tools for this job (see the left
photo on the facing page) include
a wheelbarrow, shovels, rakes, a
diamond-bladed dry or wet saw,
sledgehammer, pick ax, plate com
pactor, some straight 2x4s for a
screed-board setup, and, depending
on the size of the j ob, a skidsteer loader.

Tools for patio and walkway construction incl ude, from left to
right: sledgehammer, wheelbarrow, rake, shovel, wet saw, plate
com pactor, pick ax, and skid-steer loader.

Digging the hole

First and foremost, you must dig a

hole with a uniform depth of 8 in.
to 12 in.-Iean toward 12 in. if you
live in a really cold area (one that's
colder than Zone 6 ) . The j ob will
be easier with a skid-steer loader
than with a hand shovel, although
there will be handwork along the
edges. The hole should be at least
6 in. wider than the finished size
to allow for installation of the
edging material.
You must decide which way you
want water to drain, and then with
a grading rake, grade the bottom of
the hole accordingly. Sometimes the
water will need to be shed in more
than one direction, for instance, to
the sides as well as along the length
of a walkway ( see the drawing at
right) . A pitch of 1 in. in 8 ft.
should be sufficient and will be
imperceptible to the eye ( for more
on grading, see Chapter 1 ) . Of
course, make sure the water is

directed away from the house. As

you work, check the grade
frequently.
The base at the bottom of the hole
must be well compacted. A well
graded, smooth base will translate
into a smooth, continuous surface
on the top. A plate compactor is
really the only tool that will do the
job as thoroughly as it needs to be
done (see the right photo above) . A
plate compactor can be rented, and
except for removing it from the
trunk and putting it back in, it is
really quite easy to operate. It is a
tool you will use over and over
again in the course of this project.

A plate com pactor is used to

compact the base material properly.
Run it over the surface at intervals
as you fil l the excavation.

MOVING WATER
OFF A WALKWAY
A curved walkway may have to be
pitched (1 in. in 8 ft.) in two or more
directions to move water efficiently.

Adding gravel

Next, fill the hole with %-in. gravel,

leaving 1 in. at the top for coarse
sand (for bricks or precast concrete
pavers) or stone dust (for bluestone
or fieldstone) and enough space to
accommodate the surface material

Walk ways, Patios, and Decks

69

you are using (simply measure the

thickness of the material and leave
that much space).
Do not use washed peastone; the
gravel should be of different
aggregate sizes up to % in. and
should include clean stone dust
that's free of other debris (see the
top photo at left). This type of mix
will compact well. Add it in layers
and compact with the plate
compactor after each one-if not
after each one, at least on two
layers before you are through
backfilling with the gravel. Check
the grade frequently as you backfill
and compact.

Good-packing base material contains %-in. gravel mixed with smaller stone
and stone d ust (bottom). Stone d ust is used as a bed for bluestone or
fieldstone (top left). Coarse sand beds brick and concrete pavers (top right).

After backfilling to the correct

height, smooth the surface with a
screed board made from a straight
2x4 (reject any twisted wood) . Cut
the length to the exact width of the
walkway or to a manageable length
for a patio.
Cut two other 2x4s to the same
length and bury them as far apart
as the width of the walkway or as
far apart as the length of the screed
board for a patio. The screed board
will ride on these 2x4 rails. The
rails should be parallel to each
other, and the 2-in. edges should be
flush with the gravel (see the
bottom photo at left). Depending
on which direction you have chosen
to shed water, one end or side
might be higher than the other.

A screed board lies on two 2x4 rails. The rails should be parallel to each
other, and the 2-in . edges should be fl ush with the gravel. The screed board
is d ragged across the rails to achieve a level, smooth surface.
70

Chapter Six

Next, kneel between the rails, lay

the screed board across them, and
drag it toward you, scraping it for
the length of the rails. Repeat, if
necessary, to fill any low areas as
you go, or add more gravel and
repeat, compact again, and screed
again until the surface is perfectly
flush with the rails. Then remove

the rails, fill the holes left behind,

tamp them with a hand tamper,
and move the rails to the next un
screeded area. Continue screeding
until the entire area has been done.
Adding sand or stone dust

Once you've completed the gravel

backfilling process, you're ready to
add sand or stone dust. First, make
a set of rails out of I -in.-dia. PVC
pipes. Lay them on top of the
gravel subsurface in the same

position as the wood rails. Add

about 1 in. of coarse sand, not fine
sandbox sand, on top of the gravel.
Compact with the plate compactor.
Screed again, removing any excess
sand and adding sand if an area is
too low. Whenever you add sand,
you will need to compact and
screed again until all you are doing
is removing excess sand. Then
remove the pipes, fill the gaps left
by them, tamp with the hand tam
per, and move the pipes to the next

area until the entire surface is

smooth and ready for the surface
material. The I -in. pipes will leave
a base with perfect thickness.
For bluestone, it is also acceptable
and may be preferable to use stone
dust, sometimes called rock fines,
as the bedding material instead of
sand. Because bluestone is a natural
material, its thickness may vary
slightly, needing a bedding material
like stone dust that can be slightly

Black PVC edging is spiked in and sits below grade so that it isn't visible when the surface
material of the walkway or patio is in place.

Walk ways, Patios, and Decks

71

adj usted as the stones are leveled

each one with the next. If you use
stone dust, follow the base prepara
tion for bricks and pavers.
Fieldstone can be bedded in stone
dust in the same fashion, but it will
be necessary to dig out for each

stone to accommodate the variable

faces and depths.
Placing the surface material

Some edgings are installed first. I

prefer the type made of PVC plastic
that slips under the outside bricks

and anchors in the ground with

spiked flanges (see the photo on
p. 7 1 ) . It comes in flexible material
for curves or stiff PVC for straight
lengths. The edging is completely
invisible once the edges of the walk
way or patio have been backfilled.
Follow the manufacturer's instruc
tions for installing the edging.
The final step is to lay the surface
material in the desired pattern,
keeping the joints as tight as pos
sible. Place only full-size pieces for
now, leaving spaces for the pieces to
be cut. After you've placed all the
full-size pieces, begin cutting the
others to size and installing them.
To cut stones, bricks, or pavers,
you'll need to use a diamond
bladed wet or dry saw. It is easiest
to hold the piece over its location,
score it with a sharp nail or mark it
with a pencil, as shown in the
photo at left, and then cut along
the line. If anything, it's best to
cut the piece too large and trim it
back if it doesn't fit.
After all the pieces have been in
stalled, spread dry sand on top. For
bricks, sweep it into the cracks. For
concrete pavers, run the plate com
pactor on top of the surface to
vibrate the sand into the joints.
For stones with stone dust as the
bedding, sweep dry stone dust into
the joints. When grass or ground
covers will be used between the
stones, sweep topsoil into the j oints
and plant in them. Finally, backfill
the outside of the edging with top
soil, right up to the surface mate
rial, in preparation for lawn or
garden installation.

Hold the paver (or whatever su rface material you use) over its location and
mark the size on its edge. Then cut it with a dry or wet saw.

72

Chapter Six

This curved, multilevel deck softens the straight geometry of the house and fits a contemporary
setting. The deck flows naturally into the planting bed at right, tying the deck to the earth.

DESIGNING DECKS
Many people hire professionals to
design and build decks for them.
And this is a good idea for people
who don't have carpentry
experience. But even if you are
hiring a professional to do the job,
you don't have to stand idly by
during the design stage. It's your
yard and your deck, and so you
should be very involved with the
design. Many of the considerations
that go into patio design apply here
as well (see pp. 63-64 ) . Make sure
you have enough room for your
family, friends, and any furniture
(don't forget the barbecue), and
make sure the deck fits the setting.

Many wooden decks are unima

ginative, geometrical shapes and
look as if they were j ust scabbed
onto the house. But it doesn't have
to be that way. There are many
ways to spice up the design and to
make it unique.
To tie the deck to the landscape, for
instance, you can curve it or make
it multilevel. A curved deck has soft
edges that blend well with the
landscape, and a multilevel deck
works well on a sloped lot. Or you
can use planting boxes to add life
to the design and to bring the
landscape closer to the house.
To make a deck more functional,
add benches and other built-in
furniture. You can even put a shade

structure over the deck to provide a

cool area for family and guests
during the hot summer months. A
shade structure is also a perfect
place to plant climbing vines.
As for lumber, don't feel that you
must use only pressure-treated
wood. Woods like greenheart,
cedar, or redwood, although expen
sive, are an attractive alternative to
the dull-green look of pressure
treated lumber. Plus they are rot
resistant and weather over time to a
natural gray finish that blends with
the landscape. If you don't have a
large budget for lumber, use a less
expensive alternative, such as
Douglas fir and paint or stain it
(but use pressure-treated lumber for
parts that contact the ground) .

Walk ways, Patios, and Decks

73

Although small, this deck has a lot of features. The

shade structure covers only part of the deck so that sun
lovers can soak up the rays while those looking for a
cool spot can find it on the built-in benches. The
painting scheme ties the deck to the house, and the
potted plants add color and life.

Painting the deck can add life and

interest to the design and can help
the deck blend in with both the
house and the yard.
Probably the biggest limiting
factor in the design is the budget.
Obviously, the more custom
touches you put into the deck, the
more money you will spend. You'll
have to work with your contractor
so that you stay within the budget,

74

Chapter Six

Planting boxes bring the landscape to the back door

of the house. They are great for herbs and spices,
especially if the deck is near the kitchen. This box is
snuggled into the corner of the deck, and the plants
contrast with the color of the redwood. The built-i n
benches near the plants allow people to get close to
the landscape without leaving their seats.

which may mean compromising on

a few issues. But you may be able
to step in to help in certain areas to
save money. For instance, if you
pour the footings or do the finish
work yourself, you may be able to
save enough money to hold onto a
unique design element that would
otherwise have been tossed due to
budget constraints (for more on
hiring and working with a
professional, see Chapter 1 2 ) .

O n the previous page and o n these

two pages, you can see a sampling
of decks with attractive, unique
designs. Feel free to use these
photos for inspiration as you design
your deck. If you want more
detailed instructions on deck
construction, a good place to start
is by reading Building and
Designing Decks by Scott Schuttner
(see Further Reading on p. 1 6 1 ) .

The redwood on this deck matches

the brick siding of the house. The
irregu lar shape of the deck takes
best advantage of the space avail
able and provides both sunny and
shady nooks. Without obtrusive
railings on the near side, the deck
steps naturally into the landscape.

A deck doesn't have to be

attached to a house. This
detached deck is tucked into the
shoreline to take advantage of
the spectacular waterfront view.
The surrounding trees provide a
natural screen from the sun.

Walk ways, Patios, and Decks

75

C H A PT E R 7

Fences

egardless of where you live-whether in an urban, suburban, or

country setting-a fence can be an effective way to enhance your
landscape design. But drive down any street, and you'll see yards with
fences just plopped down simply to delineate property lines. The fences
were chosen and installed without regard to how they would fit into the
yard, so they often don't work with the landscape and don't provide any
aesthetic benefit to the property.

A privacy fence doesn't have to be solid and boring like a traditional wooden stockade fence.
This lattice fence with decorative finials is an effective privacy fence.

F UNCTION
AND AESTHETICS
Ultimately, function will dictate the
size and type of fence you choose.
For instance, a high, solid fence
( 6 ft. to 8 ft. tall) can be used not
only to delineate property but also
to make a yard more private by
blocking out neighboring yards. It
can also effectively block out wind
and noise ( see the photo above) . A
fence of medium height ( 4 ft. to
5 ft. tall), open or solid style, can be
used to delineate areas on the
property, to keep in a dog, to make
a play area in the yard for the kids,
to surround a pool, to protect a
vegetable garden from animals, or

to shield an unsightly feature in the

yard, such as a compost bin or an
animal pen (see the left photo on
p. 7 8 ) . And a low fence (2 ft. to
3 ft. tall) can be used to support
vines and tall perennials or to
enhance a walkway, patio, or
entry of a house (see the right
photo on p. 7 8 ) .
But a fence chosen for a specific
function should work with the
landscape design. With the limited
fence materials and styles of the
past, this was not always easy or
cost effective to accomplish. But
with advancements in today's
building technology and materials,
there's no reason why you can't

find a fence option that will work

well with your landscape. The
possibilities are almost limitless.
You can even dress up a fence by
adding plantings near it or on it
to make the fence blend naturally
with the landscape. For instance,
you can cover a fence with
climbing vines, espalier a tree on
it, or plant shrubs in front of it.
For an even more natural look,
and if you have a lot of space to
play with, an effective alternative
to a traditional fence is a living
fence, in which plantings are
substituted for man-made fence
materials. This can be done with
hedgerows or strategically placed
informal plantings.

Fences

77

A fence can deli neate yard areas, such as the pool area
above, or it can be ornamental and functional. For
instance, the fence at right delineates the front yard of
the house and supports tall peren nials.

TRADITIONAL FENCES
WITH A T WIST
Finding a functional fence that will
blend into the landscape does not
mean you have to spend big bucks
to have a fence custom-designed
and built for your yard. You can
now buy traditional fence designs
that will accommodate most any
budget and that will fit most any
landscape plan. Another option is
to customize one of these designs to
suit your tastes.
You'll need to spend some time at
your local fence supplier looking
at what options will be most
functional and most attractive for
your situation. As with any home
project, budget will be paramount,

78

Chapter Seven

so pick the best option for the

money. Here are a few ideas to get
you started.
Chain link

Chain link is one of the most

common types of fences around. It
is available in tall or short heights
and lasts a long time if properly
installed. Chain-link fences,
although extremely functional, are
not attractive (I think they're
downright ugly), so I don't usually
recommend them. More often than
not, a chain-link fence will make
your yard look more like an
industrial site than a home. One
good thing about chain link is that
it is easy to dress up with climbing
vines (see the top photo on p. 8 9 ) .

Privacy

A privacy fence is tall (at least 6 ft. )

and provides a solid barrier to
noise, wind, and neighbors. A
wooden stockade fence is the
traditional style. A drawback to
stockade fences is that they look
pretty much the same, and there are
not many ways to customize them
or make them attractive, besides
adding some paint. But today you
don't have to use stockade as a
privacy fence if you don't want to.
Today's privacy fences have been
much improved in terms of the
attractive designs available. Now
you don't have to hide a privacy
fence behind trees or bushes be
cause of its mundane, unattractive
look. Instead, you can use it as a
decorative element in the yard.

Mix-and-match fence panels make a privacy fence more attractive and versatile. This style is solid
on the bottom with open spindles on top and has a prominent role in the yard.

There are two common styles of

modern privacy fences-solid and
open. Solid styles include tradi
tional stockade, board and batten,
overlapping vertical panels, and
horizontal clapboard. Open styles
have spindles (vertical slats or bars)
or latticework attached between the
rails of the fence.
One thing that's especially
appealing about modern privacy
fences is that some designs allow
you to mix and match styles in one
6-ft.-tall fence. For instance, I like
to use a 5-ft.-tall solid board-and
batten section topped with a I -ft.
tall section of open spindles (see the
photo above) , which adds a touch
of elegance to the fence. Or you can

place 3 ft. of open fencing on top of

3 ft. of solid fencing to make the
fence less imposing and to allow
you to see through part of it.
Fence sections are available in
different widths to accommodate
corners and other special situations.
A privacy fence can be stained or
painted to blend ( or contrast, if
you prefer) with the landscape
and house.
You should consult with your fence
dealer to find out what's out there.
With all the designs available,
finding a privacy fence that fits in
with your yard, your budget, and
your home's architecture should be
a cinch.

Wrought iron

The traditional wrought-iron fence

has been used over the years as an
elegant but simple method of
delineating a yard. The spindles are
close enough to prevent children
and some animals from passing
through the fence but are far
enough apart and slender enough to
be unobtrusive to the view beyond.
There are two big drawbacks of a
traditional wrought-iron fence.
First, it is expensive. Second, over
time, the iron will begin to rust,
and so regular sanding and painting
are required for upkeep.
But with improved manufacturing
techniques, you can get the look
of wrought iron for a fraction of

Fences

79

the price. Fence designs from the

Victorian age-as well as a multi
tude of other designs-can now be
made with aluminum (see the top
photo at left), which is far less
expensive, lighter, and easier to
maintain than real wrought iron.
Aluminum does not rust and does
not need painting. Fence sections
are typically 4 ft. wide, with heights
of 2 ft. to 6 ft., and are available
with a white or black finish.

Picket

Th is fence looks like real wrought iron , but it's actually made of aluminum,
which is less expensive and easier to maintain than the real thing.

A picket fence is a traditional

method of delineating a yard and
works well to keep children and
some animals in-or out-of a
yard or an area in the yard. When
most folks think of a picket
fence, however, they imagine
the stereotypical home with the
ordinary white picket fence.
But I tell clients considering a
picket fence to stray from the
ordinary. Dress up the fence: Place
finials on top of the posts, sculpt
a design into the pickets (the verti
cal slats), vary the height of the
sections, or paint the fence a color
other than white.
You can buy stock finials for the
posts at lumberyards and fence
suppliers, or you can create your
own design and either make them
yourself (if you're handy in the
woodshop) or have them custom
made. Be aware that custom
woodwork will cost more than
stock material.

A picket fence can be d ressed up with scu lpted finials and pickets, and
perennial planting beds in front hide gaps between the earth and the slats.

80

Chapter Seven

If you don't like the look of regular

pickets, change them ( see the
bottom photo at left). Make them
spoon shaped or even animal
shaped. George Washington didn't

settle for ordinary pickets at Mount

Vernon. He had quails carved into
the top of each picket.
If you are building the fence
yourself, you can ensure exact
reproduction of the design by
drawing it at the top of one picket,
and cutting out the shape with a
j igsaw. Then you can use that
picket as a template to make the
rest identical.

A SAFE POST-AND-RAIL FENCE

A post-and-rail fence can be an effective barrier around a pool or play yard
when it's covered with hardware cloth. The hardware cloth is also a perfect
base on which to grow climbing vines to make the fence more natural looking.

A picket fence can be made less

ordinary by building it in a rhyth
mic pattern of waves ( see the photo
on p. 76), alternating between tall
and shorter sections. A colleague of
mine designed a courtyard for a
cottage where several of the picket
panels were 4 ft. tall and others
were 6 ft. tall. This served two
purposes: to shield approaching
headlights at strategic points and to
create a very striking effect that
mingled well with the 1 9th-century
architecture of the cottage.
For a more colorful effect and to
contrast with the color of the
fencing, cover the fence with a
flowering vine, or plant perennials
around it. For instance, I covered a
white picket fence with rambling
pink roses to create a romantic look
for one client.
Post-and-rail

A post-and-rail fence is a simple

way to delineate a property, and it
has often been used on farms to
corral livestock. However, because
of the large openings between rails,
a post-and-rail fence is not typically
used as a barrier to prevent children
from entering a pool area unsuper
vised or from leaving a play area.

Fences

81

CLIMBING VINES
Here's a sampling of a few climbing
vines that work well for dressing up
an ordinary fence. They will also
work well on shade structures, such
as trellises and arbors.
For unusual-colored foliage, try
Actinidia Kolomikta (hardy kiwi) .
It has leaves with pink and white
blotches, and small fragrant,
white flowers in spring, followed
by greenish yellow kiwi fruit
(photo 1 ) . The cultivar 'Arctic
Beauty' is especially hardy,
surviving in Zone 5 climates.
With its huge leaves and inter
esting, V-shaped yellow flowers,
Aristolochia durior (Dutchman's
pipe) creates a dense privacy and
shade cover (photo 2 ) .
Tropical gardeners can enjoy

Bougainvillea with showy red,

purple, yellow, or pink flower
bracts (photo 3 ) .
Campsis radicans (trumpet
creeper) is vigorous with tubular
red flowers (photo 4) and thrives in
sunny locations.
Many cultivars of Hedera Helix

(evergreen ivy) are suited to shady

sites. But for more interest, try
'Gold Heart', which has white veins
(photo 5), 'Atropurpurea' with
purplish leaves and light-green
veins, 'Buttercup' or 'Gold Heart'
with creamy golden variegation,
and 'Parsley Crested' with crinkled
foliage. 'Thorndale', with glossy
green leaves and white veins, is one
of the hardiest cultivars of these
Zone 6 vines.

82

Chapter Seven

 Humulus Lupulus 'Aureus'

(yellow hops) has large lime-green

leaves that rapidly cover a fence
(photo 6 ) .
Hydrangea anomala petiolaris

(climbing hydrangea ) bears large

clusters of white flowers during
the summer and has golden yellow
fall color (photo 7).
There are several honeysuckles to

try, but Lonicera Heckrottii

(goldflame honeysuckle) blooms for
a long time with clusters of purple
and yellow flowers (photo 8 ) .
L. sempervirens (evergreen trumpet
honeysuckle) produces long tubes
of orange-red flowers with yellow
insides and orange-red fruit.
Deciduous Parthenocissus
tricuspidata ( Boston ivy) has
brilliant orange and red fall foliage
(photo 9 ) .
Wisteria floribunda and W.
sinensis ( old-fashioned wisteria )
have long, drooping clusters o f
white, purple, o r pink flowers
(photo 1 0 ) .
Polygonum Aubertii (silver lace

vine) makes a dense screen and

provides clusters of tiny white
flowers in late summer (photo 1 1 ) .
For outstanding flowers and red
rose hip fruit, choose Rosa setigera
(climbing rose) (photo 1 2 ) . Try
'Blaze' with red flowers, 'Don Juan'
with profuse, fragrant, maroon
flowers that bloom again, 'New
Dawn' with pale pink blooms,
and 'Golden Showers' with
yellow flowers.

Fences

83

But one way to make a post-and

rail fence more of a barrier is to
stretch hardware cloth across the
sections and staple it to the posts.
Hardware cloth is a sturdy, thick
wire mesh that comes plain or
coated with plastic (green is a
common color) to make it less
noticeable. It can be found at most
hardware stores or home centers.

A PVC post-and-rail fence looks like

real wood, but it's easier to
maintain because it doesn't need
painting. This fence in Vermont has
matching stone pillars at every
other section to add a touch of
formality to its bucolic setting.

84

Chapter Seven

Hardware cloth makes the fencing

an effective enclosure device. Plus
the cloth is unobtrusive, so you can
see views beyond, if that's what you
want. But if you don't want to see
the cloth at all and don't care if

your views are blocked, the cloth

also provides a perfect opportunity
to cover the fencing with climbing
vines ( for a list of climbing vines,
see pp. 82-83), which will hide the
mesh and make the fencing blend
into the landscape.
Unfortunately, a traditional wood
post-and-rail fence needs to be
painted annually. But thanks to
modern building materials, you can
now buy post-and-rail fences made
of PVC plastic, which never needs
to be painted. I challenge anyone to
tell the difference between a PVC
fence and a wood fence without

touching it. The disadvantage to a

PVC fence is its cost, which is 50%
to 75 % more than the cost of a
wood post-and-rail fence.
The PVC post-and-rail fence was
developed in Saratoga, New York,
for the horse industry because the
horses kept chewing up the wood
rails and posts. But they won't
chew through the plastic. The only
maintenance involved with a PVC
post-and-rail fence is an annual
cleaning with a hose.
I installed a PVC post-and-rail
fence in the yard of a stone-faced
home in rural Vermont. To tie the
fence into the house and to add a
touch of formality, I built matching
stone pillars as posts at every other
section ( see the photo on the facing
page ). The rails slide into premade
holes in the pillars for an unin
terrupted enclosure. Along with
the pillars, flowering shrubs and
perennials adorn the fence,
breaking up the monotony of
acres of white rails.

INSTALLATION
As I have mentioned, a fence should
not only perform a function, but it
should also look good in its setting
while doing so. To achieve both of
these goals, care must be taken in
the installation. Remember, the
fence will be subject to abuse: It
must stand up to both people and
nature, with nature being the
tougher of the two.
People will be passing through
gates, they could lean or sit on the
fence, and there'll be an occasional
bump with a lawn mower or other
tool, or even a toy. Mother Nature

will be ruthless, soaking the fence

with rain, baking it with sun,
heaving the earth beneath it during
freeze-and-thaw cycles, and sub
j ecting the fence to strong winds.
Because of these factors, you
can't take shortcuts during the
installation-you can't cheat. If
you do, you'll find yourself
spending a lot of time repairing
fence sections because of
premature wear.
A fence installation can be difficult,
so I often recommend that
homeowners hire professionals to
do the job. But if you are handy
with tools and are willing to do the
job the right way, here are the basic
steps to a fence installation. These
instructions should help any instal
lation go smoothly. But the fence
manufacturer or dealer should
provide you with instructions
specific to the fence design you
have chosen.
Tools and materials

The first step is to gather all the

tools and materials needed for the
installation. At the very least, you
will need a carpenter's level, a tape
measure, and a post-hole digger or
gas-powered auger-available at
rental centers (see the photo on
p. 8 6 ) . The gas-powered auger will
be especially handy if you have to
dig a lot of post holes. You may
need other tools specific to the type
of fence you are installing. The
instructions or fence dealer should
give you a list. Along with the
tools, you'll need a helper or two.
If you are installing a wooden
fence, make sure the posts, or any
other wood parts that contact the

ground, are pressure treated or

made of rot-resistant woods like
cedar, greenheart, or redwood. Do
not cut the ends of pressure-treated
lumber that contact the ground, or
you will render it vulnerable to
insects and rot, regardless of what
the manufacturer claims. Also, use
galvanized nails because they won't
rust and cause stains, and paint or
stain any parts of the fence that
are not naturally or otherwise
protected from the elements. It
is perfectly acceptable to allow rot
resistant woods like cedar or
redwood to attractively weather to
another color.
Installing posts

Once you have all the materials and

tools on hand, the installation can
begin with the posts. Fence posts
must be installed so that they are
absolutely plumb, so you'll need to
check for plumb often with a
carpenter's level.
Posts should always be buried
about 6 in. for every foot exposed
above ground, especially when
there is the threat of heaving during
freeze-and-thaw cycles in colder
parts of the country.
Dig the hole using a post-hole
digger or a gas-powered auger. Set
the post in place, and backfill to
help it stand alone, but don't
compact the backfill just yet. Dig
the next hole, set that post, backfill,
then plumb both posts.
Never dig all the holes ahead of
time, even though the temptation
may be great. It's entirely possible
that a post will need to be adjusted
slightly because you hit a hidden
obstruction like a rock. If you dig

Fences

85

all the holes ahead of time, and

have to adjust the placement of one
post from the previous one, you'll
have to dig all the holes again.
Supporting posts

If you have buried the posts 6 in.

for every foot above ground, you
probably won't need additional
support, besides the backfill. But if
you are installing aluminum
posts-which are thin and need
extra support-or if you could not
dig to the necessary depth to
provide adequate support for a
wood post because you hit bedrock
or another immovable object, you'll
need to pour concrete in the hole
around the posts to stiffen them. If
you add concrete, let the posts sit
overnight before doing any more
work on the fence.
If concrete isn't necessary, simply
backfill the post hole with a
multisized-aggregate gravel,
thoroughly compacting the backfill
as you go along. Compacting is
important to work out air pockets,
which will cause instability and
heave the posts in freeze-and-thaw
cycles. A flat-headed hand tamper
will do the job well.
After putting in the posts, install
the panels or rails according to the
manufacturer's instructions.

A post-hole digger is a necessary tool for a fence installation.

A two-man gas-powered auger wil l do the job faster, though,
especially if you must dig a lot of holes.

86

Chapter Seven

Dealing with slope

If you are installing a fence on a

slope, the job gets tricky because
the posts still must be absolutely
plumb, which means they will not
be perpendicular to the ground.
You'll need to check for plumb fre
quently. An easy way to install a
fence on a slope is to step the
panels or rails down the slope, but I

INSTALLING A FENCE ON A SLOPE

Putting in a fence on a slope is tricky because the posts must be absolutely plumb. You can step the fence down or run it
along the slope.

STEP

An easy way to install a fence on a slope is to

step the panels or rails down the slope. This can
look awkward if the slope is severe, leaving
large gaps beneath the fence.

\1 1

II

1/
'[

I /

.,

I , It

IL;(
RUN

""---" .'-"

" " ,,"

..
.- ""

,' "

'.--'' '"-;-:--

'" if, ' "

III

\\

HI

I I

/1

'I

Installing the fence along the run of the slope is

more natural looking. But because of the angles
involved, the installation gets tricky, so you may
be better off hiring a professional.

\I

\1

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w/
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Fences

87

MAKING A

90 TURN

A 90 turn is easily made by creating a right triangle with string. This example
shows the method for a fence with 4-ft. panels or sections.

prefer to let the fence follow a

grade change in a natural manner
(see the drawings on p. 8 7 ) .
With a post-and-rail fence, the
holes in the posts may have to be
adj usted to accommodate the
angled rail. Other fence styles, such
as stockade, have some give to
them to allow the installer to adjust
the panel to fit the slope. But it's
still difficult work. So if you have a
sloped yard and want this look, you
may be better off hiring a

Previous post

professional to do the job.

Turning corners

One of the hardest parts of fence

installation is turning a 90 corner.
But it can be simplified by recalling
high-school geometry. Here's how.

I
\.

3; \rYe a

fro'm
3-ft.
the
stake. This dista<ie
called the hypo tq ne,
shou'B me sJr;e 5 ftil
\"

I(

1/'

1/
I'

1. Drive a nail 3 ft.

from the inside

corner of the end
post.

1/

\\

\\ \ I

Outside corner
\' \

2. Drive a stake 4 ft.

from the outside

corner and tie a
stringline from the
end post to the
stake.

1/1 I { I

,1'1

II/

\ 1/
\I :

I ' JI

For a fence with 4-ft. panels or

sections, measure 3 ft. from the
inside corner of the end post to
ward the previous post, and mark
the point with a finish nail. Now
measure at a right angle 4 ft. from
the outside corner of the end post
toward the direction the fence will
be turning, and drive a stake at that
point. Tie a stringline from the end
post to the stake. Then tie another
stringline to the nail on the panel
and attach it to the stake, creating a
right triangle. The hypotenuse of
the triangle should measure 5 ft.
When installing the next section,
simply follow the stringline from
the outside corner to the stake, and
the corner will be square.
These dimensions can be adjusted
for longer sections by equally
increasing each number. For
instance, if you have an 8-ft.
section, measure 6 ft. toward the
previous post and 8 ft. toward
the stake, and the hypotenuse
will be 1 0 ft.

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Chapter Seven

An ordinary chain-link fence can be dressed up with climbing vines like English ivy (Hedera helix).

DRESSING UP A FENCE
You can dress up a traditional fence
and make it fit more naturally with
your landscape by adding climbing
vines, or you can train, or espalier,
a small tree or shrub to grow on the
fence to dress it up ( see the photos
above and at right). This is a per
fect solution for hiding an ugly
fence, such as chain link. It also
works if you no longer like the look
of your fence, or if you j ust want
something different. You can
change the look without replacing
the fence.
Large-leafed, vigorous climbers
will create privacy, block wind, and
muffle noise, while less-dense
climbers will allow breezes through
and provide light shade. Some vines
have attractive foliage, brilliant fall

If you don't like the look of climbing vines, espalier trees on a fence.
Attach a lattice to the fence for a d ressed-up look and to provide
support for the espaliered trees.

Fences

89

HINGED LATTICE FOR GROWING VINES

A hinged lattice assembly not only allows you to grow climbing vines on a fence
but also allows for fence maintenance and air circulation.

Electric
fence
insulators
spaced at
2-ft. to
3-ft.
intervals

2x
spacer
block
with
hinge

( Galvanized
,
nail
,

fa
2x wooden spacer block

/'

Electric-fence
insulators

The most difficult part of growing

climbers on a fence is to get them to
cling to it. On a chain-link fence,
the climbers will either cling or
twine around the chain link. For a
post-and-rail fence or a picket

90

Chapter Seven

Attach galvanized, piano-type

hinges at 3-ft. intervals to the
bottom of the lattice and secure
them to 2x wood spacer blocks on
the bottom of the fence. Attach the
porcelain insulators to the lattice
at approximately 2 ft. to 3 ft.
square intervals with galvanized
or aluminum nails (you can
substitute 2x blocks for the
porcelain insulators). Then affix
hooks to the top of the lattice
and corresponding eyes to the top
of the fence. When maintenance
is needed, unhook the lattice and
fold it down gently to avoid
inj uring the vines. (For a list of
climbing vines that work well
to dress up a fence, see pp. 82- 8 3 . )

LIVING FENCES

Galvanized piano hinge

color, or berries for seasonal

interest, and others are evergreen
for year-round interest.

important that it remain accessible.

It also needs ventilation so it can
dry out after rainfall. One way to
attach lattice but still allow for
maintenance and air circulation,
is to build a hinged lattice assembly.
It can be built with hinges at the
bottom, porcelain electric-fence
insulators (available at home
centers and fence suppliers) used
as spacers to hold the lattice
away from the fence, and hooks
and eyes at the top to keep the
lattice upright.

fence, attach lattice or hardware

cloth between the posts to provide
a place for the climbers to grow.
You can even attach lattice to a
wooden stockade fence for climbing
vines to cling to.
A wooden stockade fence requires
a lot of maintenance (such as
painting and repairs), so it's

Although there are many man

made fence styles that could serve
your needs and fit in with the
landscape, nothing beats the beauty
and natural look of a living fence.
A living fence may not keep people
or animals in or out of a yard or
areas of a yard, but it can provide
plenty of privacy, wind protection,
and shade, and it also works well as
a noise baffle (see the drawing on
the facing page ) .

LMNG FENCE
Nothing beats the beauty and natural look of a living fence. Mix types ofplants and layer them for a
living fence that is functional, long-lived, and interesting to look at.

Fences

91

A clipped hedgerow of Canadian hemlock ( Tsuga canadensis) creates a formal living fence.

Traditionally clipped into hedges. evergreen boxwood (Buxus sempervirens) adds whimsy.

92

Chapter Seven

A living fence could be formal, such

as hedgerows cut straight or curved
or a line of the same trees or
shrubs. Or it could be an informal,
meandering row or a mix of plant
species and sizes. The possibilities
are limited only by the space
available and your imagination.

plants fresh from the garden center

grow up to be big ones, and
whatever grows onto your neigh
bor's property is his to prune or
hack away if he so chooses. Even if
it means losing a few feet of usable
space, locate the plantings inside
your property line.

Planning

When planning a living fence, there

are a few things you should keep in
mind that don't apply to man-made
fence installations.

Allow for the potential spread of

an evergreen tree or the crown of a
shade tree when spacing the plants
to allow enough area for natural
growth and to avoid overcrowding.

Beware of evergreen trees that

lose their lower branches with age.
Members of the spruce family are
particularly prone to this.

Locating a living fence so it

straddles the property line is
inviting trouble. Those cute little

Be careful not to plant in utility

or highway rights-of-way because
the workers who maintain these

Planting a living fence is an

expensive proposition if you want
instant results because mature

areas are free to prune or remove

whatever's in the way of electrical
lines and machinery.
To guard against an insect or
disease infestation that will wipe
out an entire planting of the same
species, mix types of plants within
the fence.

The smell and sight of an informal lilac (Syringa vulgaris) fence is intoxicati ng in bloom.

Fences

93

Old-fashioned bridalwreath (Spiraea X Vanhouttei) serves as a cascading living fence and

provides early summer glory.

Crimson pygmy barberry (Berberis

Thunbergii 'Crimson Pygmy' ) can be
pruned to keep it tidy and has red
foliage throughout the growing
season.
94

Chapter Seven

plants are more expensive than

younger ones. To get the fence
started, don't hesitate to plant fast
growing, shorter-lived species like
wide-spreading Russian olive
(Elaeagnus angustifolia) or tall
growing Lombardy poplar (Populus
nigra 'Italica' ) . While these grow
quickly and will fill the area
temporarily, you can plant younger,
slower-growing, sturdier trees and
shrubs. In a few years, the sturdier
trees and shrubs will establish
themselves and mature. When they
are large enough to serve as the
fence alone, you can remove the
temporary plantings.
If the fence is to serve as a
wind break, avoid trees that are
intolerant of wind and that will
burn, such as white pine (Pinus
Strobus) and hemlock. Instead, try
Austrian pine (Pinus nigra) or
Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris)
which are tougher.
When planning a formal living

fence, choose evergreens like hem

lock and arborvitae, which can be
planted in single-file rows or in
double, staggered rows for a thicker
fence. Hemlocks will grow wide
and tall and will tolerate shade, but
they also can be pruned into a for
mal shape. Arborvitae grow fast,
are happy in wet areas, and are nar
rower in stature. They need to be
planted close together to form a
solid fence, but the cultivar
'Techny' is wider and slower
growing and is a good choice
for hedging.

When planning an informal living

fence, include layers of plantings,
combining larger species like pines,
firs, maples, and oaks with shrubby
viburnums, lilacs, and winterberry
(Ilex verticillata) , which fill the
gaps at ground level. Beneath that,
plant ground covers and woodsy
perennials to add another level.

Different size trees, shrubs, and

perennials can be layered to create
an informal, meandering living fence.

Fences

95

C H A PT E R 8

Adding Garden
Features

fter a busy day, there's no better place to be than in a cozy retreat in the
yard. It could be a shady nook, where you can nap in a hammock
stretched between two trees, or it could be in a cool, shaded gazebo, where
you can curl up in a chaise lounge with a good book. Or, perhaps, you'd
prefer to find solace while sipping a cold drink near a water garden.

Shade trees provide a wonderful retreat for a hammock-bound soul .

I think it's important t o create a

private space in the yard. I'm not
talking about the deck or patio,
where you entertain a large number
of people or gather with the family.
I'm talking about a small area-an
outdoor living room, so to speak
where you can relax alone or with a
couple of friends.
Shade structures and water gardens
are often chosen by people looking
to create a serene nook in their
yard. They can be complex or
simple, but no matter what your
preference, either feature requires a
lot of planning. If you want to add
a water garden or shade structure
or both-make sure you set aside
space for them as you draw up your
landscape plan (see Chapter 4 ) .

Both shade structures and water

gardens, however, require certain
skills and great patience. To build a
wooden shade structure, for
instance, you'll need carpentry
skills; for a water garden, you'll
need keen design skills and a good
amount of brawn. If you are up to
the challenge, go to it using this
chapter as your starting point. But
if you don't feel comfortable with
building either of these, borrow
some ideas from here and work
with a professional landscaper on
the design-to save some money,
maybe you can lend a hand in
building the feature (for more on
hiring a landscape professional, see
Chapter 1 2 ) .

SHADE STRUCTURES
One of the greatest places to be on
a sweltering summer day is under
the roof of a sweeping porch
overlooking the garden, nursing a
tall iced tea . A friend of mine owns
a turn-of-the-century bed-and
breakfast in western Massachusetts
with just such a porch. Hers is so
large that you can sit through one
of summer's frequent thunder
storms and not feel a drop of rain,
yet you can continue to enjoy the
luxury of the cozy outdoor porch.
Most of us aren't lucky enough to
own an old home with a grand
porch, so we have to find our shade
elsewhere, whether it be under a
shade structure like a gazebo or in a
hammock under a pair of shade
trees (see the photo above ) .

Adding Garden Features

97

The object of garden shade, as I see

it, is strictly human comfort in the
midst of the landscape. The ideal
retreat should provide a suitable
amount of shade. It should also be
located in the garden or near it and
be large enough to suit your needs,
depending on whether you want to
share the space with others or on
whether you want it to be a private
getaway. It should also match the
style of the yard and the home so
that it does not look out of place.

A shade structure can be attached

to a house (see the photo below),
or it can be freestanding. The size
and spacing of posts, j oists, and
beams, as well as the size of the
concrete footings that the posts
are anchored to, will depend on
the size of the structure and on the
load requirements. Typical sizes are
4x4 posts with 2x8 beams and
joists. But it may be more in scale
to use 6x6 posts and 2xlO beams
and joists. You should consult

with your local building-code

officials to determine the sizing
of these parts and to find out
any other local code requirements
( for instance, whether or not a
building permit is needed). This sec
tion will give you ideas on how to
design a shade structure.
When choosing lumber, make sure
all wood that will contact the
ground is rot resistant. Use cedar,

An attached shade structure should fit into the landscape. This one serves as a transitional
"room" between the house and garden, with shade provided by climbing vines.

98

Chapter Eight

greenheart, redwood, or pressure

treated lumber. Any wood that is
not pressure treated should be
stained or painted to protect it
from the elements and should not
contact the ground.

Attached structure

An attached shade structure can act

as a transitional room connecting
the house to the garden or a pool.
Although the framework for an
attached structure is pretty simple,

it is considered part of the house

and must be anchored to the house
via a 2x ledger, which is lag-bolted
to the house framing (see the
drawing below). The size of the
ledger and the means of attachment
will depend on the load require-

ATTACHED SHADE STRUCTURE

An attached shade structure is part of the house and needs solid support from the posts and from
the ledger, which is tied into the house framing.

Flashing prevents
water from getting
behind the ledger.

The ledger is lagbolted into the

house framing.

Stud

Adding Garden Features

99

DEGREES OF SHADE
The size and spacing of the shade material will dictate the amount of shade
provided. Aside from 2xs and vines, you can also provide shade by using canvas
sheeting, lattice, bamboo, or woven reed.

ments-again, check your local

building code. It's also important to
add flashing behind the ledger to
prevent water from getting behind
the siding and into the house walls.
To provide the shading, you can
leave the joists exposed and space
them closer together, planting
climbing vines so that they will
cover the structure, or you can
place 2x4s or 2x2s on top of the
j oists. The closer the 2xs are
spaced, the less sunlight that will
get in, and vice versa (see the
drawings at left). Alternate shade
materials are lattice, woven reed or
bamboo rolls, and canvas sheeting.
(If you choose a solid shade
material, such as canvas sheeting,
the joists will need to be pitched to
shed rainwater. )

\"

2x4s on edge spaced

12 in. apart provide
nominal shade.

FINISHED BEAM ENDS

\,

To lessen the heavy, boxy look of

beams and joists, sculpt their ends.

Bevel

::: Long bevel

g*,l
Roundover
-?f;;r'g
Scallop

\if II/
,\ ! I i
\ \ II

100

Chapter Eight

Inverse or
inverted
roundover

To lessen the heavy, boxy look of

the beams and j oists, you can
design sculpted ends on them. Bevel
or round over the ends or make
your own design ( see the bottom
right drawings on the facing page).
If you're building the deck yourself,
it's pretty easy to reproduce the
design exactly on each member.
Draw the pattern on a piece of
cardboard or Y4-in. plywood and
cut it out to use it as a template.
Then simply place the template on
each member and use a j igsaw to
cut out the pattern.
Freestanding structure

A freestanding structure may be

simple like an arbor or trellis (see
the photo at right), or it can have a
more complicated design with walls
and floors like a gazebo ( see the
photo below). Whichever you

A simple freestanding structure like an arbor is easy to build.

A gazebo is
an elegant
hideaway but
req uires a lot
of carpentry
skills to build.

Adding Garden Features

101

prefer, be sure to choose a size that

will not overwhelm the garden and
that will fit in with the house style
and the yard.

local building officials to see if

there are any special requirements.
Some municipalities will require a
building permit.

An advantage to building a free

standing shade structure is that you
can buy prefabricated buildings
trellises, arbors, and gazebos-at
most home centers and some mail
order catalogs (see Sources on
p. 1 62 ) . These building kits come
with complete instructions. You j ust
bring home the building in pieces
and assemble it on site.
If you are building a freestanding
wood structure, the size and
spacing of posts, beams, and rafters
will be dictated by the load require
ments. A gazebo will have to be
designed to carry a heavier load
than a trellis, for instance. As with
an attached structure, check with

Shear forces are the biggest danger

to a freestanding structure. Shear
is lateral movement caused by
wind and gravity. To prevent the
structure from collapsing like a
set of dominoes (called racking)
or from swaying in the wind,
shear braces must be added on
the ends of the posts, as shown
in the drawing below.

WATER GARDENS
Water gardens have become fixtures
in American gardens, and there isn't
a serious gardener who doesn't plan
one for a serene spot somewhere in
the yard. The most important
design consideration is that the

SHEAR BRACING
Simple 2x4 braces attached to the posts and beams prevent the structure from
racking under shear forces.

water garden look natural in its

setting. You don't want it to look
man-made, like a Hollywood set.
A large water garden may allow
space to build a babbling brook
( see the photo on p. 96) that melds
naturally into the landscape. A
smaller space limits the design
possibilities. But even the smallest
of water gardens can blend in well
with the landscape as long as plants
and rocks are placed so that they
look natural (see the photo on the
facing page ) .
A water garden requires a lot of
planning and brawn. Your local
landscape dealer might be able to
give you some tips on how to con
struct it, and there are many articles
and books that describe the process
in detail (see Further Reading on
p. 1 6 1 ) . But it's not a project for the
faint of heart. If you prefer, and if
you can afford it, contract with a
professional landsca per to do the
job ( for more on hiring a profes
sional, see Chapter 1 2 ) . To build
the garden yourself, follow these
basic installation steps.
Digging

-E(E-Shear forces

2x4 shear
brace

102

Chapter Eight

Posts

2x8 beam

2x4 shear
brace

The first step is digging the pool.

With a small water garden, you'll
get by with a shovel, but renting a
skid-steer loader will make a larger
excavation easier. Before digging,
contact your local utilities to be
sure that no buried water, gas, or
electrical lines are in the way.
It's important to know what types
of aquatic plants you want in the
garden because some varieties grow
better at a specific depth. An easy
way to accommodate plants that
thrive at different depths is to dig
shelves into the pool that will allow

A water garden
doesn't have to
be large. This
small water
garden fits
comfortably
into a niche in
the landscape
and supports
water lilies.

WATER GARDEN
Rocks are placed naturally around the edges to hold the butyl liner in place. When combined with
plantings, the rocks also help ease the transition from pool to earth.
Slope the banks to prevent
the walls from collapsing.

Place taller, mature plants at

the bottom of the pool.

Adding Garden Features

103

plants to thrive in both shallow and

deeper water. In general, plan on
making shelves 1 5 in. to 24 in.
below the surface, although some
lilies need a depth of 36 in.

Slope the banks of the pool away

from the center to make a smooth
transition from water to earth and
to keep the edges from collapsing.
Also be sure to compact the
surfaces to minimize settling.

PLANTS FOR A
WAT E R G A R D E N
Here are a few plants
that will brighten up
any water garden ( some
are even beneficial to
the water) .

Floating plants like

Stratiotes aloides (water
soldier) will provide food
and shade for fish and
will deter algae growth.

Oxygenating plants like

Ranunculus Aquatilis
(water crowfoot) and
Elodea canadensis ( Cana
dian pondweed) will help
keep the water clean.

Nymphaea sp. (water

lilies) like rich, fertile soil
and should be planted in
tubs on shelves under the
water's surface. Two of
my favorites are 'Leopar
dess' (photo 1 ) and
'Venus' (photo 2 ) . Water
lilies suitable for small
pools include pink
flowering 'Mary Patricia',
red 'James Brydon',
yellow-blooming
'Helvola', and copper
orange 'Graziella'.
Other plants that will
survive in submerged tubs
and that will add
interesting color and
shape to the garden
include Iris Kaempferi
(Japanese iris) (photo 3 ) ,
Typha minima (dwarf
cattail) (photo 4 ) , and
Caltha palustris (marsh
marigold) (photo 5 ) .

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Chapter Eight

Installing the liner and

pump

Once the excavation has been

completed, add the liner. You can
use a preformed rigid plastic pool,
available from mail-order water
garden houses such as Lilypons or

from garden centers, or you can use

heavy-gauge butyl sheeting avail
able at garden and home centers.
If a pump is to move water from one
pool to another, install it after the

Adding Garden Features

105

liner is in. The piping should be

installed at this time too. Before
going any further in the installation,
test the pumping system. If it works,
finish placing stones around the
pool. The last group of stones hold
the liner down, but they must also be
placed as naturally as possible. The
water garden should look like it's
been around longer than your house.
Adding plants

The final step is adding the plants

to the garden (for a list of plants
suitable for a water garden, see
pp. 1 04-105). It's a good idea to
grow the aquatic plants in tubs
placed on the shelves in the pool so
that you can keep their rampant
nature in check. The tubs will also
allow you to lift out any plants
that need overwintering in cold
climates. For young, small plants,
place the tubs on bricks and
remove the bricks when the plants
have matured.
Plant the edges of the pool with
large- and long-leafed, drooping
plants like hosta, ferns, and
daylilies. These types of plants will
hang over the rocks and will cover
any rough edges, adding to the
transition from earth to water.
Mix the long, leafy plants with
spiky-leafed plants like grasses, iris,
and liatris for a change in texture.
As the landscape moves away from
the pool, increase the size of the
plants for a layered design that
harmonizes the entire scheme.
If there are trees near the garden,
place a screen over the pool in the
fall to keep leaves out. Organic
matter in the pool will foul the
water with methane gas, which will
in turn kill plants.

106

Chapter Eight

FINISHING
TOUCHES
Adding ornamentation to
your garden is the icing
on the cake, the star on
the Christmas tree. It
allows you to add
features that make the
garden reflect your
personality and style,
making it an extension of
you, whether it be
sculpture or furniture.
I have a passion for frogs,
so in my rock garden, I
have scattered about
whimsical sculptures of
frogs: One sits reclining
with his front legs folded
behind his head, another
naps in a corner, arms
folded across his bloated
belly (photo 1 ) , and yet
another-this one with an
attitude-stands at the
top of a slope, arms on
his hips, surveying his
property. I also have
several other, more
conventional, amphibious
rascals scattered around
on other rocks. Your
passion may be more
toward pink flamingos
and gazing balls, but any
ornament, whimsical or
otherwise, is worthy of a
spot in the garden.
You can choose to be
subtle or obvious when
placing the ornamen
tation. One of the most

amusing garden sculp

tures I know of ( and one
of my favorites) is located
in the walled garden at
the summer house at Fort
Ticonderoga in New
York. On one side of the
garden, a gargoyle sits on
a brick wall, tending a
miniature cannon.
Directly opposite, over
1 0 0 ft. away, is another
gargoyle with a tiny
cannonball in his mouth.
Where you locate the
sculpture will dictate
whether it will be subtle
or the focal point, so
careful placement is a
must. Tuck little critters
into the foliage to give a
visitor a surprise, or slip
a birdbath into the center
of a garden, waiting to be
found (photo 2 ) . A great
way to add a whimsical,
subtle sculpture to the
yard is to dress up a
water spigot with a
sculptured faucet (photo
3 ) . It will bring a smile to
the face of the person
turning on the hose.

beginning of the path,

creating interest as a
visitor walks toward it.
The furniture you choose
is also a reflection of
your personality, and it,
like the sculptures,
should be chosen and
placed with care. Furni
ture can retreat to the
background and har
monize with the venue,
such as wrought iron in a
formal garden on a brick
patio (photo 5 ) , or a rock
bench among the ferns on
a mulch path (photo 6 ) .
O r furniture can become
the focal point of an area,
as with brightly painted
Adirondack chairs and
boldly striped pillows on
a wicker settee.

For a more dramatic

effect, place sculpture
(photo 4) or a large
fountain in a prominent
location. Put it at the end
of a path, so the piece
can be seen at the

Adding Garden Features

107

C H A PT E R 9

Establishing a Lawn

here isn't a part of the yard and landscape that receives more attention
than the lawn. As matter of fact, many homeowners are obsessed with
it. I, for one, have a love/hate relationship with my lawn. I hate some of the
maintenance required for upkeep, but I love walking barefoot on my lawn.
And my recent passion-golf-has made me appreciate the care other
people take to create and maintain a perfect lawn.

The most difficult part of inte

grating a lawn in your landscape
plan is planting it. Establishing a
lawn requires a lot of preparation
and hard work, but if done cor
rectly, you'll end up with a thriving
lawn that j ust begs for bare feet.
There are two methods used to
establish a lawn: planting seed or
laying sod. And regardless of which
method you choose, the first step
preparing the base-is the same.

PREPARING THE BASE

Before planting seed or laying sod,
you must prepare a base of topsoil
that will support the lawn. First,
the yard must be properly graded
(for more on grading, see Chapter
3 ) and well compacted.
For a proper lawn base, you'll need
at least 4 in. of topsoil. Test the
existing soil to determine what
nutrients are needed (for more on
soil testing, see Chapter 2 ) . And
you should ask advice of a land
scape contractor or soil specialist
at your local testing lab about the
texture and water-holding capacity
of your soil to be sure it will sup
port a lawn. If you must bring in
new topsoil to augment the existing
topsoil, make sure you have it
tested before it is brought on site.
Once you have a 4-in. topsoil base
in place, finish-grade it with a
grading rake (see the photo at
right), which has a wide head with
teeth that catch small rocks and
debris near the surface. The grading
rake will make an absolutely
smooth and graded surface to
accept the seed or sod. How well
you do the finish-grading will
dictate how much cursing you will
be doing later when the lawnmower
scalps a high area or kicks out

A grading rake removes all the stones left near the surface of the topsoil by
machi nes and makes an absolutely smooth surface to accept seed or sod.

Establishing a Lawn

109

Read the contents of the seed bag

to find the percentages of d ifferent
types of seed that are inside. What
seeds are in the mix will determine
the look of the lawn.

rocks as you mow. Once you are

satisfied with the finish-grading,
you can begin planting seed or
laying sod.

PLANTING SEED
Although seeding will not give you
instant results, it is an effective way
of establishing a lawn. As a matter
of fact, in some parts of the coun
try, seeding gives as fine a result as
laying sod. Plus it is less expensive.
Autumn is the best time to seed a
lawn because the temperatures are
lower, activating growth. Also,
rainfall is more prevalent, and
weeds are less apt to establish,
especially annual weeds that will
die with the frost. Unfortunately, it
is usually necessary to reseed some
spots in the spring where runoff
occurred and carried the seeds
away. If you must seed during
110

Chapter Nine

spring or summer, you'll need to

water more frequently and heavily
to germinate the seeds, and weeds
may become a nuisance. There
are three steps to planting seed:
choosing the seed mix, spreading it,
and watering and mowing.
Choosing a

seed mix

When choosing a seed mix, keep

future care in mind. What's in the
bag will determine how the lawn
will eventually look. So read the
contents carefully to find the per
centages of different seeds in the
mix (see the photo above) .
Although "conservation mix"
sounds good, it is a marketing ploy.
Usually, it has a large percentage of
perennial clover and annual grasses.
Clover is vigorous and competitive
and will take over, choking out the
good grasses. It also attracts bees,
which may or may not be desirable

to you. Clover does have one

advantage in that it fixes nitrogen
in the soil, making it possible to
reduce the amount of fertilizer
needed. As for the annual grasses in
the mix, they will die with the first
frost, leaving a lot of space for
weeds to infiltrate the lawn during
the next growing season.
A mix with a high percentage of
Kentucky bluegrass, although it is a
very desirable grass, will need
constant fertilization to keep it
healthy and competitive. Kentucky
bluegrass is not as vigorous as other
grasses and needs a lot of added
nitrogen. The grass is also
intolerant of shade.
The best balance, I think, mixes a
low percentage of annual rye ( say
1 0 % to 1 5 % ) with perennial rye,
creeping fescues, and tall fescues.
The annual rye germinates in about
three days, which guards against
erosion and shades the ground
while the other seeds germinate,
usually in about three weeks.
Check with a local nursery or
cooperative-extension agent for
more information on the best grass
types for your area.
Regardless of which mix you
choose, heed the soil-test results
indicating what nutrients you need
to add to the soil to build a
healthy lawn.
Spreading fertilizer and seed

Both the soil and the weather

must be dry to work the soil and
to fertilize and seed a lawn. The
texture of the soil will be ruined if
it is worked when wet, and the
materials will clump in the spreader
if they are damp or wet.

It's hard to miss spots with a cyclone spreader, which h urls fertilizer or seed
a distance, allowing you to overlap the rows to ensure coverage.

Before beginning, look at your

landscape plan and mark off areas
within the yard where planting
beds, walkways, or patios are
planned so that you don't waste
seed in those spaces.

For seeding and fertilizing, a push

behind cyclone spreader (see the
photo above) is the best type to use
because it hurls the materials a
distance, creating overlap so you
won't miss spots as you do with a

Establishing a Lawn

111

M AINT A INING A L AWN

Some people want a perfect
lawn but don't have the time to
spend on its maintenance, so
they spend a good penny having
the lawn professionally main
tained. However, most people
can't afford the luxury of hiring
a pro, and many don't want to
spend every waking moment
taking care of the lawn, so they
live with an imperfect lawn and
keep maintenance to a mini
mum. It's all a matter of
personal preference.
One of my neighbors has an
obsession with his lawn. He
spends most of the spring, the
entire summer, and part of _
the fall out in his yard taking
care of the grass.
The biggest chores involving the
lawn include watering, mowing,
fertilizing, and fighting weeds.
Watering can be a daily chore if
you live in a dry area or if the
summer is particularly hot. If
there are no drought restrictions
in your area during hot months,
water a few times per week in
the early morning to prevent the
lawn from burning. Most lawns
require 1 in. of water a week.
Mowing will have to be done at
least once a week. Don't mow
any shorter than 2 Yz in. and
leave it longer ( about 3 in.) in
the hotter, drier parts of the
growing season. Tall grass will
retain moisture for longer
periods of time. Leave grass

clippings on the lawn for mulch,

which add nutrients to the soil
and conserve moisture.
Fertilizing is a difficult part of
maintaining any lawn. It has to
be done at least twice a year,
and more when needed. A lawn
needs fertilizing if you notice
that its color isn't right and if
you see weeds cropping up.
The type of fertilizer and the
frequency of feeding will
depend on two factors: the soil
type and the type of grass you
have planted. A soil test should
be performed annually to
determine what nutrients the
grass needs and whether liming
IS necessary.
If you want a perfect lawn,
you'll be at war with dandelions
and other weeds. The only way
to win this war is to be unmer
ciful, which means using chem
ical weed killers available at
garden centers. Although effec
tive, the downside to these pro
ducts is that they are toxic to
people and pets.
I don't mind if my lawn is not
perfect. So I do the minimum:
I fertilize twice a year and mow
when I have to. But I don't like
to waste a lot of water on it-so
I live with a burned lawn in
August. And I don't like to
use chemical weed killers-so I
live with dandelions and a
few other weeds.

drop spreader. Calibrate the

spreader to distribute the recom
mended amounts of fertilizer or
seed (the bags will tell you the
amounts needed according to the
spreader type) . A cyclone spreader
is easy to calibrate.
Spread the fertilizer first. Fill the
spreader on the driveway or other
nongrowing surface because, if you
accidentally drop a clump of
fertilizer (or lime) on the lawn, seed
may not grow there. Fertilize in two
different directions. For instance,
fertilize along the width of the yard,
then fertilize lengthwise to cover
any gaps. Avoid shooting fertilizer
into planting beds or onto the
driveway. A good-quality spreader
can be adjusted so that you can
avoid covering areas you don't
want to.
The seeding method is the same as
the fertilizing method. First seed
along the width of the yard, then
move lengthwise. Avoid seeding
areas where grass is not planned.
After spreading the fertilizer and
seed, work them in with a grading
rake. Then lightly mulch with seed
free (sterile) straw to conserve
moisture while the seeds germinate.
Watering and mowing

After you are finished fertilizing

and seeding, it's time to water the
lawn area. Set up a sprinkler and
move it around the yard every day.
Once one area is moist, move the
sprinkler to a dry area.
Water in the early morning. If you
do it in the middle of the day, the
water will evaporate quickly and
will not penetrate very well. The

1 12

Chapter Nine

Sod is rolled u p
and loaded
onto pallets for
shipping. If pos
sible, store the
sod in the
shade and
sprinkle it
with water to
keep it from
d rying out.

top inch of the soil must be kept

moist at all times for the grass seed
to germinate.
Once the lawn has been established,
you can water less frequently be
cause the grass will retain moisture.
But you'll have to water for a
longer time to allow it to penetrate
deep enough to get to the grass
roots. The deeper the water goes,
the longer and stronger the grass
roots will eventually be.
Mow as soon as the grass needs it.
Don't worry about inj uring the new

grass. If you don't mow right away,

the grass will lie down and be
harder to mow. Mowing causes the
grass plants to branch, creating a
thicker, denser mass (for more on
mowing and lawn maintenance, see
the sidebar on the facing page) .

LAYING SOD
Although expensive, there is
nothing like the instant results of
sod. However, even though the yard
looks done once the sod has been
installed, sodded areas must be

mollycoddled until the grass roots

establish. No foot traffic should be
allowed, and the sod needs constant
moisture to make the roots pene
trate, or " take" to, the topsoil.
A smooth, continuous surface is
critical for sod. Any dips may cause
the sod to lose contact with the soil,
allowing the roots to dry out,
which means death for the grass.
Sod storage

Sod is delivered on pallets in strips

rolled in 4-ft. to 6-ft. lengths (see
the photo above) . When it is on

Establishing a Lawn

113

Because the rolls have straight

edges, it's easier to start near a
straight edge of the yard, such
as a driveway or pool deck. If you
don't have a straight reference,
draw a straight line on the ground
with a little lime and place the first
roll there.
Place the next piece immediately
adjacent to the previous. Alternate
joint lines and keep them tight so
that they remain imperceptible to
the eye. Place the pieces as close as
possible without overlapping, and
knit the new piece into the previous
pieces ( see the photo at left). Pound
the sad down with your fist to
make sure it is completely con
tacting the soil everywhere.

Knit the sod joints together. Allow

a little slack and lay them flat and as
close together as possible without
overlapping.

site, taking care of the rolls on the

pallets is critical to their survival.
Try not to order more than what
you will be laying in a day. But
if you must, because the sad farm is
far away or it won't deliver small
amounts, try to store the sad in the
shade. Sprinkle the rolls with water
frequently to keep them from
drying out, but don't overwater
because the rolls will become a
muddy mess and will be impossible
to work with.
Sod

placement

As with planting seed, autumn is a

good time to lay sad. Don't wait
too long into the season because it
may become difficult to unroll the
strips and lay the sad because of the
lower temperatures.
114

Chapter Nine

Where the sad will meet a curved

edge, such as the edge of a planting
bed, overlap the sad into the bed.
Then use a garden hose to lay out
the curve and cut the sad with a
shovel ( see the top photo on the
facing page) or a sad knife along
the curve. You can buy a sad
knife at hardware stores and
garden centers.
Sad will start to dry out from the
edges inward. Using a rake, spread
topsoil to cover any exposed edges,
such as those around a planting bed
( see the bottom photo on the facing
page ) . And place V2 in. or so of
topsoil between the sad edges and
any hard object, such as a concrete
curb or driveway.
After laying the sad and filling the
edges with topsoil, use a drum
roller to ensure that the sad strips
are contacting the ground. (You can
rent a drum roller at an equipment

Use a garden
hose to guide
you when
cutting sod
on a curve.

Use a rake to cover any exposed

edges of the sod with soil to
prevent the sod from d rying
out quickly.

Establishing a Lawn

115

DON ' T B O T H E R
WIT H GR A SS
IN T HE SH A DE
If you've ever tried to grow
grass in the shade, you
know it is an uphill battle.
Even if you use grass-seed
mixes specifically designated
for the shade, it is a difficult
proposition. Usually this is
because the soil found in
shade has a nutrient content
unlike soil found in sunny
conditions.
A shady yard is generally
full of trees that play havoc
with the pH and nutrient
availability of the soil. Try
as you might to alter the
conditions, the soil will
always be too acidic from
leaf drop or evergreen
needle drop. The best crop
you grow will be moss,
which always wins when
grass is its competition.
On the other hand, because
of the leaves and needles
dropping, the soil will be
humus-rich from the
resulting compost. This is a
perfect environment for
shade-loving ground covers,
such as lily of the valley,
lamium, and pachysandra,
and for ferns. So give in to
the lack of light and give up
on the lawn in shaded areas.

Rolling sod with a d rum roller ensures good contact with the soil beneath.

rental center). Fill the drum with

water and roll the entire sodded
area (see the photo above ).
After rolling, water frequently
(every morning) and deeply, and be
sure no one walks on the lawn until
the roots have established.

1 16

Chapter Nine

The amount of time needed for the

roots to take varies, depending on
the moisture and temperature. But
once it happens, the sod will grow
taller, indicating the lawn is ready
for playing and for mowing.

C H A PT E R 1 0

Planting Beds

lanting beds provide focal points in the landscape plan and dress up all
the other features in the yard. If you were to imagine the landscape as a
birthday cake, the planting beds would be the flowers. They add ornamen
tation, drawing attention to themselves, and yet tie the whole picture
together. They can also be used to cover blemishes in the landscape, such as
the house foundation or an animal pen.

P L A N T S T H AT A D D
WINTER INTEREST
F OCAL POINTS
For an interesting, upright focal point

in a large planting bed, Prunus Maackii

(Manchurian cherry) is a good choice.
Its shiny, rich, red-brown mahogany
bark peels j ust like a birch tree, and
against the white of snow, it glistens
(photo 1 ) . It is extremely hardy (Zone
2), blooms white flowers and small
black fruit, and adds yellow color to
the yard in the fall.

More common Cornus alba 'Sibirica'

(red-twig dogwood) (photo 2) and

Cornus stolonifera 'Flaviramea'
(yellow-twig dogwood) are large,
vigorous shrubs. They are perfect
choices for an island planting bed in
the yard or for a hedgerow. With
chalk-white stems and yellow, edible
berries, Rubus biflorus can add a
ghostly touch to a red-brick wall.
GRASSES
Any planting bed would benefit by
the addition of ornamental grasses for
their striking autumn wheat color and
wispy, feathery dried flowers that hang
on through winter. Miscanthus flowers
look like miniature brooms, and
Cortaderia Selloana (pampas grass)
moves like graceful plumes in the
breeze (photo 3 ) . Pennisetum is bottle
brush-shaped, and Festuca flowers are
loose and spikey. You'll find many sizes
and cultivars for grasses, but choose
appropriately for your hardiness zone.

EVERGREENS
The usually bronze-green leaves of
PJM rhododendrons turn reddish
purple in the fall and hold their color
through the winter. Many j unipers
become a lovely plum-purple color
when cold weather sets in. Low,
spreading types are appropriate for the
front layer of a planting bed.
Yellow-foliaged evergreens like

Chamaecyparis pisifera 'Filifera Aurea'

(photo 4) are striking focal points in
the winter garden, still layered with
that fan-shaped foliage.

118

Chapter Ten

WEEPING TREES
One of my passions is weeping trees,

and there are no better architectural

plants for winter appeal. Betula
pendula 'Youngii' (Young's weeping
birch) has white, peeling bark, dark
brown stems, and twigs that cascade in
streams from the mushroom-shaped
head to the ground (photo 5 ) .
Some o f my other favorite deciduous
weeping trees include Ulmus glabra
'Camperdownii' (camperdown elm),
Caragana arborescens 'Pendula'
(weeping Siberian pea ), and Fagus
sylvatica 'Purpurea Pendula' (weeping
purple beech).
For corkscrew-branched sculptural
specimens, there are none better
than Corylus Avellana 'Contorta'
(Harry Lauder's walking stick)
(photo 6) and Salix X erythrof/exuosa
(corkscrew willow) with orange
yellow, pendulous, twisted, and
contorted stems. Harry Lauder's can
be kept under control as an addition
to a foundation planting bed, but the
willow is best planted out in the yard.

is abundant with red ( P. coccinea

'Watereri' ), yellow (P. coccinea
'Shawnee'), or bright orange berries
(P. coccinea 'Mohave') and can be
grown as a shrub or pruned and
trained into an espalier or bonsai
specimen.
For huge clusters of red fruit, Ilex
verticillata 'Sparkleberry' (winterberry)
is unmatched (photo 7), but it needs a
pollinator to produce (try I. 'Apollo')
and space to grow. It is best planted
along the edge of the yard or in a
woodland garden.
Tiny, abundant, persistent, hanging

crab apples are a key feature in a

winter garden (photo 8 ) . My favorite is
Malus Sargentii (Sargent crab), which
has a very horizontal branching habit
and remains dwarf, providing a very
architectural element as well. As long
as enough space is left for Sargent crab
to spread its 8-ft. to l O-ft. branches
horizontally, its height, at 6 ft., will not
intrude but will be a highlight in a
foundation planting bed. Use low
growing perennials and ground covers
to fill the space beneath its branches.

FRUIT

Viburnum trilobum 'Alfredo' lives up

The classic winter garden show fea

tures fruit in many colors: red,
orange, yellow, blue, black, and white.
The attraction draws furry and fea
thered guests, as well as our eyes, to
feast. Pyracantha coccinea ( fire thorn)

to its common name, cranberry bush,

by sporting large, shiny, clusters of
edible, bright-red berries, perfect for
jams and jellies. It stays 4 ft. tall and
has brilliant red fall color as well.

II
Planting Beds

119

All the planting beds should be

drawn out on the landscape plan so
that you know what plants will be
going where ( for more on drawing
a landscape plan, see Chapter 4).
Without a clear plan in mind and
on paper, the yard will appear
fragmented and unprofessional.
But don't think of this as work. It's
time to be creative and to have
some fun.

DESIGNING
PLANTING BEDS
The goal of any planting bed
whether it's an island bed in the
middle of the yard or a foundation
bed-should be to draw the eye to
the big picture and then to create a
pleasing composition of colors,
textures, shapes, and sizes.

An overgrown
foundation
planting bed
crowds the
landscape and
obscures house
views.

120

Chapter Ten

What ultimately makes the

composition successful-and sets
an extraordinary bed apart from an
ordinary one-is the arrangement
of the bed and the plants within it.
For instance, a straight bed against
the foundation, with plants in a
straight line, is ordinary. But to turn
the bed into a unique work of art,
widen it, give it a curve, and layer
the plants using contrast and
repetition of colors, textures,
shapes, and sizes.
Mixing color, texture, shape, and
size adds depth and variety to a
planting bed, while repetition ties
all the elements within the bed
together, drawing the eye from one
side to the other.

Yearlong bloom and interest

Another thing to strive for in a

planting bed is a succession of
bloom during each of the seasons
so that the garden is interesting
during spring, summer, and fall.
Winter interest adds another
dimension to a planting bed and
becomes an important design
component. Instead of laying the
bed to rest for winter, plant
varieties that have interesting
shapes or colors during the cold
months.
Shrubs and trees that look as
engaging in the winter as they do
during the growing season are the
real gems of any garden. Some
plants produce berries that persist
into the winter; some have dried

SHADE
GARDENING
Look at gardening in the
shade as an opportunity
rather than a liability. As
long as you use plants
that are adapted to shady
conditions, you will be
successful.
Physiologically, the leaves
of shade-loving plants
are formed to accept
only low light and in
sun are likely to burn.
Conversely, sun-loving
plants will grow lanky
and reach for light if
planted in the shade.
So take care in choosing
the right plants for the
habitat you have. Follow
the sun patterns in your
yard, and if any bed
receives a half a day or
more of shade, it is a
candidate for shade-

loving plants. Should the

shade be cast by trees
that will lose leaves in the
winter, it is wise to avoid
evergreens like yews,
rhododendrons, and
hemlocks that will burn
in winter sun and wind.
Here's a list of plants that
like the shade.
Pieris (Andromeda

azaleas) and Leucothoe

(photo 1 ) are broad
leaved evergreens.
Most viburnums
and Clethra (photo 2 )
(try 'Hummingbird' at
2 ft. to 3 ft. in height) are
deciduous shade lovers.
Ferns and perennials
like hosta, lily of the
valley, Astilbe (photo 3),
Pulmonaria (photo 4),
Lamium (photo 5), and
bleeding hearts will add
foliage accents and color.
Annuals like Coleus

(photo 6 ) , impatiens, and

begonias will iuminate a
shady spot in the garden.
I especially like white
flowers and white
variegated foliage in a
shade garden because
they look electric in the
low light (see the photo
on p. 1 1 7).

Planting Beds

1 21

flowers and seed pods; some have

unusual bark or stem color; some
evergreen leaves turn a different
color; and other plants are
sculpturally attractive without their
leaves (for a list of plants that will
add winter interest to your beds,
see pp. 1 1 8- 1 1 9 ) .
A n easy way t o plan for season
long bloom in your planting beds is
to put your plant choices into a
chart-before you put them into
the plan-and indicate the bloom
or fruiting season and the color.
It's also important to pay attention
to growth rates so that individual
plants within each bed will mature
at the rate you want them to. It's a
good idea to indicate in the chart
the mature height and spread of
each plant you choose. The chart
will help you draw the plants to
size on the plan, and you'll quickly
see where there will be gaps. You
can fix gaps by rearranging the bed
altogether or by filling them with
annuals or ground covers.
Plant choices

Be sure the plants you include in

your beds are appropriate for the
exposure-whether it be sun or
shade ( for more shade gardening,
see the sidebar on p. 1 2 1 }-and
for the hardiness zone in which
you live ( also consider micro
climates) . And be sure that all of
your plant choices are available at
local garden centers or through a
catalog. A list of plants that work

The spareness of this door-yard

planting bed is very appealing. It
highlights but does not overwhelm
the classic door and old masonry.

122

Chapter Ten

well in an island planting bed is

shown on the facing page. A list
of plants that work well in a foun
dation planting bed is shown on
pp. 1 3 0- 1 3 1 .

PLANTING BEDS
NEAR THE FOUNDATION
One of the most difficult designs to
achieve successfully is that of a
foundation planting bed. All the
rules for a typical planting bed
apply, but there are other factors
that come into play, such as the
color of the house, the space
available, and whether the goal
of the bed is to hide an exposed
foundation or to highlight a front
entry (or both).

There are many schools of thought

on how a foundation planting bed
should look. Some gardeners prefer
nothing but evergreens to "cozy
up" the foundation, creating a row
of trimmed, pointy plants.
There are those gardeners who pre
fer to create what I call green mon
sters, hiding the house with huge
plants that become so overgrown
that you can barely find the front
door (see the photo on p. 120).
Then there's the minimalist school.
In old England and early America,
many folks created a "door yard,"
usually with utilitarian-type herb
kitchen gardens (see the photo
below) . The spare design can be

PLANTS FOR
ISLAND BEDS
For unmatched early

spring elegance, shrubby

Magnolia stellata ( star
magnolia) will knock
your socks off (photo 1 ) .
Like its cousin saucer
magnolia, star magnolia
blooms before the leaves
unfurl but with many
petaled, star-shaped,
white blossoms. Star
magnolia will become
6 ft. to 1 0 ft. tall and
spread as wide, making
it a perfect candidate for
a focal point in the
backyard.
Trees not only work

well in island beds, but

they also may be used to
establish shade on a patio
or deck. Remember to
leave enough space for
spreading roots and
branches. Near a pool or
patio, where leaf drop is
a problem in the fall,

trees in the oak family

are an asset because they
hang on to their leaves
well into the winter. By
then, the pool will be
covered and the patio
abandoned until spring.
Crab apples and flow
ering dogwoods are
classic trees (be sure to
choose hybrids with
disease and insect resis
tance). Unlike Cornus
{lorida ( flowering dog
wood ), Cornus Kousa
( Chinese dogwood)
blooms after the leaves
come out a little later in
the season. It is usually
grown as a large shrub
(photo 2).
To create a focal point

in the island bed, plant

Viburnum plicatum
tomentosum 'Shasta',
(shasta doublefile
viburnum) (photo 3 ) . It
has an extraordinary,
late-spring flowering
habit, and large white
flowers line the com
pletely horizontal
branches, creating a
texture contrast as well
as eye-catching beauty.
This is one of my signa
ture plants-I always try
to sneak it in somewhere,
even in light shade. It will
grow to 7 ft. or 8 ft. tall
and will spread as wide.

Midsize evergreens like

Juniperus ( seagreen
j uniper) and some
spreading perennials like
Hemerocallis (daylilies)
are perfect for filling gaps
in an island planting bed.
I like all daylilies, even
the orange escapes you
see along the side of the
road. For a cultivated,
sunny border, say, around
a light post, I mix early,
mid, and late bloomers
and colors for a continu
ous show throughout the
season. The yellows
usually bloom first,
followed by pinks, reds,
melons, lavenders, and
bicolors. Daylilies, at
2 V2 ft. to 3 V2 ft. tall,
soften corners as their
foliage wraps the edges,
even when they're not in
bloom. The dwarf 'Stella
D'Oro' (photo 4) is
particularly outstanding,
with a golden yellow that
blooms for an extended
period of time.

Planting Beds

123

BACK LAYER OF A FOUNDATION PLANTING BED

When making a foundation planting bed, start with the back layer. Pull one or two of the plants forward to avoid planting
in a straight line. Mix evergreen and deciduous plants for texture change, and use plants with year-round interest.

-. , -. _ .- .......

124

Chapter Ten

.. ..

very effective. I know many people

who still create door yards, but
they typically live in old houses,
with attractive masonry or stone
walls to show off.

shrubs that cover the entire house

and block views and entries are
crowded and unattractive; and
planting beds that are too small
could get lost against a house.

My school of hought, however,

says to tie the foundation planting
beds into the entire landscape by
mixing and repeating colors,
textures, shapes, and sizes. A
straight design of the same plants
is boring; overgrown trees and

Layered plants

The most effective way to mix and

repeat color, texture, shape, and
size is to layer the plants in the bed.
For example, at the back of the
bed, near the foundation, place
taller plants so that they undulate

MIDDLE LAYER OF A FOUNDATION PLANTING BED

The middle layer has plants of intermediate size but could include a focal-point tree or large shrub. The focal-point plant
should be pulled forward of the others to draw attention to it and to allow it to grow large. Some plants in this middle
layer may die back in the winter.

along the foundation wall (see

the drawing on the facing page).
Here you can mix evergreens and
deciduous plants to create an
interesting texture of green needles,
flowers, and leaves.
The middle layer can include a
vertical focal point like a narrow
weeping tree (see the drawing
above) . Low shrubs fill the gaps
between the larger ones, weaving

back and forth in the rear. Taller

perennials and grasses will also
work for the middle of the bed.
The front layer of the bed can have
an edging of perennials like hostas,
low shrubs like spindle tree
(Euonymus fortunei 'Emerald
Gaiety'), and ground covers like ivy
(Hedera), bugleweed (Ajuga ),
stonecrop, orpine (Sedum ) , and
spurge (Pachysandra ) . Covering as

Planting Beds

125

FRONT LAYER OF A FOUNDATION PLANTING BED

The front layer of a foundation planting bed usually consists ofperennials and bulbs as well as low-growing shrubs.

126

Chapter Ten

Ground-cover
p lants such as

Ajuga
'Burgundy
G low' reduce
weeds and
conserve mois
ture while
providing an
attractive front
layer in any
garden.

much of the bed as possible with

plants reduces weeds and conserves
moisture, but try not to over
crowd it ( see the drawing on the
facing page ) .
If you are planting beds o n two
sides of an entry, it is not necessary
to create identical beds on both
sides. Instead, use the same plants

or different plants of the same

colors and arrange them differently
on both sides. Just keep it balanced.
For instance, use one large, red
flowering plant on one side of
the front door and three smaller
red-flowering plants on the other
side to achieve both balance
and repetition (see the drawing
on p. 1 2 8 ) .

Planting Beds

127

ACHIEVING BALANCE AND REPETITION

Repeating the color of flowers or foliage draws the eye across the planting bed. Here. a large shrub on one side of the
door is balanced on the other side with three smaller ones of the same color. Notice the contrast in leaf texture but
the similarities in leaf color. in flower shape. and in flower color.

128

Chapter Ten

PL ANTING THE BEDS

Once you have your design on
paper and your plants in hand, you
can finally head out to the garden
and get down and dirty. Although
it's hard work, this is the fun part
for most gardeners.
Dig

The first step in planting is digging,

but don't dig the hole deeper than
where the soil line ends on the

balled-and-burlapped plant or
container. A plant set too deep will
suffocate from too much soil on
its roots.
Before digging, hold the shovel next
to the plant and make a mark at
the point on the shovel's handle
that is level with the top of the
root ball (see the drawing below).
Then you can use the mark as a
guide to dig to the correct depth.
Make a real effort not to dig the

DIGGING TO THE CORRECT DEPTH

Top of root ball

-"

Place a shovel next to the

root ball and make a mark
on the shovel's handle
indicating the height of the
root ball.
-

,
------ -

------ ---

(.. -- . .

, "

, (Jse the mark an the

3hovel's ha(;tdle as a

guide to digging the hole

to the correct depth.

Planting Beds

129

F O U N D AT I O N
PLANTS
The most common evergreen

For an upright evergreen, try

foundation plant is Taxus (yew). It

has been so overused that
hybridizers have developed
virtually any shape and size yew
imaginable. In reality, yews only
do well in a partially shaded
situation, and in colder climates,
on the protected north or east
side of the house. They are often
pruned into shapes, some ghastly
and unnatural, which often
causes the lower limbs to die out
from lack of light. With age and
neglect, they become leggy and
overgrown. I suggest choosing a
slow-growing dwarf variety like
Taxus cuspidata 'Nana' .

Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Nan a

Gracilis' (dwarf Hinoki cypress ) . It
is bright green with fan-shaped
sprays of foliage (photo 1 ) .

Abies balsamea 'Nana' (dwarf

balsam fir) has rich, green color,
grows slowly, and stays compact.

130

Chapter Ten

One o f my favorite blue-gray

leaved evergreens is Picea Omorika
'Nana' (dwarf Serbian spruce),
which keeps a rounded and
compact habit (photo 2 ) .
Picea Abies 'Nidiformis' ( bird's
nest spruce) is a very slow-growing
ground-cover evergreen. I like to
use it in groups of three around a
lamp post or at the beginning of a
walkway as a reliable greeting
plant, foiling bright perennials like
'Stella D'Oro' daylilies.
Broad-leaved evergreens are

the bonus plants of the garden.

Their leaves resemble, in many
cases, deciduous plants, but they
don't drop off when the weather
gets cold. It is very easy, though,
to choose plants like large-leaved
rhododendrons that get big and
out of scale in the foundation
planting bed. Small-leaved culti
vars like PJM, 'Olga Mezitt', and
Wilson are far more easy to main
tain in the foundation planting bed.
PJM has bright-pink flowers in the
spring, remains compact and up
right, even into age, and is very
hardy to Zone 4.

 Kalmia (mountain laurel) and

Buxus (boxwoods) can become
large and need pruning. But a plant
like Mahonia Aquifolium (Oregon
grape holly) stays 3 ft. to 6 ft. tall
and looks like a holly (photo 3 ) .
Syringa 'Miss Kim lilac' stays 3 ft.
to 4 ft. tall and has a very rounded
habit. It blooms profusely a little
later in the spring than its larger
counterparts.
Spiraea nipponica 'Snowmound'

(photo 4) bears the beautiful white

flowers of the old-fashioned bridal
wreath, but stays smaller, denser,
and less arching. Other spiraeas
like 'Anthony Waterer' (photo 5 )
and 'Little Princess' make perfect
middle-layer plants and produce
flat, pink flowers in early summer.
Weigela 'Rhumba' grows to

about 4 ft. and 'Minuet' to about

2 ft.-ideal flowering plants for
midseason. Their long, bell-shaped
dark-pink flowers are very
attractive to hummingbirds.
Daphne 'Carol Mackie' (photo 6)

produces lovely, white-edged

variegated green foliage, lightpink flowers in early spring, and a

sweet lingering scent. It is an

outstanding accent plant to place
near the edge of the bed so the
fragrance will be appreciated. It
lasts about seven years, and you'll
enjoy every minute of it and replace
it with the same thing-believe me.
One of the few plants spectacular
for late-season bloom is Hydran
gea, and 'PeeGee' fits the scale of
a foundation planting bed quite
well (photo 7 ) . The huge snowball
like flowers appear in late summer,
become tawny pink as the tem
peratures get colder, and finally
turn brown with the frost, hanging
on for winter interest. They are
perfect for dried-flower bouquets.
Caryopteris 'Blue Mist' (photo 8 )
grows 3 ft. to 5 ft. tall and has pro
fuse, tiny, bright royal-blue flowers
in late summer and aromatic, soft
silvery green leaves. I have a 3-ft.
tall plant that dies back about
12 in. each year. But a judicious
pruning of the dead wood first
thing in the spring produces a lush
flush of growth and flowers that
bees and hummingbirds won't
leave alone.

Planting Beds

131

hole too deep. But if you do, add

soil to the bottom of the hole.
Make sure you compact the soil
to remove air pockets that will dry
out the roots and ultimately kill the
plant. Actually stomp around in
the hole, even if it's only with one
foot, trying to level the soil as you
compact it.
Once the hole is at the proper
depth, widen it enough so that the
plant will not be shoehorned into
the hole. Dig about 6 in. to 1 ft.
wider than the plant's root ball all
the way around.
Plant

Remove all packaging, such as

burlap, plastic containers, or wire
baskets, from the roots of the plant.
Place the plant in the center of the
hole, turn it to expose its best side
for viewing, and backfill. After
backfilling, make sure you compact
the soil around the plant. Use the
heel of your shoe to remove air
pockets, and, as I mentioned
before, don't be afraid to stomp!
I do not recommend changing or
amending the soil before backfilling
except to add organic matter or
peat moss when necessary. These
amendments should be well mixed
into the backfill. Don't j ust dump
them in. If you make the soil in the
hole so much richer in nutrients
than the surrounding soil, there is
no incentive for the roots to grow
beyond the hole. The roots just
wind around and girdle themselves
in an effort to avoid the less
desirable soil beyond the hole. This
will not allow the roots to grow

1 32

Chapter Ten

enough to anchor the plant, which

will make it unstable, and it will
eventually kill the plant.

the hardwood stakes are pressure

treated, hemlock or pine will
last longer.

When the hole has been filled,

make a saucer or dam with soil
around the base of the plant to
capture water.

For a deciduous tree, cut two 2x2

stakes at least 6 ft. long. Put a point
on one end to make it easier to
drive into the ground.

Stake trees

Next, decide from where the

prevailing winds blow and insert
the stakes about 2 ft. from the
stem, exactly opposite each other,
on the side of the wind ( see the left
drawing on the facing page) . If
wind is not a factor, place the
stakes where they will be the least
obtrusive to your view.

If you've planted trees in the bed,

the next step is staking. Any tree,
evergreen or deciduous, taller than
8 ft. should be staked.
I've grown trees in Vermont for
several years now. When we dig one
out of the nursery, it has been
growing there for at least four
years. During that time, the tree has
spread its roots well beyond the size
of its crown, or head. The roots not
only take in nutrients, but they also
anchor the tree to the ground.
When it is dug up, the longer
anchoring roots are chopped off,
leaving a root ball only about
30 in. across. Because the tree
lacks those anchoring roots, it is
necessary to provide supplemental
support when it is planted.
When staking a tree, the stakes and
wires must be taut to be effective;
otherwise, the staking is j ust
window dressing. So follow these
important steps to best anchor
your trees until they can support
themselves, which will usually take
at least one full growing season.
The steps are different for deci
duous trees and for evergreen
trees. You can use either hardwood
or softwood stakes, but unless

Drive the stakes vertically at least

2 ft. into the ground. Keeping the
stake vertical will help hold the
wire taut. If you hit a rock, lift out
the stake and move it slightly to
keep it upright. For aesthetics, try
to bury the stakes so they are the
same height above ground. If you
need to, saw off a few inches at the
top to make them equal.
After the stakes have been driven
into the ground, cut two 1 8 -in.
pieces of an old garden hose and
then cut two 5-ft.-long pieces of
flexible electric-fence wire. You can
get this type of wire at most
hardware stores.
Slip the hose sections over each
length of wire and slide them to the
middle. Then straddle the wire
around the tree just below the 4-ft.
mark. The hose sections will
protect the trunk of the tree from

being cut by the wire. Pull both

ends of the wire toward a stake,
parallel to the ground.
Twist the wire ends together on the
outside of the stake and snip off
any excess. Repeat the steps for the
other length of wire on the other
stake. After both wires have been
attached to the stakes, use the

handle of your pruners ( inserted

between the stake and tree) to twist
the wires taut. Slide the pruners
between the wires and rotate until
all the slack has been removed.
Repeat on the other side. You can
also use long eye bolts or U-bolts to
secure the wire, which allows
tightening as needed.

For an evergreen tree, cut three 2x2

stakes about 4 ft. long and put a
point on their ends. Three stakes
are needed here because an
evergreen has a bigger spread of
branches and tends to need more
support ( see the right drawing
below). Drive the stakes at least
2 ft. into the ground at a 45 angle,
about 2 ft. from the tips of the

STAKING TREES

DECIDUOUS

EVERGREEN

Cut 6-ft. stakes and bury them 2 ft. below the

ground. Keep them as vertical as possible.

Cut 4-ft. stakes and bury them at a 450 angle

2 ft. below the ground.

Garden
hose scrap

Electric-

4 ft.

Electric
fence wire

Garden-hose
scrap

Dam for water

-- -.

Dam for water

Planting Beds

133

lower branches. Space the stakes

evenly around the tree to provide
equal support on all sides.
Wrap the wires around the stem
at the 4-ft. mark and attach them
the same way as with a deciduous
tree, twisting the wires taut.
M ulch

After putting all the plants in place,

spread about 2 in. to 3 in. of
shredded bark mulch around all the
plants and in between to fill the
beds. But don't fill too deeply with
it because a deep layer of mulch can
smother the plants. The mulch will
break down over time, revealing
bare patches of earth, and should
be replenished every few years.
Mulch serves several purposes. It
conserves moisture, cools the soil in
summer, and insulates the ground
in winter. Although mulch will not
prevent weeds altogether because
wind and wildlife will drop them
on the planting bed, it will limit
their growth (plus weeds are
infinitely easier to pull out of mulch
than out of soil ). I do not put a
layer of weed cloth under the mulch
because weed cloth makes it diffi
cult to move plants around or to
divide perennials. It is also rendered
useless as soon as a shovel is put in
the bed, slicing the cloth, and
mulch always seems to slide off,
leaving the cloth exposed.

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Chapter Ten

Water

After spreading the mulch, it's time

to water the plants. The key to
watering-both young and old
plants-is providing even moisture.
By even, I mean consistent: don't let
the plants dry out and don't
waterlog them.
New plants require a good soaking
when they are planted to get the
water down to the roots. A soaking
means standing with a hose for at
least 15 minutes. They should be
watered about four times per week.
Once a plant has established its
roots, which usually takes a full
growing season, continue watering.
Don't rely on the rain to do this
job adequately. It will not take the
place of a hosing. The best time
of day to water is early in the
morning, before the heat of the
day sets in. Water evaporates
quickly in the middle of the day,
and watering at night encourages
fungi growth. (If leaves are droopy
in the evening, however, I make an
exception to watering at night. )
There are two dangers associated
with watering: underwatering,
which dries out roots and kills
plants, and overwatering, which
creates a swampy, waterlogged
area. Many fungal diseases thrive
in this environment.

How much watering you have to

do after the plant has established
roots depends on the type of plant
you have (perennials need less
water than trees) and on the type of
soil you have and whether it has
good water-holding capacity ( for
more on soil, see Chapter 2 ) .
The best test t o see if the plant
needs water is to stick your fingers
down into the soil around the
plants. If you only feel moisture on
the surface or the top inch of the
soil, there is no water at the roots.
That means you should step up
your watering schedule.
Finally, don't stop watering when
the weather gets cool; water right
up until the ground freezes. That
way, when there is a temporary
thaw in January or February, there
will be a ready supply of water for
the roots. That thaw period is
actually when many plants winter
kill beca use they get the signal to
grow from the increase in
temperature and light, and they
grope around for water. Finding
none, they dry out and are unable
to withstand the fluctuating
temperatures of the late winter,
early spring, and the early call to
come out of dormancy.

C H A PT E R 1 1

Specialty Gardens

pecialty gardens offer opportunities to create pockets of interest within

the landscape, sprinkling it with color and even with scents. Specialty
gardens allow gardeners to put their final stamp on the landscape. And they
are not just for large yards. Any-size yard can benefit from the addition of a
specialty garden.

Placing taller plants in the middle of a perennial island garden allows you to see all the plants as you walk around it.

Some of the most interesting and

fun specialty gardens to build are
perennial gardens, herb gardens,
container gardens, rock gardens,
and edible gardens. The plants you
include in these gardens and how
you arrange them are only limited
by your imagination. What I
offer here are some ideas to get
you started.

PERENNIAL GARDENS
Some novice gardeners are
intimidated by the thought of
stepping beyond the comfort of
planting near the foundation. But
planting a perennial garden is not
as difficult as it may seem, and it's a
great way to experiment with

136

Chapter Eleven

colors and sizes and different

combinations thereof.
What should make a perennial
garden even more appealing to a
novice is that if you don't like
the combinations you chose or
if the sizing didn't work out quite
right, it's easy to move perennials
around. Don't be afraid to make
mistakes. It's really the only way
to learn about plants and their
habits. To make a perennial garden,
you can mix colors and sizes or use
the same plants and colors. It's
pretty simple.
Start with a small plot of earth,
about 10 ft. by 4 ft. Soften the
edges by adding curves at the cor
ners or by making the front edge

flow in a serpentine fashion. Re

move all the sod from the garden
area, incorporate some well-rotted
compost or manure, and you're
ready to plant.
Lay out all the plants before
digging so you can space them
properly and make a last check of
the design. If there's some sort of
backdrop to the garden, such as a
fence or a stone wall, layer the
perennials, with taller plants to the
rear. If you can walk around the
garden, taller plants should be in
the middle, graduating in size to the
edges all the way around ( see the
photo above) . As with other
gardens I've discussed, mix and
repeat color, size, shape, and

texture to draw the eye across the

whole garden and to specific areas
within it.
Research the plants you want to
put in to make sure you know their
mature sizes, their colors, and their
bloom times. An easy way to check
and compare this information is to
make a chart of all the plants (for
more on designing planting beds,
see Chapter 1 0 ) . I try to locate
plants with long blooming times
where they will fill gaps between
other short-season bloomers ( for a
list of perennials, see pp. 1 3 8- 1 3 9 ) .
When planting, dig each hole
separately, put the plant in the
hole, backfill, and then compact
the soil around the plant with your
feet to remove any air pockets
( for more on planting, see pp. 1 29
and 1 32-134).
Many clients of mine request peren
nial gardens that use only one or
two colors, such as an all-white
flowering garden or a garden with
only shades of blue. Other popular
themes include gardens with only
evening- and night-blooming
flowers-called a moon garden
gardens with plants that have
variegated leaves, and gardens that
use only scented flowers. If you
want a fragrant garden, be sure
to locate it so that passersby will
be able to appreciate the scents
( for a list of fragrant plants, see
pp. 146-147).

CONTAINER GARDENS
For those with limited time or
space, or for people with physical
limitations, who still would like the
enjoyment of gardening, the best
option is to plant in containers

Containers house vegetables as well as flowers in a sunny spot on this deck.

Specialty Gardens

13 7

PERENNIALS
SUN LOVERS
Coreopsis 'Moonbeam' is a

perpetually blooming basket of

sunshine (photo 1 ) . It is covered
with small yellow flowers starting
in early summer and continuously
blooming through the fall.
A perennial with a different
growth habit is Liatris 'Kobold'
(photo 2 ) . This summer-blooming
perennial has dark-pink spiky
flowers to contrast the flat daisy
like ones of Coreopsis. It reaches
1 8 in. to 24 in. tall, adding vertical
interest to the perennial garden,
and loves full sun.
Campanula persicifolia 'Alba'

is upright (photo 3 ) , with stems

about 2 ft. to 3 ft. tall and large,
bell-shaped white flowers, 1 in. to
1 Y2 in. across. The blue varieties
are just as lovely.
For early spring bloom, Anemone

Pulsatilla (the Pasque flower),

which grows 8 in. to 12 in. tall,
combines gray-white fluffy hairs on
its stem with bell-shaped, 2-in.
blooms of purple, white, or red
(photo 4 ) . The fluff remains long
after the flowers go by, adding
another texture to the garden.
Most people are familiar with the
old-fashioned bearded irises, but
my choice is Iris sibirica (Siberian
iris). It has delicate leaves and
flowers, which will tolerate a little
shade or full sun and moist soils
(photo 5 ) . You'll find all shades of
blue, purple, and white on 2-ft.- to
4-ft.-tall plants. Place Siberian iris
in clumps in a few spots in the

138

Chapter Eleven

garden for early spring bloom,

although it blooms later than
bearded iris.
SHADE L OVERS
I love the unusually variegated
leaves of Pulmonaria 'Mrs. Moon'.
Green leaves with white polka dots
virtually glare in the low light and
spread as a low-growing ground
cover (8 in. tall by 1 2 in. to 1 6 in.
wide) with creeping rootstocks.
Small spring flowers in clusters
above the leaves are reddish purple
and funnel shaped, but grow this
plant in full to partial shade for the
spectacular leaves .
Hosta ('Frances Williams') is a
cultivar of H. Sieboldiana (photo
6). It has large, round leaves1 0 in. to 1 5 in. across-with seer
suckered texture, blue-green cen
ters, and a creamy gold border.
White flowers in midsummer shoot
high in spikes above the leaves. The
plant is formidable at 30 in. tall
and 30 in. to 36 in. wide, so it's
perfect to create a focal point in
the garden. It's at home in shade
or partial shade.
I love the delicately scalloped

light gray-green leaves of Alche

milia mollis (Lady's mantle), which
form a I S-in. by 24-in. clump in
the garden (photo 7). When it
rains, a slight cupping of the leaves
catches water, and the water beads
on the lightly hairy surface. I'm not
crazy about the short-lived, petal
less, yellow flowers, but the habit
and interesting foliage make a good
texture foil for more showy plants
in a partially shady garden.

Specialty Gardens

1 39

( see the photo on p. 1 3 7 ) . The

downside is that you will be limited
to compact varieties of plants.
I abandoned a fairly large vegetable
garden in the country one season
and planted potted tomatoes
because I lacked the time to care
for a large garden (I haven't grown
tomatoes any other way since ). A
city dweller with little space need
not abandon the love of gardening
if there's a balcony available-there
are many plant varieties suitable for
container gardening. And a person
with a bad back can continue
working outside without all the
bending needed to maintain a
regular garden. The solution is to
plant in containers that are raised
to a suitable working height.
Whatever the reason for doing it,
gardening in containers is one of
the hottest trends in gardening.
When choosing containers, use
your imagination. Don't feel as
if you have to buy the typical pots
from the garden center. A child's
swimming pool, half whiskey
barrels, trash barrels, window
boxes, even old shoes will work.
The most important concerns
should be drainage, soil type, and
watering. You should also think
about whether overwintering in the
containers will be a problem in
your hardiness zone.
Drainage

Regardless of the container you

choose, make sure you punch small
holes in the bottom of it for
drainage. Place a layer of stone or
gravel at the bottom of the
container or place a screen over the
holes. The gravel or screen will
retain the soil while allowing excess
water to drain out.

140

Chapter Eleven

Soil type

Use loam-based soil that's free of

debris and weeds. If you are
planting vegetables like tomatoes or
pole beans that need support or
climbing plants like morning glory,
insert a cage or support when the
plants are young to establish their
upward movement.
Watering

Watering is a big issue with a

container garden because the soil in
a container dries out quickly
much faster than soil in a garden
will. Unless you are willing to be a
slave to watering the plants
frequently, especially if you have
sun-loving plants in the container,
you may want to set up a drip
irrigation system on a timer.
Ready-made drip-irrigation kits are
available at garden-supply houses,
but you can make your own.
Simply punch holes in a short
length of plastic or rubber hose and
plug, or cap, one end. Add a timer
between the spigot and the hose,
and the homemade system is ready
for watering. Simply lay the hose
on the soil in the containers. (If you
opt for a drip-irrigation system,
make sure the containers are near
the water source. You don't want
hoses lying all over the place.)
Overwintering

Overwintering in containers can be

troublesome for people in cold
climates. No matter how hard I
tried in Vermont to grow perennials
and shrubs in containers, it never
worked. I tried covering the plants,
mulching, and insulating the
containers to no avail. So I
experimented in other ways.

What finally worked was a large,

raised planter box, which was
also built 3 ft. below the ground.
I also made sure that the plants
were located at least 2 ft. in from
the edges of the planter so that
the roots would not contact the
container, and I removed the
bottom of the container to take
advantage of the warmer ground
below. Good snow cover was very
important as an insulator.
Gardeners living in warmer hardi
ness zones, such as southern New
England and west and south of
there, should have no trouble with
overwintering in containers, as
long as the plants are well fertilized
and watered.
Because of the growing trend in
container gardening, most seed
catalogs now offer several varieties
of vegetables and flowers that stay
compact and can be grown in
containers, including peppers,
cucumbers, tomatoes, and sun
flowers. Annuals like marigolds,
petunias, and geraniums have
always been perfect window-box
plants and so will thrive in other
containers as well.

ROCK GARDENS
Although all of the gardens I've
shown so far are beautiful, and
some are even useful, the gardens
I like most are rock gardens. I
especially like the way plants
wrap around the rocks and
ramble through them.
The key to building an attractive
rock garden is making it look
natural in its setting by giving the
garden an alpine feel. To get that
feeling, it's best to create the garden
on a slope and add alpine plantings.

As I discussed in Chapter 5, a rip

rap wall is an ideal method of
retaining slope, but it's also a great
opportunity to plant a rock garden
amid the boulders. Doing so will
allow the rip-rap wall to blend into
the earth and the surrounding
landscape. If you don't have a
sloped area in your yard already,
you can create a one-sided retaining
wall, preferably out of stone, and
backfill the other side ( for more on
building retaining walls, see
Chapter 5 ) . Then add rocks and
boulders to the slope and plant
around them.
When creating a rock garden, use
rocks that look similar. Place them
at infrequent intervals, buried
partway into the ground and
turned in the same direction. The
result will be a natural-looking
outcropping, similar to a native
alpine site.
For planting between the rocks,
choose alpine perennials, sun
loving small perennials, and dwarf
conifers and shrubs ( see the photo
at right). These are small plants
that will draw attention to the
garden but will not hide the rocks.
I love the miniature features of
alpine perennials and the way they
sprawl over rocks. Alpines are
native to high elevations and do not
grow over 6 in. tall. Many spread
with glee when given the space,
and, unfortunately, may overtake
less-invasive species. Some form
cushionlike mounds, and others lie
flat like mats. Flowers and leaves
are delicate in texture and appear
ance, belying the toughness of
plants able to withstand the open,
harsh weather of rocky screes and
crags. Some genera are so tiny that

Dwarf conifers stay in scale with low-growing rock-garden perennials.

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141

PLANTS FOR
ROC K G A R D E N S
Saponaria Ocymoides
( soapwort) is one of my
favorite rock-garden
plants because of its
small, light-pink flowers
profusely borne above
tiny oval leaves on wiry
stems (photo 1 ) . It
blooms in late spring,
spreads to at least 1 8 in.,
and reaches 10 in. in
height. It's a soft-colored
alternative to the more
common creeping phlox.
Long, elliptical silver
leaved Veronica in
cana blooms on 8-in.
amethyst-blue spikes in

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Chapter Eleven

early summer and spreads

over rocks as a low
ground cover (photo 2 ) .
I n contrast, light and
airy Gypsophila repens
(creeping baby's breath)
trails over slopes and
bears white or pink
flowers in early summer.
The daisylike blooms of

Chrysanthemum 'Snow
cap' (dwarf Shasta ), red
and yellow Gaillardia
'Golden Goblin' (photo
3 ) and G. 'Baby Cole',
and the yellow dwarf
Coreopsis 'Goldfink'

contrast with one ano

ther. Each has flat flowers
and a clumping habit.
No rock garden is
complete without the
bellflowers, Campanula
carpatica, C. garganica,
and C. muralis, filling
crevices and rocks with a
long season of bloom in
blue, white, and purple.
The alpine C. cochle
ariifolia is a gem with
pale blue or white bells in
summer.
An underused rock

garden candidate is
Oenothera missourensis
(Missouri primrose), with
huge yellow flowers on
stems 6 in. to 8 in. tall
(photo 4 ) . It blooms
from early summer
through frost. Allow
enough space for it to
sprawl, as one plant will
spread 2 ft. to 3 ft. and
maybe even more.
Sedum spurium, S.

kamtschaticum, and S.
brevifolium (sedums) are
the queens of the rock
garden (photo 5 ) . Their
succulent foliage, some
times tinged red or blue,
and bright pink, yellow,
or red flowers add bril
liance to any site.

I also like Sempervivum

arachnoideum (photo 6)
with white hairy webs
covering red-tinged
rosettes of fleshy leaves.
It spreads everywhere,
seemingly growing
straight out of the rocks
in the garden!
Many dwarf shrubs

provide the backdrop and

framework of the rock
garden and remain for
winter interest after
the alpines and peren
nials have faded. Ilex
crenata 'Mariesii' is a
broad-leaved evergreen
holly with a low,
mounded habit.
A bright-green
evergreen with tight,
short, juvenile needles is
Juniperus procumbens
'Nana' (Japanese garden
juniper) . It mounds and
spreads very slowly.
Upright dwarf conifers
like Juniperus communis
'Compressa' and Picea
glauca var. albertiana
'Conica' (dwarf Alberta
spruce) contrast with all
the ground-hugging
plants.

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143

Alpines are well adapted to d ry soils. When mixing them with small perennials or dwarf shrubs that
prefer moist soil, make sure you plant the alpines in pockets of well-drained stony soil.

it is necessary to get on your hands

and knees to appreciate their
brilliant intricacy.
Perennials that stay within about
12 in. tall mix well with alpine
perennials. And dwarf conifers and
shrubs will also stay in scale with
the small herbaceous alpines.
Because spacing is tight in a rock
garden, it is especially important to
lay out the plants before digging.
This way you are sure the plants
will fit and that you like the layout.
Also, most alpines like dry, rocky

144

Chapter Eleven

soil, which may be different than

what some of the other plants in
the garden like. So you have to
make pockets of well-drained,
stonier soils for the alpines and
pockets of moisture-retaining soil
for the other plant choices (see the
photo above) . Around the alpines,
add a layer of small shards and
rocks to allow the soil to drain and
to keep leaves away from excess
moisture, which could cause fungal
diseases. To retain moisture for
other plants, add mulch or make
inconspicuous dams on the lower
sides of the plants to catch water (a

list of plants suitable for a rock

garden is given on pp. 1 42-143).
Finally, be sure to tuck your
favorite ornaments into the rock
garden in surprising venues to de
light passersby (for more on garden
ornamentation, see Chapter 8 ) .

EDIBLE GARDENS
Many avid gardeners I know
started out simply by growing
herbs, vegetables, or fruit. Eventu
ally, the satisfaction of growing
their own food spawned a love for

planting, which germinated into the

desire to experiment with other
types of gardens and garden proj
ects. But j ust because an edible
garden is utilitarian in nature, that
doesn't mean it can't be an attrac
tive part of the landscape plan. You
can mix size, shape, texture, and
color to create an edible feast for
the eyes as well as for the palate.
There are three types of edible
gardens-herb, vegetable, and
fruit-but an edible garden can
include all or some of these plants.

Herb gardens

Herb gardens are gaining in popu

larity. Any cook can attest to the
fact that there's nothing better for a
dish than freshly picked herbs from
the yard (see the photo below).
An herb garden can simply sprout
in a small plot or container or be as
fancy as the knot gardens of Eng
land, with brick paths, sculpture,
and low-manicured boxwood hedg
ing enclosing the herbs. Aside from
its size, the most-important con
sideration in creating an herb gar-

den is that it be located for easy ac

cess from the kitchen, so a quick
snip for soup, salad, or any other
dish is easy.
An herb garden will not only
season your favorite dishes, but it
will also season the yard. Plan it as
an ornamental treat, with low
maintenance, sun-loving plants.
Some good choices, both annual
and perennial, include sage (Salvia
officinalis) with gray-green leaves
and spikes of lavender flowers;
purple basil ( O cimum 'Dark Opal')

Herbs like sweet woodruff, French tarragon, catmint, and lavender make a sim ple herb garden.

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145

FRAGRANT
PLANTS
This list is only a fraction
of the plants available for
a fragrant garden, and I
certainly would include
the old standbys of lilac
and rose, but half the
fun of gardening is
discovering new plants
on your own. Aromatic
foliage usually needs to
be crushed to release its
fragrance.
GROUND COVERS
Try Rhus aromatica

( fragrant sumac), which

is a great ground-cover
plant, Perovskia (Russian
sage), a large perennial
with blue flowers (photo
1 ), and any of the
thymes. I use thyme
between cracks in a patio
or walkway where light
foot traffic will send its
scent upward. Don't
forget Lavendula
(lavender), which makes
a perfect edging plant for
the front of a perennial
garden. Its contrasting
gray leaves look great all
season long.
VINES
The granddaddy of all
fragrant vines is Wisteria,
with purple or white
flowers, but it needs
strong support.

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Chapter Eleven

Lathyrus odoratus

(sweet peas) should be

planted near a doorway
or window so the scent
can waft into the house.
Clematis

(c. Armandii

and C. montana) (photo

2) and Lonicera (honey
suckle) grow well on
sunny walls in cooler
climates.
Beaumontia grandiflora

(herald's trumpet) and

Stephanotis floribunda
(j asmine) (photo 3 ) do
best in warm climates.
Jasmine's scent is
strongest at night,
making it the perfect
candidate for wowing
your guests at a summer's
evening barbecue.
S H RU B S
One of my favorite
fragrant shrubs is
Daphne, especially 'Carol
Mackie' with variegated
green and white leaves. It
grows to a 4-ft. mound
and blooms in early
spring with light-pink
flowers (see photo 6 on
p. 1 3 1 ) .
Hamamelis (witch
hazel), Philadelphus
(mock orange), and
Buddleia Davidii (butter
fly bush) are found in
old-fashioned gardens.

Witch hazel can become

large, so try the smallest
one, H. vernalis, growing
to 1 0 ft. and blooming in
winter. Mock orange
grows to about 6 ft. or
more and really smells
like oranges when it
blooms in the spring.
Butterfly bush grows 6 ft.
to 1 0 ft. tall and has long
clusters of white or pink
flowers from summer to
fall. Try B. 'Black Knight'
for wine-red blossoms.
Viburnum Carlesii

( Korean spice viburnum)

will add fragrance to and
enhance a garden in light
shade. It grows to 5 ft.
and has white flower
clusters in spring.
There are also several

fragrant Rhododendrons
(R. luteum, R. occiden
tale, R. viscosum ) , which
will do best in a wood
land situation. These
natives all grace a wild
garden in spring with
white or pink blossoms.
All can reach as high as
8 ft. to 1 0 ft. but will stay
smaller in cultivation.

For southern climates,

Gardenias are absolutely

intoxicating. They bloom
from spring to fall and
prefer acidic soil. They
can reach 2 ft. to 5 ft. tall
and their glossy, dark
green foliage contrasts
the creamy white
blossoms beautifully.

TREES
Everyone is familiar
with the scented flowers
of trees like magnolias,
cherries, and crab apples,
but how many have
appreciated the scent of
Tilia (linden) ? The
flowers are really nothing
to look at, and they hide
under the leaves, but for
about two weeks in early
summer, there isn't a
spicier fragrance in
the air.
Tropical gardeners will
love Plumeria obtusa
(frangipani) (photo 4 )
a n d Acacia dealbata,
which offers winter
perfume.

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147

BED SYSTEM OF PLANTING VEGETABLES

Planting small vegetable beds with paths between allows easy access to all sides of the beds for
cultivation. It also creates an opportunity to mix colors and textures to make an eye-pleasing design.

A. Bell peppers and hot

B. Iceburg lettuce and corn
C. Carrots and spinach

D. Tomatoes and marigolds

E.
F.

148

Leaf lettuce
Onions with zucchini in the trellis

Chapter Eleven

for showy leaves and pink flowers

(although the green-leaved O. Basi
licum 'Minimum' is more tasty for
pesto ); and lemon thyme ( Thymus
X citriodorus 'Doone Valley'), a
sprawler with fruity fragrance and
small green leaves, marbled with
white, yellow, and red. The old
standbys of dill, rosemary, parsley,
oregano, and chives can be includ
ed, and they won't disappoint you
in texture, foliage, or flowers.

Traditionally, vegetables have been

grown in rows with taller crops like
corn at one end and squashes and
cucumbers in raised mounds. A
newer trend is to plant crops in
beds narrow enough to reach from
all sides, with small paths sur
rounding the beds (see the drawing
on the facing page). The paths can
be bricked, mulched with bark, or
even left as grass as long as they are
not too small for the mower.

Vegetable gardens

Creating smaller beds makes

watering, fertilizing, and crop
rotation easier. The beds can be
round, square, rectangular, or any
shape that is narrow enough to be
easily accessible. ( By accessible I
mean being able to reach all the
plants within a bed without
walking into it. )

A vegetable garden can be the focus

of the landscape or it can simply
blend into it. In either case, some
general planting guidelines apply.
A vegetable garden should be
located in a sunny, open portion of
the yard, away from shady areas
such as trees or buildings. Staying
away from leaf-dropping trees is
also important because old leaves
can harbor diseases and, as they
break down or compost, will rob
valuable nitrogen from the soil and
lower the pH.
The site should not be exposed to a
lot of wind. Too much wind will
cause lower yields because polli
nation will be sparse and irregular.
If you have a lot of wind, plant a
windbreak or erect a fence to lessen
its force. But you don't want a solid
barrier against the wind. A wind
break or fence around a vegetable
garden should be permeable enough
to allow gentle breezes through.
Otherwise, the wind will tunnel
over or around them, increasing its
force within the garden.
Once you have settled on a
location, you must carefully
consider the layout of the garden.

Plants should be spaced equally,

and single crops of two or more
compatible types can be inter
planted for even more efficiency
and interest. For instance, fast
growing crops like radishes can be
interplanted with slow-growing
parsnips. The radishes can be
harvested before the parsnips will
need the extra room to mature.
Lettuces benefit from the shade of
slower, taller corn and will be
harvested before the corn matures.
Interplanting also allows you to
mix size, color, shape, and texture
to create a pleasing design.
An added bonus of interplanting is
that you can grow plants that may
help keep pests away from the crop.
For instance, planting pungent
herbs like garlic and mint with
tomatoes will discourage pests that
are attracted by smell. The plant
doesn't necessarily have to be

edible, either: Marigolds make a

fine skirt of color around the
bottom of a single tomato plant,
and they attract hoverflies, which
feed on aphids.
If there is not a lot of room to plant
a vegetable garden, you can make
the most of the space available by
utilizing trellises, poles, or arch
ways to provide support for crops
like scarlet runner beans, peas,
squash, and cucumbers. The
dangling vegetables are very orna
mental and easy to harvest because
you don't have to bend over.
For very small spaces, vegetables
can be grown in containers as long
as they are planted in well-drained
light soils and located in sheltered,
sunny spots close to a water source.
The larger the container, the better,
especially for heavy feeders like
tomatoes and potatoes. Set up a
drip-irrigation system (available at
garden-supply houses, or you can
make your own), so you will not
have to be a slave to watering. Use
supports like cages and bamboo
canes to support heavily foliaged
plants and vines.
Quick-harvested crops like rad
ishes, lettuce, and beets are ideal
for container growing, as well as
peppers, eggplants, and leafy vege
tables like Swiss chard. Dwarf
cultivars of many popular varieties
are available.
You should avoid growing deep
rooting crops such as broccoli or
celery in containers because they
need more space than is available in
a container.

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149

Espaliered fruit trees save space when your yard is small and can also d ress up a boring fence.

Fruit or nut gardens

It is always a bonus to plant for

ornamental purposes and to receive
a bounty of fruit or nuts at the
same time. Whether you garden on
a balcony in the city or in an
expansive, rural yard, a harvest can
be yours to enj oy.
What makes fruit- and nut-bearing
trees and shrubs so appealing to me
is that they can be relegated to their
own spot in the yard or mixed with
other plants to add interest to the
landscape. Blueberries, for instance,

150

Chapter Eleven

with striking red fall color, make a

fine ornamental shrub.
When planting fruit trees or shrubs,
choose a site that is permanent and
easy to maintain because good
production requires special care. It
is wise to group together plants
with similar needs to make it easier
to apply fertilizer or to protect
them from animals, birds, and
wind. It is also important to
remember that some fruit crops
( apples, pears, and sweet cherries,
for instance) must be sited near
pollinators to produce fruit. (You'll

need to research your plant choices

carefully to find out their needs and
whether or not they are compatible
with other plants in the bed. )
I f you have a small yard, you can
still grow fruit trees and shrubs.
Many trees are grafted on dwarf
rootstocks, which will keep the
plants small and in scale with the
space. Another option is to espalier
fruit trees or shrubs to a fence or
lattice (see the photo above) . Vines
like grapes or kiwis can be sup
ported by trellises and archways,
and strawberries and figs can be

planted in containers as long as

ample water and fertilizer are at
hand (see the photo below).
Most Citrus species are suitable for
small areas. They are self-fertile and
bloom during any season in
subtropical climates as long as it is

warm ( 5 8 P to 86P), humid (60%

to 70 % ) , and rainfall is ample.
Lemons and limes make particular
ly good container crops for the
small-space garden (see the photo
on p. 1 52), but they'll need a sunny,
sheltered site and well-drained,
slightly acidic soil.

Citrus trees can be grown in cool,

temperate climates during the warm
months, but the lower light and
cooler temperatures may hamper
fruit production, although the
evergreen aromatic leaves will
remain very ornamental. Citrus can
be brought indoors for the winter

A fine crop
of strawberries
is possi ble in
containers as
long as there
is ample
water and
nourishment.

Specialty Gardens

151

Citrus trees
need sunny
sites sheltered
from the wind.
If planted in a
container, the
tree can be
brought in
doors for
wi nter.

to a sunroom or greenhouse where

the temperature and humidity
requirements can be maintained.
Aside from the usual fruit-bearing
variety of trees, such as apple, for
sunny, open yards, there are many

152

Chapter Eleven

nut-bearing trees that can add

interest to the landscape. In large,
temperate sites, a pecan tree ( Carya
illinoinensis) can make a majestic
specimen for the backyard, and, in
cooler climates, chestnuts
( Castanea) ( see the photo on the

facing page) and walnuts Uuglans

regia) will substitute nicely.
Almonds (Prunus dulcis) are small
trees for warm sites, reaching only
15 ft. to 20 ft. tall, although they
can be pruned to accommodate a

Chestnut ( Castanea) is a cool-weather, nut-bearing tree for a sunny, open yard.

smaller space. Hazelnuts ( Cory/us

(c. maxima)
like partially shaded, protected
locations. They have spreads of
12 ft. to 1 5 ft. but can be pruned to
stay smaller. All are wind pollinated
and self-fertile except for almonds,

Avellana) and filberts

which are insect pollinated and

sometimes only partially self-fertile
( depending on the cultivar). Those
cultivars will be more productive if
another pollinating cultivar is
planted nearby.

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153

GARDENING
WITH BULBS
For me, there's no better
way to signal the end of
winter and the start of the
growing season than with
early blooming bulbs.
And there is nothing more
evocative of the freshness
of the season, nor more
filled with the anticipa
tion of summer, than a
huge bouquet of daffodils
or tulips on the dining
room table.
My woodland garden in
Vermont has a spectacular
spring display of Crocus
and Narcissus (daffodil)
(photo 1 ) . Before the
leaves unfurl on the trees,
the Crocus in the
foreground bloom in
shades of white, purple,
and yellow. As their show
ends, the daffodil show
begins. I have double
yellow and orange
('Tahiti'), double white
and yellow ('Cheerful
ness'), white with yellow
orange cups ('Pride of
Cornwall'), all yellow
('King Alfred'), all white
('Mount Hood'), yellow
with orange cups
( 'Arnbergate'), and creamy
whites with just a blush of
salmon-pink ('Passionale' ).
I love the masses of color
beneath the trees that
herald the start of the
groWlllg season.

154

Chapter Eleven

My favorite tulips for

early spring are the
botanical tulips like 'Red
Riding Hood' (photo 2), a
brilliant red that only
reaches 6 in. to 8 in. in
height and has maroon
striped, green leaves.
Spotted around my rock
garden, they make flashes
of color in concert with
Muscari (grape hyacinth),
Galanthus (white snow
drops), and Narcissus
'Tete-a-tete' (dwarf
daffodil).
Don't discount all-white
tulips, which, in a large
mass, evoke quite a
feeling of elegance and
simplicity. I also plant
groups of white tulips in
between other colors to
buffer strong, warm reds
and yellows. There are
early-, midseason-, and
late-blooming tulips in all
colors for a continuous
spring spectacle.
I am very fond of planting
bulbs of the same species
or cultivars together in a
group to make sizable
spots of interest. But to
provide successive color
in a garden, plant six or
eight tulips or daffodils in
a cluster near perennials
that bloom later, covering
the remnants of the bulbs.

I like to plant Allium

(photo 3 ) in all sizes.
The most imposing,
A. giganteum, have huge,
8-in. balls of purple
flowers on 2-ft.
stalks. The midsize
A. aflatunense is my
favorite, with purple
flower heads that are
4 in. across. They bloom
at the same time as my
pink poppies, and then I
leave the round, curious
looking seed heads as
whimsical companions
for the iris and
delphinium seasons.

Sprinkle the ground

with a bulb starter,
such as bone meal,
phosphorus, or com
mercial bulb booster,
and then cover the bulbs
with soil. Tamp firmly to
eliminate any air pockets.

Water thoroughly and

deeply, continuing on
occasion until winter
sets in. Then sit back
and wait until spring.

PLANTING
GUIDELINES
You can start planting
bulbs for spring color in
late summer into the late
autumn. No matter what
size bulb you plant, a few
general guidelines apply.
Plant bulbs about three to
five times their own
depth and about two to
three bulb widths apart.
The easiest way to plant a
number of them is to dig
one long hole at the
correct depth for the bulb
type you are planting and
place several in the hole
the correct distance apart.
Make sure the root end is
pointing down.

Specialty Gardens

15 5

C H APTE R 1 2

Hiring a Landscape
Architect, Designer,
or Contractor

or some readers, a number of the projects and techniques in this book

are beyond their skill level, so they need the help of a professional. If
this applies to you, the information in this book will help you become a
first-rate consumer when it comes to hiring a professional to design or build
the landscape or features within it.

But with so many architects,

designers, and contractors out
there, how do you choose one ?
Here are some general guidelines
that, when combined with the
information in this book, will help
you make an educated decision. Be
sure the person you hire has a
license if required, that you have
seen and like the work he does, that
he has good references, and that the
costs to do the job will not exceed
your budget.

LICENSING
REQUIREMENTS
Become familiar with your state's
laws regarding professional
landscape architects, designers, and
contractors. If you are looking for a
professional designer or architect
( although many landscape con
tractors are designers as well), keep
in mind that these titles could mean
different things in different states.

Just because a person says he

is an architect or designer,

But j ust because a person says h e is

an architect or designer, don't
automatically think that he has a
license or even formal training.
License requirements and laws vary
from state to state. For instance, in
Vermont, anyone can call himself a
landscape architect, regardless of
training and ability. In other states,
like Massachusetts and California,
there are very strict requirements
for licensing akin to those of
engineers and architects.
But in my opinion, neither a license
from the state nor accreditation
from a school provides a clear
indication of the breadth of
knowledge an architect or designer
might possess. For instance, I have
known landscape architects who
drew exquisite plans and made
great models of landscapes, but
they didn't know the difference
between a sugar maple and an
ash tree. By the same token, there
are great landscape designers out
there who have only a cursory
knowledge of contours but who
design superb gardens.

don't automatically think that

he has a license or even
formal training.
In general, the differences between
a landscape designer and a land
scape architect are the number of
years of graduate study, the depth
or scope of the work performed,
and certainly the price tag for that
work (an architect will typically
charge more ) .

Some states require landscape

contractors to be licensed. But,
unfortunately, there are many states
in which anyone can buy a pickup
truck and a shovel and start a
landscape business. Many of these
fly-by-nighters will be out of
business next year, and any
guarantees that were promised you
will be gone too. So, when hiring
an independent contractor, do
some research.

THE SEARCH
One of the easiest ways to find an
architect, designer, or contractor is
to drive around and look for land
scapes you like. When you come
across one, find out who designed
and installed it. If friends or
neighbors had some work done that
you like, ask them for the name of
the contractor and designer.

Some states require landscape

contractors to be licensed.
But there are many states in
which anyone can buy a
pickup truck and a shovel
and start a landscape
business. Many of these fly
by-nighters will be out of
business next year, and any
guarantees that were prom
ised you will be gone too.

If this doesn't work for you, use the

yellow pages or ask people at the
local garden center to name a few
architects, designers, or contractors.
Another option is to consult with
members of the local chapters of
associations related to landscaping,
such as the Association of Profes
sional Landscape Designers
(APLD ), the American Society of
Landscape Architects (ASLA), or
Allied Landscape Contractors of
America (ALCA). To get into one of
these associations, an architect, de
signer, or contractor may have to
submit samples of his work to a
j ury and must constantly reeducate
himself to remain a member. So the
names you get should be credible.

Hiring a Landscape Architect, Designer, or Contractor

157

WORK EXAMPLES
AND REFERENCES
Pare the list down to three names.
Because choosing a professional
landscape architect, designer,
or contractor is not something
you can, or should, do without
seeing his work, arrange to see
examples ( if you have not seen
any yet), either from a portfolio
or in real life.

Ask for references. Get the name

and phone number of the owners of
the landscapes you've seen pictured
and liked. Pick jobs that have been
in place for at least five years, so
you know they have held up over
time. You will be making a huge
investment in time and money that
will affect the value of your home
by as much as 1 5 % to 2 0 % . If the
architect, designer, or contractor
will not provide references, look
elsewhere.

Ask the previous clients general

questions not only about the work
but also about whether the
architect, designer, or contractor
met deadlines and was flexible.
Deadlines are important, especially
if you are paying by the hour.

There should be no surprises.

If your goal is to get a front
walk and six plants, that's
exactly what you should get.
By flexibility, I mean ego-j ust
that. Is the person willing to work
with you ? Will he meet your needs
and listen to you and not j ust forge
ahead with a design j ust because
he thinks it's right? I've had many
clients tell me horror stories about
paying for useless plans, where the
architect clearly did not ask the
right questions or give the home
owner the opportunity for input
during the planning process. If the
person you hire is not on the right
track, it is your right to communi
cate with him to try to correct it.

BUDGET
The last consideration is monetary.
It's important that the architect,
designer, or contractor work within
your budget and deliver what you
ask for. There should be no
surprises. If your goal is to get a
front walk and six plants, that's
exactly what you should get.

When a working plan has been completed. both designer and homeowner
should go out in the yard and discuss it to see how things will work.

158

Chapter Twelve

If it seems as if the costs are

exceeding what you originally
planned for, or if the architect,
designer, or contractor has an idea
that will add to the budget-and
you like it-the person should work
with you to alter the design to fit

that idea into the budget. He may

ask to eliminate an item or two
from the plan to bring costs down,
or he may suggest phasing in the
project over a period of time so that
you stay within your budget.

You should be able to

communicate your needs
and desires, and the architect,
designer, or contractor
should be given the
freedom to employ his or
her creative abilities.

In general, landscape architects,

designers, and contractors don't
come cheap, and this is truly a
business where you get what you
pay for. When you have a few bids,
throw out the lowest one just on
principle. Then spend an ample
amount of time comparing the
highest bid with the middle one,
looking for what is and what is
not included in the price, what is
guaranteed, and what materials will
be used and whether they will cost
extra. The best value might not be
the lowest priced, and it may be
well worth your while to pay the
extra buck.
Sometimes, the contractor may be
the designer also, performing the
function of a design-build firm.
This is not a bad route to go
because you could save some
money. Often the installation
offers the contractor the higher
profit margin, so he may discount
doing the plans just so he gets
the installation.

WORKING RELATIONSHIP
Once you have chosen a landscape
architect, designer, or contractor,
it's time to go to work. Remember,
he is working for you, and you
should be involved throughout the
process. But the job is a give-and
take situation, a partnership;
neither party should dictate to
the other.
Maintain a constant dialogue
throughout the design-and-build
process. This should not be an
adversarial relationship. You should
be able to communicate your needs
and desires, and the architect,
designer, or contractor should be
given the freedom to employ his or
her creative abilities to best
illustrate your desires on paper
or in the ground. Remember, you
have hired a professional for his
expertise. If you dictate what you
want without regard to his advice
and knowledge, with him simply
regurgitating your ideas, why did
you bother hiring him in the first
place? You have to give a certain
amount of latitude and trust to the
person you hire.

The architect, designer, or con

tractor should also show you
pictures or may even ask that you
visit the garden center (or some
previous jobs) together to look at
the plants and materials he has
suggested. This is a valuable
exercise because the plants that
actually are installed in your yard
will probably be smaller and may
not be in bloom. Take the time to
look at the plants with the designer
so you will be familiar with them
when they mature.

In general, landscape
architects, designers, and
contractors don't come
cheap. Spend time comparing
the highest bid with the
middle one, looking for what
is and what is not included in
the price, what is guaranteed,
and what materials will be
used and whether they will
cost extra. The best value
might not be the lowest
priced, and it may be well
worth your while to pay the

When a working plan is presented

to you, you should expect a full
explanation. Both designer and
homeowner should go out in the
yard and lay the design out with
props if need be. At this time,
because the plan is still malleable, it
can be changed. If you don't like
something, say so, and if the
designer has suggestions, listen to
him-don't be adverse to
suggestions yourself.

extra buck.

A good working relationship

with the architect, designer, or
contractor will be well worth the
patience and cooperation you both
demonstrate. If you had a good
relationship, and for some reason a
plant dies or a concept doesn't
work, the professional will be more
apt to correct the problem in a
timely, friendly fashion.

Hiring a Landscape Architect, Designer, or Contractor

159

USDA Plant-Hardiness Zone Map

Average Annual
Minimum Temperature
by Zone
Zone

Temperature "F
below 50
45 to -50
-40 to -45
-35 to -40

-30 to -35
-25 to -30
-20 to -25
58
-15 to -20
-10 to -t5
68_ -5 to -10
_
o to -5
5 to 0
10 to 5
t 5 to 1 0
Sa
2 0t o t 5
25 to 20
98
30 to 25
9b
108 35 to 30
40 to 35
40 and above

1 60

This map shows the United States divided into 1 1 zones. To use the map,
simply find the zone where you live and choose plants designated to grow
well in your zone. Be aware, however, that other factors, including soil,
exposure, moisture, and drainage, affect the growth of plants.

Further Reading

Andersen Source List, 4th edition.

Horticultural Library, University
of Minnesota. Minnesota Landscape
Arboretum. Chanhassen, Minne
sota. (List of retail and wholesale
nurseries indexed by plant name.)
Arnoux, Jean-Claude. The Ultimate
Water Garden Book. Newtown,
Connecticut: The Taunton Press,
Inc., 1996.
Carley, Rachel. The Backyard Book.
Edited by Tricia Foley. New York:
Viking Penguin, Inc., 1 9 8 8 .
Chatto, Beth. The Green Tapestry.
New York: Simon and Schuster,
1 989.
Dirr, Michael A. The Manual of
Woody Landscape Plants.
Champaign, Illinois: Stipes
Publishing Co., 1 990.
Druse, Ken. The Natural Garden.
New York: Crown Publishing
Group, 1 9 8 8 .
Fischer, Kerwin. Green Places in
Small Spaces. Newtown, Connecti

cut: The Taunton Press, Inc., 1 997.

Fisher, Sue. The Hanging Garden.
North Pomfret, Vermont: Trafalgar
Square, 1 996.
Gershuny, Grace, and Deborah
Martin, eds. The Rodale Book of
Composting. Emmaus, Pennsyl
vania: Rodale Press, 1 992.

Joyce, David, and Susan Conder.

Variegated Leaves. Old Tappan,
New Jersey: MacMillan, 1 994.
Lacey, Stephen. Scent in Your
Garden. New York: Little, Brown,
and Co., 1 9 9 1 .
Olkowski, William, Sheila Daar, and
Helga Olkowski. The Gardener's
Guide to Common-Sense Pest
Control. Newtown, Connecticut:
The Taunton Press, Inc., 1 996.
Pavord, Anna. The New Kitchen
Garden. New York: DK Publishing,
1 996.
Schuttner, Scott. Building and
Designing Decks. Newtown,

Connecticut: The Taunton Press,

Inc., 1 993.
Search, Gay. Gardening Without a
Garden. New York: DK Publishing,
1 997.
Stadelman, Peter. Water Gardens.
Hauppauge, New York: Barron's
Educational Series, Inc., 1 992.
van Sweden, James. Gardening with
Water. New York: Random House,
1 995.
von Trapp, Sara Jane. Landscape
Doctor. Shelburne, Vermont:
Chapters Publishing, 1 994.
Woods, Chris. Encyclopedia of
Perennials. New York: Facts on
File, 1 996.

Greenlee, John. The Encyclopedia of

Ornamental Grasses. Emmaus,
Pennsylvania: Rodale Press, 1 992.

161

Sources

Plants, bulbs, and seeds

Breck's
6523 N. Galena Road
P. O. Box 1 757
Peoria, IL 61 656-1 757
(800) 722-9069
Mail-order flower bulbs.
Dutch Gardens, Inc.
P. O. Box 200
Adelphia, NJ 0771 0
(800) 8 1 8-3 861
Mail-order flower bulbs
from Holland.
Charles Klehm & Sons Nursery
42 1 0 N. Duncan Road
Champaign, IL 61 82 1
(800) 553-3 71 5
Mail-order perennials, including
daylilies, hostas, peonies, and
some woody plants.
Lilypons Water Gardens
P. O. Box 1 0, Dept. 242 6
Buckeystown, MD 2 1 71 7-001 0
(800) 723-7667
Mail-order water plants
and supplies.
Milaeger's Gardens
4838 Douglas Ave.
Racine, WI 53402-2498
(800) 669-9956
Perennials, grasses, prairie
plants, vines, and bulbs.
Park Seed
1 Parkton Ave.
Greenwood, SC 29648-0046
(800) 222-3543
Mail-order seed catalogs.

162

Van Bourgondien Bros.

Box 1 000
Babylon, NY 1 1 702
(800) 552-9996
Mail-order bulbs.
Wayside Gardens Co.
Hodges, SC 29695
(800) 845- 1 1 2 4
Mail-order seeds.

Garden equipment
and supplies
The Clapper Co.
1 1 2 1 Washington St.
West Newton, MA 02 1 65
(61 7) 244-7900
Mail-order tools, garden furniture,
garden ornaments, and other
garden equipment.
Drip-Rite Irrigation Products
3 3 1 5 Monier Circle, Suite 2
Rancho Cordova, CA 95742
(91 6) 635-7401
e-mail: DripIrr@aol.com

Drip-irrigation products
and equipment.
Green Gems
P. O. Box 6007
Healdsburg, CA 95448-6007
(800) 43 1 -S0IL
Mail-order soil-testing kits.
Robert Compton Pottery
3 600 Route 1 1 6
Bristol, VT 05443
(802) 453-3 778

Ready-to-plug-in stoneware
fountains for indoor or out.

Country Home Products, Inc.

Meigs Road, P. O . Box 25
Vergennes, VT 0549 1
(800) 446-8746
Trimmers, mowers, brush cutters
with innovative designs.

Escort Lighting
201 Sweitzer Road
Sinking Spring, PA 1 9608
(800) 856-7948
Finely crafted garden lighting
in solid copper.
Gardener's Supply Co.
1 2 8 Intervale Road
Burlington, VT 05401
(800) 3 1 5-4005
Garden tools and equipment and
organic fertilizers and pesticides.
Lee Valley Tools, Ltd.
1 2 East River St.
Ogdensburg, NY 1 3 669
(800) 8 71 -8158
Mail-order gardening tools
and accessories.
Mantis Manufacturing Co.
1 028 Street Road
Southampton, PA 1 8966
(800) 366-6268
Lightweight garden tillers.
Nitron Industries, Inc.
P. O. Box 1 447
Fayetteville, AR 72 707
(800) 835-01 23
Organic growing supplies.
Resource Conservation
Technology, Inc.
2 633 N. Calvert St.
Baltimore, MD 2 1 2 1 8
(4 1 0) 366-1 1 46
Rubber liners for garden ponds.

Tetra Pond
3 001 Commerce St.
Blacksburg, VA 24060
(540) 951 -5400
Water-garden equipment
and supplies.
Troy-Bilt
1 Garden Way
Troy, NY 1 2 1 80
(800) 446-4991
A wide range of garden tillers.
Wicker Warehouse
1 95 South River St.
Hackensack, NJ 07601
(800) 989-4253
Discounted garden furniture.

Garden structures
City Visions, Inc.
3 1 1 Seymour St.
Lansing, MI 48933
(51 7) 3 72-3385
Outdoor structures.
Gardensheds
651 Mil/cross Road
Lancaster, PA 1 7601
(71 7) 397-5430
Potting sheds, storage buildings,
and wood containers.
Kinsman Co., Inc.
River Road
Point Pleasant, PA 1 8950
(800) 733-4 1 4 6
Compost bins, strawberry tubs,
and modular arbors, as well as
English garden tools.

Fences
Delgard Premier
Aluminum Fencing
8600 River Road
Delair, NJ 081 1 0
(800) 235-01 85
Aluminum fencing.
Saratoga Rail Fence & Supply, Inc.
P. O. Box 1 3 864
Albany, NY 122 1 2-9600
(800) 869-8 703
PVC fencing.

Retaining-wall and
patio systems
Keystone Retaining Walls
4444 West 78th St.
Minneapolis, MN 55435
(61 2) 897- 1 040
Retaining-wall systems.

Pave Tech, Inc.

P. O . Box 3 1 1 26
Bloomington, MN 5543 1
(800) 72 8-3832
Underground black PVC edging
for concrete pavers and bricks.

Risi Stone Systems

8500 Leslie St., Suite 390
Thornhill, L3T 7Pl , Ont., Canada
(905) 882-5898
Concrete wall systems.
Uni Paving Group USA
4362 Northlake Blvd., Suite 207
Palm Beach Gardens, FL 334 1 0
(407) 626-4666
Concrete pavers and supply
info about local dealers.

Sources

1 63

Photo Credits

Chapter
p.

4,

p.

Chapter
pgs.

7, 1 3, Kathleen Kolb

pgs.
p.

Ken Druse

8,
9,

p.

pgs.

pgs.

p.

24,

pgs.

3
pgs.
Detrick

p.

39,

Pamela Harper

45, 46, Derek Fell

pgs. 48, 52, 54, 58, 59, Kathleen Kolb
p. 5 1 , Alden Pellett
p. 53 top and bottom left, Keystone
pgs.

Retaining Walls
right, Risi Stone Systems

Chapter
pgs.

82

pgs.

83

bottom left,

60, 6 1 , 62, 63

bottom,

pgs.

64, 65,

Kathleen Kolb

63 top, Fine Gardening staff

p. 66, Alan Detrick
pgs. 68, 73, Alden Pellet

pgs.
pgs.

top

pgs.

97, 1 07 bottom right, Ken Druse

98, 1 0 1 , 105 top right, Derek Fell

pgs.

1 04

bottom right,

107

middle right, Pamela Harper

top and bottom,

1 06 top, Sloan Howard

107 left, Janet Loughrey
1 07 top right, Author

Ken Druse

1 1 1 , 1 1 3, 1 1 5, 1 1 6, 1 1 7, 1 1 8,
Sloan Howard

p.

1 12,

middle left,

Scott Phillips

118

top right,

1 19

pgs.
pgs.

164

bottom, Charles Miller

bottom right,

pgs.

11

135, 154 top, Ken Druse

136, 1 37, 1 3 8 middle left, bottom
left, 143 top, 1 50, 1 5 1 , 1 52, 153,
1 55, Derek Fell
1 3 8 top left, 143 bottom, 146
bottom, Alan Detrick

pgs.

pgs.

1 3 8 top right, 1 3 9 top and bottom,

142 bottom left and right, 1 44,
145, 1 46, 147 top and bottom,
1 54, Pamela Harper
1 3 8 bottom right, 142 top left,
Charles Mann

p.
p.

141, Susan Roth

143 middle, Janet Loughrey

69, 70 bottom, 71, 72, Susan Kahn

p. 70 top, Sloan Howard
pgs. 74 left, 75 top, California Redwood
Association

121

top left, Susan Kahn

p.

74 right, 75

right,

1 2 1 top right,
123 top left, middle
left, bottom left, 1 3 0 middle left,
bottom left, bottom right, 1 3 1 top

Chapter

pgs.

121
1 2 3 right, 1 27,

bottom,

top, middle,

p.

pgs.

1 19

1 3 1 top left, Derek Fell

1 1 8 bottom left, 1 3 1 bottom

Chapter

Chapter 9
1 1 0,

118

1 30

1 05, 106

bottom, Alan Detrick

p.

131

right, Pamela Harper

pgs.

p.

top left, bottom right,

middle right,

p.

96, 1 03, 105

p.

122,

Alan Detrick

8 6, Sloan Howard
92 bottom, Karin O'Connor

pgs.

Derek Fell

pgs.

p.

118

top left, middle left,

93, 94

82 top right, bottom right, 83

Chapter

bottom left,

Charles Mann

bottom left,

95,

1 1 7, 1 20, 1 2 1

middle right, Susan Roth

right, Charles Mann

p.
p.

p.

53

pgs.
Kathleen

83 top left, middle left, 89

92 top, 94 bottom, Pamela

10

Ken Druse

top left, middle left, middle

top,

34, 40, 4 1 , Scott Phillips

37, Susan Kahn
3 8, Kathleen Kolb

p.

pgs.

Harper

pgs.

Chapter

bottom,

middle right, bottom right,

25, 30, Susan Kahn

p. 29 top, Kathleen Kolb
pgs. 29 bottom, 3 1 , Alan
p. 32, Scott Phillips

p.

79, 80

right,

pgs.

Chapter

82

top,

Scott Phillips

Chapter

left,

Kolb

p.

p.

76, 77, 78

78 right, Ken Druse

80 top, 84, 89 bottom,

Susan Kahn

1 7, Sloan Howard
20 left, Derek Fell
20 right, Pamela Harper

p.

Chapter

Courtesy of Walpole Woodworkers

Sloan Howard

Chapter

p.

1 56,
158,

12

Sloan Howard
Susan Kahn

Index

Acidity of soil. See pH of soil.

Actinidia Kolomikta, pictured, 82
Ajuga 'Burgundy Glow', pictured, 127
Alchemilla mallis, pictured, 139
Alkalinity of soil. See pH of soil.
Allied Landscape Contractors of America,
mentioned, 1 5 7
Allium, pictured, 155
Almond tree (Prunus dulcis), 152
American Society of Landscape Architects,
mentioned, 1 5 7
Andromeda (Pieris), 1 2 1
Anemone Pulsatilla, pictured, 1 3 8
Arborvitae, for living fence, 9 5
Aristolochia durior, pictured, 8 2
Association o f Professional Landscape
Designers, mentioned, 157
Astilbe, pictured, 1 2 1
Auger, gas-powered, pictured, 86
Austrian pine (Pinus nigra), for living fence, 95
Azaleas, 1 2 1

Balance, in landscape, 38-39

Beaumontia grandiflora, pictured, 147
Berberis Thunbergii 'Crimson Pygmy', pictured,
94
Begonias, 1 2 1
Bird's-nest spruce (Picea Abies 'Nidiformis'),
130
Bluestone:
for retaining walls, 52, 53-54
for walkways and patios, 65-66
Board-and-batten fences. See Privacy fences.
Boston ivy (Parthenocissus tricuspidata ),
pictured, 83
Bougainvillea, pictured, 82
Boxwood (Buxus sempervirens), 1 3 1
pictured, 9 2
Bricks, for walkways and patios, 66-67
Bridalwreath (Spirea X Vanhoutei), pictured, 94
Building and Designing Decks (Schuttner),
mentioned, 74
Bulbs,
planting guidelines for, 155
for woodland garden, 154
Butterfly bush (Buddleia Davidii), 146-147
Buxus sempervirens, pictured, 92

Caltha palustris, pictured, 105

Campanula:
C. carpatica, 143
C. cochleariifolia, 143
C. garganica, 143
C. muralis, 143
C. persicifolia 'Alba', pictured, 1 3 8
Campsis radicans, pictured, 8 2
Canadian hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), pictured,
92
Canadian pondweed (Elodea canadensis), 104
Caragana arborescens 'Pendula', 1 1 9
Caryopteris 'Blue Mist', pictured, 1 3 1
Catmint, pictured, 145
Camperdown elm ( Ulmus glabra
'Camperdownii' ), 1 1 9
Chain-link fences, 78

Chamaecyparis dwarf cultivars, pictured, 1 3 0

Chamaecyparis pisifera 'Filifera Aurea',
pictured, 1 1 8
Chemical elements, affect on soil, 1 9
Cherries, 147
Chestnuts ( Castanea), pictured, 153
Children, habits of on landscape design, 26-27
Chinese dogwood ( Comus Kousa), 123
Chrysanthemum 'Snowcap', 44, 142

Clematis, pictured, 146

Clethra, pictured, 1 2 1
Climate, affect o n plants, 3 1 -33
Climbing hydrangea (Hydrangea anomala
petiolaris), pictured, 8 3
Climbing vines, for fences, 89-90
pictured, 82-83, 89
Climbing rose ( Rosa setigera), pictured, 8 3
Coleus, pictured, 121
Color, in landscape, 39-40, 44
Compost bin, plans for, 23
Composting, 22-23
Composition, in landscape, 36-37
Concrete wall systems, for retaining slope, 52-55
Container gardens, 13 7, 140
drip-irrigation kits for, 140
fruit trees for, 1 5 1 - 1 52
plants for, 140
pots for, 140
watering of, 140
Contractors,
hiring, guidelines for, 156-59
references of, obtaining, 1 5 8
Coreopsis 'Moonbeam', 44
pictured, 1 3 8
Corkscrew willow (Salix X erythroflexuosa),
119

Comus:
C. alba 'Sibirica', pictured, 1 1 8
C. florida, 123
C. Kousa, 123
C. stolonifera 'Flaviramea', 1 1 8
Cortaderia Selloana, pictured, 1 1 8
Corylus:
C. Avellana 'Contorta', pictured, 1 1 9
C. maxima, 152
Crab apples, 147
Creeping baby's breath ( Gypsophila repens), 142
Crimson pygmy barberry (Berberis Thunbergu
'Crimson Pygmy'), pictured, 94
Cyclone spreader, pictured, 1 1 1

Daylilies:
'Stella D'Oro', 44
for water gardens, 1 0 6
Daffodils, pictured, 154
Daphne 'Carol Mackie', pictured, 1 3 1
Deadmen, determining length of, 50-51
Decks,
with built-in planting boxes, pictured, 74
curved, multilevel, pictured, 73
designing, 73-74
detached, pictured, 75
irregularly shaped, pictured, 75
with shade structure, pictured, 74
wood for, 73
Drainage system, subsurface, installing, 1 1
Drawing tools, 40
Drum roller, pictured, 1 1 6
Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia durior),
pictured, 82

Dry well, 1 1
and drainage tiles, 1 1 - 1 2
a n d solid pipe, 1 2 , 1 3
Dwarf Alberta spruce (Picea glauca var.
albertiana 'Conica'), 143
Dwarf balsam fir (Abies balsamea 'Nana'), 1 30
Dwarf cattails ( Typha minima), pictured, 105
Dwarf Serbian spruce (Picea Omorika 'Nana'),
pictured, 1 3 0
Dwarf shastas ( Chrysanthemum 'Snowcap'), 142

Edible gardens, 144-145, 149-153

Elaeagnus angustifolia, for living fence, 95
Elodea canadensis, 104
Entertaining, considering in landscape plan, 27-28
Espalier, 150
Euonymus 'Emerald gaiety', 44

Fagus sylvatica 'Purpurea Pendula', 1 1 9

Fences:
aluminum, 80
chain link, 78, 89
climbing vines for, 82-83, 89
determining function of, 77
espaliered trees on, 89
installing, 85-88
on a slope, 86, 87, 88
tools for, 85, 86
turning corners, 88
living, 90-95
picket, 80-81
privacy, 77, 78-79
PVC, 84-85
style of, 29, 30
wrought iron, 79-80
Ferns, for water gardens, 106
Fertilizers:
affect on soil, 23-24
composition of, 24
Festuca, 1 1 8
Flowering dogwood ( Comus florida), 123
Fieldstone, for walkways and patios, 66
Filberts ( Corylus maxima), 152
Finish grading, 10, 109
tools for 9, 1 0
Fire thorn (Pyracantha coccinea ), 1 1 9
Firs, for living fence, 95
Foundation planting beds, 120, 122, 124-25,
126, 127, 128
balance in, 127, 128
layering, 124-125, 126
plants for, 1 3 0- 1 3 1
Fragrant garden, plants for 146-147
Fragrant sumac ( Rhus aromatica), 146
Frangipani (Plumeria obtusa), pictured, 147
French tarragon, pictured, 145
Fruit gardens, 150-153
container crops for, 1 5 1 - 1 5 2
pollinators i n , 1 5 0

Gaillardia ' Goblin', pictured, 142

Garden hose:
as guide when cutting sod, 1 1 5
for outlining curve o f wall, 5 7
for outlining planting bed, 3 7

165

as protective wrap on staked trees, 132-133

Gardenias, 14 7
Gardens. See individual types.
Goldflame honeysuckle (Lonicera X Heckrottii),
pictured, 83
Grade, 4
correcting, 8-10
determining, 7-8
negative 5-6
positive, S
Grass, growing, alternatives to, 1 1 6
Grass seed,
choosing a mix, 1 10-1 1 1
ingredients in, 1 1 1
when to plant, 1 1 0
spreading, 1 1 1 - 1 1 2
Gypsophila repens, 142

Hardware cloth, for fencing, 84

Hardy kiwi (Actinidia Kolomikta), pictured, 82
Harry Lauder's walking stick ( Corylus Avellana
'Contorta'), pictured, 1 1 9
Hazelnurs ( Corylus Avel/ana), 152

Hedera:
H. Helix 'Atropurpurea', 82
H. Helix 'Buttercup', 82
H. Helix 'Gold Heart', pictured, 82, 8 9
H . Helix 'Parsley Crested', 8 2
H . Helix 'Thorndale', 8 2
Hemerocallis, 1 2 3
Hemlocks, for living fence, 9 5
Herb gardens, 145, 149

Horizontal clapboard fences. See Privace fences.

Hostas, 1 2 1
for water gardens, 1 0 6
House, measuring for landscape plan, 35-36
Humulus Lupulus 'Aureus', pictured, 8 3
Hydrangea anomala petiolaris, pictured, 83
Hydrangea, 'PeeGee', pictured, 1 3 1

Ilex:
I. crenata 'Mariesii', 143

1. 'Sparkleberry', pictured, 1 1 9
1. verticillata, for living fence, 95

Impatiens, 121
Island beds:
of perennials, 136-137
plants for, 123
trees in, 123

Iris:
I. Kaempferi, pictured, 105
I. sibirica, pictured, 138
for water gardens, 1 0 6
Ivy (Hedera):
H. Helix 'Atropurpurea', 82
H. Helix 'Gold Heart', pictured, 82, 89
H. Helix 'Parsley Crested', 82
H. Helix 'Thorndale', 82

Japanese garden j uniper Uuniperus procumbens

'Nana'}, 143
Japanese iris ( Iris Kaempferi), pictured, 105
Jasmine (Stephanotis f/oribunda), 146

166

Index

Korean spice viburnum (sp. Viburnum

Carlesii), 147

Lady's mantle (Alchemil/a mol/is),

pictured, 1 3 9
Lamium, pictured, 121
Landscape:
designing around lifestyle, 26-28
urban vs. rural 30
Landscape architect:
hiring, guidelines for, 1 56-159
vs. landscape designer, 1 5 7
Landscape designer:
hiring, guidelines for, 156-159
vs. landscape architect, 157
Landscape plan:
color in, 39-40
composition in, 36-37
creating, 35-44
drawing, 40-44
drawing tools for, 40
scale and balance in, 38-39
texture in, 40
Lathyrus odoratus, 146
Lattice, hinged, for growing vines, 90
La vender, pictured, 145
Lawn:
establishing, merhods for, 1 0 9
fertilizing, 1 1 1 - 1 1 2
mowing, 1 12, 1 1 3
watering, 1 12 - 1 1 3
Lemon thyme ( Thymus X citriodorus 'Doone
Valley'}, 149
Leucothoe, pictured, 1 2 1

Lonicera:
L. X Heckrottii, pictured, 8 3
L. sempervirens, 8 3

Liatris:
L. 'Kobold', 44
pictured, 1 3 8
for water gardens, 1 0 6
Licensing requirements of professionals, 1 5 7
Lilac (Syringa vulgaris):
for living fence, 93, 95
Miss Kim, 131
pictured, 93
Lily of the valley, 121
Linden, 147
Living fences, 90-95
planning, 93
Lombardy poplar (Populus nigra 'Italica'), for
living fence, 95

Magnolias, 147

Magnolia stel/ata, pictured, 123

Mahonia Aquifolium, pictured, 1 3 1
Malus Sargentii, pictured, 1 1 9

Manchurian cherry, pictured, 1 1 8

Maples, for living fence, 95
Marsh marigolds ( Caltha palustris),
pictured, 105
Measuring:
of angled surfaces, 3 6
o f house, 35-36
to outlying objects, 37

Microclimates, 32-33
Miscanthus, pictured, 1 1 8
Missouri primrose ( Oenothera missourensis),
pictured, 143
Mock orange (Philadelphus), 146-147
Mountain laurel (Kalmia), 1 3 1
Mulch, benefits of, 1 3 4

Neighborhood, considering in landscape plan,

28-30
Nut gardens, 150-153
Nurrients for soil, adding, 2 1 -24

Nymphaea sp., pictured, 1 03, 104

Oaks, for living fence, 95

Oenothera missourensis, pictured, 143

Oregon grape holly ( Mahonia Aquifolium),
pictured, 1 3 1
Organic matter, affect o n soil, 22-23
Ornamental grasses, for water gardens, 106
Overwatering, results of, 134

Pampas grass ( Cortaderia Selloana), pictured,

118
Parthenocissus tricuspidata, pictured, 83
Pasque flower (Anemone Pulsatilla), pictured,
138
Patios:
designing, 6 1 , 63-64
determining size of, 28
installing, 68-72
installing, tools for, 68-69
materials for, 64-68
patterns for, 65, 67
two-level, 63-64
Pecan tree ( Carya illinoinensis), 152
Pennisetum, 1 1 8
Perennial gardens, 136-137
moon garden, 137
planting, 129, 132-134
plants for, 138-139
Perovskia, pictured, 146
Pets, habits of on landscape design, 27
pH of soil, 1 9-20
adj usting, 20-21
Picea Abies 'Nidiformis', 120
Picket fences, 80-81
Pines, for living fence, 95

Pinus:
P. nigra, for living fence, 95
P. Strobus, for living fence, 95
P. sylvestris, for living fence, 95

PJM rhododendron, 1 1 8 , 130

Planting beds, considerations when designing,
120, 122
digging to the correct depth, 129
See Foundation planting beds. Island beds.
Plants, choosing, 43-44
Plate compactor, pictured, 69
Plumeria obtusa, pictured, 147
Polygonum Aubertii, pictured, 8 3
Populus nigra 'ltalica', for living fence, 9 5
Post-and-rail fences, 8 1 , 84-85
Post-hole digger, pictured, 86

Poured concrete, for walkways and patios,

64-65
Precast concrete pavers, for walkways and
patios, 67-68
Pressure-treated wood, safety when cutting, 50
Privacy fences, 77, 78-79
Prunus Maackii (Manchurian cherry), pictured,
118

Pulmonaria:
pictured, 1 2 1
P. 'Mrs. Moon', 1 3 9
Purple basil ( Ocimum 'Dark Opal'), 1 4 5
PVC,
edging material from, 71, 72
fencing from, 84-85
Pyracantha coccinea, 1 1 9

Ranunculus aquatilis, 104

Red-twig dogwood ( Comus alba 'Sibirica'),
pictured, 1 1 8
Reinforcing timbers. See deadmen.
Retaining walls, types of, 46
Retaining walls, 14-15
Rhus aromatica, 146
Rhododendrons, 147
Rip-rap
retaining wall, 46, 47-49
terracing, 15, 47
Rock gardens, 140-141, 144
plants for, 141, 142-143, 144
in rip-rap wall, 140-141

Rosa:
R. setigera, pictured, 8 3
R. setigera 'Blaze', 83
R. setigera 'Don Juan', 83
R. setigera 'Golden Showers', 8 3
R. setigera 'New Dawn', 8 3
Rough grading, 8-9

Rubus biflorus, 1 1 8
Rudbeckia 'Goldsturm', 44
Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia), for living
fence, 95
Russian sage (Perovskia), pictured, 146

Sage (Salvia officinalis), 145

Salix x erythroflexuosa, 1 1 9
Salvia 'East Friesland', 44
Saponaria Ocymoides, pictured, 142
Sargent crab (Malus Sargentii), pictured, 1 1 9
Scale, in landscape, 38-39
Schuttner, Scott (Building and Designing Decks),
mentioned, 74
Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris), for living fence, 95
Screed board:
making from 2x4s, 70
using, 70-71
Seagreen juniper, 44
Season-long bloom, plants for, 1 1 8- 1 9

Sempervivum:
S. arachnoideum, pictured, 143
S. brevifolium, pictured, 143
S. kamtschaticum, pictured, 143
S. spurium, pictured, 143
Shade:
affect on plants, 33
growing grass in, 1 1 6
Shade gardening, plants for, 121

Shade structures, 97-102

Shasta double-file viburnum ( Viburnum
plicatum tomentosum 'Shasta'), pictured,
123
Shear, defined, 102
Siberian iris (Iris sibirica), pictured, 1 3 8
Silver lace vine (Polygonum Aubertii), pictured,
83
Skid-steer loader, pictured, 69
Slope:
creating, 1 5 - 1 6
retaining, methods for, 46-59
severe, water movement on, 10-12
Soapwort (Saponaria Ocymoides), pictured, 142
Sod:
laying, 1 1 3-14, 1 1 6
storing, 1 1 3 - 1 1 4
Soil:
determining type of, 1 8-20
permeability of, 1 8
p H of, 1 9-20
testing, 2 1
texture of, 1 8- 1 9
Soil test, r o determine soil moisture, 1 3 4

Spiraea:
S. x Vanhouttei, pictured, 94
S. nipponica 'Little Princess', pictured, 1 3 1
S . nipponica 'Snowmound', pictured, 1 3 1
Stake-and-string method o f determining grade,
7-8
Star magnolia (Magnolia stel/ata), pictured, 123
Stella D'Oro daylilies, pictured, 123
Stephanotis floribunda, 146
Stockade fences. See Privacy fences.
Stones:
cutting with chisel, 57
splitting, for wall, 56
Stone walls, dry-laid, for retaining slope, 55-59
rools for, 55

Stratiotes aloides, 104

Structures:
attached 98-101
incorporating into the landscape design,
97-102
freestanding, 1 0 1 - 1 02
freestanding, building kits for, 102
materials for shading, 100
sculpted beam ends on, 100- 1 0 1
wood for, 9 9
Sun, affect o n plants, 3 3
Swale, creating, 1 0 - 1 1
Sweet peas (Lathyrus odoratus), 1 4 6
Sweet woodruff, pictured, 145
Syringa vulgaris, pictured, 93

Terracing, 12-14
rip-rap, 15, 47
srone wall, 16
Texture, in landscape, 40
Timber walls:
for retaining slope, 49-52
wood for, 49-50
Topsoil, new, cautions against, 24
Traffic patterns, considering in landscape plan,
26-28
Transit, using ro determine grade, 7
Trees, staking, 1 32-134
Trumpet creeper ( Campsis radicans), pictured,
82

Trumpet honeysuckle (Lonicera sempervirens) '

83

Tsuga canadensis, pictured, 92

Tulips, 'Red Riding Hood', pictured, 154
Typha minima, pictured, 105

Ulmus glabra 'Camperdownii', 1 1 9

Underwatering, results of, 134

Vegetable gardens, 149

bed system of planting, 148
quick-harvested crops for, 149
site for, 149
Veronica incana, pictured, 142

Viburnum:

for living fence, 95

V. 'Mariesii', 44

V. plicatum tomentosum 'Shasta' " pictured

123

V. tri/obum 'Alfredo',

119
Vines, growing on hinged lattice, 90

Walkways:
curved, 3 1 , 42
designing, 61-62, 63
incorporating steps in, 62, 63
installing, 68-72
installing, rools for, 68-69
materials for, 64-68
measurements for, 6 1
patterns for, 6 5 , 6 7
shedding water from, 69
straight, 31
Walnuts Uuglans regia), 152
Water:
and grade of yard, 4-7
moving off a walkway, 69
redirecting from slope,
Watering plants, 1 34
Water crowfoot ( Ranunculus aquatilis), 1 04
Water gardens,
installing, 102, 104-106
ornamentation for, 106-107
plants for, 103, 104-105
Water lilies (Nymphaea sp.), pictured, 103, 104
Water-soldier (Stratiotes aloides), 104
Weigela 'Rhumba', 44, 1 3 1
Weeping birch ( Betula pendula 'Youngii'),
pictured, 1 1 8
Weeping purple beech ( Fagus sylvatica 'Purpurea
Pendula '), 1 1 9
Weeping Siberian pea ( Caragana arborescens
'Pendula'), 1 1 9
White pine (Pinus Strobus), for living fence, 95
Wmd, affect on plants, 32-33

Wisteria, 146
W. floribunda, pictured, 83
Witch hazel (Hamamelis), 146-147
Wrought-iron fences, 79-80

Yellow-twig dogwood ( Comus stolonifera

'Flaviramea'), 1 1 8
Yew (Taxus), 130

Index

167

Associate publisher: Helen Albert

Editorial assistant: Cherilyn DeVries
Editor: Thomas McKenna
Designer/Layout artist: Lynne Phillips
Illustrator: Pat Schories
Indexer: Carolyn Mandarano
Typeface: Sabonj Giltus
Paper: 80-lb. Somerset G loss
Printer: R.R. Donnel ley and Sons Com pany, Willard, Ohio

LANDS CAPING
from the Ground Up

The builders have left your dream house sitting on a bare

Following the author's practical, jargon-free advice, you

lot. Your older house has landscape flaws or lacks creative

will learn how to:

planting beds. You'd like to improve the look of the

Map an existing landscape and plan for new features

entrance, hide the well cover, or install a brick walkway.

Select materials and estimate costs

The key to the yard of your dreams is here in Landscaping

Use the right tools for each job

Build retaining walls

from the Ground Up.

Install walkways and patios

With the expert advice of professional landscape designer

Dig beds to add borders and gardens

Sara Jane von Trapp, you can increase the value of your

Select plants for low-maintenance gardening

home and turn your yard into an attractive outdoor space.

Plant shrubs, trees, perennials, and annuals

In this book, von Trapp explains exactly how to assess

Add special features such as water and rock gardens,

your site for possible improvements, how to choose the

garden furniture, and sculptures.

options that best fit your needs, and when to call a profes

About the Author

sional to help.

Sara Jane von Trapp is a professional landscape designer

and a certified horticulturist. She is also the author
of Landscape Doctor (Chapters, 1 994) .

I SBN 1 - 5 6 1 5 8 - 1 8 5 - 2

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