Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

Alliance at Risk
Strengthening European Defense in an
Age of Turbulence and Competition

Giampaolo Di Paola Richard Shirreff

François Heisbourg Tomasz Szatkowski
Patrick Keller Rolf Tamnes
Rapporteur: Jorge Benitez
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This publication is a product of the Brent Scowcroft Center on International
Security’s Transatlantic Security Initiative in partnership with Airbus.
 Alliance at Risk
Strengthening European Defense in an
Age of Turbulence and Competition

Rapporteur: Dr. Jorge Benitez is the Director of NATOSource and a Senior Fellow at the Atlantic Council.

Research Assistant: Albin Aronsson.

Acknowledgement: Thank you to Magnus Nordenman, Romain Warnault, Diya Li, Robbie Gramer, Sarah
DeLucia, and Jeff Fleischer for their valuable contributions to this report.

ISBN: 978-1-61977-963-1

Cover photo credit: Ministry of Defense of the United Kingdom. RAF Typhoon and Russian Su-27 Flanker.

This report is written and published in accordance with the Atlantic Council Policy on Intellectual
Independence. The authors are solely responsible for its analysis and recommendations. The Atlantic
Council and its donors do not determine, nor do they necessarily endorse or advocate for, any of this
report’s conclusions.

February 2016
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD 1
INTRODUCTION 3
UNITED KINGDOM 5
FRANCE 11
GERMANY 17
POLAND 23
ITALY 27
NORWAY 31
A
PEN APPENDIX 37
 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

FOREWORD

For more than six decades, NATO has provided the economic interests. Every member of NATO is more
shield behind which the democracies of Europe prosperous and secure today than the day it joined
have prospered in peace. By standing together, the NATO. NATO provides all of its members with more
allies prevented another major conflict in Europe so defense capabilities for less money than they would
their societies could rebuild from the catastrophic have individually. Through NATO, every euro invested
destruction of World War II. Investing in strong in defense provides each nation with more than a
defense and deterrence did not prevent the members euro’s worth of defense capabilities. For example,
of NATO from improving their respective economies. thanks to NATO the Baltic republics benefit from air
On the contrary, the safety and security provided by defense capabilities they could not afford, Turkey
NATO was one of the factors that made it possible benefits from Patriot missile defense systems it
for the Western democracies to recover from war and does not own, and Great Britain benefits from anti-
achieve greater levels of economic submarine capabilities it no longer
prosperity than ever before in the possesses. To quote the motto of
history of Europe. the US forces in Europe, NATO
NATO provides makes all of its members “Stronger
Although the allies faced all of its members Together.”
many challenges, crises, and
confrontations with the Soviet with more defense In a few months, NATO’s leaders
Union during the Cold War, national capabilities for will gather for a summit meeting in
commitments to deterrence and
strong defense through NATO
less money than Warsaw, Poland. They will discuss
many challenges faced by the
kept the peace. The generations they would have Alliance. Strengthening European
that created NATO and won individually. defense will be a common element
the Cold War did so with fewer that contributes to overcoming
resources than we have today. these multiple threats to NATO.
Today the transatlantic community Strengthening European defense
faces a world that is more turbulent and threatening will provide the resources to help deter the threat from
than at any period since the end of the Cold War. the East and prevail over the dangers from the South.
The crumbling order in the Middle East has spawned Strengthening European defense will also provide the
refugee flows not seen since World War II, and has capabilities to tackle new threats, such as cyberattacks
given rise to potent nonstate groups with the reach and and the spread of ballistic missiles. And strengthening
power to not only destabilize countries in the region, European defense will help restore balance to the
but also carry out terrorist attacks in Europe. Russia’s transatlantic relationship and facilitate continued
continued aggression and assertiveness threatens the investments in European security from our allies in
European security order based on the premise of a North America.
Europe whole, free, and at peace. In spite of this new
security environment and pledges made at the NATO I welcome this report because we will all benefit from
summit in Wales in 2014 to invest in defense, the recent its goal of strengthening European defense. In these
record on European defense spending and investment perilous times, there is no better investment for our
is arguably very mixed, to put it mildly. democracies than to defend the safety of their citizens
and peace in Europe.
Now is our time to invest responsibly in the Alliance,
not in spite of our economic interests and challenges, Jaap de Hoop Scheffer
but because NATO protects both our security and Former Secretary General of NATO

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 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

INTRODUCTION

The broader transatlantic community faces a new the Alliance’s north, south, east, and west, which also
and dynamic security environment, which includes a serves to illuminate the many perspectives and diverse
newly assertive Russia intent on altering the European defense priorities that exists within the Alliance today.
security order in its favor and a turbulent and violence Defense spending and investment is complex, and
wracked Middle East and North Africa that has, among can hardly be judged on numbers alone. In terms of
other things, spawned the rise of the Islamic State of generating capabilities and ready forces, it is often
Iraq and al-Sham (ISIS) and refugee flows not seen just as important how the funding gets spent, as
since the end of World War II. Europe’s security climate how much of it is put into the defense budget. This
is arguably at its worst in over twenty-five years. project therefore looks beyond the raw numbers, and
provides analysis and recommendations from experts
To respond to these new security challenges, the and practitioners that are intimately familiar with the
members of NATO committed themselves at the nations covered in this report.
2014 NATO summit in Wales to increased defense
spending after a long period of defense austerity The transatlantic community faces a long-term future
across the Alliance, and to a greater focus on defense of turbulence and competition, which features both
investment. To date, however, the results of these new state and nonstate adversaries, as well as strategic
commitments have been mixed at best. The lack of shocks and sudden change. Strengthening European
broad progress is especially worrying as the Alliance defense capabilities will be a key building block to
approaches the Warsaw Summit during the summer ensure that NATO can remain relevant and able to
of 2016, a milestone where many hope that NATO can defend the values and interests of its members, and
begin to build a new and robust long-term approach to provide for peace and stability in Europe. As NATO
the new security challenges to NATO’s east and south. Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg emphasized;
“We are facing the biggest security challenges in a
To highlight the challenges in defense spending, and generation. They are complex, interrelated and come
provide recommendations on the way forward, the from many directions. . . . So now is the time to invest
Atlantic Council launched its “Alliance at Risk” project, in our defense.”
which draws together noted experts and former senior
officials to provide analysis and recommendations for This Atlantic Council project would not have been
how the Alliance should think about defense spending possible without the generous support of Airbus,
and defense investments in these turbulent times. the Council’s long-standing partner on transatlantic
The project highlights six leading NATO nations from security issues.

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 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

UNITED KINGDOM
by Richard Shirreff

The publication of the 2015 Strategic Defense and In order to understand how the Cameron government’s
Security Review (SDSR) is a watershed moment for SDSR will reset defense and improve the capability of
the United Kingdom (UK).1 It offers the opportunity the British armed forces, it is important to examine the
to rebuild capabilities lost in the past decade of broader political and strategic context behind it. This
resources-driven defense reviews and to arrest the also requires addressing the current global security
weakening trend in defense and foreign policy that environment as the UK finds it, and not as the UK
has been a feature of the last five years. With strong would like to see it.
political leadership and a willingness to think and act
strategically, the David Cameron First, as the Prussian military
government has the chance to strategist Carl von Clausewitz
re-establish the UK as a force for reminds us, the heart of the
good in defense and security and The David Cameron challenge faced in the conduct of
a respected European contributor government has war is to understand the character
of conflict, that ever-enduring
to NATO.
the chance to feature of the human condition.3
Even before the SDSR was re-establish the Even more difficult is the
released, there was evidence challenge of identifying what the
for optimism. In particular, the
UK as a force for future holds. As military historian
decision in Chancellor of the good in defense Professor Sir Michael Howard
Exchequer George Osborne’s
budget to ring-fence defense
and security warns, “No matter how clearly one
thinks, it is impossible to anticipate
spending at 2 percent of gross and a respected precisely the character of future
domestic product (GDP) sent a European conflict. The key is not to be so
much-needed signal of political far off the mark that it becomes
commitment, and did much for UK contributor to impossible to adjust once that
credibility.2 But the rhetoric must NATO. character is revealed.”4 Therefore,
be backed by substance. Despite what will the character of twenty-
Osborne’s announcement, a Royal first-century conflict require of
United Services Institute report Britain’s armed forces?
warned that defense spending will fall to 1.85 percent
of GDP by the end of the decade (unless the budgets In essence, the nonstate and state actors that Britain
for the intelligence agencies are included). SDSR will will face on the battlefield will all take advantage
help repair the damage that has been done to UK of various asymmetric techniques and capabilities
defense capabilities since the turn of the century. Two to circumvent Britain’s strengths and exploit its
percent of GDP is probably the minimum amount of vulnerabilities. Instead of the traditional spectrum
spending needed to prevent our military from falling of warfare, with peacekeeping operations on one
to a diminished capability and becoming a hollowed- end and total war between states on the other,
out force. Regenerating lost capabilities will almost adversaries will challenge the UK with a dynamic
certainly require more resources. combination of different forms of warfare, rather than
a neat escalation from one type to another. Thus, our
1 Government of the United Kingdom, National Security Strategy forces could face conventional and irregular warfare,
and Strategic Defence and Security Review, November 2015,
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/ terrorism, insurgency, and criminal activity at the
attachment_data/file/478933/52309_Cm_9161_NSS_SD_
Review_web_only.pdf 3 Carl von Clausewitz, On War, translated and edited by Michael
2 HM Treasury and the Rt Hon. George Osborne MP, Government Howard and Peter Paret (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
of the United Kingdom, “Summer Budget 2015,” https://www. Press, 1976).
gov.uk/government/publications/summer-budget-2015/summer- 4 Michael Howard, The Use and Abuse of Military History
budget-2015. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), pp. 194-5.

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Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

Challenger 2 tank of the Royal Welsh Battle Group. Photo credit: Ministry of Defense of the United Kingdom.

same time, instead of in theoretical isolation from The threat to UK defense is posed by a resurgent
one another. This type of conflict is called a “hybrid Russia. The Russian invasion of Crimea, its support for
conflict,” an amalgamation of high-tech combat separatists, and its invasion of eastern Ukraine have
operations and long-term stabilization operations. effectively ripped up the post-Cold War settlement
Some of these hybrid conflicts can result in combat of of Europe. President Vladimir Putin has shattered any
extreme intensity. Hybrid conflicts such as these will be thoughts of a strategic partnership with NATO; instead,
relentless and will tax our physical and psychological Russia is now a de facto strategic adversary. Even
endurance. These conflicts will also need to be won more dangerously, the threat is potentially existential,
under intense scrutiny from the media and politically because Putin has constructed an international
empowered and well-connected groups with insatiable dynamic that could put Russia on a collision course
demands for information.5 with NATO. At the center of this collision would be the
significant Russian-speaking populations in the Baltic
Furthermore, these complex hybrid conflicts will states, whose interests are used by the Kremlin to
probably remain a defining characteristic of warfare justify Russia’s aggressive actions in the region. Under
in the twenty-first century, even in conflicts between Article 5 of NATO’s Washington Treaty, any military
states. Thus, Iraq and Afghanistan are not aberrations move by Putin on the Baltic states would trigger war,
but representations of the future, as was Lebanon in potentially on a nuclear scale, because the Russians
2006, Georgia in 2008, and most recently, Syria and integrate nuclear weapons into every aspect of their
eastern Ukraine. So in general terms, the UK faces two military thinking.
primary challenges: defense and security, each of which
epitomizes the breadth of issues that the SDSR must The implications for UK’s SDSR are clear. Britain’s
confront. previous National Defense Strategy stated, among
5 Gen. Sir Richard Shirreff, “Unity of Purpose in Hybrid Conflict: other things, that there is no existential threat to its
Managing the Civilian/Military Disconnect and ‘Operationalizing’ shores.6 Putin has rendered this strategy obsolete,
the Comprehensive Approach,” speech delivered at Chatham
House on March 23, 2010, https://www.chathamhouse.org/ 6 Government of the United Kingdom, “A Strong Britain in an Age
sites/files/chathamhouse/public/Meetings/Meeting%20 of Uncertainty: The National Security Strategy,” October 2010,
Transcripts/230310shirreff.pdf. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/

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 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

not least because there is an existential threat to the presence in the region. Along with the Baltic air-
territory of the allies Britain must defend through policing mission, effective deterrence demands more
Article 5, which states that an attack on one NATO than just episodic training activity. Rather, a permanent
state is an attack on all. While the SDSR does not land presence is required to prevent any Russian coup
face the existential threat posed by Russia head on, it de main operation that could achieve its aims before
does make it clear that the UK’s independent nuclear any NATO reserves are able to react. Given the UK’s
deterrent is “essential” and calls for the acquisition strong defense relationship with Norway, Denmark,
of four new nuclear armed submarines to replace the and the Baltic states, the capability of Britain’s armed
Vanguard class and provide a “Continuous At Sea forces, and the respect in which they are still held, it
Deterrent.”7 would be appropriate for the UK to contribute units
to a combined arms brigade, equipped with tanks,
Furthermore, the UK must structure and resource its armored infantry, artillery, engineers, and attack
armed forces to meet the needs of NATO as it faces its helicopters based in Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.
greatest defense challenge since the end of the Cold
War. While NATO’s declaration at its 2014 Summit In addition to in-place forces, NATO also needs strong
outlined ambitious new measures to deter Putin, no and capable reserves able to deter attacks within the
member state has since followed up with significant airspace, through the sea lines of communication,
defense spending increases. Through the SDSR, and within the territory of the Alliance. This means
the UK, as the largest defense spender in Europe, is having the right command and control, readiness,
beginning to step up and play a and capabilities. There are high
leading role, ensuring NATO sends expectations surrounding the
a powerful message of deterrence To deter any establishment of NATO’s Very
to Russia. The message is “thus High Readiness Joint Task
far perhaps but absolutely no Russian Force, but unless it is a standing
further,” and it requires a strategy encroachment force—trained and ready, with
in which diplomacy and sanctions permanently allocated units and
are backed up by military strength.
into the Baltic a fixed command structure—it will
Underpinning everything that states, NATO be useless. At the very least, NATO
NATO (and therefore the UK) does
is the need for strong conventional
should establish needs a twenty-first-century
version of the Allied Command
and nuclear deterrence to ensure a permanent Europe (ACE) Mobile Force,
that Putin does not gamble on presence in the which had a permanent tactical
what he rightly perceives to be headquarters and allocated units
Western weaknesses. region. across the Alliance. The ACE
Mobile Force trained annually
In terms of defense, the UK also in northern Norway or Turkey,
needs to think through what under the direct command of the Supreme Allied
collective defense means in the twenty-first century in Commander Europe (SACEUR). Only such a force,
the face of a Russian asymmetric approach that seeks capable of a rapid response, will be an adequate high-
to undermine the integrity of a state from within, and is readiness reserve. Britain should consider taking on
below the threshold that would trigger a multinational, framework nation responsibility as it did effectively
Article 5 response. The UK needs to develop strategies with its innovative establishment of the first of NATO’s
that help its allies counter the manipulation of High Readiness Forces (Land) (HRF(L)), the Allied
minorities by Russian Special Forces, in addition to Rapid Reaction Corps (HQ ARRC), in 1992.
improving resilience against psychological operations
and cyberattacks. This needs careful thought. However, On top of this, the NATO response force needs to be
there also needs to be training and education at the rebuilt and capable of deploying a corps-sized force
highest political levels to ensure that the decision for warfighting at graduated readiness. On land, Britain
makers in NATO are ready for the challenge when it should be ready to provide the corps headquarters
comes. Britain is well-placed to play a lead role in this. based on HQ ARRC (still the primus inter pares of
HRF(L) in the Alliance) but also a division of three
Next, to deter any Russian encroachment into the brigades, together with the necessary level of combat
Baltic states, NATO should establish a permanent and combat service support. Such a powerful package
attachment_data/file/61936/national-security-strategy.pdf. must also be matched by similar capabilities at sea and
7 Government of the United Kingdom, National Security Strategy in the air.
and Strategic Defence and Security Review, op. cit.

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Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

Royal Navy Astute class submarine HMS Ambush. Photo credit: Ministry of Defense of the United Kingdom.

In terms of security, the challenge that the UK faces, First, through the deployment of precision strike; special
along with its Western allies in NATO, the European forces; and other intelligence, surveillance, target
Union (EU), and the G7, is the pernicious threat of acquisition, and reconnaissance (ISTAR) assets to target
jihadi Islam let loose by a combination of the invasion the enemy. Second, through the stabilization of fragile
of Iraq in 2003, the Arab Spring, the Syrian civil war, states via full-spectrum capacity building, part of which
and the collapse of Libya in 2011. While this does not includes growing the capabilities and professionalism
pose the existential threat that war with Russia would, of indigenous armed forces so they can take on the
particularly given the nuclear dimension, it does pose jihadis themselves. In addition to rebuilding a high-end
a generational security and terrorist threat to Western warfighting capability, the SDSR should institutionalize
citizens worldwide. This security threat has plunged and provide the resources for Britain’s armed forces to
the Middle East into chaos and bloodshed and is a real deploy capacity building teams with appropriate force
and present threat to the internal security of Western protection and logistical support.
nations.
However, none of this will happen without the right
Ultimately, the solution to the phenomenon of ISIS and strategic thinking or resources. First, the Cameron
other jihadist groups lies in winning the battle of ideas, government must discover a willingness to commit the
and this solution can only come from within Islam in right ways and means to achieve strategic effect against
the form of an Islamic reformation. Nevertheless, the the UK’s adversaries. The coalition government’s
British armed forces, along with their allies, have a timid unwillingness to make an overseas commitment
role to play as part of an internationally agreed upon, must be set aside, and Prime Minister Cameron must
comprehensive, and politically led strategy. While discover the confidence to commit appropriately to
large-scale coalition military deployments, such as contributing to the defense and security challenges
those we saw in Iraq and Afghanistan, are potentially of the age. Above all, the relationship with the United
counterproductive, there are two ways in which British States must be rebuilt, and the pride in standing
armed forces can contribute to a strategy to neutralize shoulder to shoulder with the UK’s most important ally
jihadism as a threat. rediscovered. As US President Barack Obama said in a

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 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

British Royal Marines skiing in Norway. Photo credit: Ministry of Defense of the United Kingdom.

recent BBC interview, “part of the greatness of Great under-trained reserves; the scrapping of Royal Navy
Britain, of the United Kingdom, is that it is willing, as escort ships; carriers built but with no aircraft to fly
we are, to project power beyond our immediate self- off of them for some years; the disposing of this island
interests to make this a more orderly, safer world.”8 nation’s maritime patrol aircraft. On top of this, a force
The Cameron government must demonstrate that it is hollowed out to such an extent that the deployment
ready to rebuild and live up to that of a brigade, let alone a division,
reputation. at credible readiness would be

Second, this defense review is

[The UK’s military a major challenge. Indeed, last
November’s deployment of a
an opportunity to re-establish has been] hollowed small armored battlegroup to
credibility, not only with the United out to such an Poland—to take part in a flagship
States but also with Britain’s
allies, who are disappointed at extent that the NATO exercise to demonstrate
solidarity against Russia—almost
the diminished stance of Western deployment of a necessitated retrieving tanks from
Europe’s premier military power.
The UK government has made a
brigade, let alone a the training fleet in the western
prairies of Canada, because the
good start with its commitment division, at credible serviceability and spares situation
on defense spending. Now it
must put its defense house in
readiness would be in the UK’s fleet was so dire.9

order. And there is much to be a major challenge. Finally, for this review to be
done after the severe cuts made genuinely strategic, statesmanship
by the coalition government: will be necessary and short-term
regular army manpower slashed by nearly 20 percent political calculation will need to be set aside. The
and increased dependence on under-recruited, implementation of the new national defense strategy
8 “Full Transcript of BBC Interview with President Barack Obama,”
BBC, July 24, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us- 9 “British Army on Polish NATO Exercise,” British Army, November
canada-33646542. 20, 2014, http://www.army.mod.uk/news/26733.aspx.

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RAF Reaper drone. Photo credit: Ministry of Defense of the United Kingdom.

must address the threats of the age, whether it is reversing this trend and ensuring a stronger Britain in
revanchist Russia and its potential clash with NATO or the years ahead.
the arc of chaos on the periphery of Europe. Strategy—
the integration of ends, ways, and means in the pursuit General (ret.) Sir Richard Shirreff, KCB, CBE, is Director
at Strategia Worldwide Ltd. and was NATO’s Deputy
of policy—requires putting substance behind the first
Supreme Allied Commander Europe from 2011 to 2014.
duty of government: protection of the state. For more
The opinions expressed in this essay are those of the
than a decade, the Cameron-led coalition government author and do not represent the views of the British
and its predecessors took significant risk with Britain’s government.
defenses. The 2015 review is an important step to

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FRANCE
by François Heisbourg

Unlike most European countries, France enjoys the war, eventually forcing the United States to abandon
unusual situation of not being overly constrained in its its attempts to secure the assent of the UN Security
defense policy and military spending by an unwilling Council. This widely supported opposition stance
electorate or stingy taxpayers. It is not that the demonstrated to the French that they were able to
French are particularly bellicose as a people: During make their own decisions and, as events proved, to act
the 2003 Iraq crisis, opinion polls showed levels of wisely. This added to the French President’s already
disaffection for the Iraq war were as great as those strong credit as Commander in Chief.
in other European countries. Contrary to conventional
wisdom, the French were similarly opposed to military France took a very different position in August 2013
intervention in Libya, with some 63 over the use of chemical weapons by Syrian President
percent of the public against it on Bashar al-Assad’s regime in
the eve of military operations.1 Damascus. The British House of
No serious Commons refused to authorize
Instead, simply put, the French United Kingdom participation in
tend to trust their government
politician . . . has the US-led airstrikes then being
when it comes to matters of chosen to make prepared against Assad’s forces.
war and peace. The day after
then-President Nicolas Sarkozy
a career out of In contrast, French aircraft stood
down only four hours before the
announced the first airstrike advocating military operation was to commence,
against Libya’s former dictator spending cuts or when US President Barack Obama
Muammar al-Qaddafi’s forces explained to a surprised French
near Benghazi, opinion polls discarding the President that he had changed his
showed public support for the war nuclear deterrent. mind about enforcing the red line
jumped to more than two-thirds, he had drawn.
and stayed above or around 50
percent until the end of operations This rallying around the flag also
more than six months later.2 This high level of support applies to defense spending and defense policy. No
continued despite the widespread initial expectations serious politician, even at the extremes of the multihued
of a shorter campaign. French political spectrum, has chosen to make a career
out of advocating military spending cuts or discarding
When current President François Hollande announced the nuclear deterrent, which absorbs around a fourth
the wholly unexpected launch of operations against of the defense acquisition budget. Even the Greens
a sudden jihadi offensive in Mali in January 2013, keep their otherwise strong antinuclear stance in check
public and political support were instantaneous and when it comes to nuclear deterrence, and the hard
massive, notwithstanding the very low levels of trust left puts little energy into attempting to reduce arms
and popularity from which President Hollande was acquisitions in exchange for higher social spending.
suffering in opinion polls. Over the years, opinion polls have indicated that the
public believes defense spending should neither be
In 2003, the trust placed in the executive was increased nor diminished. Presidents can easily justify
reinforced by the decision not to participate in the increases in defense spending, as was the case for
invasion of Iraq. France actively fought against the former President Jacques Chirac from 2002 to 2007.
1 “Les Français et la légitimité d’une intervention militaire In France, as in other democracies, the Ministry of
en Libye” [The French and the Legitimacy of a Military Finance fights defense spending on principle; but in
Intervention in Libya], Institut Français D’Opinion Publique
(IFOP), October 3, 2011, http://www.ifop.com/?option=com_ France, the Ministry of Finance is the only opponent
publication&type=poll&id=1427 (in French).
2 Ibid.

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French Mirage 2000N. Photo credit: Ministry of Defense of the United Kingdom.

of the Ministry of Defense—albeit an exceptionally year,3 excluding military pensions. If military pensions
aggressive one. are included, as is done in NATO statistics, along with
a dual-use research and development (R&D) fund
The leeway accorded by favorable public opinion (not included in NATO figures), the total is some
extends to the question of leadership in European 41.2 billion euros, i.e., 1.95 percent of 2014 GDP,4 just
security. Even if NATO is less popular with the French shy of NATO’s important 2 percent benchmark. The
public than European defense or purely national control qualifying verb (“appears”) used above refers to the
of policy, the French will defer to the option chosen transient elements in both revenue (e.g., nonrecurring
by their President. This deference is demonstrated by funding from the sale of state-owned assets, and
public support and bipartisan approval of the US-led supplemental funding to cover part of the costs of
Gulf War of 1991, to which France committed a combat unforeseen military operations) and expenditures (e.g.,
division; the NATO-run war in Kosovo in 1999, to which excess costs from unforeseen military operations),
French aircraft executed more combat sorties than which make it difficult to compute a solid retrospective
any other European air force; and the French-UK led budget outturn. Overall, the figures come close to the
campaign under NATO auspices in Libya in 2011. mark, in that the Hollande presidency (which began in
2012) has given symbolic importance to being able to
The bottom line is that what ultimately weighs on
stick to the 31.4 billion euros figure, if needed, through
French defense spending and military capabilities will
ad hoc budget adjustments.
be the availability of resources and the political and
strategic ambitions of its leaders, rather than public or In practical terms, this means that defense spending
party political pressure. Available inputs and desired has diminished in terms of purchasing power, with an
outputs are unfortunately diverging. average headline inflation rate of 1 percent during the

INPUTS 3 “Les chiffres de la défense” [Defense Figures], editions 2012,

2013, and 2014, French Ministry of Defense (www.defense.gouv.
Despite the ongoing economic crisis in Europe, French fr); press reports for latest 2015 estimates (in French).
defense spending appears to have held up in nominal 4 Insee (French National Statistics Office), http://www.insee.fr/fr/
terms from 2012 to 2015 at around 31.4 billion euros per default.asp (in French).

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 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

period 2012-15. This loss of purchasing power has been fulfilling NATO commitments than they had been in
partially recouped through cuts in military manpower. previous years, because the ability to participate in a
joint allied major military operation has become the
In summary, slow erosion, rather than severe cuts, force dimensioning mission. Previously, from the end
characterizes defense spending under Hollande. This of the Cold War until 2013, it was a Gulf War-1991 type
was also the case under his predecessor Sarkozy, of contingency, which was the force dimensioning
coming after the budget increases under Chirac in the mission, emphasizing long build-up times, far-flung
2002-07 period. Given France’s defense and security logistics, and involving Middle Eastern adversaries.
ambitions, this may not be good enough to maintain This was both highly demanding in terms of cost and
an adequate force structure and posture, particularly manpower, and out of step with more likely NATO
in a much more challenging threat environment. contingencies. Quick response and high-end but
less numerous forces are now emphasized, a choice
OUTPUTS validated by the return of war in the former USSR and
From this limited resource base, France manages to the Mediterranean. Smaller contingencies, such as in
extract a diversified, broad-spectrum, versatile, and Mali in 2013 or the NATO operations in Libya in 2011,
competent force structure. are nested in the dimensioning capability.

Deterrence is ensured through a nuclear dyad of four Since the end of the Cold War, French forces have been,
second-generation nuclear-powered ballistic missile on average, employed in five or six distinct military
submarines with sixteen missile tubes and sixty ground- operations each year. For example, French forces have
based, carrier-borne Rafale combat participated in six operations thus
aircraft equipped with supersonic far in 2015: Operation “Barkhane”
nuclear-tipped cruise missiles. Since the end against terrorist groups in the
The corresponding close to three
hundred nuclear warheads are
of the Cold War, Sahel; Operation “Sangaris” in the
Central African Republic; Operation
brand new, designed for a long life French forces have “Chammal” against ISIS in Iraq and
after the test-ban treaty. Stockpile
stewardship has benefitted from
been, on average, Syria; UNIFIL in South Lebanon;
and counter-piracy operations
heavy investment—in cooperation employed in five or undertaken by the European
with the United States’ National six distinct military Union (Operation “Atalanta” in the
Ignition Facility, along with jointly Indian Ocean) and France alone
built and operated R&D facilities in operations each (Operation “Corymbe” in the Gulf
France and the UK—since before year. of Guinea). These involved a total
the middle of the twentieth century. of close to ten thousand military
personnel, in line with past patterns.
Since the 2008 white paper In addition to these numbers, some
on defense and national security was released,5 ten thousand soldiers were also deployed in France
intelligence has been recognized as a pivotal strategic itself (Operation “Sentinelle”) to secure vulnerable and
priority, with a corresponding expansion of imagery sensitive sites against terrorist attacks.
(IMINT), electronic (ELINT), and human intelligence
(HUMINT) assets, and their competent integration France has military bases and facilities on or near every
at all levels into the decision-making and operational continent, including in Djibouti and Abu Dhabi, as well
processes, with an accordingly shortened decision- as on the Kourou spaceport in Guyana. With 215,000
making cycle. This expansion paid handsome active duty military members (of which 115,000 are
dividends in the high-tempo operations in Mali in 2013, in the Army) and a small operational reserve of some
in a battlespace the size of Texas. The increase in the 26,000, France’s forces are clearly being stretched
size and capability of the Special Forces is also part of by these multiple commitments. Moreover, the size
this process. of the force structure has been shrinking rapidly and
substantially, while commitments have remained at
Intervention forces have shrunk along with the high levels. Indeed, after the terror attacks in France
size of the manpower pool (see below). Somewhat in January 2015, the government sharply reduced the
paradoxically, they are probably better suited to pace of force reductions. The problem here is one of
over-commitment, not one of absolute scale. As a ratio
5 “The French White Paper on Defense and National Security,”
Présidence de la République, 2008, http://www.ambafrance-ca.
of active servicemen and -women to the population,
org/IMG/pdf/Livre_blanc_Press_kit_english_version.pdf. France with 3.3 per thousand is doing better than the

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Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle off the coast of France in 2014. Photo credit: Hervé Dermoune.

UK (1.7) or Germany (2.2), if not the United States (4.4), economic growth and thus broaden its budget base.
which has an additional extensive operational reserve. Nor is it clear that the political economy of the
Indeed, as is the case for other continental European eurozone, characterized by suboptimal growth and
countries, the French military is undercapitalized the preference for deficit cutting, will allow France
compared to its US and, to a lesser extent, UK to significantly increase defense spending without
colleagues. Even if French defense spending were rising, breaking the EU Commission’s expenditure benchmark
it would make more sense to recapitalize the military and risking a crisis with Berlin. With significant
than to expand the active service manpower, as current downside risks—like the impact of the refugee crisis
commitments can probably be met if manpower ceases and Brexit—even simply freezing defense spending
to shrink and is kept stable. may be tough to achieve.

PROSPECTS On the demand side, the modernization of the nuclear

deterrent will require increased funding, ramping up
The balance between means and ambitions is
progressively from the end of this decade to 2030 and
becoming more unstable.
beyond. Because France’s nuclear spending cycles are
This is primarily due to what the French call spread out in time, the relative effort will not be nearly
the “hardening” (durcissement) of the strategic as substantial as in the UK, where the modernization
environment: Russia’s return as a dynamic revisionist of the ballistic missile submarines could absorb up
power, the prospect of a Thirty Years’ War in a post- to one-third of all defense acquisition spending in
Sykes-Picot Middle East, the American rebalance to the mid-2020s. However, with nuclear deterrence
Asia, an EU in ever greater disarray, etc. France’s current accounting for some 10 percent of military spending
defense spending is not compatible with these trends. and a fifth of total defense capital spending, this will
make it more difficult to square the circle of means
Economic pressures won’t help. In the absence of and ambitions.
British- or German-style structural reforms, it is
unlikely that France will be able to return to sustained The funding of unforeseen military operations will also
be more difficult to ensure. From 2012 to 2015, budget

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 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

Soldier in the French Foreign Legion. Photo credit: Ministry of Defense of the United Kingdom.

reserves for such contingencies covered less than could backfire on his successor(s) as the situation
half of the actual cost—around a billion euros a year. deteriorates further. French officials were stunned by
The difference in cost was covered in supplemental the speed with which the United Kingdom has pared
budgets by windfall revenues, largely generated by the down its global and regional strategic role from August
constant decrease in the interest 2013 onwards, after the House of
rate of new treasury bills issued on Commons refused to authorize
the bond market, which has treated the use of force against Assad’s
France as a quasi-doppelgänger It would make regime in Syria for having used
of virtuous Germany. But with ten- sense for the chemical weapons. The fact that
year government bonds dropping
to close to a zero percent interest
EU, and notably this sequence played out a full
decade after the invasion of Iraq
rate, the windfall effect has Germany, its shows that political U-turns can
reached an end. If anything, it may most important occur long after the initial events.
go into reverse as the US Federal
Reserve System eventually raises economic actor, to There are essentially two mutually
its own rates. remove defense reinforcing sets of policies
whereby France may be able to
Finally, there is limited risk that spending from continue to strategically punch
the public will lose its trust in the ongoing EU deficit- at a level commensurate with its
executive on defense policy. There standing as a permanent member
is currently no hard evidence of cutting measures. of the UN Security Council. The
this, but there is grumbling about first is a return to economic
the effect on public opinion from growth. It was only in the second
the rise of jihadism in Libya after the overthrow of half of 2015 that France’s GDP, along with that of the
Qaddafi and the mounting tide of illegal immigration eurozone in the aggregate, recovered to the pre-crisis
to Italy and beyond. With former President Sarkozy level of late 2007—after eight years of stagnation.
claiming credit for the Libya campaign, this affiliation Substantial structural reforms in the short and medium

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Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

French President François Hollande. Photo credit: United Nations.

terms are the prerequisites for sustainable growth. The agreed with France on this issue. Clearly, the threat
corresponding decisions depend largely on French perceptions in Berlin and Brussels are still far removed
domestic choices. from those prevailing in Paris and Washington, DC.

The second strand heavily depends on European, Dr. François Heisbourg is Special Advisor at the
rather than national, decisions. Given the hardening Fondation pour la Recherche Stratégique and was a
of the security environment, it would make sense member of the commission that produced the French
for the EU, and notably Germany, its most important government’s 2008 Defense and National Security White
Paper. The opinions expressed in this essay are those of
economic actor, to remove defense spending from
the author and do not represent the views of the French
ongoing EU deficit-cutting measures. France has made
government.
suggestions to that effect. Unfortunately, for the time-
being, neither the EU as a whole nor Germany has

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 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

GERMANY
by Patrick Keller

German defense spending “does not even begin to an even greater engagement in international security
match the requirements” of the German armed forces, affairs.
which “have been chronically underfunded since 1990,”
according to Inspector General of the German Army Looking at the German defense budget, the twenty-
Bruno Kasdorf.1 Although it is rare for a German officer five years since reunification tell a story of steady
to publicly voice such concerns, Gen. Kasdorf had little decline.3 From 1991 to 1997, defense spending
reason to worry about the political decreased continuously, from
leadership’s reaction—and not just about 28 billion euros to 23 billion
because he gave the interview two German defense euros (or from approximately 2
to 1.6 percent of GDP). However,
months before his retirement. In
fact, defense experts from all major
spending “does the Kosovo War from 1998 to
parties in parliament, from the not even begin 1999 brought an end to the
“peace dividend” era, and defense
Christian Democrats to the Greens, to match the spending has been on a slow but
agree with his assessment.2 The
Bundeswehr, despite its world- requirements” of steady rise since 2001 (with only
class officer corps and admirable the German armed minor cuts in 2003 and 2010). The
financial crisis, which started in
performance in recent missions,
such as the International Security
forces, which “have 2008, did not have a discernible
Assistance Force mission in been chronically effect on this trend. Yet, at the
same time, the modest increases
Afghanistan, lacks the resources
needed to sustain current levels
underfunded since have not even offset inflation.
of military ambition. And yet, a 1990,” according to In real terms, defense spending
substantial change in direction Inspector General has been decreasing. Moreover,
most of the additional money has
seems impossible to achieve as
the Chancellery and Treasury—not of the Army gone to personnel costs, not to
to mention the public at large— Bruno Kasdorf. procurement or R&D. And with the
set different financial priorities for growth of the German economy,
the country. In determining how to defense spending has declined to
strengthen German defense under these conditions, an average of about 1.25 percent
three issues need to be addressed. of GDP. In 2014, Germany had a defense budget of 32
billion euros, amounting to just 1.14 percent of GDP.4
1. There is a contradiction at the heart of German
defense policy. On the one hand, defense has As a consequence, shortages and readiness problems
been ignored for decades, not just in terms of have become apparent with increasing frequency.
underfinancing the Bundeswehr, but also politically, International media outlets revel in embarrassing
by neither defining nor explaining the purpose of the stories about German tanks using broomsticks instead
German armed forces to the German public. On the of guns in NATO exercises or the defense minister
other hand, German leaders insist that Germany has arriving in Erbil, Iraq, to oversee the historic handover
always carried its share of responsibilities and call for of weapons to the Peshmerga in the fight against
ISIS—only to learn that the weapons were stuck in
1 Christoph Hickmann, “Der Investitionsbedarf ist Riesig,” Germany and the aircraft carrying the German trainers
Süddeutsche Zeitung, May 21, 2015. http://www.sueddeutsche.de/
politik/bundeswehr-der-investitionsbedarf-ist-riesig-1.2488334
(in German). 3 For a more fully developed picture of German defense spending
2 The one exception is the socialist party Die Linke, which seeks to see Patrick Keller, “German Hard Power: Is There a There There?”
disband the German armed forces and advocates the dissolution AEI National Security Outlook, no. 4, October 2013.
of NATO. 4 International Institute for Strategic Studies, Military Balance 2015.

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Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

German Eurofighters. Photo credit: Bundeswehr.

were in such a state of disrepair that they had to make eight of the eighty-nine Tornado fighter jets, 280 of
a forced landing in Bulgaria.5 the 406 Marder armored infantry vehicles, twenty-four
of the fifty-seven Transall transport planes, and three
A Bundeswehr report to parliament in September 2014 of the twenty-one Sea King helicopters are combat-
showed that these were not random incidents, but the ready and deployable. Although there is some debate
results of deep structural problems with Germany’s about whether the criteria for deployability used in
defense establishment stemming from a lack of the report are too strict, it is widely agreed that the
funding.6 According to the report, the majority of Bundeswehr’s capabilities have been stretched to the
German combat systems cannot be used immediately limits and are in need of modernization.
for missions, exercises, or training. Of Germany’s
thirty-one Tiger helicopters, for instance, only ten are It is no accident that the state of the armed forces
combat-ready and deployable. Similarly, only thirty- received so much attention in 2014. It was also the
year when the war in Ukraine and the rise of ISIS in
5 See, for example, reports in Der Spiegel and the Independent: Syria and Iraq challenged German security policy. Even
Gordon Repinski, “Verteidigungsministerin bei den Peschmerga:
Von der Leyens Pannenmission im Irak” Der Spiegel, September more important for the German domestic debate, the
25, 2014, http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/ursula-von-der- year began with major policy speeches by President
leyen-im-irak-pr-flop-fuer-die-verteidgungsministerin-a-993729. Joachim Gauck, Foreign Minister Frank-Walter
html (in German); Lizzie Dearden, “German Army Paints
Broomsticks Black to Resemble Machine Guns in NATO Steinmeier, and Defense Minister Ursula von der Leyen
Exercises,” Independent, February 18, 2015, http://www. at the Munich Security Conference. All three called
independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/german-army-paints- for more German leadership in international security
broomsticks-black-to-resemble-machine-guns-in-nato-
exercises-10054468.html. affairs. Gauck, a well-respected figure in a largely
6 The report is classified but was leaked to various news sources; ceremonial office, did so most emphatically, saying
the numbers they cite from the report sometimes differ, but that in international crisis management, “Germany
the general thrust of the argument is the same as this overview should make a more substantial contribution, and it
in Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung demonstrates: “Die Lange
Mängelliste der Bundeswehr,” September 24, 2014, http://www. should make it earlier and more decisively.”7
faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/materialprobleme-die-lange- 7 Federal President Joachim Gauck, “Germany’s Role in the
maengelliste-der-bundeswehr-13172228.html (in German). World: Reflections on Responsibility, Norms, and Alliances”

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 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

German Tiger Helicopter. Photo credit: Bundeswehr.

President Gauck and the ministers echoed the How this could be done with the armed forces at hand
consensus of the strategic community in Berlin.8 was never sufficiently discussed. In fact, public debate
After six years of economic crises in the eurozone, hardly went beyond the familiar reflexes warning
Germany gained significant relative power, especially against a “militarization” of German foreign policy.
in comparison to the states traditionally leading The tension between shrinking capabilities and rising
strategic thinking on security matters in the EU: ambitions is obvious and remains unresolved.
France and Great Britain. German prosperity, political
stability, population size, and geostrategic location 2. In response to this dilemma, Defense Minister von
should make it the preeminent leader in Europe— der Leyen is pushing for a stronger Bundeswehr that
and not just on issues of EU integration and fiscal is capable of fulfilling its new and ambitious tasks. In
and monetary policy but also on strategic issues of doing so, von der Leyen continues the far-reaching
regional and global security. This trend was reinforced reform process (“re-orientation”) of the Bundeswehr,
by the German trading state’s dependency on a liberal which began under her predecessors Karl-Theodor zu
international system and the strategic retreat of the Guttenberg and Thomas de Maizière. Centerpieces of the
United States under President Barack Obama. It was reform include downsizing the armed forces to 185,000
time for Germany to step up to new responsibilities soldiers (from almost 500,000 in 1990), suspending
and complete the transformation from a consumer to conscription (accomplished in 2011 and de facto ending
a provider of international stability. it), streamlining defense procurement processes, and
creating a more agile and deployable force.
speech delivered at the Munich Security Conference, January 31, Moreover, von der Leyen achieved further (projected)
2014, https://www.securityconference.de/en/activities/munich-
security-conference/msc-2014/speeches/. increases in defense spending, from just under 33 billion
8 See, for instance, the 2013 report by the German Marshall Fund euros in 2015 to just over 35 billion euros in 2019.9 As
of the United States and Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik,
bringing together more than fifty leading experts on German 9 “Verteidigungsetat wächst um 1,2 Milliarden Euro,” Frankfurter
security policy: “New Power New Responsibility,” http://www. Allgemeine Zeitung, March 17, 2015, http://www.faz.net/aktuell/
swp-berlin.org/en/projects/new-power-new-responsibility/the- politik/bundeswehr-etat-waechst-schon-2016-um-1-2-milliarden-
project.html. euro-13488303.html.

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Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

in previous years, however, this incrementalism will Hence, it is much more realistic—and smarter—to focus
not suffice. Most of the additional money will be eaten on how best to spend money on defense rather than
up by personnel costs, higher rent, and inflation. The on how much. There are two ways to think about this.
fundamental problem of underfunding will persist only First, Germany could make military contributions to
as majorities in parliament and the public set different international stability that are not financed through
priorities—evidenced in the budget of the Ministry of the defense budget. It could, for instance, enhance
Labor and Welfare that is four times the size of the and enable the armed forces of the Baltic republics,
defense budget. And as long as defense has to return especially with maritime and reconnaissance
more than a billion euros of “unused money” at the end capabilities. Such a contribution could be reported to
of a fiscal year, due to mistakes in planning and delays NATO under the framework of the Readiness Action
in delivery, it will remain very difficult for proponents of Plan (RAP), but it could be financed through the
increased defense budgets to make their case.10 budget of, say, the foreign office.

3. More defense funding is Second, Germany could shift

necessary to maintain even current priorities within the existing
levels of readiness and effectiveness defense budget. Most notably, only
of the Bundeswehr. And yet, what Germany could 12.8 percent of the 2015 defense
if further budget increases do make military budget is allotted for procurement
not happen? Here are three ideas
on how to politically manage the
contributions of military capabilities (down from
14.2 percent in 2014), and there is
deficit in a way that strengthens to international a miniscule 2.4 percent allotted for
German, and ultimately European stability that are research and development (down
and transatlantic, defense.11 from 2.9 percent in 2014).13 German
not financed leaders must reverse this trend;
a) Do not get tunnel vision on
NATO’s 2 percent budget-increase
through the procurement and R&D combined
should amount to at least 20
requirements. NATO members defense budget. It percent of defense spending in
agreed in 2014 to increase their could, for instance, order to redress the problems in
defense budgets to 2 percent of
GDP within ten years if economic enhance and readiness and modernization, as
well as to fulfill Germany’s R&D
development allows. The qualifiers enable the armed funding commitment made at
give away the insincerity of the
statement. As long as Germany
forces of the the 2014 NATO summit in Wales.
Minister von der Leyen took
does not suffer a major recession, Baltic republics, first steps in the right direction,
this goal will not be met.12 By especially with including choosing an influential
today’s standards, 2 percent of
GDP would mean an additional maritime and Deputy Minister, Katrin Suder,
who oversees the revision of the
20 billion euros for defense. The reconnaissance procurement process and who
German public would not accept
such an increase. Also, a German
capabilities. brokered the recent agreement
between the ministry and the
defense budget of more than 55 German defense industry outlining
billion euros would overshadow rules for future defense industry
those of all other European nations, including France cooperation.14 There remains, however, a long way to go.
and Great Britain, thus perhaps rekindling old fears
and problematic political dynamics from a bygone era b) Foster greater synergy with allies and partners in
in Europe. Europe. Germany cannot “pool & share” its way out
10 Between 2009 and 2013, the Ministry of Defense did not spend of the crisis of an underfunded Bundeswehr—in the
the 3 billion euros that were earmarked for procurement, as end, it needs to buy things. And the armed forces of
reported here: “Bundeswehr rief Milliarden nicht ab,” Rheinische twenty-six sovereign European states taken together
Post, October 13, 2014, http://www.rp-online.de/politik/
deutschland/bundeswehr-rief-milliarden-nicht-ab-aid-1.4590799. 13 The 2014 and 2015 defense budgets are available on the
11 For a more elaborate argument see Patrick Keller, “Strategic Ministry’s website: http://www.bmvg.de/portal/a/bmvg/!ut/p/c4/
Deliberations about the Future of German Security Policy,” NYy7DsIwEAT_yGcXIIWOKEJQ0KRJQufEljnJj-hyNg0fj12wq51mp
Facts & Findings, no. 167, April 2015, http://www.kas.de/wf/ IUX1EZd0GnGFLWHGZYNL-tHrKE4ETDiwZYwB1EssUWDLkd3vH
en/33.41124/. Wu8wxTezBWbClabmQbGSsdaU4k9kTsm8lE1Qg0sEg19FLJf9S3
12 This does not mean that the goal is useless, however. It remains m-b77dmdzsOjH2EP4foDBvQCwQ!!/.
an important argument in the annual debate over defense 14 The agreement of June 29, 2015, is available on the Ministry’s
expenditures. website: http://goo.gl/hohtFe.

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 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

German Patriot missile system. Photo credit: Bundeswehr.

will always be less efficient in terms of value for money Such increased cooperation must be undertaken
than the unified US military. Still, Germany and its in tandem with efforts to consolidate the European
European neighbors can take steps to create military defense industry. The July 2015 deal between military
clusters and islands of cooperation land defense systems producers
between states. Germany’s Nexter in France and Kraus-
“Framework Nation” concept and Maffei Wegmann in Germany is
NATO’s RAP provide examples Germany cannot a good first step, especially after
of how such ideas strengthen “pool & share” the lamentable German veto
the Alliance. Key future projects
could include a joint development
its way out of against the merger of aerospace
companies BAE Systems of Britain
and procurement program for the crisis of an and European Aeronautic Defense
the next generation fighter jet underfunded and Space (EADS) in 2012.
between Germany, France, and
the UK or joint support ships with Bundeswehr—in c) Reinforce the public debate
Poland and France.15 In order to the end, it needs to about German interests in
international security affairs. The
avoid duplication of efforts and in
recognition of the indispensable
buy things. root cause for Germany’s ailing
role the United States plays as defense policy and the country’s
Europe’s pacifier, NATO should strategic thinking is the German
always be the primary framework within which such public’s contentment with the status quo—and the
efforts are undertaken. But where NATO does not misconception that this status quo is a given, and not
want to provide such a framework, there the EU can something that depends on the resolve of the West to
be put to good use—for instance by creating a unified maintain a stable and liberal international order. This,
EU medical command. in conjunction with the strong anti-militaristic streak
Germany developed after four decades without full
15 Maik Zarandi, “European Islands Solutions as a Basis for
Strengthening European Defense Capabilities?” Facts & Findings, sovereignty and responsibility for its survival, means
no. 130, October 2013, http://www.kas.de/wf/en/33.35552/.

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Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

German Leopard 2 A5 tanks. Photo credit: Bundeswehr.

the country lacks an impetus to undertake the serious also needs to broaden its strategic community, to
defense investments and reforms required for today’s encourage more active engagement from private
threats. think tanks on international affairs, and to counter the
dearth of university departments on strategic studies.
Therefore, political leaders and commentators If Germany can raise the level of debate, from both
need to persuade and educate the public on the experts and the public, on security issues of strategic
importance of a stronger defense posture. For concern, it will become a more reliable and effective
instance, parliament should hold regular sessions NATO ally, contributing its fair share to strengthened
about national security, preferably accompanied by transatlantic security.
an annual strategy paper from the Chancellery. The
current process of developing a new white paper on Dr. Patrick Keller is the Coordinator for Foreign and
defense is commendable for being more inclusive and Security Policy at the Konrad Adenauer Stiftung. The
deliberative than previous efforts, but it is a meager opinions expressed in this essay are to be attributed to
substitute for a full-fledged national strategy. Germany the author alone.

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 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

POLAND
by Tomasz Szatkowski

In the coming years, Poland’s strategic defense policy time goes on, there will be an increasing incentive to
outlook will be determined by the threat posed by use force as long as it is still available.
Russia’s aggressive attitude in its “near neighborhood.”
Although the Mediterranean refugee crisis has for the Russia seeks conditions that will weaken the
first time created direct implications for Polish security transatlantic link wherever it is possible, and damage
that stem from outside the traditional geopolitical East- the political cohesion of Europe. If these conditions
West Axis on the Northern European Plain, this out-of- occur, Russia will be ready to quickly escalate to
area security challenge will remain a secondary mission using traditional military means if its preferred
for the Polish Armed Forces. Therefore, even if Warsaw unconventional methods fail. Russia’s unconventional
steps up its involvement in the anti-Daesh campaign, the tactics could also degrade to conventional warfare
main purpose of such an endeavor if Moscow’s frequent flexing of
would be to strengthen solidarity its military muscle slips out of
between allies, with expectation of control and leads to an accident
reciprocity with regard to NATO’s
Russia has or confrontation. In terms of
Eastern Flank. enough active capabilities, according to some
less optimistic estimates, after
Regardless of how experts define troops (without more than a dozen years of
Russia’s intentions regarding mobilizing its increasing defense spending and
its geopolitical objectives or
operational plans, two themes
reserves) to mount the ambitious and far-reaching
defense reforms initiated by
should be regarded as overarching three simultaneous former Defense Minister Anatoly
factors. The first is the internal
dynamic in Russia—this is the
operations. Serdiukov, Russia has enough
active troops (without mobilizing
extent to which fueling the its reserves) to mount three
hostile attitude toward the West simultaneous operations: offensive
helps consolidate President Vladimir Putin’s political action against the Baltic states, military engagement
support base and diverts attention away from in Poland, and the continual bogging down of Kyiv’s
domestic economic, social, and political problems. forces in eastern Ukraine. Even more worrying, Russia
The second, which directly relates to the first, is the has maintained a tactical nuclear arsenal that is far
desire to drive wedges within the transatlantic security bigger than the capabilities of NATO’s European
architecture and create conditions for the full return members. Russia has also developed both the
of the Concert of Europe. Putin will take advantage warheads and delivery systems that are more “usable”
of Russia’s military, as well as other statecraft tools at on the modern battlefield, so that the threat of using
his disposal, to make this strategy successful. These them is much more credible. Regardless of whether
include using nonmilitary means, such as information some analysts are right that Russia’s “escalate to
and psychological operations, intimidation through the de-escalate” concept is signaled purely as part of a
threat of force, and the use of unconventional force psychological warfare, the impact of this capability
to achieve political objectives. Russia has displayed on the overall strategic balance, and the change in
a very holistic approach and is willing to use any or Moscow’s nuclear doctrine, should not be left without
all of these methods to increase its influence across remedies.1
NATO’s eastern flank. What is particularly worrying is
Moscow’s perception that the time it has to achieve
these goals is limited because Russia’s economic 1 Robert Work, “Statement before the House Committee on
troubles diminish the resources necessary for any Armed Services,” June 25, 2015, p. 4. http://docs.house.gov/
energetic external action in the future. Therefore, as meetings/AS/AS00/20150625/103669/HHRG-114-AS00-Wstate-
WorkR-20150625.pdf.

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Members of Poland’s Special Forces training in Fort Bragg. Photo credit: US Army.

Overall, the situation on NATO’s eastern flank has posed could benefit from a spillover from a relatively robust
the greatest challenge to Poland since the country Ministry of National Defense procurement budget that,
regained its full independence in 1989. Therefore, over the next eight years, will account for roughly $4
Poland’s political-military culture needs to put forth a billion in procurement each year. Nonetheless, the
great degree of effort and ingenuity to adapt to this Polish government and the defense industry should
new threat environment. In order to optimally meet clearly designate which areas (except for key platforms
this challenge, Poland will need to radically eradicate that require international technology) should be the
some still-existent residues of the Warsaw Pact satellite main areas of specialization for the country’s defense
culture within its military bureaucracy. Otherwise, industrial base; they should also identify who could
such traits like hierarchical rigidity, repetitiveness, and be its most beneficial partners. Third, the Ministry of
aversion to critical thinking will preclude any effective National Defense should reform its defense resources
response. management system. So far, the process is unrefined; for
example, the capability acquisition programs appear to
To begin with, the increased security threat from the be a loose collection of the agendas of their respective
east calls for a whole set of political and administrative services. The Ministry of National Defense should have a
reforms, including of the national security management unit in the organization capable of providing analytical
system. The government must be able to coordinate a advice similar to the work done by the Pentagon’s
broad and varied set of statecraft and military tools, Office of Net Assessment, as well as its Cost Analysis
across the conflict escalation continuum. Three subsets Program Evaluation Office. In addition, the planning and
of this system need to be put in place from scratch. acquisition processes should be geared more toward
First is the need for all source intelligence analysis, whole capability in the full-cycle approach.
together with participatory and adversarial simulations/
wargames, to be part of the whole government national The threat itself, as depicted earlier, requires a full
security steering process. Second, Warsaw’s defense spectrum deterrence response from Poland and its
procurement policy needs to be better coordinated allies. Warsaw should be seeking asymmetric measures,
with its defense industrial strategy. Poland’s economy geared at addressing an enemy’s vulnerabilities. The

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 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

sub-conventional scenario—in the case of Poland, defense forces that are equipped with guided rockets,
a country that is nearly ethnically and culturally artillery, mortars, and missiles (GRAMMs); man-portable
homogenous—will not be very credible in its “subversive” air-defense systems (MANPADS); and precise anti-tank
form. Nonetheless, Poland might need to respond to a guided missiles (ATGMs). Naturally, these local troops
“little green men” type of threat to one of its neighboring could not fight without secure digital communications
NATO allies. Taking that mission into account, the Armed and night vision gear. The need to restore that sort of
Forces of the Republic of Poland should not focus on cost-effective, space-saturating formation, either the
“gendarmerie” capabilities, but rather on unconventional type that exists in militias or in the National Guard, is
Special Operation Forces’ capabilities and their interface one of the most widely discussed topics in Poland.
with nonmilitary means. These capabilities will deter the
enemy by creating the potential for unrest in the enemy’s Warsaw should also rethink its air and missile defense
own backyard. That means that the Polish military may concept—whether it would not be more optimal to
need to rethink the role of its crown jewels—the Special invest in “shooting the archer” instead of “shooting
Operation Forces—which constitute a separate branch of the arrow.” The missile-to-interceptor cost relation
the Armed Forces. Instead of focusing on “door kicking”- is highly disadvantageous for the latter. Moreover,
type units, Poland’s special forces should embrace an the “shooting the arrow” option does not provide an
effects-based approach, and part of its military training adequate deterrence effect, as it is the aggressor who
and assistance capabilities should focus on psychological chooses the degree to which he exposes himself. A
operations (PSYOPs) and civil affairs capabilities. partial remedy to this problem might be a combination
of radio-electronic warfare and long-range rocket
The conventional conflict scenario artillery battle networks, perhaps
emphasizes the return of “old,” supplemented in the future by
“quantitative” notions such as the The Polish inventive solutions like kamikaze
number of troops and platforms, drones.
sheer firepower, and survivability
military should
of forces, to complement “quality” create a robust, The last dimension of the threat—
the tactical nuclear dimension—
that was underscored over recent
years, and has been defined as
cost-effective should be addressed within the
effects based approach, situational reconnaissance NATO Nuclear Deterrence Posture
awareness, precise attack, and strike force based by modernizing NATO’s tactical
nuclear capabilities. Extended
mobility. Such a scenario would
be predominantly land-based and on the Russian and deterrence effective on a sub-
would include a highly contested Chinese models. strategic level requires major allies
cyber, radio-electronic, air, and to accept some risk by exposing
naval domain. their vulnerable capabilities on the
eastern flank. Such steps ensure
In such an environment, the Polish Navy should give up NATO can respond automatically to an aggressor’s
“blue water” ambitions, such as investing excessively attack against a nonnuclear ally. This should entail
into surface combatants. Instead, the Navy should focus the deployment of some US strategic assets—that
on missions like mine warfare, intelligence surveillance, would be critical to the national security of the United
and reconnaissance. Increasingly, these missions will States—to the heart of Poland. For instance, these
be performed by unmanned platforms and coastal strategic assets may take the form of early warning
defense. Similarly, it could be argued, to what extent the elements of the US nuclear deterrent or elements
Polish Air Force would be able independently to impact critical to the logistical sustainment of US military
the situation in the battlespace with traditional aircraft. forces. Effective NATO deterrence will still require
some form of forward presence of conventional troops
In general, the Polish military should not overinvest in of “old” NATO Allies in Poland, in order to mitigate
expensive and vulnerable platforms that require equally the anti-power projection impact of the Russian A2/
vulnerable infrastructure. Therefore, except for armored AD in Kaliningrad and the increased readiness of
units intended for counterattacks, the Polish military Russian troops that pose the threat of closing all lines
should create a robust, cost-effective reconnaissance of communication to the Baltic States.
strike force based on the Russian and Chinese models—
numerous networked, precision guided, multiple Without measures to address the new nuclear threat
launch rockets systems (MLRS) with target acquisition environment in Europe, Poland is left with three
provided by inexpensive unmanned aerial vehicles options. The first is to accept the risk of falling prey
(UAVs). That capability should be coupled with local to the “escalate to de-escalate” doctrine. The second

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Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

Polish tank participating in NATO’s NOBLE JUMP exercise, June 18, 2015. Photo credit: SHAPE NATO.

is to offer political concessions to Moscow and drift doctrine. If introduced in a thoughtful manner, this
towards a “Finlandized” status, in order to decrease approach should not destabilize the strategic balance,
the likelihood of a military attack by Russia. The third and NATO may instead use it as the Clausewitzian
is to create a nonnuclear deterrent for Poland (similar concept of friction to bolster the credibility of the
in logic to the French and British nuclear deterrents) extended deterrence.
that would create an alternative decision dynamic for
adversaries contemplating escalation. This deterrence In conclusion, the modernization of the Polish Armed
option should be studied more rigorously because Forces, along the concept of full-spectrum deterrence,
it cuts across multiple domains. This nonnuclear should focus on three first-magnitude priorities. The
deterrence could consist of new capabilities, such as first is to develop more-integrated, less-kinetic Special
longer and more powerful warheads on cruise missiles; Operation Forces capabilities. The second is to employ
new types of weaponry (e.g., microwave technology); local defense forces and robust reconnaissance-strike
and offensive cyber capabilities and subversive units (equipped with rockets, artillery, and UAVs)
oriented Special Operations Forces. Such deterrence to funnel potential aggressors into geographic “kill
may also provide strategic effects for nonnuclear zones.” The third is to develop autonomous long-
nations. Naturally, this option is feasible only if a nation range cruise missiles or non-kinetic complementary
is not looking to create the threat of mutually assured deterrence assets. Together, these priorities will best
destruction, but it may nevertheless be enough to throw strengthen Poland’s defense capabilities and deter
the aggressor off balance or at least to significantly potential aggressors.
degrade the aggressor’s capabilities vis-à-vis the
Tomasz Szatkowski is Undersecretary of State in Poland’s
capabilities of the United States. This option would Ministry of National Defense. Previously, he was President
still require complete national autonomy over these of the National Center for Strategic Studies in Warsaw
assets, enhancing national-level command and control and wrote this chapter before he joined the Polish
and clearly communicating to other powers that it is government. The views and opinions expressed in this
an appropriate defense-oriented strategy, most likely report are those of the author and do not reflect the
centered around the notion of the French “nonuse” official policy or position of the Polish government.

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 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

ITALY
by Giampaolo Di Paola

Italy’s defense budget and priorities have been believe that this is partially due to the very clear
profoundly affected by the ongoing economic focus on NATO’s East and the challenge of a newly
crisis across Europe, and continued slow growth aggressive Russia. Some in Rome even worry that
within Italy. Seven years of economic recession, NATO is heading toward a new Cold War with Russia.
high unemployment, deteriorating living conditions This would be unfortunate, since it would sweep away
and social safety nets, and tight fiscal policies have the prospects of a more open relationship with Russia
inevitably driven cuts in defense spending. This is true and of an inclusive European security order that has
across Europe, but it is especially pronounced across been under development for more than a decade.
southern Europe and, in particular, in Italy. Therefore, Make no mistake; Rome recognizes that Russia’s
Italy’s ability to live up to the commitments on defense current behavior is unacceptable, and that Moscow
spending levels and military capabilities made at the bears real responsibility for the current situation in
2014 NATO summit in Wales must Ukraine. However, from a longer-
be understood within this broader term perspective, remilitarizing
context. In other words, from Italy’s current the relationship with Russia would
Rome’s vantage point, the Wales be dangerous, and it would be
commitments should be viewed as military structure is far from the optimal solution for
aspirational, and something that unsustainable, and NATO and the broader European
can be achieved once the nation security order.
has been set upon a long-term and
is burdened with
sustainable path toward economic legacy processes Based on this context, the Italian
defense debate and Italy’s planning
recovery and growth. and approaches. for the future are primarily
Furthermore, there is a growing focused on organizational reforms
sense in Italy that NATO’s target and military transformation,
of 2 percent GDP for defense spending among the both nationally and internationally. There is also a
members is a dull instrument for driving relevant real interest in achieving deeper integration around
defense investment. Leaders in Italy increasingly defense policies across Europe, as well as to move
question the relevance of this target for meeting forward on EU-NATO collaboration, in order to not
current security challenges, as well as future crisis only spend scarce defense resources more wisely, but
scenarios. There is also a growing sense that how also achieve real savings. This approach is made clear
states spend the funding is more directly relevant in the recently released “White Paper on International
than the amount they spend, in terms of maximizing Security and Defense,” written by Italy’s Ministry
capabilities and effects. In short, the prospect for of Defense and approved by the Supreme Defense
increased Italian defense spending may be limited, Council, which is chaired by the President of the
even if the economic headroom for it is there. Republic and includes the Prime Minister and the Chief
of Defense.1 The white paper clearly states that, given
Many political leaders in Italy would also like to present budget constraints, Italy’s current military
move toward a more comprehensive approach to structure is unsustainable, and is burdened with legacy
security, in which military power is only one of many processes and approaches.
tools available to policymakers. There is also an
understandable drive to give broader attention to the The white paper calls for the following changes in
many security challenges around the Mediterranean’s Italian defense policy: reducing the overall strength
southern rim, as there is real concern that the of the Italian military to approximately 150,000
challenges in the south are not widely understood 1 Ministry of Defense of Italy, “White Paper for International
within the Alliance and among its allies. Many in Rome Security and Defense,” April 21, 2015, http://www.difesa.it/Primo_
Piano/Documents/2015/07_Luglio/White%20book.pdf.

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Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

Italian aircraft carrier Cavour, June 10, 2010. Photo credit: Armando Mancini.

troops; accelerating the streamlining of command funded outside the defense budget in this manner.
and logistics structures; further enhancing a joint The real dramatic shortfall is in the operations and
organizational approach and mindset; and creating a maintenance account (which is at least 10-15 percent
framework of interoperability, shared capabilities, and below reasonable levels), which is contributing to
coordinated defense planning, in concert with NATO seriously undermining the readiness and operational
allies and other European nations. The white paper effectiveness of the Italian military.
reaffirms Italy’s commitment to collective defense
and deterrence with European and NATO allies, In response to these issues, the white paper outlines
but it especially calls for the Italian military to take a start to rebalancing the Italian armed forces. Italy
the lead and focus on challenges, risks, and threats can reduce personnel costs by downsizing the force to
stemming from the southern Mediterranean rim. This 150,000, and by changing the ratio between permanent
aligns closely with Italy’s ambition and ability to play service contracts and short-term enlistments and
a leading role in this region. commissions (currently, the ratio is 70/30). Since
long-term personnel are considerably more expensive
At the same time, the white paper highlights the two than short-term equivalents, changing this ratio would
key problems that challenge the Italian military today. result in significant cost reductions, and help lower
A limited and unbalanced budget, with more than 70 the average age of Italian service members, which is
percent dedicated to personnel costs, leaves only 10 currently forty-four years. The white paper also calls
percent of the budget for operations and maintenance, for providing long-term stability and predictability
and less than 20 percent for defense investment. The for the availability of investment resources through
low percentage of defense investment is somewhat a six-year program law (akin to the French “loi de
offset by resources made available on an ad hoc programmation”). If adopted, this element would be
basis by the Ministry of Industry to support the Italian a sign of real innovation stemming from the white
defense industrial base. For example, the current paper, and would transform Italian defense investment
modernization of patrol and support ships for the planning and implementation.
Italian navy—a ten-year, 5.6 billion-euro program—is

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 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

Italian soldiers participating in multinational Best Squad Competition. Photo credit: US Army.

The white paper does not provide a forecast of Italian density loss will likely be offset, to some degree, by an
defense-spending levels. It does, however, call for increase in sophistication and quality.
rationalization, more-focused spending priorities,
and increased cooperation with European and other In sum, Italy is driving toward a mobile, technology-
NATO allies in research and development, as well hedging, fully integrated, network-enabled, and
as defense investment projects, connected joint force that is
while leveraging the capabilities closely integrated with Italy’s
of the Italian defense industrial Italy will continue allies, and which has the ability to
deploy in the European theater
base. The white paper emphasizes
the need for Italy to retain its to focus specifically and in regions south of Europe.
military technological edge, in on the set of Special attention will be paid to
command and control, intelligence
concert with allies. This means
that, in a resource-constrained
capabilities most and cyber capabilities, air and
environment, capabilities must relevant for the space intelligence/surveillance/
reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities,
be coordinated and integrated
with other European nations, in
security challenges and precision targeting (drones
terms of planning, development, around the will be especially important here).
and employment. However, Italy Mediterranean’s Naval modernization will be the
key to Italy’s maritime strategy for
will continue to focus specifically
on the set of capabilities most southern rim. the broader Mediterranean, while
relevant for the security challenges the Italian ground force will need
around the Mediterranean’s networked land formations with
southern rim. Furthermore, Italy will need to prioritize long-range firepower.
quality over quantity in terms of platforms and military
The white paper also states that defense-capacity
systems, meaning that there will likely be a future
building and military-cooperation mechanisms are
loss of density in available capabilities. However, this

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Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

Italian Tornado fighter jet undergoing air to air refueling. Photo credit: Miks Uzan/NATO.

needed to improve—and, sometimes, build from approaches that are more comprehensive and less
scratch—the security functions of governments across military in nature. This will require Italy to continue to
the broader Mediterranean region. In this regard, the work with its allies, along with its regional friends and
training capabilities of the Carabinieri (Italian army partners, in a fashion that very much aligns with the
units with law enforcement responsibilities) are of principle of cooperative security expressed in NATO’s
special importance. Strategic Concept.2

In conclusion, the white paper sets out a clear Admiral (ret.) Giampaolo Di Paola is a professor at Libera
way forward for Italian defense: a smaller, but still Università Internazionale degli Studi Sociali Guido Carli,
significant, military that can provide a high-quality joint and was Defense Minister of Italy from 2011 to 2013. The
force that is sustainable at the given level of resources. opinions expressed in this essay are those of the author
and do not represent the views of the Italian government.
It will be fully coordinated and interoperable with
Italy’s allies and partners, with an operational focus
on Europe and the region to the south of Europe. This
orientation does not stem from fiscal realities alone; 2 North Atlantic Treaty Organization, “NATO’s Strategic Concept
for the Defense and Security of the Members of the North
it also comes from a real geopolitical assessment of Atlantic Treaty Organization,” November 19, 2010, http://www.
current and future security challenges, which include nato.int/strategic-concept/pdf/Strat_Concept_web_en.pdf.

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 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

NORWAY
by Rolf Tamnes

From a Norwegian security-policy perspective, a strong challenge to Norwegian security is in the European
and credible NATO is crucial, first and foremost, to High North.
balance Russia. Russia will remain the defining factor
in Norwegian defense planning because its military Norway’s Key Challenges
actions in Ukraine ended the deep peace in Europe, and Norway’s top geostrategic area of responsibility is the
because Russia’s military buildup increases the disparity High North.1 More than 80 percent of the country’s
in its power relationship with Norway. According to the maritime area lies north of the Arctic Circle. It is also in
Expert Commission on Norwegian the High North that Norway shares
Security and Defense Policy, the a land and sea border with Russia.
Norwegian Armed Forces, the Norway and Russia work closely
society at large, and Norway’s Norway is together to manage resources in
allies need to join forces in a unified becoming the region. They also cooperate on
effort to create a “new normal.”
increasingly environmental issues and search-
and-rescue contingencies. Norway
Norway and NATO must face the
threats from major geopolitical
vulnerable to and Russia both rely on the Law
shifts, and take key steps to make Russia’s growing of the Sea to secure their interests
in the waters of the High North.
the defense of the Alliance and inventory of long- The 2010 treaty on maritime
Norway more robust and credible.
range, precision- boundaries in the Barents Sea and
the Arctic Ocean is a prominent
Geopolitical Shifts, guided weapons, example of Russia’s willingness to
Threats, and Risks and to advances in settle claims through diplomacy
Shifts in the geopolitical
environment and political Moscow’s offensive and international law.

landscape are affecting the outlook cyber capabilities. There are very few local or
for Norway and NATO. First, the regional sources of major conflict
growing geopolitical importance in the North, although differences
of the Asia-Pacific region is do exist. Most boundary issues in the Arctic are
prompting the United States to allocate considerable solved, with some exceptions, notably the degree to
military resources to that part of the world. Under such which the continental shelfs of the states in the North
circumstances, Europe will need to make a greater extend beyond two hundred nautical miles into the
contribution to European security. Second, deep rifts Arctic Ocean. Although Russia and other Arctic states
in North Africa, the Middle East, and Southwest Asia are have substantial unresolved territorial claims, these
the main challenges to the security of the southern part are unlikely to escalate to a crisis level. The Svalbard
of NATO, including countries that hardly see Russia as a Archipelago is a special case, and one that is sensitive
threat. If not managed with prudence, the North-South for both Oslo and Moscow. Russia’s desire for special
divide might tear the Alliance apart. arrangements, particularly for greater influence over
fisheries around the Svalbard islands, is a source of
Third, a more self-assertive Russia must be managed. friction and may lead to a confrontation in the future.
The Baltic region has become a hotspot in the Nevertheless, a military conflict in the Svalbard area is
confrontation between Russia and the West. In unlikely to occur unless a local crisis is allowed to spiral
times of crisis and war, other NATO members will out of control, or if the area becomes part of a larger
expect Norway to make substantial contributions. In international conflict.
peacetime, Norway is actively engaged in air policing 1 Rolf Tamnes and Kristine Offerdal (eds.), Geopolitics and Security
and military exercises in the region. However, the main in the Arctic. Regional Dynamics in a Global World (New York:
Routledge, 2014).

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Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

Norwegian Defense Minister Ine Eriksen Søreide observing a military exercise. Photo credit: Norwegian Ministry of
Defense.

The primary reason for the geostrategic value of the Making NATO Stronger
High North is the concentration of Russian forces in While NATO faces many challenges, it is the only
the area, particularly the nuclear submarines that major defense organization with the credibility and
are central to Russia’s strategic deterrence. Russia’s capabilities to cope with Europe’s serious security
Bastion Defense system reaches not only into the crises and armed conflicts. It moves in the right
Barents Sea and the Norwegian Sea, but also over direction, albeit slowly and hesitantly. NATO’s
parts of Norwegian territory. Russia is also using contingency plans are being updated, including its
forward bases in the North for deployment, dispersal, plans for protecting Norway and the Alliance’s other
and support of long-range bombers normally northern members. It is also developing the Very
stationed at air bases further inland. Since 2007-08, High Readiness Joint Task Force (VJTF), a unit that
Russia’s military activities in the Arctic have increased, will be capable of deploying faster than the existing
including a greater number of patrols by its strategic NATO Response Force (NRF). The US decision to
bombers and submarines. Furthermore, Norway is preposition military assets in Central and Eastern
becoming increasingly vulnerable to Russia’s growing Europe strengthens deterrence in the region. The
inventory of long-range, precision-guided weapons, revitalization of Article 5 exercises adds an important
and to advances in Moscow’s offensive cyber dimension to the joint efforts. In 2018, Norway will host
capabilities. If a crisis occurs, Norway’s leaders might NATO’s High Visibility Exercise, which will focus on
have very limited warning or preparation time, due to collective defense. All these efforts are of importance
the increasing speed of Russia’s military actions and to Norwegian security.
its more advanced military technology.
At the same time, there are obvious shortcomings in
Three Steps to Improve Norwegian the Alliance’s current capabilities. One of the most
Security conspicuous is the weaknesses in the command
In Norway’s new security environment, three steps are structure. NATO needs to reestablish robust
necessary for effective deterrence and collective defense. headquarters with a defined area of responsibility,
and strengthen the link between NATO and national

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 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

However, this is not the whole story. The number

of personnel in the Norwegian military has been
significantly reduced since the end of the Cold War,
and the inability to activate many units on short notice
reveals a significant readiness problem. This was not
a major concern during the many years of operations
in the Balkans and Afghanistan. Today, readiness and
responsiveness will have to be top priorities. Improving
the sustainability and reducing the vulnerabilities of
the force structure are also essential. Much has to be
done to adjust Norway’s Armed Forces to the new
threat environment, and to make them capable of
adequately dealing with the full spectrum of conflicts.

Because Norway, as a small nation, depends heavily

on military assistance, national measures should
be judged from an Alliance perspective. In a severe
security crisis in the North, Norway must be able to
Figure 1. The reach of the Russian bastion of defense
in the northern Atlantic. Source: Expert Commission on react very quickly, while also avoiding the risk of having
Norwegian Security and Defense Policy, Unified Effort to act independently in the decisive, initial phase of a
(Oslo: Norwegian Ministry of Defense, 2015). conflict. For Norway, credible deterrence requires both
the simultaneous involvement of
allies and seamless escalation.
headquarters. Another urgent
shortcoming is NATO’s maritime
Norway cannot While some allied units may be
strategy. After the Cold War, meet its defense able to operate from bases outside
Norway, some allied forces “should
priority has been accorded to obligations without operate from Norwegian territory,
expeditionary crisis-management
operations “out of area.” The a significant both for operational reasons and
to increase the deterrent effect.”2
time has come to reinvigorate increase in To benefit from such allied forces,
the maritime strategy, so that it
becomes an integral part of the
its defense Norway needs to prepare detailed
Alliance’s deterrence and defense expenditures and a plans, as well as provide access
to the prepositioned materiel and
policy. Credible NATO naval
power and peacetime presence
major reallocation host nation support for the units.
in the Norwegian Sea is critical to of defense Since 2000, Norway has belonged
Norwegian security. resources in favor to a small group of Alliance states

Improving Norway’s Own Defense

of operations. that have increased or sustained
their defense budgets. With the
Due to key defense decisions, new challenges in mind, the future
Norway is protected by high- costs of Norway’s defense needs
quality armed forces and benefits from a modern are estimated to be considerably and consistently
command structure. Its Navy’s new platforms and higher than the current budgets. Norway cannot meet
weapon systems meet high standards. New submarines its defense obligations without a significant increase
will be acquired after the year 2020. The government in its defense expenditures and a major reallocation of
has planned an order of fifty-two F-35s to replace the defense resources in favor of operations.
F-16 fleet, to be delivered in 2015-25. The proportion
of career military personnel in the Army has grown, At the 2014 Wales Summit, Norway agreed to the
and the readiness of the Norwegian Home Guard has NATO goal of increasing the defense budget to at
been improved through better training and equipment. least 2 percent of its gross national product (GNP)
Norway’s Special Forces are highly skilled, and among within ten years; today’s proportion is 1.5 percent.
the best forces in the world. There is every reason Though more money will be spent on defense in the
to highlight positive aspects of the military forces, next few years, the steady growth of Norway’s GNP
especially as a significant number of NATO countries makes it very unlikely that the 2 percent target will
have been cutting defense budgets. 2 Expert Commission on Norwegian Security and Defense Policy,
Unified Effort (Oslo: Norwegian Ministry of Defense, 2015).

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Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

Norwegian frigate Fridtjof Nansen in the Gulf of Aden. Photo credit: Norwegian Ministry of Defense.

be reached. Investment is another concern in NATO, Many of the new initiatives by NATO, and by
as the Alliance has established that at least 20 individual countries, are primarily tailored for
percent of the defense budget should be spent on engagements in regions other than the North. The
investments in major equipment, including research operational environment and requirements in the
and development. In 2015, Norway’s proportion is as North are different from those of the Baltic region
high as 23 percent, which is among the highest in the and the southern flank, and this should be taken
Alliance. Norway is therefore in a privileged position into consideration in future deliberations. The role of
when it comes to modernizing its military structure. the United States in the North is a central issue for
Yet, the new geopolitical environment has brought the Norwegian security.
economic challenges in the Norwegian Armed Forces
to the fore. Like many of its allies, Norway is facing The defense of Norway rests heavily on American
tough dilemmas in the choice between the depth and assistance, and it should be in the interest of both
breadth of its force structure. countries to deepen their cooperation. Long-
lasting bilateral intelligence collaboration is at the
Enhancing Bilateral and Multilateral Cooperation heart of the broader Norwegian-American military
cooperation, and is a testament to the level of mutual
There is significant potential for more extensive
trust between the two nations. The same goes for
bilateral and multilateral cooperation to provide cost-
the Norwegian patrol aircraft capability. Significant
effective solutions for meeting Norway’s defense
US economic and technological contributions have
needs. Norway already supports Germany’s Framework
been a precondition for Norway to operate its P-3
Nations Concept, in which one country takes the lead
Orion fleet. The operational life of the P-3 Orion will
to form a cluster, so that several countries can acquire
expire by 2020. Without American support, Norway is
and maintain mutually needed defense capabilities.
unlikely to have the resources to replace the P-3 Orion
Norway also supports the British initiative for a
with a new maritime-patrol aircraft. Good intelligence,
multinational rapid response force based on the United
reconnaissance, and antisubmarine warfare capabilities
Kingdom’s Joint Expeditionary Force.

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 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

Norwegian Home Guard. Photo credit: Norwegian Ministry of Defense.

would be important components in a new maritime defining bilateral alliance within the multilateral NATO
strategy. Alliance.

Norway’s procurement of US F-35 combat aircraft Conclusion: A Call for a New Normal
deepens the security connection between the two allies,
The revival of the collective-defense mission has
and paves the way for close operational cooperation.
gradually gained support within NATO, illustrated by
As was the case with the European F-16 program,
the revised Strategic Concept in 2010 and the decisions
the successful acquisition and operation of the F-35
made at the 2014 NATO summit in Wales. There is a
will require broad multinational cooperation. Norway
need for increased budgets, improved cooperation
should continue to be active in hosting NATO exercises
with a selection of close allies, and a revitalization
and should develop its capabilities to host multinational
of the total defense concept. Norway must also stay
exercises, for instance, at the Ørland airbase. As part
committed to contributing to international operations
of the effort to strengthen the airpower capabilities in
abroad, because there will likely be more demand for
the North, the Collocated Operating Bases arrangement
such operations in the future. All NATO countries have a
should be updated, in order to link US combat aircraft
responsibility for contributing to the Alliance’s common
closer to the defense of Norway. The same logic goes
capability to perform all three of the core tasks defined
for the US Marine Corps, which has prepositioned
in the Strategic Concept: collective defense, crisis
materiel in depots in central Norway (Marine Corps
management, and cooperative security with partners.3
Prepositioning Program–Norway). These prepositioned
vehicles and supplies can support a Marine Air Ground New risks and threats have changed Norway’s security
Task Force (MAGTF) of approximately 4,500 soldiers environment. It will require both greater effort by Oslo
and, if needed, can accommodate larger follow- and assistance from key allies to create a new normal
on forces up to an expeditionary brigade of fifteen in which the security of Norway and NATO’s northern
thousand to eighteen thousand soldiers. This is a
3 NATO, Strategic Concept for the Defense and Security of the
formidable deterrent in today’s Europe. For Norway, Members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, November
the defense relationship with the United States is the 19, 2010, http://www.nato.int/strategic-concept/pdf/Strat_
Concept_web_en.pdf.

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Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

Norwegian F-16. Photo credit: Norwegian Ministry of Defense.

flank are credible and strong. This is not an easy

task, but it can be achieved. To meet this challenge,
Norway needs political and military leadership with the
vision to pursue long-term security, and the enduring
commitment to achieve it in time.

Rolf Tamnes is a Professor at the Norwegian Institute for

Defense Studies (IFS). He was the chair of the Expert
Commission on Norwegian Security and Defense Policy
and the report it produced, Unified Effort. This chapter
draws heavily on the report. The opinions expressed in
this essay are those of the author and do not represent
the views of IFS or the Norwegian government.

36 ATLANTIC COUNCIL
 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

APPENDIX

ATLANTIC COUNCIL 37
Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

/ UNITED KINGDOM
Graph 1. Defense Expenditure Graph 2. Defense Expenditure
(billion, constant 2013 US dollars) (percentage of GDP)

80 5
70 4.05
62.85 61.492 4
60 59.022
50 49.84 3
40 2.38 2.2
2 2.08
30
20
1
10
0 0
1991 2000 2014 2015 1991 2000 2014 2015
Note: 1991, 2000, and 2014 are expenditures. 2015 is a budget Note: 1991, 2000, and 2014 are expenditures. 2015 is a budget
estimate. estimate.

Graph 3. Total Active Military Personnel Graph 4. Principal Surface Combatants

50 48
350,000
300,000 300,100 40

250,000 34
212,300 30
200,000
150,000 145,690 20 19
100,000
10
50,000
0 0
1991 2000 2015 1991 2000 2015

Graph 5. Main Battle Tanks—Army Graph 6. Combat Aircraft—Air Force

1,500 600
1,314 530
1,200 500
429
400
900
300 266
600 616
200
300 227 100

0 0
1991 2000 2015 1991 2000 2015

Sources: NATO, the International Monetary Fund, the International Institute for Strategic Studies, and the Royal United
Services Institute.

38 ATLANTIC COUNCIL
 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

/ FRANCE
Graph 1. Defense Expenditure Graph 2. Defense Expenditure
(billion, constant 2013 US dollars) (percentage of GDP)

80 3.5 3.3
71.11
70 3.0
61.44 2.47
60 2.5
51.71 51.25
50 2.0 1.86
1.76
40
1.5
30
1.0
20
0.5
10
0 0.0
1991 2000 2014 2015 1991 2000 2014 2015

Note: 1991 and 2000 are expenditures. 2014 and 2015 are Note: 1991 and 2000 are expenditures. 2014 and 2015 are
budget estimates. budget estimates.

Graph 3. Total Active Military Personnel Graph 4. Principal Surface Combatants

50
500,000
453,000 41
40
400,000 35
294,430 30
300,000
23
215,000 20
200,000

100,000 10

0 0
1991 2000 2015 1991 2000 2015

Graph 5. Main Battle Tanks—Army Graph 6. Combat Aircraft—Air Force

1,500 1,000
1,349 845
1,200 800

900 834 600 571

600 400
235
300 200
200
0 0
1991 2000 2015 1991 2000 2015

Sources: French Defense Ministry, NATO, the International Monetary Fund, and the International Institute for Strategic
Studies.

ATLANTIC COUNCIL 39
Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

/ GERMANY
Graph 1. Defense Expenditure Graph 2. Defense Expenditure
(billion, constant 2013 US dollars) (percentage of GDP)

80 2.5
2.2
70 67.2
2.0
60
50.62 1.49
50 1.5
42.69 42.867
40 1.14 1.11
1.0
30
20 0.5
10
0 0.0
1991 2000 2014 2015 1991 2000 2014 2015

Note: 1991 and 2000 are expenditures. 2014 and 2015 are Note: 1991 and 2000 are expenditures. 2014 and 2015 are
budget estimates. budget estimates.

Graph 3. Total Active Military Personnel Graph 4. Principal Surface Combatants

20
500,000 467,000
16
400,000 15 14 14
321,000
300,000
10
200,000 181,207

100,000 5

0
0
1991 2000 2015
1991 2000 2015

Graph 5. Main Battle Tanks—Army Graph 6. Combat Aircraft—Air Force

8,000 800
7,000 7,000 700
638
6,000 600
5,000 500 457
4,000 400
3,000 2,815 300
237
2,000 200
1,000 100
410
0 0
1991 2000 2015 1991 2000 2015

Sources: German Defense Ministry, NATO, the International Monetary Fund, and the International Institute for Strategic
Studies.

40 ATLANTIC COUNCIL
 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

/ POLAND
Graph 1. Defense Expenditure Graph 2. Defense Expenditure
(billion, constant 2013 US dollars) (percentage of GDP)

12 2.5
10.12 10.359 2.1
10 2.0 1.9 1.9
1.8
8 1.5
6.083
6
4.86 1.0
4
0.5
2
0.0
0
1991 2000 2014 2015
1991 2000 2014 2015
Note: 1991 and 2000 are expenditures. 2014 and 2015 are Note: 1991 and 2000 are expenditures. 2014 and 2015 are
budget estimates. budget estimates.

Graph 3. Total Active Military Personnel Graph 4. Principal Surface Combatants

3.0
3
350,000
305,000 2.5
300,000
2.0
2 2
250,000
217,290
200,000
1.5
150,000
99,300 1.0
100,000

50,000
0.5

0 0.0
1991 2000 2015 1991 2000 2015

Graph 5. Main Battle Tanks—Army Graph 6. Combat Aircraft—Air Force

3,000 2,850 600

2,500 500
506

2,000 400
1,704
1,500 300 267
1,000 926 200
100 113
500

0 0
1991 2000 2015 1991 2000 2015

Sources: Polish Defense Ministry, NATO, the International Monetary Fund, the International Institute for Strategic
Studies, and the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.

ATLANTIC COUNCIL 41
Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

/ ITALY
Graph 1. Defense Expenditure Graph 2. Defense Expenditure
(billion, constant 2013 US dollars) (percentage of GDP)
2.0 2.0
50 2.0
43.22
40 37.54 1.5
1.13
30 1.06
23.65 22.36 1.0
20
0.5
10

0 0.0
1991 2000 2014 2015 1991 2000 2014 2015

Note: 1991 and 2000 are expenditures. 2014 and 2015 are Note: 1991 and 2000 are expenditures. 2014 and 2015 are
budget estimates. budget estimates.

Graph 3. Total Active Military Personnel Graph 4. Principal Surface Combatants

35
400,000
32
361,400 30
30
350,000
300,000 25
250,600 19
250,000 20
200,000 176,000 15
150,000
10
100,000
50,000 5
0 0
1991 2000 2015 1991 2000 2015

Graph 5. Main Battle Tanks—Army Graph 6. Combat Aircraft—Air Force

1,500 500
449
1,220
1,200 400
336
900 300
699 242
600 200

300 100
160
0 0
1991 2000 2015 1991 2000 2015

Sources: Italian Defense Ministry, NATO, the International Monetary Fund, and the International Institute for Strategic
Studies.

42 ATLANTIC COUNCIL
 Alliance at Risk: Strengthening European Defense in an Age of Turbulence and Competition

/ NORWAY
Graph 1. Defense Expenditure Graph 2. Defense Expenditure
(billion, constant 2013 US dollars) (percentage of GDP)

8 3.0
2.75
7.13 7.17
7 2.5
6 5.62 5.57 2.0
5 1.74
4
1.5 1.36 1.34
3 1.0
2 0.5
1
0.0
0
1991 2000 2014 2015
1991 2000 2014 2015
Note: 1991 and 2000 are expenditures. 2014 and 2015 are Note: 1991 and 2000 are expenditures. 2014 and 2015 are
budget estimates. budget estimates.

Graph 3. Total Active Military Personnel Graph 4. Principal Surface Combatants

5 5
5
35,000 32,700
4
30,000 4
26,700 25,800
25,000
3
20,000
15,000 2
10,000
1
5,000
0 0
1991 2000 2015 1991 2000 2015

Graph 5. Main Battle Tanks—Army Graph 6. Combat Aircraft—Air Force

250 100
211 85
200 80 79
170
63
150 60

100 40

52
50 20

0 0
1991 2000 2015 1991 2000 2015

Sources: Norwegian Defense Ministry, NATO, the International Monetary Fund, and the International Institute for
Strategic Studies.

ATLANTIC COUNCIL 43
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