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Deconstruction
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Deconstructionisacriticaloutlookconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweentextandmeaning.JacquesDerrida's1967workOfGrammatology
introducedthemajorityofideasinfluentialwithindeconstruction.[1]AccordingtoDerridaandtakinginspirationfromtheworkofFerdinandde
Saussure,[2]languageasasystemofsignsandwordsonlyhasmeaningbecauseofthecontrastbetweenthesesigns.[3][4][5]AsRortycontends"words
havemeaningonlybecauseofcontrasteffectswithotherwords...nowordcanacquiremeaninginthewayinwhichphilosophersfromAristotleto
BertrandRussellhavehopeditmightbybeingtheunmediatedexpressionofsomethingnonlinguistic(e.g.,anemotion,asensedatum,aphysical
object,anidea,aPlatonicForm)".[6]Asaconsequencemeaningisneverpresent,butratherisdeferredtoothersigns.Derridareferstotheinthisview,
mistakenbeliefthatthereisaselfsufficient,nondeferredmeaningasmetaphysicsofpresence.Aconceptthenmustbeunderstoodinthecontextofits
opposite,suchasbeing/nothingness,normal/abnormal,speech/writing,etc.[7][8]
Finally,Derridaarguesthatitisnotenoughtoexposeanddeconstructthewayoppositionsworkandthenstopthereinanihilisticorcynicalposition,
"therebypreventinganymeansofinterveninginthefieldeffectively".[9]Tobeeffective,deconstructionneedstocreatenewterms,nottosynthesizethe
conceptsinopposition,buttomarktheirdifferenceandeternalinterplay.ThisexplainswhyDerridaalwaysproposesnewtermsinhisdeconstruction,
notasafreeplaybutasapurenecessityofanalysis,tobettermarktheintervals.Derridacalledundecidables,thatis,unitiesofsimulacrum,"false"
verbalproperties(nominalorsemantic)thatcannolongerbeincludedwithinphilosophical(binary)opposition:butwhich,however,inhabit
philosophicaloppositions,resistingandorganizingit,withouteverconstitutingathirdterm,withouteverleavingroomforasolutionintheformof
Hegeliandialectics(e.g.diffrance,archiwriting,pharmakon,supplement,hymen,gram,spacing).[10]
Inthe1980s,thePostmodernismera,deconstructionwasbeingputtouseinarangeoftheoreticalenterprisesinthehumanitiesandsocialsciences,[11]
includinglaw[12][13][14]anthropology,[15]historiography,[16]linguistics,[17]sociolinguistics,[18]psychoanalysis,feminism,andLGBTstudies.Inthe
continentalphilosophytradition,debatessurroundingontology,epistemology,ethics,aesthetics,hermeneutics,andphilosophyoflanguagestillreferto
ittoday.Withinarchitectureithasinspireddeconstructivism,anditremainsimportantingeneralwithinart,[19]music,[20]andliterarycriticism.[21]

Contents
1 Etymology
2 DeconstructionaccordingtoDerrida

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2 DeconstructionaccordingtoDerrida
2.1 Basicphilosophicalconcerns
2.2 Diffrance
2.3 Metaphysicsofpresence
2.4 RelatedworksbyDerrida
3 Applicationofdeconstruction
3.1 Literarycriticism
3.2 Critiqueofstructuralism
3.3 DevelopmentafterDerrida
3.3.1 TheYaleSchool
3.3.2 Criticallegalstudiesmovement
3.3.3 DeconstructingHistory
3.3.4 TheInoperativeCommunity
3.3.5 TheEthicsofDeconstruction
3.3.6 DerridaandthePolitical
4 Difficultyofdefinition
4.1 Deconstructionanddialectics
4.2 Derrida's"negative"descriptions
4.2.1 Notamethod
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4.2.2 Notacritique
4.2.3 Notananalysis
4.2.4 Notpoststructuralist
4.3 Alternativedefinitions
5 Influences
5.1 InfluenceofNietzsche
5.2 InfluenceofSaussure
6 Criticisms
6.1 JohnSearle
6.2 JrgenHabermas
6.3 WalterA.Davis
6.4 Inpopularmedia
7 Seealso
8 Notes
9 References
10 Furtherreading
11 Externallinks

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Etymology
Derrida'soriginaluseoftheword"deconstruction"wasatranslationofDestruktion,aconceptfromtheworkofMartinHeideggerthatDerridasoughtto
applytotextualreading.Heidegger'stermreferredtoaprocessofexploringthecategoriesandconceptsthattraditionhasimposedonaword,andthe
historybehindthem.[22]Derridaoptedfordeconstructionovertheliteraltranslationdestructiontosuggestprecisionratherthanviolence.

DeconstructionaccordingtoDerrida
Basicphilosophicalconcerns
Derrida'sconcernsflowfromaconsiderationofseveralissues:
1.Adesiretocontributetotherevaluationofallwesternvalues,builtonthe18thcenturyKantiancritiqueofreason,andcarriedforwardtothe19th
century,initsmoreradicalimplications,byKierkegaardandNietzsche.
2.Anassertionthattextsoutlivetheirauthors,andbecomepartofasetofculturalhabitsequalto,ifnotsurpassing,theimportanceofauthorial
intent.
3.Arevaluationofcertainclassicwesterndialectics:poetryvs.philosophy,reasonvs.revelation,structurevs.creativity,epistemevs.techne,etc.
Tothisend,Derridafollowsalonglineofmodernphilosophers,wholookbackwardstoPlatoandhisinfluenceonthewesternmetaphysical
tradition.[23]LikeNietzsche,DerridasuspectsPlatoofdissimulationintheserviceofapoliticalproject,namelytheeducation,throughcritical
reflections,ofaclassofcitizensmorestrategicallypositionedtoinfluencethepolis.However,likeNietzsche,Derridaisnotsatisfiedmerelywithsucha
politicalinterpretationofPlato,becauseoftheparticulardilemmamodernhumansfindthemselvesstuckin.HisPlatonicreflectionsareinseparablypart
ofhiscritiqueofmodernity,hencetheattempttobesomethingbeyondthemodern,becauseofthisNietzschiansensethatthemodernhaslostitsway
andbecomemiredinnihilism.

Diffrance
Diffranceisanimportantideawithindeconstruction,itistheobservationthatthemeaningsofwordscomefromtheirsynchronitywithotherwords
withinthelanguageandtheirdiachronybetweencontemporaryandhistoricaldefinitionsofaword.UnderstandinglanguageaccordingDerridarequired
anunderstandingofbothviewpointsoflinguisticanalysis.ThefocusondiachronityhasledtoaccusationsagainstDerridaofengaginginthe
Etymologicalfallacy.[24]

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ThereisonestatementbyDerridawhichhasbeenofgreatinteresttohisopponents,andwhichappearedinanessayonRousseau(partofthehighly
influentialOfGrammatology,1967),[25]Itistheassertionthat"thereisnooutsidetext"(iln'yapasdehorstexte),[25]whichisoftenmistranslatedas
"thereisnothingoutsideofthetext".ThemistranslationisoftenusedtosuggestDerridabelievesthatnothingexistsbutwords.MichelFoucault,for
instance,famouslymisattributedtoDerridatheverydifferentphrase"Iln'yarienendehorsdutext"forthispurpose.[26]AccordingtoDerrida,his
statementsimplyreferstotheunavoidabilityofcontextthatisattheheartofdiffrance.[27]
Forexample,theword"house"derivesitsmeaningmoreasafunctionofhowitdiffersfrom"shed","mansion","hotel","building",etc.(Formof
Content,thatLouisHjelmslevdistinguishedfromFormofExpression)thanhowtheword"house"maybetiedtoacertainimageofatraditionalhouse
(i.e.therelationshipbetweensignifierandsignified)witheachtermbeingestablishedinreciprocaldeterminationwiththeothertermsthanbyan
ostensivedescriptionordefinition:whencanwetalkabouta"house"ora"mansion"ora"shed"?Thesamecanbesaidaboutverbs,inallthelanguages
intheworld:whenshouldwestopsaying"walk"andstartsaying"run"?Thesamehappens,ofcourse,withadjectives:whenmustwestopsaying
"yellow"andstartsaying"orange",orexchange"past"for"present?Notonlyarethetopologicaldifferencesbetweenthewordsrelevanthere,butthe
differentialsbetweenwhatissignifiedisalsocoveredbydiffrance.
Thus,completemeaningisalways"differential"andpostponedinlanguagethereisneveramomentwhenmeaningiscompleteandtotal.Asimple
examplewouldconsistoflookingupagivenwordinadictionary,thenproceedingtolookupthewordsfoundinthatword'sdefinition,etc.,also
comparingwitholderdictionariesfromdifferentperiodsintime,andsuchaprocesswouldneverend.

Metaphysicsofpresence
Derridadescribesthetaskofdeconstructionastheidentificationofmetaphysicsofpresenceorlogocentrisminwesternphilosophy.Metaphysicsof
presenceisthedesireforimmediateaccesstomeaning,theprivilegingofpresenceoverabsence.Thismeansthatthereisanassumedbiasincertain
binaryoppositionswhereonesideisplacedinapositionofoneoveranother,suchasgoodoverbad,speechoverthewrittenword,maleoverfemale
amongotheroppositions.Derridawrites,"Withoutadoubt,Aristotlethinksoftimeonthebasisofousiaasparousia,onthebasisofthenow,thepoint,
etc.AndyetanentirereadingcouldbeorganizedthatwouldrepeatinAristotle'stextboththislimitationanditsopposite."[28]ToDerridathecentralbias
oflogocentrismwasthenowbeingplacedasmoreimportantthanthefutureorpast.ThisargumentislargelybasedontheearlierworkofHeidegger,
who,inBeingandTime,claimedthatthetheoreticalattitudeofpurepresenceisparasiticaluponamoreoriginaryinvolvementwiththeworldin
conceptssuchasthereadytohandandbeingwith.

RelatedworksbyDerrida
Derridapublishedanumberofworksdirectlyrelevanttotheconceptofdeconstruction,OfGrammatologywasthebookthatintroducedtheideaof
Deconstruction.Derridawentontowritemanyotherbooksshowingdeconstructioninactionordefiningitmorecompletely.Thoseotherbooksinclude
Diffrance,SpeechandPhenomena,andWritingandDifference.
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Applicationofdeconstruction
Derrida'sobservationshavehadalargeinfluenceonliterarycriticismandpoststructuralism.

Literarycriticism
Derrida'smethodconsistedindemonstratingalltheformsandvarietiesoftheoriginarycomplexityofsemiotics,andtheirmultipleconsequencesin
manyfields.Hiswayofachievingthiswasbyconductingthorough,careful,sensitive,andyettransformationalreadingsofphilosophicalandliterary
texts,withaneartowhatinthosetextsrunscountertotheirapparentsystematicity(structuralunity)orintendedsense(authorialgenesis).By
demonstratingtheaporiasandellipsesofthought,Derridahopedtoshowtheinfinitelysubtlewaysthatthisoriginarycomplexity,whichbydefinition
cannoteverbecompletelyknown,worksitsstructuringanddestructuringeffects.[29]
Deconstructiondenotesthepursuingofthemeaningofatexttothepointofexposingthesupposedcontradictionsandinternaloppositionsuponwhichit
isfoundedsupposedlyshowingthatthosefoundationsareirreduciblycomplex,unstable,orimpossible.Itisanapproachthatmaybedeployedin
philosophy,inliteraryanalysis,andevenintheanalysisofscientificwritings.[30]Deconstructiongenerallytriestodemonstratethatanytextisnota
discretewholebutcontainsseveralirreconcilableandcontradictorymeaningsthatanytextthereforehasmorethanoneinterpretationthatthetextitself
linkstheseinterpretationsinextricablythattheincompatibilityoftheseinterpretationsisirreducibleandthusthataninterpretativereadingcannotgo
beyondacertainpoint.Derridareferstothispointasan"aporia"inthetextthus,deconstructivereadingistermed"aporetic."[31]Heinsiststhatmeaning
ismadepossiblebytherelationsofawordtootherwordswithinthenetworkofstructuresthatlanguageis.[32]
Derridainitiallyresistedgrantingtohisapproachtheoverarchingname"deconstruction,"onthegroundsthatitwasaprecisetechnicaltermthatcould
notbeusedtocharacterizehisworkgenerally.Nevertheless,heeventuallyacceptedthatthetermhadcomeintocommonusetorefertohistextual
approach,andDerridahimselfincreasinglybegantousetheterminthismoregeneralway.

Critiqueofstructuralism
Derrida'slectureatJohnsHopkinsUniversity,"Structure,Sign,andPlayintheHumanSciences,"oftenappearsincollectionsasamanifestoagainst
structuralism.Derrida'sessaywasoneoftheearliesttoproposesometheoreticallimitationstostructuralism,andtoattempttotheorizeontermsthat
wereclearlynolongerstructuralist.Structuralismviewedlanguageasanumberofsigns,composedofasignified(themeaning)andasignifier(theword
itself).Derridaproposedthatsignsalwaysreferredtoothersigns,existingonlyinrelationtoeachother,andtherewasthereforenoultimatefoundation
orcentre,thisisthebasisofdiffrance.[33]

DevelopmentafterDerrida
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TheYaleSchool
Betweenthelate1960sandtheearly1980smanythinkerswereinfluencedbydeconstruction,includingPauldeMan,GeoffreyHartman,andJ.Hillis
Miller.ThisgroupcametobeknownastheYaleschoolandwasespeciallyinfluentialinliterarycriticism.Severalofthesetheoristsweresubsequently
affiliatedwiththeUniversityofCaliforniaIrvine.
Millerhasdescribeddeconstructionthisway:"Deconstructionisnotadismantlingofthestructureofatext,butademonstrationthatithasalready
dismantleditself.Itsapparentlysolidgroundisnorock,butthinair."[34]
Criticallegalstudiesmovement
Arguingthatlawandpoliticscannotbeseparated,thefoundersof"CriticalLegalStudiesMovement"foundnecessarytocriticizeitsabsenceatthelevel
oftheory.Todemonstratetheindeterminacyoflegaldoctrine,thesescholarsoftenadoptamethod,suchasstructuralisminlinguisticsordeconstruction
inContinentalphilosophy,tomakeexplicitthedeepstructureofcategoriesandtensionsatworkinlegaltextsandtalk.Theaimwastodeconstructthe
tensionsandproceduresbywhichtheyareconstructed,expressed,anddeployed.
Forexample,DuncanKennedy,inexplicitreferencetosemioticsanddeconstructionprocedures,maintainsthatvariouslegaldoctrinesareconstructed
aroundthebinarypairsofopposedconcepts,eachofwhichhasaclaimuponintuitiveandformalformsofreasoningthatmustbemadeexplicitintheir
meaningandrelativevalue,andcriticized.Selfandother,privateandpublic,subjectiveandobjective,freedomandcontrolareexamplesofsuchpairs
demonstratingtheinfluenceofopposingconceptsonthedevelopmentoflegaldoctrinesthroughhistory.[35]
DeconstructingHistory
Deconstructivereadingsofhistoryandsourceshavechangedtheentiredisciplineofhistory.In"DeconstructingHistory",AlunMunslowexamines
historyinwhathearguesisapostmodernage.Heprovidesanintroductiontothedebatesandissuesofpostmodernisthistory.Healsosurveysthelatest
researchintotherelationshipbetweenthepast,history,andhistoricalpractice,aswellasforwardinghisownchallengingtheories.[36]
TheInoperativeCommunity
JeanLucNancyarguesinhis1982bookTheInoperativeCommunityforanunderstandingofcommunityandsocietythatisundeconstructablebecause
itispriortoconceptualisation.Nancy'sworkisanimportantdevelopmentofdeconstructionbecauseittakesthechallengeofdeconstructionseriously
andattemptstodevelopanunderstandingofpoliticaltermsthatisundeconstructableandthereforesuitableforaphilosophyafterDerrida.
TheEthicsofDeconstruction
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SimonCritchleyarguesinhis1992book(2ndedition:19993rdedition:2014)TheEthicsofDeconstruction[37]thatDerrida'sdeconstructionisan
intrinsicallyethicalpractice.CritchleyarguesthatdeconstructioninvolvesanopennesstotheOtherthatmakesitethicalintheLevinasianunderstanding
oftheterm.
DerridaandthePolitical
JacquesDerridahashadahugeinfluenceoncontemporarypoliticaltheoryandpoliticalphilosophy.Derrida'sthinkinghasinspiredSlavojZizek,
RichardRorty,ErnestoLaclau,JudithButlerandmanymorecontemporarytheoristswhohavedevelopedadeconstructiveapproachtopolitics.Because
deconstructionexaminestheinternallogicofanygiventextordiscourseithashelpedmanyauthorstoanalysethecontradictionsinherentinallschools
ofthought,andassuchithasprovedrevolutionaryinpoliticalanalysis,particularlyideologycritiques.[38]
RichardBeardsworth,developingonCritchley'sEthicsofDeconstruction,arguesinhis1996DerridaandthePoliticalthatdeconstructionisan
intrinsicallypoliticalpractice.Hefurtherarguesthatthefutureofdeconstructionfacesachoice(perhapsanundecidablechoice)betweenatheological
approachandatechnologicalapproachrepresentedfirstofallbytheworkofBernardStiegler.

Difficultyofdefinition
Therehavebeenproblemsdefiningdeconstruction.Derridaclaimedthatallofhisessayswereattemptstodefinewhatdeconstructionis,[39]andthat
deconstructionisnecessarilycomplicatedanddifficulttoexplainsinceitactivelycriticisestheverylanguageneededtoexplainit.

Deconstructionanddialectics
Inthedeconstructionprocedure,oneofthemainconcernsofDerridaisnottocollapseintoHegel'sdialecticwheretheseoppositionswouldbereduced
tocontradictionsinadialecticthathasthepurposeofresolvingitintoasynthesis.[40]
ThepresenceofHegeliandialecticswasenormousintheintellectuallifeofFranceduringthesecondhalfofthe20thcenturywiththeinfluenceof
KojveandHyppolite,butalsowiththeimpactofdialecticsbasedoncontradictiondevelopedbyMarxists,andincludingtheexistentialismfromSartre,
etc.ThisexplainsDerrida'sconcerntoalwaysdistinguishhisprocedurefromHegel's,[41]sinceHegelianismbelievesbinaryoppositionswouldproducea
synthesis,whileDerridasawbinaryoppositionsasincapableofcollapsingintoasynthesisfreefromtheoriginalcontradiction.

Derrida's"negative"descriptions

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Derridahasbeenmoreforthcomingwithnegative(apophatic)thanpositivedescriptionsofdeconstruction.WhenaskedbyToshihikoIzutsusome
preliminaryconsiderationsonhowtotranslate"deconstruction"inJapanese,inordertoatleastpreventgoingcontrarytoitsactualmeaning,Derrida
thereforebeganhisresponsebysayingthatsuchquestionamountsto"whatdeconstructionisnot,orratheroughtnottobe."[42]
Derridastatesthatdeconstructionisnotananalysis,acritique,oramethod[43]inthetraditionalsensethatphilosophyunderstandstheseterms.Inthese
negativedescriptionsofdeconstructionDerridaisseekingto"multiplythecautionaryindicatorsandputasideallthetraditionalphilosophical
concepts."[43]Thisdoesnotmeanthatdeconstructionhasabsolutelynothingincommonwithananalysis,acritique,oramethodbecausewhileDerrida
distancesdeconstructionfromtheseterms,hereaffirms"thenecessityofreturningtothem,atleastundererasure."[43]Derrida'snecessityofreturningto
atermundererasuremeansthateventhoughthesetermsareproblematicwemustusethemuntiltheycanbeeffectivelyreformulatedorreplaced.The
relevanceofthetraditionofnegativetheologytoDerrida'spreferencefornegativedescriptionsofdeconstructionisthenotionthatapositivedescription
ofdeconstructionwouldoverdeterminetheideaofdeconstructionandthatthiswouldbeamistakebecauseitwouldcloseofftheopennessthatDerrida
wishestopreservefordeconstruction.ThismeansthatifDerridaweretopositivelydefinedeconstructionas,forexample,acritiquethenthiswouldput
theconceptofcritiqueforeveroutsidethepossibilityofdeconstruction.Somenewphilosophybeyonddeconstructionwouldthenberequiredinorderto
surpassthenotionofcritique.
Notamethod
Derridastatesthat"Deconstructionisnotamethod,andcannotbetransformedintoone."[43]Thisisbecausedeconstructionisnotamechanical
operation.Derridawarnsagainstconsideringdeconstructionasamechanicaloperationwhenhestatesthat"Itistruethatincertaincircles(universityor
cultural,especiallyintheUnitedStates)thetechnicalandmethodological"metaphor"thatseemsnecessarilyattachedtotheveryword"deconstruction"
hasbeenabletoseduceorleadastray."[43]CommentatorRichardBeardsworthexplainsthat:
Derridaiscarefultoavoidthisterm[method]becauseitcarriesconnotationsofaproceduralformofjudgement.Athinkerwithamethod
hasalreadydecidedhowtoproceed,isunabletogivehimorherselfuptothematterofthoughtinhand,isafunctionaryofthecriteria
whichstructurehisorherconceptualgestures.ForDerrida[...]thisisirresponsibilityitself.Thus,totalkofamethodinrelationto
deconstruction,especiallyregardingitsethicopoliticalimplications,wouldappeartogodirectlyagainstthecurrentofDerrida's
philosophicaladventure.[44]
Beardsworthhereexplainsthatitwouldbeirresponsibletoundertakeadeconstructionwithacompletesetofrulesthatneedonlybeappliedasamethod
totheobjectofdeconstructionbecausethisunderstandingwouldreducedeconstructiontoathesisofthereaderthatthetextisthenmadetofit.This
wouldbeanirresponsibleactofreadingbecauseitbecomesaprejudicialprocedurethatonlyfindswhatitsetsouttofind.
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Notacritique
DerridastatesthatdeconstructionisnotacritiqueintheKantiansense.[43]ThisisbecauseKantdefinesthetermcritiqueastheoppositeofdogmatism.
ForDerridaitisnotpossibletoescapethedogmaticbaggageofthelanguageweuseinordertoperformapurecritiqueintheKantiansense.ForDerrida
languageisdogmaticbecauseitisinescapablymetaphysical.Derridaarguesthatlanguageisinescapablymetaphysicalbecauseitismadeupof
signifiersthatonlyrefertothatwhichtranscendsthemthesignified.InadditionDerridaasksrhetorically"Isnottheideaofknowledgeandofthe
acquisitionofknowledgeinitselfmetaphysical?"[45]BythisDerridameansthatallclaimstoknowsomethingnecessarilyinvolveanassertionofthe
metaphysicaltypethatsomethingisthecasesomewhere.ForDerridatheconceptofneutralityissuspectanddogmatismisthereforeinvolvedin
everythingtoacertaindegree.Deconstructioncanchallengeaparticulardogmatismandhencedesedimentdogmatismingeneral,butitcannotescape
alldogmatismallatonce.
Notananalysis
Derridastatesthatdeconstructionisnotananalysisinthetraditionalsense.[43]Thisisbecausethepossibilityofanalysisispredicatedonthepossibility
ofbreakingupthetextbeinganalysedintoelementalcomponentparts.Derridaarguesthattherearenoselfsufficientunitsofmeaninginatext.Thisis
becauseindividualwordsorsentencesinatextcanonlybeproperlyunderstoodintermsofhowtheyfitintothelargerstructureofthetextandlanguage
itself.FormoreonDerrida'stheoryofmeaningseethepageondiffrance.
Notpoststructuralist
Derridastatesthathisuseoftheworddeconstructionfirsttookplaceinacontextinwhich"structuralismwasdominant"[46]anditsuseisrelatedtothis
context.Derridastatesthatdeconstructionisan"antistructuralistgesture"[46]because"Structuresweretobeundone,decomposed,desedimented."[46]At
thesametimeforDerridadeconstructionisalsoa"structuralistgesture"[46]becauseitisconcernedwiththestructureoftexts.SoforDerrida
deconstructioninvolves"acertainattentiontostructures"[46]andtriesto"understandhowan'ensemble'wasconstituted."[43]Asbothastructuralistand
anantistructuralistgesturedeconstructionistiedupwithwhatDerridacallsthe"structuralproblematic."[46]ThestructuralproblematicforDerridaisthe
tensionbetweengenesis,thatwhichis"intheessentialmodeofcreationormovement,"[47]andstructure,"systems,orcomplexes,orstatic
configurations."[47]Anexampleofgenesiswouldbethesensoryideasfromwhichknowledgeisthenderivedintheempiricalepistemology.Anexample
ofstructurewouldbeabinaryoppositionsuchasgoodandevilwherethemeaningofeachelementisestablished,atleastpartly,throughitsrelationship
totheotherelement.

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ItisforthisreasonthatDerridadistanceshisuseofthetermdeconstructionfrompoststructuralism,atermthatwouldsuggestphilosophycouldsimply
gobeyondstructuralism.Derridastatesthat"themotifofdeconstructionhasbeenassociatedwith"poststructuralism"butthatthistermwas"aword
unknowninFranceuntilits"return"fromtheUnitedStates."[43]Derrida'sdeconstructionofHusserlDerridaactuallyarguesforthecontaminationof
pureoriginsbythestructuresoflanguageandtemporalityandManfredFrankhasevenreferredtoDerrida'sworkas"Neostructuralism."[48]

Alternativedefinitions
ThepopularityofthetermdeconstructioncombinedwiththetechnicaldifficultyofDerrida'sprimarymaterialondeconstructionandhisreluctanceto
elaboratehisunderstandingofthetermhasmeantthatmanysecondarysourceshaveattemptedtogiveamorestraightforwardexplanationthanDerrida
himselfeverattempted.Secondarydefinitionsarethereforeaninterpretationofdeconstructionbythepersonofferingthemratherthanadirectsummary
ofDerrida'sactualposition.
PauldeManwasamemberoftheYaleSchoolandaprominentpractitionerofdeconstructionasheunderstoodit.Hisdefinitionofdeconstruction
isthat,"[i]t'spossible,withintext,toframeaquestionorundoassertionsmadeinthetext,bymeansofelementswhichareinthetext,which
frequentlywouldbepreciselystructuresthatplayofftherhetoricalagainstgrammaticalelements."[49]
RichardRortywasaprominentinterpreterofDerrida'sphilosophy.Hisdefinitionofdeconstructionisthat,"theterm'deconstruction'refersinthe
firstinstancetothewayinwhichthe'accidental'featuresofatextcanbeseenasbetraying,subverting,itspurportedly'essential'message."[50]
(Thewordaccidentalisusedhereinthesenseofincidental.)
JohnD.Caputoattemptstoexplaindeconstructioninanutshellbystating:
"Wheneverdeconstructionfindsanutshellasecureaxiomorapithymaximtheveryideaistocrackitopenanddisturbthis
tranquility.Indeed,thatisagoodruleofthumbindeconstruction.Thatiswhatdeconstructionisallabout,itsverymeaningand
mission,ifithasany.Onemightevensaythatcrackingnutshellsiswhatdeconstructionis.Inanutshell....Havewenotrunup
againstaparadoxandanaporia[somethingcontradictory]...theparalysisandimpossibilityofanaporiaisjustwhatimpels
deconstruction,whatrousesitoutofbedinthemorning..."(Caputo1997,p.32)
NiallLucypointstotheimpossibilityofdefiningthetermatall,stating:
"Whileinasenseitisimpossiblydifficulttodefine,theimpossibilityhaslesstodowiththeadoptionofapositionortheassertionof
achoiceondeconstruction'spartthanwiththeimpossibilityofevery'is'assuch.Deconstructionbegins,asitwere,fromarefusalof
theauthorityordeterminingpowerofevery'is',orsimplyfromarefusalofauthorityingeneral.Whilesuchrefusalmayindeedcount
asaposition,itisnotthecasethatdeconstructionholdsthisasasortof'preference'".[51]
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DavidB.AllisonisanearlytranslatorofDerridaandstatesintheintroductiontohistranslationofSpeechandPhenomena:
[Deconstruction]signifiesaprojectofcriticalthoughtwhosetaskistolocateand'takeapart'thoseconceptswhichserveasthe
axiomsorrulesforaperiodofthought,thoseconceptswhichcommandtheunfoldingofanentireepochofmetaphysics.
'Deconstruction'issomewhatlessnegativethantheHeideggerianorNietzscheanterms'destruction'or'reversal'itsuggeststhat
certainfoundationalconceptsofmetaphysicswillneverbeentirelyeliminated...Thereisnosimple'overcoming'ofmetaphysicsorthe
languageofmetaphysics.[52]
PaulRicurdefinesdeconstructionasawayofuncoveringthequestionsbehindtheanswersofatextortradition.[53]
RichardEllmanndefines'deconstruction'asthesystematicundoingofunderstanding.
Asurveyofthesecondaryliteraturerevealsawiderangeofheterogeneousarguments.Particularlyproblematicaretheattemptstogiveneat
introductionstodeconstructionbypeopletrainedinliterarycriticismwhosometimeshavelittleornoexpertiseintherelevantareasofphilosophythat
Derridaisworkinginrelationto.Thesesecondaryworks(e.g.DeconstructionforBeginners[54]andDeconstructions:AUser'sGuide[55])haveattempted
toexplaindeconstructionwhilebeingacademicallycriticizedastoofarremovedfromtheoriginaltextsandDerrida'sactualposition.Inaneffortto
clarifytherathermuddledreceptionofthetermdeconstructionDerridaspecifieswhatdeconstructionisnotthroughanumberofnegativedefinitions.

Influences
Derrida'stheoriesondeconstructionwerethemselvesinfluencedbytheworkoflinguistssuchasFerdinanddeSaussure(whosewritingsonsemiotics
alsobecameacornerstoneofstructuralisttheoryinthemid20thcentury)andliterarytheoristssuchasRolandBarthes(whoseworkswerean
investigationofthelogicalendsofstructuralistthought).Derrida'sviewsondeconstructionstoodopposedtothetheoriesofstructuralistssuchas
psychoanalytictheoristJacquesLacan,linguistClaudeLviStrauss,andpoliticalandsocialtheoristMichelFoucault.However,Derridaresisted
attemptstolabelhisworkas"poststructuralist".

InfluenceofNietzsche
InordertounderstandDerrida'smotivation,onemustrefertoNietzsche'sphilosophy.
Nietzsche'sprojectbeganwithOrpheus,themanunderground.ThisfoiltoPlatoniclightwasdeliberatelyandselfconsciouslylaudedinDaybreak,
whenNietzscheannounces,albeitretrospectively,"Inthisworkyouwilldiscoverasubterraneanmanatwork,"andthengoesontomaptheprojectof
unreason:"Allthingsthatlivelongaregraduallysosaturatedwithreasonthattheirorigininunreasontherebybecomesimprobable.Doesnotalmost
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everyprecisehistoryofanoriginationimpressourfeelingsasparadoxicalandwantonlyoffensive?Doesthegoodhistoriannot,atbottom,constantly
contradict?"[56]
Nietzsche'spointinDaybreakisthatstandingattheendofmodernhistory,modernthinkersknowtoomuchtobedeceivedbytheillusionofreasonany
more.Reason,logic,philosophyandsciencearenolongersolelysufficientastheroyalroadstotruth.AndsoNietzschedecidestothrowitinourfaces,
anduncoverthetruthofPlato,thatheunlikeOrpheusjusthappenedtodiscoverhistrueloveinthelightinsteadofinthedark.Thisbeingmerely
onehistoricaleventamongstmany,Nietzscheproposesthatwerevisualizethehistoryofthewestasthehistoryofaseriesofpoliticalmoves,thatis,a
manifestationofthewilltopower,thatatbottomhavenogreaterorlesserclaimtotruthinanynoumenal(absolute)sense.Bycallingourattentionto
thefactthathehasassumedtheroleofOrpheus,themanunderground,indialecticaloppositiontoPlato,Nietzschehopestosensitizeustothepolitical
andculturalcontext,andthepoliticalinfluencesthatimpactauthorship.Forexample,thepoliticalinfluencesthatledoneauthortochoosephilosophy
overpoetry(oratleastportrayhimselfashavingmadesuchachoice),andanothertomakeadifferentchoice.
TheproblemwithNietzsche,asDerridaseesit,isthathedidnotgofarenough.Thathemissedthefactthatthiswilltopowerisitselfbuta
manifestationoftheoperationofwriting.AndsoDerridawishestohelpusstepbeyondNietzsche'spenultimaterevaluationofallwesternvalues,tothe
ultimate,whichisthefinalappreciationof"theroleofwritingintheproductionofknowledge."[23]

InfluenceofSaussure
Derridaapproachesalltextsasconstructedaroundelementaloppositionswhichalldiscoursehastoarticulateifitintendstomakeanysensewhatsoever.
Thisissobecauseidentityisviewedinnonessentialisttermsasaconstruct,andbecauseconstructsonlyproducemeaningthroughtheinterplayof
differenceinsidea"systemofdistinctsigns".ThisapproachtotextisinfluencedbythesemiologyofFerdinanddeSaussure.[57][58]
Saussureisconsideredoneofthefathersofstructuralismwhenheexplainedthattermsgettheirmeaninginreciprocaldeterminationwithotherterms
insidelanguage:
Inlanguagethereareonlydifferences.Evenmoreimportant:adifferencegenerallyimpliespositivetermsbetweenwhichthedifferenceis
setupbutinlanguagethereareonlydifferenceswithoutpositiveterms.Whetherwetakethesignifiedorthesignifier,languagehasneither
ideasnorsoundsthatexistedbeforethelinguisticsystem,butonlyconceptualandphonicdifferencesthathaveissuedfromthesystem.The
ideaorphonicsubstancethatasigncontainsisoflessimportancethantheothersignsthatsurroundit.[...]Alinguisticsystemisaseriesof
differencesofsoundcombinedwithaseriesofdifferencesofideasbutthepairingofacertainnumberofacousticalsignswithasmanycuts
madefromthemassthoughtengendersasystemofvalues.[2]

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Saussureexplicitlysuggestedthatlinguisticswasonlyabranchofamoregeneralsemiology,ofascienceofsignsingeneral,beinghumancodesonly
oneamongothers.Nevertheless,intheend,asDerridapointedout,hemadeoflinguistics"theregulatorymodel",and"foressential,andessentially
metaphysical,reasonshadtoprivilegespeech,andeverythingthatlinksthesigntophone".[59]Derridawillprefertofollowthemore"fruitfulpaths
(formalization)"ofageneralsemioticswithoutfallinginwhatheconsidered"ahierarchizingteleology"privileginglinguistics,andspeakof'mark'
ratherthanoflanguage,notassomethingrestrictedtomankind,butasprelinguistic,asthepurepossibilityoflanguage,workingeverywherethereisa
relationtosomethingelse.

Criticisms
DerridahasbeeninvolvedinanumberofhighprofiledisagreementswithprominentphilosophersincludingMichelFoucault,JohnSearle,WillardVan
OrmanQuine,PeterKreeft,andJrgenHabermas.Mostofthecriticismofdeconstructionwerefirstarticulatedbythesephilosophersandrepeated
elsewhere.

JohnSearle
Intheearly1970s,SearlehadabriefexchangewithJacquesDerridaregardingspeechacttheory.Theexchangewascharacterizedbyadegreeofmutual
hostilitybetweenthephilosophers,eachofwhomaccusedtheotherofhavingmisunderstoodhisbasicpoints.[60]Searlewasparticularlyhostileto
Derrida'sdeconstructionistframeworkandmuchlaterrefusedtolethisresponsetoDerridabeprintedalongwithDerrida'spapersinthe1988collection
LimitedInc.SearledidnotconsiderDerrida'sapproachtobelegitimatephilosophyorevenintelligiblewritingandarguedthathedidnotwantto
legitimizethedeconstructionistpointofviewbydedicatinganyattentiontoit.Consequently,somecritics[61]haveconsideredtheexchangetobeaseries
ofelaboratemisunderstandingsratherthanadebate,whileothers[62]haveseeneitherDerridaorSearlegainingtheupperhand.Thelevelofhostilitycan
beseenfromSearle'sstatementthat"ItwouldbeamistaketoregardDerrida'sdiscussionofAustinasaconfrontationbetweentwoprominent
philosophicaltraditions",towhichDerridarepliedthatthatsentencewas"theonlysentenceofthe"reply"towhichIcansubscribe".[63]Commentators
havefrequentlyinterpretedtheexchangeasaprominentexampleofaconfrontationbetweenanalyticalandcontinentalphilosophy.
Thedebatebeganin1972,when,inhispaper"SignatureEventContext",DerridaanalyzedJ.L.Austin'stheoryoftheillocutionaryact.While
sympathetictoAustin'sdeparturefromapurelydenotationalaccountoflanguagetoonethatincludes"force",Derridawasscepticaloftheframeworkof
normativityemployedbyAustin.HearguedthatAustinhadmissedthefactthatanyspeecheventisframedbya"structureofabsence"(thewordsthat
areleftunsaidduetocontextualconstraints)andby"iterability"(theconstraintsonwhatcanbesaid,givenbywhathasbeensaidinthepast).Derrida
arguedthatthefocusonintentionalityinspeechacttheorywasmisguidedbecauseintentionalityisrestrictedtothatwhichisalreadyestablishedasa
possibleintention.HealsotookissuewiththewayAustinhadexcludedthestudyoffiction,nonseriousor"parasitic"speech,wonderingwhetherthis
exclusionwasbecauseAustinhadconsideredthesespeechgenresgovernedbydifferentstructuresofmeaning,orsimplyduetoalackofinterest.Inhis
briefreplytoDerrida,"ReiteratingtheDifferences:AReplytoDerrida",SearlearguedthatDerrida'scritiquewasunwarrantedbecauseitassumedthat
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Austin'stheoryattemptedtogiveafullaccountoflanguageandmeaningwhenitsaimwasmuchnarrower.Searleconsideredtheomissionofparasitic
discourseformstobejustifiedbythenarrowscopeofAustin'sinquiry.[64][65]SearleagreedwithDerrida'sproposalthatintentionalitypresupposes
iterability,butdidnotapplythesameconceptofintentionalityusedbyDerrida,beingunableorunwillingtoengagewiththecontinentalconceptual
apparatus.[62]This,inturn,causedDerridatocriticizeSearlefornotbeingsufficientlyfamiliarwithphenomenologicalperspectivesonintentionality.[66]
SearlealsoarguedthatDerrida'sdisagreementwithAustinturnedonhishavingmisunderstoodAustin'stypetokendistinctionandhisfailureto
understandAustin'sconceptoffailureinrelationtoperformativity.Somecritics[66]havesuggestedthatSearle,bybeingsogroundedintheanalytical
traditionthathewasunabletoengagewithDerrida'scontinentalphenomenologicaltradition,wasatfaultfortheunsuccessfulnatureoftheexchange.
Derrida,inhisresponsetoSearle("abc..."inLimitedInc),ridiculedSearle'spositions.ClaimingthataclearsenderofSearle'smessagecouldnotbe
established,hesuggestedthatSearlehadformedwithAustinasocitresponsabilitlimite(a"limitedliabilitycompany")duetothewaysinwhich
theambiguitiesofauthorshipwithinSearle'sreplycircumventedtheveryspeechactofhisreply.Searledidnotreply.Laterin1988,Derridatriedto
reviewhispositionandhiscritiquesofAustinandSearle,reiteratingthathefoundtheconstantappealto"normality"intheanalyticaltraditiontobe
problematic.[62][67][68][69][70][71][72][73]
Inthedebate,DerridapraisesAustin'swork,butarguesthatheiswrongtobanishwhatAustincalls"infelicities"fromthe"normal"operationof
language.One"infelicity,"forinstance,occurswhenitcannotbeknownwhetheragivenspeechactis"sincere"or"merelycitational"(andtherefore
possiblyironic,etc.).Derridaarguesthateveryiterationisnecessarily"citational,"duetothegraphematicnatureofspeechandwriting,andthat
languagecouldnotworkatallwithouttheeverpresentandineradicablepossibilityofsuchalternatereadings.DerridatakesSearletotaskforhis
attempttogetaroundthisissuebygroundingfinalauthorityinthespeaker'sinaccessible"intention".Derridaarguesthatintentioncannotpossibly
governhowaniterationsignifies,onceitbecomeshearableorreadable.Allspeechactsborrowalanguagewhosesignificanceisdeterminedby
historicallinguisticcontext,andbythealternatepossibilitiesthatthiscontextmakespossible.Thissignificance,Derridaargues,cannotbealteredor
governedbythewhimsofintention.
Hewouldalsoargueabouttheproblemhefoundintheconstantappealto"normality"intheanalyticaltraditionfromwhichAustinandSearlewereonly
paradigmaticexamples.[67]
Inthedescriptionofthestructurecalled"normal,""normative,""central,""ideal,"thispossibilitymustbeintegratedasanessential
possibility.Thepossibilitycannotbetreatedasthoughitwereasimpleaccidentmarginalorparasitic.Itcannotbe,andhenceoughtnotto
be,andthispassagefromcantooughtreflectstheentiredifficulty.Intheanalysisofsocallednormalcases,oneneithercannorought,in
alltheoreticalrigor,toexcludethepossibilityoftransgression.Notevenprovisionally,oroutofallegedlymethodologicalconsiderations.It
wouldbeapoormethod,sincethispossibilityoftransgressiontellsusimmediatelyandindispensablyaboutthestructureoftheactsaidto
benormalaswellasaboutthestructureoflawingeneral.

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Hecontinuedarguinghowproblematicwasestablishingtherelationbetween"nonfictionorstandarddiscourse"and"fiction,"definedasits"parasite,
"forpartofthemostoriginaryessenceofthelatteristoallowfiction,thesimulacrum,parasitism,totakeplaceandinsodoingto"deessentialize"itself
asitwere".[67]Hewouldfinallyarguethattheindispensablequestionwouldthenbecome:[67]
whatis"nonfictionstandarddiscourse,"whatmustitbeandwhatdoesthisnameevoke,onceitsfictionalityoritsfictionalization,its
transgressive"parasitism,"isalwayspossible(andmoreoverbyvirtueoftheverysamewords,thesamephrases,thesamegrammar,etc.)?
Thisquestionisallthemoreindispensablesincetherules,andeventhestatementsoftherulesgoverningtherelationsof"nonfiction
standarddiscourse"anditsfictional"parasites,"arenotthingsfoundinnature,butlaws,symbolicinventions,orconventions,institutions
that,intheirverynormalityaswellasintheirnormativity,entailsomethingofthefictional.
In1995,SearlegaveabriefreplytoDerridainTheConstructionofSocialReality.HecalledDerrida'sconclusion"preposterous"andstatedthat
"Derrida,asfarasIcantell,doesnothaveanargument.Hesimplydeclaresthatthereisnothingoutsideoftexts..."[74]Searle'sreferencehereisnotto
anythingforwardedinthedebate,buttoamistranslationofthephrase"iln'yapasdehorsdutexte,"("Thereisnooutsidetext")whichappearsin
Derrida'sOfGrammatology.[75]

JrgenHabermas
InThePhilosophicalDiscourseofModernity,JrgenHabermascriticizedwhatheconsideredDerrida'soppositiontorationaldiscourse.[76]
Further,inanessayonreligionandreligiouslanguage,HabermascriticizedDerrida'sinsistenceonetymologyandphilology(seeEtymologicalfallacy).

WalterA.Davis
TheAmericanphilosopherWalterA.Davis,inInwardnessandExistence:Subjectivityin/andHegel,Heidegger,MarxandFreud,arguesthatboth
deconstructionandstructuralismareprematurelyarrestedmomentsofadialecticalmovementthatissuesinHegelian"unhappyconsciousness."[77]

Inpopularmedia
PopularcriticismofdeconstructionalsointensifiedfollowingtheSokalaffair,whichmanypeopletookasanindicatorofthequalityofdeconstructionas
awhole,despitetheabsenceofDerridafromSokal'sfollowupbookImposturesIntellectuelles.[78]
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Seealso
Deconstructionandreligion
Hermeneutics
Listofdeconstructionists
Poststructuralism
Postmodernism

Notes
1.Derridafirstusedtheterm"Deconstruction"inhiswork"OfGrammatology",Frenchversion,p.25(LesditionsdeMinuit,1967,ISBN9782707300126).On
thispageDerridastatesthattheoccidentalhistoryofsignsisessentiallytheologicalwithreferencetoLogocentrism.Derridastartsametaphysicalapproachof
semiology.Hestatesthattheconceptofsignanddeconstructionworkarealwaysexposedtomisunderstanding.Heusestheterm"mconnaissance"probablyin
referencetoJacquesLacanwhorejectedthebeliefthatrealitycanbecapturedinlanguage.InthesamepageDerridastatesthathewilltrytodemonstratethatthere
isnolinguisticsignwithoutwriting.
2.Saussure,Ferdinandde(1916).CourseinGeneralLinguistics[trans.1959].NewYork:NewYorkPhilosophicalLibrary.pp.1212."Inlanguagethereareonly
differences.Evenmoreimportant:adifferencegenerallyimpliespositivetermsbetweenwhichthedifferenceissetupbutinlanguagethereareonlydifferences
withoutpositiveterms.Whetherwetakethesignifiedorthesignifier,languagehasneitherideasnorsoundsthatexistedbeforethelinguisticsystem,butonly
conceptualandphonicdifferencesthathaveissuedfromthesystem."
3.Rorty,Richard(1995)."DeconstructionistTheory".FromFormalismtoPoststructuralism8.CambridgeUniversityPress."Derridasaysofthelogocentric
philosopherswhoholdoutthishopeofimmediacy:"Univocityistheessence,orbetter,thetelosoflanguage.NophilosophyhaseverrenouncedthisAristotelian
ideal.Thisidealisphilosophy.'(Margins,p.247)Tosucceedintwistingfreeofthelogocentrictraditionwouldbetowrite,andtoread,insuchawayasto
renouncethisideal.Todestroythetraditionwouldbetoseeallthetextsofthattraditionasselfdelusive,because[itis]usinglanguagetodowhatlanguagecannot
do.Languageitself,sotospeak,canbereliedupontobetrayanyattempttotranscendit(seeDerrida,"Writing",pp.27881)."
4.Derrida,Jacques(1997)."Chapter1TheEndoftheBookandtheBeginningofWriting".OfGrammatology.translatedbyGayatriChakravortySpivak(Corrected
ed.).Baltimore:TheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.p.12.ISBN0801858305."Wealreadyhaveaforebodingthatphonocentrismmergeswiththehistorical
determinationofthemeaningofbeingingeneralaspresence,withallthesubdeterminationswhichdependonthisgeneralformandwhichorganizewithinittheir
systemandtheirhistoricalsequence(presenceofthethingtothesightaseidos,presenceassubstance/essence/existenceousia,temporalpresenceaspoint(stigme)
oftheNoworofthemoment(nun),theselfpresenceofthecogito,consciousness,subjectivity,thecopresenceoftheOtherandoftheSelf,intersubjectivityasthe
intentionalphenomenonoftheego,andsoforth).Logocentrismwouldthussupportthedeterminationofthebeingoftheentityaspresence.Totheextentthatsuch
aLogocentrismisnottotallyabsentfromHeidegger'sthought,perhapsitstillholdsthatthoughtwithintheepochofontotheology,withinthephilosophyof
presence,thatistosaywithinphilosophyitself."
5.Derrida,Jacques(1997)."Chapter1TheEndoftheBookandtheBeginningofWriting".OfGrammatology.translatedbyGayatriChakravortySpivak(Corrected
ed.).Baltimore:TheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.p.7.ISBN0801858305."Thesecondaritythatitseemedpossibletoascribetowritingaloneaffectsall
signifiedsingeneral,affectsthemalwaysalready,themomenttheyenterthegame.Thereisnotasinglesignifiedthatescapestheplayofdifferance."

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6.Rorty,Richard(1995)."DeconstructionistTheory".FromFormalismtoPoststructuralism8.CambridgeUniversityPress."Thatis,wordshavemeaningonly
becauseofcontrasteffectswithotherwords.'Red'meanswhatitdoesonlybycontrastwith'blue','green',etc.'Being'alsomeansnothingexceptbycontrast,not
onlywith'beings'butwith'Nature','God','Humanity',andindeedeveryotherwordinthelanguage.Nowordcanacquiremeaninginthewayinwhichphilosophers
fromAristotletoBertrandRussellhavehopeditmightbybeingtheunmediatedexpressionofsomethingnonlinguistic(e.g.,anemotion,asensedatum,a
physicalobject,anidea,aPlatonicForm)(...)Ifthisisso,Derridacontends,itmeansthatanygivenconceptisconstitutedintermsofitsoppositions,e.g.
being/nothing,one/multiple,truth/false,fair/unfair,beauty/ugly,essence/existence,receptivity/spontaneity,autonomous/heteronomous,transcendental/empirical,
transcendent/immanent,mind/body,normal/abnormal,sovereign/beast,speech/writing,nature/culture,bachelor/married,etc..Thisisnot,ofcourse,tosaythatthere
isnosuchthingaslinguisticreferencetononlanguage.ButmerelytorepeatWittgenstein'spointthatostensivedefinitionrequiresalotof'stagesetting'.The
commonsenseclaimthat'There'sarabbit'istypicallyutteredinthepresenceofrabbitsisunderminedneitherbyWittgenstein'spoint,norbyQuine'sarguments
abouttheinscrutabilityofreference,norbyDerrida'saboutthetendencyofthesignifiertoslipawayfromthesignified.Fortheimpactofsuchargumentsonthe
notionofmeaning,seeStout,'Meaning',andWheeler,'Extension'."
7.Derrida,Jacques(2005)."Chapter7:FreudandtheSceneofWriting".WritingandDifference.translated,withanintroductionandadditionalnotes,byAlanBass
(Taylor&FranciseLibraryed.).London:Routledge.p.276.ISBN0203991788."Themodelofhieroglyphicwritingassemblesmorestrikinglythoughwefind
itineveryformofwritingthediversityofthemodesandfunctionsofsignsindreams.Everysignverbalorotherwisemaybeusedatdifferentlevels,in
configurationsandfunctionswhichareneverprescribedbyits"essence,"butemergefromaplayofdifferences."
8.Derrida,Jacques(1981).Positions.translatedandannotatedbyAlanBass(1sted.).Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress.p.26.ISBN0226143317."Atthe
pointatwhichtheconceptofdifferance,andthechainattachedtoit,intervenes,alltheconceptualoppositionsofmetaphysics(signifier/signified
sensible/intelligiblewriting/speechpassivity/activityetc.)totheextentthattheyultimatelyrefertothepresenceofsomethingpresent(forexample,intheform
oftheidentityofthesubjectwhoispresentforallhisoperations,presentbeneatheveryaccidentorevent,selfpresentinits"livingspeech,"initsenunciations,in
thepresentobjectsandactsofitslanguage,etc.)becomenonpertinent.Theyallamount,atonemomentoranother,toasubordinationofthemovementof
differanceinfavorofthepresenceofavalueorameaningsupposedlyantecedenttodifferance,moreoriginalthanit,exceedingandgoverningitinthelastanalysis.
Thisisstillthepresenceofwhatwecalledabovethe"transcendentalsignified."
9.Derrida,Jacques(1981)."InterviewwithJeanLouisHoudebineandGuyScarpetta".Positions.translatedandannotatedbyAlanBass(1sted.).Chicago:The
UniversityofChicagoPress.p.41.ISBN0226143317."Thereforeonemightnotproceedtooquicklytoaneutralizationthatinpracticewouldleavetheprevious
fielduntouched,leavingonenoholdonthepreviousopposition,therebypreventinganymeansofinterveninginthefieldeffectively.Weknowwhatalwayshave
beenthepractical(particularlypolitical)effectsofImmediatelyjumpingbeyondoppositions,andofprotestsinthesimpleformofneitherthisnorthat."
10.Derrida,Jacques(1981)."InterviewwithJeanLouisHoudebineandGuyScarpetta".Positions.translatedandannotatedbyAlanBass(1sted.).Chicago:The
UniversityofChicagoPress.p.19.ISBN0226143317."Ihavecalledundecidables,thatis,unitiesofsimulacrum,"false"verbalproperties(nominalorsemantic)
thatcannolongerbeincludedwithinphilosophical(binary)opposition,butwhich,however,inhabitphilosophicaloppositions,resistinganddisorganizingit,
withouteverconstitutingathirdterm,withouteverleavingroomforasolutionintheformofspeculativedialectics(thepharmakonisneitherremedynorpoison,
neithergoodnorevil,neithertheinsidenortheoutside,neitherspeechnorwritingthesupplementisneitheraplusnoraminus,neitheranoutsidenorthe
complementofaninside,neitheraccidentnoressence,etc.thehymenisneitherconfusionnordistinction(neitheridentitynordifference,neitherconsummation
norvirginity,neithertheveilnorunveiling,neithertheinsidenortheoutside,etc.thegramisneitherasignifiernorasignified,neitherasignnorathing,neithera
presencenoranabsence,neitherapositionnoranegation,etc.spacingisneitherspacenortimetheincisionisneithertheincisedintegrityofabeginning,orofa
simplecuttinginto,norsimplesecondarity.Neither/nor:thatissimultaneouslyeitherorthemarkisalsothemarginallimit,themarch,etc.).Infact,Iattemptto
bringthecriticaloperationtobearagainsttheunceasingreappropriationofthisworkofthesimulacrumbyadialecticsoftheHegeliantype(Whichevenidealizes
and"semantizes"thevalueofwork),forHegelianidealismconsistspreciselyofarelevofthebinaryoppositionsofclassicalidealism,aresolutionof
contradictionintoathirdtermthatcomesinordertoaufheben,todenywhileraisingup,whileidealizing,whilesublimatingintoananamnesicinteriority
(Errinnerung),whileinterningdifferenceinaselfpresence."..."
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11."Deconstruction(Criticism)".EncyclopaediaBrittanica.
12.Derrida,Jacques(1992)."ForceofLaw".DeconstructionandthePossibilityofJustice.translatedbyMaryQuaintance,eds.,DrucillaCornell,MichaelRosenfeld,
andDavidGrayCarlson(1sted.).NewYork:Routledge.pp.367.ISBN0810103974."Adecisionthatdidnotgothroughtheordealoftheundecidablewouldnot
beafreedecision,itwouldonlybetheprogrammableapplicationorunfoldingofacalculableprocess...[which]deconstructsfromtheinsideeveryassuranceof
presence,andthuseverycriteriologythatwouldassureusofthejusticeofthedecision."
13."CriticalLegalStudiesMovement"(http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/bridge/CriticalTheory/critical2.htm)in"TheBridge"
14.GERMANLAWJOURNAL,SPECIALISSUE:ADEDICATIONTOJACQUESDERRIDA(http://www.germanlawjournal.com/index.php?
pageID=13&vol=6&no=1),Vol.6No.1,pp.1243,1January2005
15."LegaciesofDerrida:Anthropology",RosalindC.Morris,AnnualReviewofAnthropology,Volume:36,pages:35589,2007
16."DeconstructingHistory",published1997,2nd.Edn.Routledge,2006
17.Busch,Brigitt(2012).LinguisticRepertoireRevisited.AppliedLinguistics(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress).
18."Thesociolinguisticsofschooling:therelevanceofDerrida'sMonolingualismoftheOtherortheProsthesisofOrigin",MichaelEvans,01/2012ISBN9783
034310093Inbook:TheSociolinguisticsofLanguageEducationinInternationalContexts,Publisher:PeterLang,Editors:EdithEschandMartinSolly,pp.31
46
19.E.g.,"DorisSalcedo",Phaidon(2004),"HansHaacke",Phaidon(2000)
20.DeconstructioninMusicTheJacquesDerrida,GerdZacher,Encounter,Rotterdam,TheNetherlands,2002
21.E.g.TheReturnoftheReal,HalFoster,OctoberMITPress(1996)KantafterDuchamp,ThierrydeDuve,OctoberMITPress(1996)NeoAvantgardeand
CulturalIndustryEssaysonEuropeanandAmericanArtfrom1955to1975,BenjaminH.D.Buchloh,OctoberMITPress(2000)PerpetualInventory,
RosalindE.Krauss,OctoberMITPress,2010
22.MartinHeidegger(1927)BeingandTime,Introduction(https://books.google.com/?id=S57m5gW0LMC),partII.5,2123
23.PostModernPlatosbyCatherineH.Zuckert,Chigago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1996,chapter7.
24.Soskice,JanetM(1987),MetaphorandReligiousLanguage,OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN9780198249825,pp.8082.
25.Derrida(1967)OfGrammatology,PartII"Introductiontothe"AgeofRousseau,"section2"...ThatDangerousSupplement...",title:"TheExorbitant.Questionof
Method:,pp.15859,163
26."Moncorps,cepapier,cefeu,"inthe1972editionofFoucault'sHistoiredelafoliel'geclassique(Paris:Gallimard,p.602)
27.Derrida(1988),Afterword,p.136.
28."OusiaandGramm:NoteonaNotefrom'BeingandTime,'"in"MarginsofPhilosophy,"2967:61

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29.RodolpheGasch,"InfrastructuresandSystematicity,"inJohnSallis(ed.),DeconstructionandPhilosophy(Chicago&London:UniversityofChicagoPress,
1987),pp.34:
OneofthemorepersistentmisunderstandingsthathasthusfarforestalledaproductivedebatewithDerrida'sphilosophicalthoughtistheassumption,
sharedbymanyphilosophersaswellasliterarycritics,thatwithinthatthoughtjustanythingispossible.Derrida'sphilosophyismoreoftenthannot
construedasalicenseforarbitraryfreeplayinflagrantdisregardofallestablishedrulesofargumentation,traditionalrequirementsofthought,and
ethicalstandardsbindingupontheinterpretativecommunity.Undoubtedly,someoftheworksofDerridamaynothavebeenentirelyinnocentinthis
respect,andmayhavecontributed,howeverobliquely,tofosteringtosomeextentthatverymisconception.Butdeconstructionwhichformanyhas
cometodesignatethecontentandstyleofDerrida'sthinking,revealstoevenasuperficialexamination,awellorderedprocedure,astepbysteptype
ofargumentationbasedonanacuteawarenessofleveldistinctions,amarkedthoroughnessandregularity.[...]Deconstructionmustbeunderstood,
wecontend,astheattemptto"account,"inacertainmanner,foraheterogeneousvarietyormanifoldofnonlogicalcontradictionsanddiscursive
equalitiesofallsortsthatcontinuestohauntandfissureeventhesuccessfuldevelopmentofphilosophicalargumentsandtheirsystematicexposition.
30.MarianHobson,JacquesDerrida:OpeningLines(https://books.google.com/?id=Kl146cNpzNQC&pg=PA51),Routledge,2012,p.51.
31.MarkCurrie,TheInventionofDeconstruction(https://books.google.com/?id=i3ecdVgknGkC&pg=PA80),PalgraveMacmillan,2013,p.80.
32.Ramberg,BjrnandKristinGjesdal,"Hermeneutics"(http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hermeneutics/#Semiotics),StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy,2003,
2005.
33.Derrida,"Structure,Sign,andPlay"(1966),asprinted/translatedbyMacksey&Donato(1970)
34.J.HillisMiller,"Stevens'RockandCriticismasCure,"GeorgiaReview30(1976),p.34.
35."CriticalLegalStudiesMovement(http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/bridge/CriticalTheory/critical2.htm)"in"TheBridge"
36."DeconstructingHistory",published1997,2nd.Edn.Routledge,2006)
37.Critchley,Simon(18March2014).TheEthicsofDeconstruction:DerridaandLevinas,3rdEdition.Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress.p.352.
ISBN9780748689323.
38.ThePoliticsofDeconstruction:JacquesDerridaandtheOtherofPhilosophy[Paperback]MartinMcQuillan(Editor)
39.Derrida,1985,p.4
40.Cf.JacquesDerrida,"InterviewwithJeanLouisHoudebineandGuyScarpetta,"in"Positions"(TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1981),p.43:
Iftherewereadefinitionofdifferance,itwouldbepreciselythelimit,theinterruption,thedestructionoftheHegelianrelevewhereveritoperates.
Whatisatstakehereisenormous.IemphasizetheHegelianAufhebung,suchasitisinterpretedbyacertainHegeliandiscourse,foritgoeswithout
sayingthatthedoublemeaningofAufhebungcouldbewrittenotherwise.WhenceitsproximitytoalltheoperationsconductedagainstHegel's
dialecticalspeculation.
41.Cf.JacquesDerrida,"InterviewwithJeanLouisHoudebineandGuyScarpetta,"in"Positions"(TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1981),p.43.
42.Derrida[1983],p.1
43.Derrida[1983],p.3
44.Beardsworth,R.1996.DerridaandthePolitical.LondonandNewYork:Routledge,p.4.
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45.Derrida,J.,1973.SpeechandPhenomena.Trans.D.B.Allison.Evanston:NorthwesternUP,p.5.
46.Derrida[1983],p.2
47.Derrida,J.,1978."'GenesisandStructure'andPhenomenology"fromWritingandDifferencetrans.AlanBass.London&NewYork:Routledge,p.194.
48.Frank,M.,1989.WhatisNeostructuralism?Trans.S.Wilke&R.Gray.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress.
49.DeMan,inMoynihan1986,p.156.
50.Rorty1995
51.NiallLucy,ADerridaDictionary(Oxford:Blackwell,2004).
52.IntroductionbyAllison,inDerrida,1973,p.xxxii,n.1.
53.Klein1995
54.Powell,JamesandLee,Joe,DeconstructionforBeginners(Writers&ReadersPublishing,2005)
55.Royle,Nicholas,Deconstructions:AUser'sGuide(PalgraveMacmillan,2000)
56.Daybreak:ThoughtsonthePrejudicesofMorality.FriedrichNietzsche,translatedbyR.J.Hollisdale.CambridgeUniversityPress,1997.
57.Royle,Nicholas(2004)JacquesDerrida(https://books.google.com/?id=nNaSdb9VMTwC&pg=PA62),Routledge,2003,pp.6263
58.DerridaandFerraris(1997),p.76:
Itakegreatinterestinquestionsoflanguageandrhetoric,andIthinktheydeserveenormousconsiderationbutthereisapointwheretheauthorityof
finaljurisdictionisneitherrhetoricalnorlinguistic,norevendiscursive.Thenotionoftraceoroftextisintroducedtomarkthelimitsofthelinguistic
turn.ThisisonemorereasonwhyIprefertospeakof'mark'ratherthanoflanguage.Inthefirstplacethemarkisnotanthropologicalitis
prelinguisticitisthepossibilityoflanguage,anditiseverywherethereisarelationtoanotherthingorrelationtoanother.Forsuchrelations,the
markhasnoneedoflanguage.
59.Cf.JacquesDerrida,"InterviewwithJuliaKristeva"in"Positions"(TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1981),p.21:
AlthoughSaussurerecognizedthenecessityofputtingthephonicsubstancebetweenbrackets("Whatisessentialinlanguage,weshallsee,isforeign
tothephoniccharacterofthelinguisticsign"[p.21]."Initsessenceit[thelinguisticsignifier]isnotatallphonic"[p.164]),Saussure,foressential,
andessentiallymetaphysical,reasonshadtoprivilegespeech,everythingthatlinksthesigntophone.Healsospeaksofthe"naturallink"between
thoughtandvoice,meaningandsound(p.46).Heevenspeaksof"thoughtsound"(p.156).Ihaveattemptedelsewheretoshowwhatistraditionalin
suchagesture,andtowhatnecessitiesitsubmits.Inanyevent,itwindsupcontradictingthemostinterestingcriticalmotiveoftheCourse,makingof
linguisticstheregulatorymodel,the"pattern"forageneralsemiologyofwhichitwastobe,byallrightsandtheoretically,onlyapart.Thethemeof
thearbitrary,thus,isturnedawayfromitsmostfruitfulpaths(formalization)towardahierarchizingteleology:"Thusitcanbesaidthatentirely
arbitrarysignsrealizebetterthananyotherstheidealofthesemiologicalprocessthisiswhylanguage,themostcomplexandmostwidespreadofthe
systemsofexpression,isalsothemostcharacteristiconeofthemallinthissenselinguisticscanbecomethegeneralpatternforallsemiology,even
thoughlanguageisonlyaparticularsystem"(p.101).OnefindsexactlythesamegestureandthesameconceptsinHegel.Thecontradictionbetween
thesetwomomentsoftheCourseisalsomarkedbySaussure'srecognizingelsewherethat"itisnotspokenlanguagethatisnaturaltoman,butthe
facultyofconstitutingalanguage,thatis,asystemofdistinctsigns...,"thatis,thepossibilityofthecodeandofarticulation,independentofany
substance,forexample,phonicsubstance.
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60.Derrida,Jacques.Limited,Inc.NorthwesternUniversityPress,1988.p.29:"...Ihavereadsomeofhis[Searle's]work(more,inanycase,thanheseemstohave
readofmine)"
61.Maclean,Ian.2004."undialoguedesourds?SomeimplicationsoftheAustinSearleDerridadebate",inJacquesDerrida:criticalthought.IanMaclachlan(ed.)
AshgatePublishing,2004
62."AnotherLookattheDerridaSearleDebate".MarkAlfino.Philosophy&Rhetoric,Vol.24,No.2(1991),pp.14352[1]
(http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/40237667)
63.SimonGlendinning.2001.ArguingwithDerrida.WileyBlackwell.p.18
64.GregorCampbell.1993."JohnR.Searle"inIreneRimaMakaryk(ed).Encyclopediaofcontemporaryliterarytheory:approaches,scholars,terms.Universityof
TorontoPress,1993
65.JohnSearle,"ReiteratingtheDiffrences:AReplytoDerrida",Glyph2(BaltimoreMD:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1977).
66.MarianHobson.1998.JacquesDerrida:openinglines.PsychologyPress.pp.9597
67.JacquesDerrida,"Afterwords"inLimited,Inc.(NorthwesternUniversityPress,1988),p.133
68.Farrell,F.B.(1988),Iterabilityandmeaning:theSearleDerridadebate.Metaphilosophy,19:5364.doi:10.1111/j.14679973.1988.tb00701[2]
(http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.14679973.1988.tb00701.x/abstract)
69."WiththeComplimentsoftheAuthor:ReflectionsonAustinandDerrida"(http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/1343193).StanleyE.Fish.CriticalInquiry,Vol.
8,No.4(Summer1982),pp.693721.
70."Derrida,Searle,Contexts,Games,Riddles"(http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/468793).EdmondWright.NewLiteraryHistory,Vol.13,No.3("Theory:
Parodies,Puzzles,Paradigms"),Spring1982,pp.46377.
71."ConventionandMeaning:DerridaandAustin"(http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/468640).JonathanCuller.NewLiteraryHistory,Vol.13,No.1("On
Convention:I"),Autumn1981,pp.1530.
72."Language,philosophyandtheriskoffailure:rereadingthedebatebetweenSearleandDerrida"(http://www.springerlink.com/content/dwu9j5cx8ft1jum8/).Hagi
Kenaan.ContinentalPhilosophyReview.Volume35,Number2,117133,DOI:10.1023/A:1016583115826.
73."UnderstandingEachOther:TheCaseoftheDerridaSearleDebate"(http://www.springerlink.com/content/x16m6724k5513827/fulltext.pdf).StanleyRaffel.
HumanStudies,Volume34,Number3,277292,DOI:10.1007/s1074601191896Theoretical/PhilosophicalPaper.
74.SearleTheConstructionofSocialReality(1995)p.157160.
75.Tr.byGayatriChakravortySpivak.JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.Baltimore,1976,15859
76.JrgenHabermas(1987),ThePhilosophicalDiscourseofModernity(trans.FrederickLawrence),MITPress,ISBN0745608302,pp.185210.
77.Davis,WalterA.InwardnessandExistence:Subjectivityin/andHegel,Heidegger,MarxandFreud.Madison:TheUniversityofWisconsinPress,1989.
78.Sokal,AlanD.(May1996)."APhysicistExperimentsWithCulturalStudies".LinguaFranca.RetrievedApril3,2007.

References
Derrida,Jacques[1967](1978).OfGrammatology,trans.byGayatriChakravortySpivak.BaltimoreandLondon:JohnsHopkinsUniversity
Press.ISBN9780801858307
Derrida,Jacques.SpeechandPhenomenaandOtherEssaysonHusserl'sTheoryofSigns.Trans.DavidB.Allison.Evanston:NorthwesternUP,
1973.ISBN9780810105904.
Derrida,Jacques.Positions.Trans.AlanBass.Chicago:UofChicagoP,1981.ISBN9780226143316
Derrida[1980],Thetimeofathesis:punctuations,firstpublishedin:
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Derrida[1988],LimitedInc
Derrida[1990],EyesoftheUniversity:RighttoPhilosophy2,pp.113128
Derrida,Jacques[1983],LettertoAJapaneseFriend(http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/Simulate/Derrida_deconstruction.html),inWood,Davidand
Bernasconi,Robert(eds.,1988)DerridaandDiffrance(https://books.google.com/?id=kHFkwQOBjPYC),Warwick:Parousia,1985
Klein,AnneCarolyn(1995),MeetingtheGreatBlissQueen:Buddhists,Feminists,andtheArtoftheSelf.Boston:Beacon,1995.ISBN9780
807073063.
Montefiore,Alan(ed.,1983),PhilosophyinFranceTodayCambridge:CambridgeUP,pp.3450
Moynihan,Robert(1986),RecentImagining:InterviewswithHaroldBloom,GeoffreyHartman,PaulDeMan,J.HillisMiller.ShoeString,1986.
ISBN9780208021205.
Rorty,Richard,"FromFormalismtoPoststructuralism".TheCambridgeHistoryofLiteraryCriticism,vol.8.Cambridge:CambridgeUP,1995.

Furtherreading
Breckman,Warren,"TimesofTheory:OnWritingtheHistoryofFrenchTheory,"JournaloftheHistoryofIdeas,vol.71,no.3(July2010),339361(online
(http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/jhi/)).
Critchley,Simon.TheEthicsofDeconstruction:DerridaandLevinas,ThirdEdition,2014.ISBN9780748689323.
Culler,Jonathan.OnDeconstruction:TheoryandCriticismafterStructuralism,CornellUniversityPress,1982.ISBN9780801413223.
Eagleton,Terry.LiteraryTheory:AnIntroduction,UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1996.ISBN9780816612512
Ellis,JohnM..AgainstDeconstruction,Princeton:PrincetonUP,1989.ISBN9780691067544.
Johnson,Barbara.TheCriticalDifference:EssaysintheContemporaryRhetoricofReading.JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1981.ISBN9780801824586
Reynolds,Simon,RipItUpandStartAgain,NewYork:Penguin,2006,pp.316.ISBN9780143036722.(SourcefortheinformationaboutGreenGartside,ScrittiPolitti,
anddeconstructionism.)

Stocker,Barry,RoutledgePhilosophyGuidebooktoDerridaonDeconstruction,Routledge,2006.ISBN9781134343812
Wortham,SimonMorgan,TheDerridaDictionary,Continuum,2010.ISBN9781847065261

Externallinks
QuotationsrelatedtoDeconstructionatWikiquote
ThedictionarydefinitionofdeconstructionatWiktionary
VideoofJacquesDerridaattemptingtodefine"Deconstruction"(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vgwOjjoYtco)
"Deconstruction"inStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy(http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/derrida/#Dec)
"Deconstruction"inStanfordPresidentialLecturesintheHumanitiesandArts(http://prelectur.stanford.edu/lecturers/derrida/deconstruction.html)
"Deconstruction"inEncyclopediaBritannica"(http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/155306/deconstruction)
"DeconstructingHistory"byAlunMunslow(http://sas
space.sas.ac.uk/4397/1/Deconstructing_History_by_Alun_Munslow___Institute_of_Historical_Research.pdf)
"Deconstruction"in"InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy"(http://www.iep.utm.edu/derrida/#H2)
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ABibliographyofLiteraryTheory,Criticism,andPhilology(http://www.unizar.es/departamentos/filologia_inglesa/garciala/bibliography.html)
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DeconstructionoffashionLamodaenlaposmodernidad(http://www.enfocarte.com/5.26/moda.html)byAdolfoVasquezRocca
Derrida:Deconstruccin,diffranceydiseminacinunahistoriadeparsitos,huellasyespectros
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STORIA_DE_PAR%C3%81SITOS_HUELLAS_Y_ESPECTROS)Academia.Edu
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