The Roman Empire - A Short History

“The Wisdom of Divine Prearrangement”

supreme government itself became Christian, it

Introduction stayed unified until, upon dividing up into the
This phrase, “the wisdom of divine separate nations of the European continent, each
prearrangement”, is quoted from the book The Life fragment was closely tied to Christianity, at least
and Epistles of St. Paul written by the Christian in name, as part of the Holy Roman Empire.
historians Conybeare and Howson. This book is
The Origins of Rome
one of the most widely studied biographies of the
Apostle Paul. (I say “studied” because the book is While Greece was fighting the Persian wars and
not casually read.) “Divine pre-arrangements” the Peloponnesian War, an obscure people was
refer to God’s activity in guiding the development rising to power on the Italian peninsula. Rome
of the world’s government and society in order to had been settled about 1000 B.C. as people had
make perfect preparation for the birth of the Lord migrated southward into Italy from north of the
Jesus Christ and for the formation and growth of Alps. These people were known as the Etruscans,
the early Christian Church. The Lord’s bringing a race of people who are still obscure in history
about of the “fullness of time” included the owing largely to the fact that their language has
introduction and spread of the κοινη (koinei) never been deciphered. We know that they
Greek language and the completion and maturity worshipped evil spirits, practiced magic and
of the Roman Empire. voodoo, and that they enjoyed gladiatorial
At the time of Christ, all parts of the civilized combat. They were also competent engineers.
world were bound together in one empire; one The early Roman kings were probably Etruscan;
common organization controlled the whole. and the Etruscan culture dominated Italy until 508
Channels of communication were opened B.C., the year assigned to the beginning of the
everywhere and new facilities for travel were Roman Republic.
provided. The Roman government and society Over the centuries, the Romans showed little
were prepared by divine pre-arrangements to help talent for scientific or philosophical thinking.
the progress of that religion which it persecuted. Their literature and art are pale imitations of
The manner in which Rome provided aid to the Greek literature and art. Most of the Roman
spread of Christianity is well illustrated by some culture is borrowed from the Greeks. But the
events in the life of the Apostle Paul. Romans excelled in two area, those of law and
Paul’s Roman citizenship rescued him in government. The Greeks had failed in these areas
Macedonia. A Roman soldier rescued him from and had not been able to develop a unified
the mob at Ephesus. Roman soldiers saved his life political state. The Romans created and held
when the mob in Jerusalem wanted to kill him in together an integrated, well-balanced empire
the temple area. Roman soldiers escorted Paul without equal in the ancient world.
from Caesarea to Rome on the voyage in which Where the Greeks jealously guarded their
they suffered shipwreck. Roman soldiers citizenship, the Romans offered their citizenship
delivered Paul to the Roman garrison of the to large segments of conquered peoples, thereby
Praetorian Guard for his imprisonment. Paul led winning a measure of loyalty and gratitude from
a Roman governor to Christ in Cyprus. He was them. While Greece destroyed itself in destructive
protected by another governor in Achaia. And a civil wars, the Romans carried Greek culture to
third governor sent him from Jerusalem to Rome. every part of the Western world; and for a time
All the weight of terrible tyranny was going to fall they brought peace and prosperity to every corner
on the new religion; but before this took place, of the Mediterranean.
Christianity had taken firm root and had begun to
grow strong in close connection with all parts of
the Roman Empire. And when the Roman
2 Roman History

appointed to high office tried to curry favor with

The Roman Republic: 508 to 30 B.C. the plebs by offering land grants or by gifts of
food during times of famine.
Patricians and Plebeians
The revolution against the Etruscan domination The Constitution of the Republic
was led by the Patricians in 508 B.C. The At the time of the revolution against the
patricians (from the Latin word pater, “father”) Etruscans, the king was replaced by two consuls,
were wealthy landowners and aristocrats, and the one to act as a check on the other. Consuls were
type of government they established reflected elected for one-year terms and handled the
their leadership. All public offices were held by administration of justice and military defense.
patricians. The consuls, in turn, appointed the Senate,
The “common” people were called “plebeians”, a composed of 300 heads of patrician families, who
word that means “crude or coarse in manners or served for life. The Senate advised the consuls on
culture.” (First year cadets at the U.S. Military legislation and public policy.
Academy are called “plebes.” A “plebiscite” is a The Assembly was formed to represent the
vote by which the people of an entire country or plebeian class, and gradually became the highest
district declare an opinion for or against an issue. lawmaking body, at least in theory. But in
Voltaire wanted war to be declared by plebiscite, practice the Assembly had little power because the
that is, by the people who would be doing the Senate held veto power over the acts of the
fighting. He thought that this would end war.) Assembly and controlled the expenditure of
The Roman government was called “The Senate of public funds. From 508 B.C. until the outbreak of
the Roman People”; in Latin, Senatus Populusque the First Punic War in 264 B.C., the plebeian class
Romanus, or SPQR, which is found on thousands was constantly struggling to limit the power of the
of monuments in Italy. But the word populus patricians and to win greater privileges and rights
originally referred only to upper classes. for themselves.
Plebeians could not serve in the Senate in the early At first the laws of the Empire were not published,
days of the Republic. and the plebeians were kept in the dark about the
The lowest rung on the social ladder, however, laws. In 450 B.C. they forced the publication of
was reserved for slaves, who were bought and the Law of the Twelve Tables; and while the laws
sold as property, even by the lower plebeians. were weighted heavily in favor of the patricians,
at least now the plebs knew what the laws were
Many businessmen were plebeians by birth and and could better protect themselves against the
were annoyed to be excluded from the Senate. arbitrary acts of the patrician magistrates.
The poorer masses resented their poverty, their
continually increasing debt and taxation, and the In 362 B.C., the first plebeian was elected consul;
unjust laws applied to them, such as the law and plebs began to occupy more public offices.
which provided that a creditor could imprison a And since all officeholders automatically became
debtor or sell him as a slave. The plebeians members of the Senate, the Senate began to have
demanded that the harsh laws be repealed and more plebs.
that land owned by the state and won through In 339 B.C., the laws against intermarriage
conquest be divided up among the people. between patricians and plebs were repealed, and
In 494 B.C., the Senate was engaged in fighting plebs were declared eligible for all offices. In 287
wars and tried to draft plebeians into the army. B.C., the Hortensian Law (named for Quintus
The plebs refused to serve until their demands Hortensius) was enacted which stripped the
were met; and since the Senate was afraid of Senate of its veto power over the Assembly.
invasion, they agreed to reduce or cancel the debts The Twelve Tables remained the law of Rome for
of the plebs and to give plebs the offices of two 900 years. Until the time of Cicero, every
tribunes who would defend their rights in the schoolboy had to memorize them.
Senate. In the same time period, high ranking
officials who were trying to get elected or
Roman History 3

League; and Rome quickly became the leader and

The Roman Army
master of central Italy.
From the very beginning the Romans were land
In 405 BC, Rome and another city-state, Etruria,
hungry and intent upon expanding their
entered into a conflict over control of the Tiber
territories. At the beginning of the 5th Century
River. After several wars and skirmishes, in 351
BC, Rome conquered two neighboring tribes. In
BC southern Italy was annexed to Rome. One full
390 BC, the city’s imperial career of conquest was
generation had been involved in the 14 wars in
nearly ended when barbarian tribes of Gauls
southern Italy. During this period, tribes from
invaded Latium and sacked Rome. The republic
Gaul and Germany had infiltrated down through
was saved by paying a ransom of 1,000 pounds of
the Alps and had settled as far south as the Po
gold. After this, the republic never lost a war. As
River. These people are described as tall,
with Persia, the success of the political institutions
handsome, relishing war, but fighting with little
of Rome lay in its ability to wage war and to put
armor. These are the Gauls who besieged Rome
down revolts. The Roman army was the most
and were paid off with 1,000 pounds of gold.
successful military organization in history.
In about 300 BC, the Romans finally managed to
In Rome, the citizens and the army were one and
put together a semblance of order among the
the same. The army, assembled in its legions and
tribes; and the united tribes pushed the Gauls
centuries, was the Assembly, the chief lawmaking
back behind the Po River. Rome was now master
body of the state.
of Italy and the seas from Gaul to Greece.
The Roman Legion was a mixed unit of brigade
Still not satisfied, Rome gave the Greeks the choice
strength, approximately 4,000 to 6,000 men, 300 to
between entering into an alliance or fighting it out.
500 cavalry, along with various auxiliary groups.
Some of the city-states in Greece accepted Roman
Two legions made up a consul’s army. Each
domination, but others held out. The holdouts
legion was divided into centuries, at times 100 or
enlisted the aid of Pyrrhus, an Italian king who
200 men. Each legion had its ensign (guidon).
was not a Roman. He was made general of the
Honor forbade its falling into enemy hands; and
Greek resistance forces. In 280 BC, Pyrrhus
officers sometimes threw the ensign into the ranks
defeated the Romans at Heraclea; but he lost so
of the enemy to stir the soldiers into a desperate
many soldiers in the battles that he was unable to
recovery.
follow up his victory. It is from this historical
In battle, the front ranks of the infantry used event that we get the term “Pyrrhic victory”.
javelins when ten to twenty paces from the enemy
Pyrrhus released 2,000 Roman prisoners of war
— these were short wooden lances with metal
and offered peace. The Senate was about to make
points. On the wings, the archers and slingers
terms, but Appius Claudius persuaded the Senate
attacked with arrows and stones. In hand-to-hand
not to make peace with a foreign army on Italian
combat the soldiers used the machaira, the famous
soil. The 2,000 prisoners were sent back to
Roman short sword (cf. military tactics of
Pyrrhus, and the war was resumed. Pyrrhus won
Dionysius of Syracuse, about. 400 BC).
another victory in Italy, then he became disgusted
The Conquest of Italy by the laziness and cowardice of his allies. He
sailed to Sicily at the time the Carthaginians were
Rome was always surrounded by fierce enemies.
besieging Syracuse, so he was not welcomed there
At first, the republic was just a weak city-state,
either. He sailed back to Italy a few months later,
with an area of about 350 square miles. The
and lost a battle to the Romans at Regentum. This
surrounding enemy towns organized themselves
was the first victory of the Roman maniples over
into the Latin League, for the purpose of
the Greek phalanxes and began a new chapter in
conquering the tiny republic. The Romans won
the history of military tactics.
the battle of Lake Regillus in 496 BC, aided, they
said, by the gods Castor and Pollux who had left The total conquest of Italy was followed by
Mt. Olympus to fight on their side. A treaty was immediate expansion of Roman control to
signed which admitted Rome into the Latin colonies. Colonies served the purpose of relieving
unemployment, reduced population pressure, and
4 Roman History

quieted class strife. The colonies serves as iron, copper, and silver. The income of Carthage
garrisons in remote places and were an extended at its peak was twelve times that of Athens. The
line of defense for Rome. The colonies provided gods of Carthage were Baal-Haman to whom
outposts and outlets for Roman trade, and child sacrifices were offered. Their religions had
additional food was raised for the capital. The the worst features of the Canaanite worship. God
peninsula was multi-lingual, but the Latin eventually allowed great devastation to be
language spread as Italy was forged into a united brought upon Carthage at the hands of the
state. Romans.
While Rome was consolidating her gains, a great The First Punic War (264 B.C.)
power, older and richer than Rome, was closing
the Romans off from the western Mediterranean The First Punic War was fought at sea, where the
areas of Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Africa, and Carthaginians had the advantage of being great
Spain. This power was Carthage, the ancient seamen. The wealthy citizens of Rome, however,
Phoenician civilization, and they were harassing put together an army of 60,000 men and 200 ships
Roman shipping from Tyre and Sidon to the with their own money. The dry land soldiers
Guadalquivir River. practiced long and hard to learn how to row the
huge quinquiremes (five ranks of oars on each
The city of Carthage was near the modern Tunis. wide) and to conduct combat aboard ship. The
The Latins had given the name “Africa” to the Carthaginians were resting in the successes of
region around Carthage and Utica, and they called Hamilcar Barca and did no building up of their
the population there “Poeni”, the Phoenicians. forces. The Roman armada, sailing secretly,
The Phoenicians had originated on the eastern defeated the Carthaginian fleet at the Aegadian
Mediterranean coast, around Tyre and Sidon, and Islands off the west coast of Sicily. Carthage was
were Semites - sons of Shem. (Tyre had been forced to sue for peace and paid a heavy money
besieged by Shalmanezer, Nebuchadnezzar, and payment to Rome.
Alexander). They were similar in features to the
Jews, and their language had many similarities to Interbellum
Hebrew. They were very wealthy and lived well, Rome was near bankruptcy, in spite of the
adopting the Greek style of dress and building payments from Carthage. Currency was debased
modern and expensive homes and temples. more than 90%. Carthage, meanwhile, was set up
Greek and Roman historians did not have much to be destroyed by its own greed, and its internal
praise for the Carthaginians, considering them striving and civil wars gave Rome time to gather
mercenary and dishonest. (But the historian strength.
Plutarch was a Greek, and the historian Polybius The rulers of Carthage withheld for some time the
was a friend of Scipio Africanus, who burned pay of the mercenaries which served under
Carthage; so there may have been some bias in Hamilcar Barca. The soldiers poured into the city
this reporting.) demanding money. Carthage’s subject people,
The Phoenicians migrated to North Africa under taxed beyond endurance during the war, joined
pressure from the great empires of Asia, the the uprising. The women of Libya sold their
Assyrians, the Babylonians, and the Greeks. They jewelry to finance revolution. Twenty thousand
were great trading people, sailing immense cargo mercenaries and rebels laid siege to Carthage,
galley ships from Asia to Britain. They did not which had few soldiers to defend it. The rich
stop at the pillars of Hercules (Gibraltar) but merchants appealed to Hamilcar; and he
sailed as far as 2,500 miles down the coast of organized and trained an army of 10,000 and
Africa. The rich merchants provided funds for a raised the siege of Carthage.
large army and navy which transformed Carthage The defeated mercenaries and rebels retreated into
from a trading post into a great empire. the mountains. They broke the legs and cut off the
Carthage was expanding right to the borders of hands of 700 prisoners, then threw them into a
Rome (the western half of Sicily). This expansion mass grave and buried them alive. But Hamilcar
added to its wealth the gold of Spain as well as its maneuvered 40,000 rebels into a box canyon and
Roman History 5

slowly starved them until they tried to fight their

Hannibal
way out and were cut to pieces.
[ from The Story of Civilization, Vol. III, Caesar and
When this internal conflict was over, Carthage
Christ, by Will Durant ]
discovered that Rome had occupied Sardinia, a
Carthaginian island. When Carthage protested, Hannibal was now twenty-eight years old...and
Rome declared war. In no position to fight, had received a soldier’s training through nineteen
Carthage bought peace with an indemnity of 1200 years in camp. He had disciplined his body to
talents of gold and gave the islands of Sardinia hardship, his appetite to moderation, his tongue to
and Corsica to Rome. silence, his thought to objectivity. He was “the
first to enter the battle, and the last to abandon the
During the last quarter of the Third Century B.C.
field”, according to Livy...The Romans accused
(c. 225 B.C.), Hamilcar Barca took a small
him of avarice, cruelty, and treachery, for he
Carthaginian army into Spain to set up a foothold
honored no scruples in seizing supplies for his
in Europe. He recaptured some of the cities he
troops, punished disloyalty severely...Yet we find
had lost before, he built up an army of Spanish
him often merciful, always chivalrous. The
citizens, and he began what became a vigorous
Romans could not readily forgive him for winning
push for Carthage into new territories. Rome
battles with his brains rather than with the lives of
tolerated this conquest of Spain partly because of
his men...Hannibal led his troops north...and then
having been distracted by class strife at home and
struck eastward into the Alps. Celtic tribes had
her own expansionist activities in the Adriatic Sea
crossed those ranges before him...but he had
and trying to clear that area of pirates. Also,
difficulty getting his elephants through narrow or
Rome was at war with the Gauls (again) so could
precipitous passages. After a climb of nine days,
not concentrate on Spain.
he reached the summit and found it covered with
Hamilcar was killed leading a charge against a snow...His army of 59,000 was reduced to 26,000
Spanish tribe, so he was succeeded in command by the time he reached the plains of Italy, so great
by his son-in-law Hasdrubal (“He whose help is were the hardships. Fortunately, he was
Baal”) who governed wisely for the eight years welcomed as a liberator by the Cisalpine Gauls,
from 229 to 221 BC, winning cooperation of who joined him as allies. The Roman settlers fled
Spaniards and building the fabulous silver mines southward across the Po River.
near the city of New Carthage, the Spanish city
Rome mobilized all its resources and called upon
now named Cartagena. In the Carthaginian high
all the states in Italy to defend the land. The
command were also Hamilcar’s sons Hasdrubal
Romans raised an army of 300,000 foot, 14,000
(same name as the son-in-law), Mago, and
horse, and 456,000 reserves. Hannibal won two
Hannibal (“The grace of Baal”). Hasdrubal was
battles in North Italy, but he knew he was still
assassinated in 221 BC, and Hannibal was elected
outnumbered 10 to 1. He failed to persuade the
by the army to be commander.
Italian states to join him, and his Gallic “allies”
In 225 BC, an army of Gauls swept down the were losing heart. The Romans attacked Hannibal
Italian peninsula toward Rome. They had 50,000 at Cannae with 80,000 infantry, and 6000 cavalry.
foot soldiers and 20,000 horse. The Roman legions Hannibal had 19,000 Carthaginian and Spanish
met the invaders near Telamon, killing 40,000 and veterans, 16,000 unreliable Gauls, and 10,000
taking 10,000 prisoners. They marched on to horse. He placed the Gauls at his center,
subjugate (‘put under the yoke”) Cisalpine Gaul expecting them to give way, which they did.
(“Gaul on the near side of the Alps”). Protective When the Romans followed them into the pocket,
Roman colonies were placed at Placentia and his veterans closed in on the Roman flanks and the
Cremona. This was a great victory for Rome, but cavalry attacked from behind. The Romans lost
it had some bad side effects - now the Gauls all chance of maneuvering, and 44,000 fell in one
wanted to get back at Rome more than ever. And day’s battle, including eighty senators who had
Hannibal saw a great opportunity to enter Gaul enlisted as soldiers. This battle ended the days of
from Spain (across the Pyrenees), raise an army of Roman reliance upon infantry and set the lines of
Gallic allies, cross the Alps and crush Italy. military tactics for two thousand years.
6 Roman History

Hannibal’s defeat of the Roman legions at Cannae formed a new army, and went out to face Scipio
shattered Rome’s hold on the southern Italian Africanus at Zama, fifty miles south of Carthage
states. Several joined Hannibal, and Carthage sent (202 B.C.).
some reinforcements and supplied. For a month, The two generals met in courteous interview,
the city of Rome was hysterical in terror. The class found agreement impossible, and joined battle.
war ceased, and all citizens rushed to the aid of For the first time in his life, Hannibal was
the state. Every male who could carry weapons defeated. More than 20,000 Carthaginians were
was enlisted and served voluntarily without pay. left dead on the field. Hannibal attacked Scipio in
Rome settled in for a defense against the Lion of personal combat, wounding him. He attacked the
Carthage. leader of the Numidian cavalry, Masinissa,
But Hannibal did not come! His 40,000 were too reformed his disorganized forces again and again,
small a force against a city to whose defense and led them in desperate countercharges. Seeing
would come many armies on a moment’s notice. conditions hopeless, Hannibal fled to Carthage
If he took Rome, how could he hold it? Hannibal and advised the Senate there to sue for peace.
decided to wait until Carthage, Greece (Macedon), Rome settled with Carthage on the following
and Syracuse could unite with him in an offensive terms:
that would retake Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and • Carthage was allowed to retain her African
Illyria. He released all but a few of the Roman empire
captives and took his troops to winter in Capua.
• She was to surrender all war vessels except
After a winter of relaxation and pleasure in one of ten triremes
the vice capitals of the world, Hannibal’s soldiers
• She was not to make war against anyone
were never again the invincible troops which had
outside Rome or within it without Rome’s consent
borne so much hardship. During the next five
years Hannibal led them to some minor successes, • She was to pay Rome $720,000 per year for
using Capua as his HQ. The Romans besieged fifty years
this city with 200,000 legionnaires, and Hannibal This Second Punic War changed the
was forced to retire to the south of Italy. Mediterranean in a way that is still being felt in
Meanwhile, a Roman army had been sent to Spain the Twentieth Century A.D.
to keep Hasdrubal, Hannibal’s brother, occupied. • It gave Spain and all its wealth to Rome,
Hasdrubal was defeated at the Ebro River, but the providing funds for Roman conquest of Greece
Romans lost their gains when their leaders were
• It reunited Italy under Rome’s unquestioned
killed. Hasdrubal’s main force escaped, crossed
mastery
the Pyrenees into Gaul and the Alps into Italy. He
sent a message to Hannibal with his plans for • It threw open all routes and markets to Roman
reinforcing him, but the message was intercepted ships and goods
by the Romans. Despite his excellent generalship, • It ravaged or injured half the farmland in
Hasdrubal was defeated by the Romans before he Italy, destroyed 400 towns, killed 300,000 men,
could reach Hannibal. Hasdrubal went to his from which southern Italy has not quite recovered
death in combat rather than face imprisonment to this day.
and disgrace by the Romans. • It weakened democracy by showing that a
In 205 B.C. a new Roman army was raised, sailed popular assembly cannot wisely choose generals
for Africa, and attacked Carthage. The or direct a war
Carthaginians appealed to Hannibal to come to • It began the transformation of Roman life and
their aid. Imagine the feelings of this half-blind morals by hurting agriculture and helping trade,
warrior, driven into a corner of Italy by an endless by taking men from the countryside and teaching
stream of enemies, seeing all his toil and hardship them the violence of the battlefield, and by
of fifteen years brought to nothing, and all his bringing new money to finance luxuries and
triumphs wasted. Half his troops refused to leave imperialistic expansion.
Italy with him. He landed near Carthage, hastily
Roman History 7

• In short, the war with Carthage was a pivotal The consul Marius recruited thousands of landless
event for almost every phase of Roman history. peasants for Rome’s legions. Up to this point the
To Carthage it was the beginning of the end. legions had consisted of peasants who owned
Their government became so corrupt that the land, served their time in the army, and returned
people again called for Hannibal to come out of to their crops. But now the army consisted mostly
retirement and save the nation. He was elected of mercenaries who were loyal only to the
leader in 196 B.C. He punished corruption and generals who paid and fed them and led them to
virtually eliminated graft. He relieved the citizens places where they could get booty.
of some of the most burdensome taxes. Marius was the hero of the war against Jugurtha
To get rid of Hannibal, the rich merchants secretly in Africa, so he was elected consul in 107 B.C.
sent word to Rome that Hannibal was plotting to During the next 20 years, he served five separate
renew the war. Scipio used all his influence to terms. He was a poor statesman, but his large
protect his friendly rival, but was overruled. The army easily overrode any opposition. He
Roman Senate demanded the surrender of established the precedent of rule by military
Hannibal. Hannibal fled the city, rode 150 miles commanders.
to Thapsus, and took ship for Antioch. He found In 91 B.C. Rome’s Italian allies rose in revolt,
Antiochus III hesitating between war with Rome charging that they were being exploited to benefit
and peace; he advised war and became one of the the Roman ruling class. Marius stopped the
king’s staff. When the Romans defeated rebellion by conferring Roman citizenship on the
Antiochus at Magnesia (near Ephesus) in 189 B.C., allies, which gave them voice and vote in the
they made it a condition of peace that Hannibal be Senate and Assembly. But the patrician
turned over to them. aristocracy didn’t like this move because it
Hannibal escaped, first to Crete, then to Bithynia. weakened their powers. So Sulla, the hero who
The Romans hunted him down and surrounded defeated Mithridates in Pontus, having a stronger
his hiding place with soldiers. Hannibal said, “Let army, removed Marius from office by engaging
us relieve the Romans from the anxiety they have him in civil wars which killed an estimated
so long experienced, since they thing it tries their 500,000 Romans.
patience too much to wait for an old man’s death.” Sulla was the spokesman for the aristocracy and
He drank the poison he carried with him and died he curtailed the powers of the tribunes and
at the age of 67. A few months later, his restored the ancient powers of the Senate over the
conqueror and admirer, Scipio, followed him in Assembly. In 82 B.C. Sulla was appointed dictator
death. In a final war with Carthage lasting from for life by the Assembly. The Roman constitution
151 to 146 B.C., Rome completely annihilated the provided for the office of dictator during times of
Carthaginians and razed their cities to the ground, national emergency, but the dictator was
sowing them with salt. supposed to be appointed for a fixed term and
was to relinquish his powers upon the expiration
The Revolution, 145 to 30 B.C. of his term of office. Sulla retired in 79 B.C., not
Had Rome been able to avoid further war, she wanting to rule for life.
might have been able to concentrate her forces on Several new popular leaders who had private
the solution of her domestic problems. The very armies began fighting for control of the Roman
size of the Empire, however, made it impossible to government. In 73 B.C. Pompey brought the
avoid foreign conflicts. In 111 B.C., Rome fought a rebellion of Spartacus under control, and in 63
major war with King Jugurtha of Numidia in B.C. he conquered Syria and Palestine which
North Africa. This was followed by campaigns to brought additional revenue to Rome. He became
punish the invading Gauls, and by a war to a very strong and popular leader. During the
prevent Mithridates of Pontus from expanding his same years, Julius Caesar was conquering Gaul as
power into Asia Minor. In 104 B.C. Rome had to far away as Belgium. For a time, Pompey and
suppress a major slave revolt in Sicily. Julius Caesar cooperated in trying to take over the
government.
8 Roman History

it illegal. He had pacified Palestine and made it a

Julius Caesar 100 to 44 B.C.
client state of Rome. He founded thirty-nine cities
In 68 B.C., Julius Caesar was elected quaestor and had established law, order, and peace, acting
(governor) and assigned to serve in Spain; he was with good judgment, statesmanship, and making
32 years old. He led military expeditions against huge profits wherever he went. Pompey was
the native tribes, sacked towns, and collected made extremely wealthy, and he had an army that
enough plunder to pay off some of his enormous could make him dictator at a word. Yet he
debts. At the same time, he won the gratitude of generously disbanded his troops, paid them well,
Spanish aristocrats by lowering interest charges and entered Rome with only his personal staff.
on money loaned to them by Romans. He
Pompey requested that state lands be given to his
returned to Rome and in 65 B.C. was elected
soldiers. The Senate refused; and they also
commissioner of public works. He spent the
refused to ratify his agreements with conquered
money he had stolen in Spain and had borrowed
kings. The effect was to break down the
from other men (he owed Crassus $2,880,000),
relationship between the Senate and the higher
mainly on new buildings and fancy decorations
classes; and Pompey and the capitalists began to
for the city. He also courted favor with the
look for support elsewhere.
working class by setting up games and
entertainment. It was at this juncture (60 B.C.) that Pompey,
Caesar, and Crassus formed the first triumvirate
Sulla had removed the trophies of Marius from
(“rule of three men”) by which each pledged
Rome, including banners, pictures, and spoils
himself to oppose legislation unsatisfactory to any
representing the features and victory scenes of the
one of them. Pompey agreed to support Caesar
old radical. Caesar had these restored, and by that
for the consulate, and Caesar promised that if
act alone he announced his rebel policy. All the
elected he would carry through the measures for
old veterans were happy with him, but the
which Pompey had been fighting. The hugely rich
conservatives protested and marked him as a man
Crassus bankrolled these endeavors.
to be broken. In 63 B.C., Caesar was chosen
pontifex maximus, the head of the Roman religion. Caesar was elected consul and proposed the land
In 61 B.C., he was appointed propraetor for Spain, distribution to soldiers and ratification of
but his creditors would not let him travel to Spain. Pompey’s agreements with the kings. The Senate
turned him down at every juncture, so he offered
Crassus again came to his rescue, underwriting
these ideas to the Assembly, who voted in his
his obligations, hoping for spoil and political
favor. Pompey was impressed by Caesar’s
favors if Caesar were successful in Spain. Caesar
keeping his promises. The voters were kept in
again used his troops to steal the Spanish tribes
good humor with amusements and games.
blind, came back to Rome with enough money to
pay all has debts and have great riches left over The Conquest of Gaul
for the Treasury. The Senate voted him a triumph.
Caesar had himself appointed governor of
They knew Caesar wanted to be elected consul;
Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul in 58 B.C., and he
and they also knew the custom that dictated that
shortly took up his duties there. The Germans
one who is to be given a triumph must remain
had moved across the Rhine River into Gaul for
outside the city until the day of the triumph. They
the past 20 years, settling in Flanders and other
had planned for the elections to take place before
northern areas. During the same period, Helvetii,
the day of the triumph. But Caesar refused to
from Geneva, some 400,000 strong, were moving
accept the triumph and entered the city to
west through territory now governed by Caesar.
campaign for his election.
The German tribes were in motion, the whole line
Meanwhile, Pompey had just returned from the of the Rhine was threatened, and Caesar’s job was
East with a powerful army and a succession of no less than to save Rome from invasion by
military and diplomatic achievements behind him. establishing Gaul as a buffer zone.
He conquered Bithynia, Pontus, and Syria. He
Caesar equipped four extra legions at his own
accepted a huge bribe from the King of Egypt to
expense (illegally). Deputations from many Gallic
quell a revolt there, then refused to do so, calling
Roman History 9

tribes asked him for help, and he declared war

THE PRINCIPATE, 30 B.C. TO 192 A.D.
against the Germans and Helvetii. He met the
Helvetians near modern Autun, winning by a After the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 B.C.,
narrow margin. He gave them safe passage back Mark Antony (Caesar’s chief lieutenant), Octavian
to their homelands (in Switzerland). He fought (Caesar’s 18 year old nephew), and Lepidus
the Germani, under Ariovistus, at Ostheim (10 (governor of Spain), formed a triumvirate to
miles west of the Rhine, 160 miles south of avenge the death of Caesar and to continue his
Cologne), killing or capturing almost all of them. policies. They hunted down the leaders of the
Senate, including Cicero. While he had no part in
Caesar began the reorganization of Gaul under
the killing of Caesar, the triumvirs feared his
Roman authority, but northern Gauls and Belgae
oratorical and literary brilliance and wanted him
united to attack in the area north of the Seine and
out of the way. Three hundred senators and 2,000
Rhine rivers. They were defeated as were a
equestrians (middle class government officials
succession of various rebelling tribes.
and merchants) were condemned to death. Brutus
Caesar had to return to Northern Italy to replenish and Cassius, the actual leaders of the plot to kill
the legions and to work with Pompey and Crassus Caesar, fled east to raise an army and fight the
on political affairs. But the Germans began triumvirs for control of Rome.
coming back across the Rhine. In 55 B.C., Caesar
Antony and Octavian defeated the legions of
again defeated the Germans and drove them
Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, and the Empire
across the Rhine. Caesar invaded Britain, reached
was divided between Lepidus (Africa), Antony
the Thames River, and exacted tribute from the
(the East), and Octavian (Italy and the West).
tribes there.
There was the inevitable power struggle among
In early 52 B.C., Caesar received word that the the triumvirs, and Octavian defeated Lepidus in
Gaul Vercingetorix was lining up nationalistic Africa and took over.
tribes in rebellion. Caesar’s legions fought several
Octavian could not attack Mark Antony directly
battles against the Gauls (at Bourges, Orleans, etc.)
because Antony had been a close associate of
which took a steady toll of his men and supplies.
Caesar. But Antony fell under the control of
He found his fortunes at a low ebb. He staked
Cleopatra. Octavian was then able to declare that
everything on a siege of Alesia (modern Alise Ste.
Antony had become Cleopatra’s puppet and that
Reine), where Vercingetorix had 30,000 troops.
she was conspiring to overthrow the government
Caesar surrounded the town with about as many
of Rome for herself. The tactic worked. Rome and
soldiers. But he got word that there were at least
its Italian allies pledged support to Octavian, and
250,000 Gauls coming from the north to
Antony was defeated in the naval battle of
Vercingetorix’ relief.
Actium. Octavian was now master of the
Caesar threw up walls in front of and behind his Mediterranean world.
positions. For a week the Gauls threw themselves
Octavian was careful not to appear to be taking
against the walls in vain charges. The outside
over. He resigned all his offices and returned the
attackers ran out of supplies and weapons just as
power of the state to the Senate and to the people
the Romans had reached the end of their stores.
of Rome. However, the Senate refused to allow
The Gauls left the field, and the starving city sent
Octavian to resign, instead naming him Augustus,
Vercingetorix out to sue for peace. Caesar took
a religious title indicating that its possessor has
him captive and placed him in a cage to display at
superhuman powers. As Augustus, Octavian
his triumph in Rome. The fate of Gaul was
commanded the Roman armies and navy,
decided, and the character of the French
controlled public funds, and ruled the Roman
civilization was set. Territory twice the size of
provinces. But Octavian never assumed the title
Italy was added to the Roman Empire, and
of Emperor (imperator = dictator). He called
5,000,000 people became Rome’s customers. Gaul
himself Princeps, or “first citizen” of the state, an
provided a buffer against the Germans for four
equal among equals. Augustus and his successors
centuries.
actually exercised the powers of emperors, but
they technically did not claim the title. Hence, the
10 Roman History

Roman state was known as the Principate until formed the ius gentium, the unwritten common
about 284 A.D. law.
Augustus (Octavian) restructured Roman 7. Roman citizens had the right to appeal to the
government; and until about 180 A.D., the basic Princeps from the decisions of local courts, and
pattern of government was his. He introduced the they were immune from degrading corporal
following reforms which had great influence on punishments. This raised the dignity of Roman
the development of the Christian church over the citizenship and established the principle that all
first three centuries A.D.: Roman citizens, irrespective of social class, were
1. All provinces were placed under the control of equal before the law.
the Princeps, who appointed military governors. The City of Rome in Bible Times
2. All provinces were divided into Rome was founded on the Tiber river in 753 B.C.
municipalities. All municipal officers were It soon spread to cover seven hills, which were :
elected by the freeborn citizens of the city, the Capitoline, Palatine, Aventine, Caelian, Esquiline,
community enjoying complete autonomy. Viminal, and Quirinal. The Roman Forum lay
Imperial officials did not interfere in local matters. between the Palatine and Capitoline hills and was
Usually, the communities were dominated by the center of Roman cultural, civic, and
their wealthier citizens. commercial activities.
3. Imperial officers appointed to govern the The finest of Rome’s temples, palaces, circuses,
provinces were salaried by Rome. Tax collectors, baths, monuments, amphitheaters, and imperial
in particular, were given an annual salary rather buildings were near the Forum. All Roman life
than a percentage of the taxes collected. This was centered in this area, and all roads in the empire
done to prevent them from abusing their powers radiated from the golden milestone located in the
in order to fatten their pockets, and it helped make Forum. Paul, Peter, and Luke must have been in
them more dependent on Rome. the forum often; and here Paul may have been
4. Augustus began extensive road building tried for his life. The dust and dirt of centuries
programs and empire-wide postal service. This cover this area now; and earthquake, fire, and
made for better trade and commerce and for better time have taken their toll.
communications and imperial administration. There were excavations in Rome as early as the
5. In order to strengthen his hold on the 16th century, with extensive archaeological work
provinces, August had himself proclaimed a deity. being done since then. In the late 19th century, the
He felt that foreign people would find it easier to Pontifical Commission of Sacred Archaeology
obey the commands of a god than those of a took up the work and have continued to oversee it
conqueror. In Italy, he did not proclaim his until the present.
divinity because he had a legal right to rule there Ancient Rome was a sumptuous and magnificent
anyway. city. There are many descriptions in history of its
6. Under Augustus, Roman law began to reach magnificence. The Forum measures 240 by 690
maturity. Eminent judges issued responsa feet and was the scene of the trial and death of
prudentium, the “answer of the wise”, legal Julius Caesar and the oration of Mark Antony.
opinions on the issues brought before the judges. The Colosseum, covering six acres, seated 60,000
Gradually, these answers formed a body and spectators at gladiatorial contests in which
philosophy of law and were accepted as precedent Christians were thrown to wild beasts. The
for the decision of similar cases. Roman law was palaces of the emperor and the temple of Jupiter
based on statutes of the Senate, edicts of the were on the Palatine Hill. More than 250,000
Princeps, the “responsas”, and certain ancient people could watch chariot races at the Circus
customs which had the force of law. The statutes, Maximus.
edicts, and responsas formed the ius civile, the Near the Forum can be seen the Arch of Titus
written law of the Empire. The old customs (Vespasian) which has a sculptured relief of Titus
and his legions carrying the sacred vessels from
Roman History 11

the Temple in Jerusalem after the siege of 70 A.D. to games and feasts, they condemned those who
Of course, this had not been built when the sold fodder for the animals which were to be
apostle Paul was alive. Also, the Arch of sacrificed to pagan gods. The public began to
Constantine is in the area and tells of dread them because they thought the gods would
Constantine’s proclamation of 316 A.D. in which be angry and cause their crops to fail if too many
he announced that Christianity was to be the people refused to make offerings. If crops failed,
official religion of the empire. During the if the Tiber river overflowed, if plagues came, the
excavation, in 1941, of Ostia, Rome’s seaport at the cry was “Send the Christians to the lions!” Yet the
mouth of the Tiber, an inscription was found Christians were kind to all who were in trouble,
indicating that in 14 A.D., during the reign of stayed and nursed the sick during the plague
Tiberius, Rome had a population of over 4 million. when others fled, and lived highly moral lives.
Of all the discoveries in and around Rome, the In order to test people’s loyalty, the Roman
most interesting to Christians and Jews are the government required that every one appear at
Catacombs which lay along the roadways outside certain public places and there burn a pinch of
the city, but which are never farther than three incense to the emperor. The Christians considered
miles from the old city walls. The origin of these this emperor worship, and they wished to
Catacombs is one of the strangest phases of worship only Christ. So government authorities
history. They started out as sand pits discovered began to seek them out and punish them with
and exploited by people who needed building death. As a protective measure the Christians
materials. The material was actually a began to meet and work in secret. They sought
combination of volcanic ash and sand, melted refuge in the underground sand pits. With their
enough to cause the particles to adhere to each tools they hollowed out rooms, chapels, and
other. This tufa stone comprised the earth’s burying places. The Catacombs became their
surface for miles around Rome and was excellent place of safe retreat. They came to live there, to
when used in masonry. Many subterranean worship there, and were buried there, by the tens
channels were dug in “mining” this sand. of thousands.
During the first century, there came tremendous The Catacombs were discovered, and excavations
conflict between the young Church and the begun, in the 16th century. Since 1950 they have
Roman Empire. The marked characteristic of the been excavated very extensively. Enough
empire was tolerance; and the most notable information has been gathered to fill many books.
characteristics of the Christian church were its About six million people are buried in about sixty
love and benevolence. So, you would think the Catacombs, fifty-four of which are Christian, and
two would have gotten along well together. They six of which are Jewish. Each of these has an
did not, however, because the Christians swore obscure entrance from which a stairway leads
allegiance to Jesus Christ as Lord of the lives, and down to tunnels and galleries which branch off in
everything else was expected to be subservient to all directions creating a network of tunnels and
Him. Of course the Romans did not like this. streets on as many as four levels connected by
Also, the church had high standards for moral stairways. On each level is an immense maze of
conduct, and they called for conformity to these tunnels - so that in all there are about 587 miles of
standards. They said, “If you expect to be saved, tunnels.
you must conform to Christ’s way of life.” This Along the walls of these passageways, or at dead
was resented. The church condemned the world ends, the Christians are buried in wall tombs.
and sought to save it, but from the world there Each tomb is closed with tiles or with a marble
came contempt and aversion, followed by slab on which the name, and perhaps a portrait, of
persecution. the deceased appears. Often the walls and
The Christians were also thought to be very ceilings were decorated with paintings of Bible
unsocial people. They were considered strange, characters, or scenes such as Moses striking the
and were hated as enemies of society. They were rock, David, Daniel, Noah, or Jonah — in each
simple and moral in their dress, they would not go case they represented a miraculous deliverance by
God. In 1853, the archaeologist DeRossi found a
12 Roman History

marble slab with the engraving, “Marcus Warren Doud

Antonius Rastutus made this sepulchre for Grace Notes
himself and his own, who are confident in the 1705 Aggie Lane
Lord.” Austin, Texas 78757
E-Mail: wdoud@gracenotes.info
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