ICAP

Introduction to accounting

First edition published by

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Certificate in Accounting and Finance

Introduction to accounting

C
Contents
Page

Syllabus objective and learning outcomes

Chapter
1

Introduction to business and accounting

Accounting concepts and terminology

23

The accounting equation

37

Double entry bookkeeping

53

Sales and purchases

93

Depreciation

125

Bad and doubtful debts

145

Accruals and prepayments

163

Inventory

191

10

Control accounts and control account reconciliations

207

11

Bank reconciliations

219

12

Correction of errors

235

13

Preparation of financial statements

255

14

Partnership accounts

275

Index

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Introduction to accounting

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Certificate in Accounting and Finance

Introduction to accounting

S
Syllabus objective
and learning outcomes
CERTIFICATE IN ACCOUNTING AND FINANCE
INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING
Objective
To enable candidates to equip themselves with the fundamental concepts of accounts
needed as a foundation for higher studies of accounting.
Learning Outcome
On the successful completion of this paper candidates will be able to:
1

understand the nature of accounting, elements of accounts and double entry rules.

identify financial transactions and make journal entries.

prepare general ledger accounts and a trial balance.

make period end adjustments prior to the completion of financial statements

prepare basic financial statements

prepare partnership accounts and account for transactions of admission,

retirement etc.

Grid

Weighting

Introduction to accounting and book keeping

40

Adjustments prior to completion of financial statements

20

Preparation of final accounts of sole traders

20

Accounting for partnerships

20
Total

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Contents

Level

Learning Outcome

Introduction to accounting
and bookkeeping
Introduction to accounting
Meaning of business

LO1.1.1: Explain the characteristic of a

business
LO1.1.2: Classify transactions that fall under
the definition of business transactions

Mode of business organization

(meaning) - sole proprietorship;
partnership; limited company

LO1.2.1: Describe the key features of sole

proprietorship, partnership and limited
company
LO1.2.2: Differentiate the features of sole
proprietorship, partnership and limited
company

Fundamental accounting
concepts - accrual, consistency,
true and fair view, materiality,
prudence, completeness, going
concern, substance over form

LO1.3.1: Describe and illustrate the main

concepts, namely, accrual, consistency, and
completeness
LO1.3.2: Demonstrate familiarity with the
concepts of true and fair view, materiality,
prudence, going concern and substance over
form
LO1.3.3: Apply the concepts of accrual,
consistency and completeness to simple and
well explained circumstances.

Financial statementscomponents, responsibility,

presentation, users

LO1.4.1: List the components of a set of

financial statements.
LO1.4.2: Explain the characteristics and
purpose of the statement of financial position
and the statement of comprehensive income.
LO1.4.3: Identify the responsibility to prepare
and present financial statements
LO1.4.4: Describe the basic presentation
layout of statements of financial position and
statements of comprehensive income.
LO1.4.5: Identify users of financial
information and describe how the information
is useful to them

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Syllabus objective and learning outcomes

Contents

Level

Learning Outcome

Bookkeeping
Elements of financial
statements (meaning) - Assets,
liabilities, equity, income,
expense

Chart of accounts

LO2.1.1: Define and give examples of

assets, liabilities, equity, income and
expenses
LO2.1.2: Apply the underlying concepts of
assets, liabilities, income and expenses in
simple and well explained circumstances.
LO2.2.1: Understand the meaning of a chart
of accounts
LO2.2.2: Explain the purpose of
establishing a chart of accounts
LO2.2.3: Construct a chart of accounts
using given data

Double entry system,

accounting equation and rules
of debit and credit

LO2.3.1: Understand and apply, the

accounting equation (Assets = Liabilities +
Equity) in simple practical and common
scenarios

LO2.3.2: identify financial and non-financial

transactions in a well defined scenario
LO2.3.3: Understand and apply the concept
of double entry accounting to simple and
common business transactions
General journal

LO2.4.1: List and describe the basic

contents of the general journal

LO2.4.2: prepare and use the general

journal to record journal entries
Sales journal and the sales
ledger

LO2.5.1: Describe the basic contents of the

sales day book and the customer/debtors
ledger

LO2.5.2: record entries in the sales day

book and the customer/debtors ledger.
Purchase journal and the
purchase ledger

LO2.6.1: Describe the basic contents of the

purchase journal and purchase
ledger/creditors ledger.

LO2.6.2: record entries in the purchase

journal and purchase ledger/creditors
ledger.

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Contents

Level

Learning Outcome

General ledger and trial

balance
General ledger

LO3.1.1: Describe the main features of the

general ledger
LO3.1.2: Post entries in the general ledger

Trial balance

LO3.2.1: Understand the purpose of the trial

balance
LO3.2.2: Understand and demonstrate
mapping between general ledger balances
and the trial balance
LO3.2.3: Identify the limitations of a trial
balance.

Adjustments before final

accounts
Straight line, diminution
balance, sum-of-years-digit,
number of units produced
methods and recording of
depreciation on fixed Assets

Allowance for bad debts and

write off

LO4.1.1: Calculate depreciation expense

using straight line, diminution balance, sumof-digits and number of units produced
methods
LO4.1.2: Post journal entry to record
depreciation expense
LO4.2.1: Estimate allowance for bad debts
based on a given policy
LO4.2.2: Post journal entry to record bad
debt expense
LO4.2.3: Compute and record write off and
understand its impact on allowance for bad
debts.

Prepayments and accruals

LO4.3.1: Understand the matching concept

that applies to prepayments and accruals.
LO4.3.2: Post journal entries and ledger
entries for prepayments and accruals.
LO4.3.3: Post adjusting entries to recognize
revenues or expenses

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Syllabus objective and learning outcomes

Contents

Level

Learning Outcome

Adjustments before final

accounts (continued)
Closing entries of inventory

LO4.4.1: Understand the concepts of

periodic and perpetual inventory system

LO4.4.2: Identify the need to post the

adjustment entries of inventory at the end of
the period in case of periodic inventory
system.
LO4.4.3: Pass the adjusting entries and
ledger entries at the end of the period.
Bank reconciliation and related
adjustments

LO4.5.1: Understand the need for a bank

reconciliation

LO4.5.2: Identify the main reasons for

differences between the cash book and
bank statements.
LO4.5.3: Prepare a bank reconciliation
statement in the circumstance of simple and
well explained transactions.
LO4.5.4: Correct cash book errors and post
journal entries after identifying the same in
bank reconciliation statement.
Control accounts - reconciliation
and adjustments

LO4.6.1: Understand the mapping between

control accounts and subsidiary ledger for
accounts receivable and accounts payable.

LO4.6.2: Prepare control accounts and

subsidiary ledger from well explained
information provided.
LO4.6.3: Perform control accounts
reconciliation for accounts receivable and
accounts payable.
LO4.6.4: Identify errors after performing
reconciliation
LO4.6.5: Identify and correct errors in
control account and subsidiary ledgers.

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Introduction to accounting

Contents

Level

Learning Outcome

Adjustments before final

accounts (continued)
Correction of errors in record
keeping

LO4.7.1: Identify the types of error which

may occur in a record keeping system

LO4.7.2: Calculate and understand the

impact of errors on the financial statements
within a reporting period
LO4.7.3: Prepare journal entries to correct
errors that have occurred within a reporting
period
Preparation of final accounts
of a sole trader
Statement of financial position

LO5.1.1: Understand the purpose of the

statement of financial position

LO5.1.1: Prepare simple statements of

financial position from information provided.
Statement of comprehensive
income

LO5.1.1: Understand the purpose of the

statement of comprehensive income

LO5.1.1: Prepare simple statements of

comprehensive income from information
provided
Receipt and payment accounts

LO5.1.1: Understand the purpose of a

receipts and payments account.

LO5.1.1: Prepare a simple receipts and

payments account from information
provided.

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Syllabus objective and learning outcomes

Contents

Level

Learning Outcome

Accounting for partnerships

Preparation of partnership
accounts

LO6.1.1: Define a partnership and state its

essential elements

LO6.1.1: Understand goodwill

LO6.1.1: Prepare

Capital account
Current account

LO6.1.1: Prepare a profit and loss account

and a statement of financial position of a
partnership.
Admission and amalgamation

LO6.1.1: Process the necessary

adjustments on the admission of a new
partner, namely:

Revaluation of assets and liabilities of

the firm
Treatment of goodwill
Application of new profit sharing ratio

LO6.1.1: Prepare the nominal accounts,

profit and loss account and statement of
financial position upon amalgamation of two
partnerships.
Retirement, death, dissolution,
liquidation

LO6.1.1: Make journal entries in the case of

the dissolution of a partnership to record:

transfer and sale of assets and

liabilities to third parties and partners,
payment of realization expenses,
closing of the realization account and
settlement of partners capital account.

LO6.1.1: Process the necessary

adjustments on the death or retirement of a
partner:

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adjustments relating to goodwill,

accumulated reserves and
undistributed profits
revaluation account
adjustment and treatment of partners
capital;
application of new profit sharing ratio

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Introduction to accounting

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CHAPTER

Certificate in Accounting and Finance

Introduction to accounting

Introduction to business
and accounting
Contents
1 Types of business
2 Introduction to financial accounting
3 The components of financial statements
4 The Needs of users
5 Business transactions

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Introduction to accounting

INTRODUCTION
Learning outcomes
To enable candidates to equip themselves with the fundamental concepts of accounts
needed as a foundation for higher studies of accounting.
LO 1

Understand the nature of accounting, elements of accounts and double

entry rules.

LO1.1.1

Meaning of business: Explain the characteristic of a business

LO1.1.2

Meaning of business: Classify transactions that fall under the definition of

business transactions

LO1.2.1

Mode of business organisation: Describe the key features of sole

proprietorship, partnership and limited company

LO1.2.2

Mode of business organisation: Differentiate the features of sole

proprietorship, partnership and limited company

LO1.4.1

Financial statements: List the components of a set of financial statements.

LO1.4.2

Financial statements: Explain the characteristics and purpose of the statement

of financial position and the statement of comprehensive income.

LO1.4.3

Financial statements: Identify the responsibility to prepare and present

financial statements

LO1.4.4

Financial statements: Describe the basic presentation layout of statements of

financial position and statements of comprehensive income.

LO1.4.5

Financial statements: Identify users of financial information and describe how

the information is useful to them

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Chapter 1: Introduction to business and accounting

TYPES OF BUSINESS
Section overview

Types of business entity

Advantages and disadvantages of different types of business entity

1.1 Types of business entity

The word business is used in different contexts. It is used to describe an
economic process and to describe entities that participate in that process.
Definitions: Business
Business is an economic system where goods and services are exchanged for one
another or for money.
There is no single definition of a business. Some possible definitions include the
following.
Definitions: A business entity
A business entity is a commercial organisation that aims to make a profit from its
operations.
An integrated set of activities and assets that is capable of being conducted and
managed for the purpose of providing a return to investors or other owners.
An organisation or enterprising entity engaged in commercial, industrial or
professional activities.
Characteristics of business
All businesses share certain characteristics.

Businesses exist to make profits.

Businesses make profit by supplying goods or services to others

(customers).

Businesses that supply goods might make those goods or buy them from
other parties (for example, food retailers buy food off food producers and
sell it to their customers).

Profit is the reward for accepting risk. For example, a food retailer might
buy 100 kgs of bananas but might not be able to sell them all. In other
words, he runs the risk of paying for bananas that he will have to throw
away. He is willing to run the risk because if he does not buy bananas he
has no chance of selling them for a profit.

The profit of a business belongs to its owners. A share of the profits might
be paid to the owners periodically.

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There are three main types of business entity:

a sole proprietorship;

a business partnership;

a company (a limited liability company).

Sole proprietor or Sole trader

The business of a sole trader is owned and managed by one person. Any
individual, who sets up in business on his/her own, without creating a company,
is a sole trader.
Important features of a sole trader business are as follows.

There is no legal distinction between the proprietor and the business.

The owner of the business is personally liable for any unpaid debts
and other obligations of the business.

The profits of a sole proprietor business are treated as income of the

owner, for the purpose of calculating the amount of tax payable on
income.

The proprietor is wholly liable for the debts of the business, borrowing
money in his/her own name.

When a sole proprietor dies the business ceases to exist (there is no

perpetual succession as the business does not exist independently of
the owner).

The profits of the business belong to the sole proprietor.

The assets of the business belong to the sole proprietor.

The sole proprietor can extract cash and other assets from the business
(known as drawings).

The business may be financed by a mixture of owner's capital (including

retained earnings) and loans.

A sole proprietor business might employ many people but it is usual for the
proprietor to take a very active role in the business exercising a high
degree of control.

A sole proprietorship business can be sold as a going concern by its owner.

Example:
If a business owes a supplier Rs. 1,000 for goods it has purchased, but does not
have the money to make the payment, the owner of the business is personally
liable to make the payment out of his/her other assets.

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Partnership
A business partnership is an entity in which two or more individuals (partners)
share the ownership of a business. Each partner contributes funds (capital) to
set up the business.
Partnerships in Pakistan are subject to rules set out in The Partnership Act 1932.
Definition: Partnership
The relationship between persons who have agreed to share the profits of a
business carried on by all or any of them, acting for all.
Important features of a partnership are as follows:

There must be an association of two or more persons to carry on a

business.

The owners of the business are personally liable as individuals for the
unpaid debts and other obligations of the business.

The profits of a partnership are shared between the partners in an agreed

way, and each partners share of the profits is treated as personal income,
for the purpose of calculating the amount of tax payable on his or her
income.

When a partner dies the partnership comes to an end (there is no perpetual

succession).

The profits of the business belong to the partners in an agreed ratio.

The assets of the business belong to the partners in an agreed ratio.

The partners can extract cash and other assets from the business (known
as drawings).

The business may be financed by a mixture of partners' capital (including

retained earnings) and loans.

A partnership might employ many people but it is usual for the partners to
take a very active role in the business exercising a high degree of control.

A partnership can be sold as a going concern by its owner.

Example:
If a partnership owes a supplier Rs. 1,000 for goods it has purchased, but does not
have the money to make the payment, the partners are personally liable to make
the payment.

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Company (limited liability company)

A company is a special form of business entity. Nearly all companies in business
are limited liability companies with liability limited by shares.

Ownership of the company is represented by ownership of shares.

A company might issue any number of shares, depending largely on

its size. A large stock market company will have millions of shares in
issue.

If a company has issued 100 shares, ownership of 40 shares would

represent 40% of the ownership of the company.

Large companies usually have a large number of shares in issue, and

a large number of shareholders. This means that the owners (the
shareholders) do not manage the business. Managers are employed
(the executive directors of the company) to run the company on
behalf of the shareholders. This is sometimes referred to as the
separation of ownership from control.

Unlike a sole trader or a partnership, a company has the status of a legal

person in law.

A company can be the legal owner of business assets, and can sue
or be sued in its own right in the law.

A company is also taxed separately from its owners (the profits of a

sole trader and business partners are taxed as personal income of
the business owners).

A company is liable for its own debts. If a company owes a supplier

Rs. 1,000 for goods it has purchased, but does not have the money to
make the payment, the company alone is liable for the debt. The
owners (shareholders) are not personally liable to make the payment.
The liability of shareholders is limited to the amount of capital they
have invested or agreed to invest in the company.

When the shareholders are not the managers of their company, it becomes
essential that information about the position and performance of the company
should be reported regularly by the management to the shareholders. This is the
main purpose of financial reporting.
However, there might be a risk that the managers of a company would make
false reports to shareholders about the financial position and performance of the
company. To reduce this risk, the laws on financial reporting and auditing are
generally much stricter for companies than for other types of business entity.

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Chapter 1: Introduction to business and accounting

1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of different types of business entity

The advantages and disadvantages of operating as each type of business entity
may be summarised briefly as follows:
Business
structure

Sole trader

Partnership

Company

Owned by

One person

Several individuals
working together

Shareholders

Liability for the

unpaid debts and
other obligations of
the business

Personal
liability of
owner

Personal liability of
partners

Limited

Management

Business
managed by
its owner

Business managed
by its owners

Larger companies
are managed by
professional
managers

Raising capital

Capital for
the business
is provided
by its sole
owner. Likely
to be limited
in amount.

Capital for the

business is provided
by its owners. Often
limited in amount

Capital for the

business is
provided by its
shareholders.
Public companies
can raise new
capital from
investors in the
stock market.
Most very large
businesses are
companies.

Financial
accounting and
auditing

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Some
financial
accounts
needed for
tax purposes.

Financial accounts
needed for the
benefit of the
partners and for tax
purposes.

Fairly strict
regulation of
financial reporting
by companies.
Also legal
requirements for
audit.

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Introduction to accounting

INTRODUCTION TO FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING

Section overview

The purpose of financial accounting

Accounting systems

Financial statements

Regulation of financial reporting

2.1 The purpose of financial accounting

Financial accounting is a term that describes:

maintaining a system of accounting records for business transactions and

other items of a financial nature; and

reporting the financial position and the financial performance of an entity in

a set of financial statements.

The term entity is used to describe any type of organisation. Business entities
include companies, business partnerships and the businesses of sole traders

2.2 Accounting systems

Business entities operate a system to record business transactions in accounting
records. This system is called a book-keeping system. All large businesses
(and many small ones) have a book-keeping system for recording the financial
details of their business transactions on a regular basis. The bookkeeping
records of a business are often referred to as the accounts of the business.
The content of financial statements might vary depending on whether a business
is a sole trader, partnership of company. However, the basic process used to
record transactions is similar for all types of entity. The techniques used is called
double entry bookkeeping and is explained in detail later.

2.3 Financial statements

Double entry bookkeeping is used to record transactions in systems designed to
allow the management of the business to monitor its progress and produce
periodic financial statements and performance reports.
The information recorded in the book-keeping system (ledger records) is
analysed and summarised periodically (typically each year) and the summarised
information is presented in financial statements. Typically these might include:

a statement of financial position; and

a statement of comprehensive income

The objective of financial reporting is to provide financial information about the

reporting entity that is useful to existing and potential investors, lenders and other
creditors in making decisions about providing resources to the entity.
The information explains the financial position of an entity at the end of a period
(usually a year) and the financial performance of the entity over that period.
Financial statements relate to a given period of time, known as the financial
year, accounting period or reporting period. They are prepared from

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Chapter 1: Introduction to business and accounting

information held in the financial accounting records (the books, ledgers or

accounts), although some adjustments and additions are required to complete
the financial statements, especially for companies.
The financial statements are often referred to as a set of accounts of the
business.
The business entity concept
Financial reports are constructed as if the business entity is separate from its
owners. In other words, the business entity and its owners are different. This is
known as the business entity concept.
This concept has legal reality in the case of companies. A company by law is a
legal person, separate from its owners (the shareholders). However, the concept
is also applied to sole traders and partnerships.
Illustration:
Imran Khan sets up a sole trader business as a builder, and he calls the business
IK Builders.
Legally, IK Builders does not have a separate legal personality. The debts of IK
Builders are debts of Imran Khan.
However, for the purpose of financial reporting, the business is accounted for as an
entity separate from Imran Khan.
Responsibility for preparing financial statements
Type of entity

Responsibility

Sole trader

There may be no obligation to prepare financial statements

(other than for tax purposes) but if so the owner of the
business is responsible.
The owner might employ a person or persons to maintain
the accounting records and prepare financial statements.

Partnership

There may be no obligation to prepare financial statements

(other than for tax purposes) but if so the partners are
responsible.
They might employ a person or persons to maintain the
accounting records and prepare financial statements.

Company

Companies must prepare financial statements for

shareholders and for filing with relevant regulatory bodies.
It is the responsibility of the directors to ensure that this is
done. Usually the work is delegated to employees.

Financial reporting by sole traders and partnerships

The financial statements of a sole trader are private and do not have to be
disclosed, except to the tax authorities (and possibly also to a lending bank).
These must be prepared according to accepted accounting principles and
practice, but need not conform to all the requirements of accounting standards.
Similarly, the financial statements of a business partnership are private and do
not have to be disclosed.

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Financial reporting by companies

The financial statements of a company are prepared for the shareholders of the
company and are usually subject to audit. Audit is the examination of the financial
statements by an independent expert who expresses an opinion as to whether
they are fairly presented (show a true and fair view).
Company law requires that financial statements are filed with a government
agency, where they can be accessed and read by any member of the general
public.
Companies whose shares are traded on a major stock market make their
financial statements generally available to the public, often on the companys
web site.
The financial statements of a company are subject to more regulation than those
of a sole trader or a partnership.

2.4 Regulation of financial reporting

Generally accepted accounting principles
Financial reporting is regulated and controlled. Regulations help to ensure that
information reported in financial statements has the required qualities and
content.
The concepts, principles, conventions, laws, rules and regulations that are used
to prepare and present financial statements are known as Generally Accepted
Accounting Principles or GAAP.
The main sources of GAAP in a jurisdiction are:

Company Law; and

Accounting standards

GAAP varies from country to country, because each country has its own legal
and regulatory system. For example, there is Pakistan GAAP, US GAAP etc.
Accounting standards
The accountancy profession has developed a large number of regulations and
codes of practice that professional accountants are required to use when
preparing financial statements. These regulations are accounting standards.
Accounting standards are applied by companies rather than sole traders and
partnerships though they are written for all entities..
Many countries and companies whose shares are traded on the worlds stock
markets have adopted International Financial Reporting Standards or IFRS.
These are issued by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB).

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Chapter 1: Introduction to business and accounting

THE COMPONENTS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

Section overview

Financial statements

The statement of financial position

The statement of comprehensive income

Relationship between the statement of comprehensive income and the statement

of financial position

3.1 Financial statements

A full set of financial statements would include the following:

a statement of financial position;

a statement of comprehensive income;

a statement of changes in equity (not in this syllabus);

a statement of cash flows (not in this syllabus) and

notes to the financial statements (not in this syllabus).

Those components not in the syllabus are mentioned for completeness only.
The statement of financial position and statement of comprehensive income will
be described in more detail in later chapters. The remainder of this section will
explain the contents and basic structure of the statement of financial position and
the statement of comprehensive income.

3.2 The statement of financial position

A statement of financial position is a list of the assets and liabilities of an entity as
at a particular date. It also shows the equity (capital) of the entity. Each of these
is explained more fully in later sections.
A statement of financial position (formerly called a balance sheet) reports the
financial position of an entity as at a particular date, usually the end of a financial
year. The financial position of an entity is shown by its assets, liabilities and
equity (owners capital).
Assets
An asset is something that an entity owns, a resource that it controls or
something that it is owed. (This is not a strictly accurate definition but will do at
this point. A detailed technical definition of an asset is given in the next chapter).
Assets are presented in the statement of financial position under two main
categories:

Current assets: assets that are expected to provide economic benefit in

the short term.

Non-current assets: assets that have a long useful life and are expected
to provide future economic benefits for the entity over a period of several
years.

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Example: Current assets

Inventory,cash, trade receivables (money owed by customers who have purchased
goods or services on credit).
Example: Non-current assets
Property, machinery, patent rights
Liabilities
A liability is an amount that the entity owes to another party. (This is not a strictly
accurate definition but will do at this point. A detailed technical definition of a
liability is given in the next chapter).
Liabilities are presented in the statement of financial position under two main
categories:

Current liabilities: Amounts payable by the company within 12 months

Non-current liabilities: Amounts not payable within the next 12 months

Example: Liabilities
Trade payables (amounts owed to suppliers for goods purchased)
Bank loans
Equity
Equity is the residual interest in the business that belongs to its owner or owners
after the liabilities have been deducted from the assets. Equity is sometimes
referred to as the net assets of the business. (Net assets means assets minus
liabilities).
Equity represents the amount the entity owes to its owners, and liabilities are the
amounts it owes to others. The total assets owned are equal to the total amount
of equity plus liabilities that it owes.
This can be represented as the accounting equation.
Formula: Accounting equation
Assets Liabilities = Equity or Assets = Liabilities + Equity

The statement of financial position is a detailed representation of this equation.

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Format of a statement of financial position

A simple statement of financial position is divided into two parts:

The top half of the statement shows the assets of the business, with noncurrent assets first, and current assets below the non-current assets.

The lower half of the statement shows equity, followed by liabilities. The
liabilities are shown with non-current (long-term) liabilities first, and then
current liabilities.

The figure for total assets in the top part of the statement must always equal the
total of equity plus liabilities in the bottom half.
Example: statement of financial position
Lahore Shipping Limited: Statement of financial position as at [date]
Rs.(000s)

Assets
Non-current assets:
Land and buildings
Plant and equipment
Motor vehicles

Rs. (000s)
400,000
100,000
80,000
580,000

Current assets:
Inventory
Receivables
Cash

20,000
30,000
5,000
55,000
635,000

Total assets
Equity and liabilities
Equity:
Owners capital
Non-current liabilities:
Bank loan

440,000
170,000

Current liabilities:
Bank overdraft
Trade payables

10,000
15,000
25,000
635,000

Total equity and liabilities

The statement of financial position is not a statement of value.

The value of a business is determined by the profits that the business is expected
to generate using the assets that it owns. There is no way of telling what a
business is worth by looking at the financial statements. (Further analysis would
be required to arrive at a valuation).

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3.3 The statement of comprehensive income

This statement provides information about the performance of an entity in a
period. It consists of two parts:

A statement of profit or loss a list of income and expenses which result in

a profit or loss for the period; and

a statement of other comprehensive income a list of other gains and

losses that have arisen in the period.

Transactions that would appear in the statement of other comprehensive income

are not in your syllabus. Statements of comprehensive income in this syllabus
include only those items which would be recognised in the statement of profit or
loss part of the statement or comprehensive income.
A detailed technical definition of income and expense is given in the next chapter.
For the time being the text provides simple examples of these.
Income
Income consists of:

revenue from the sale of goods or services

other items of income such as interest received from investments

gains from disposing of non-current assets for more than the amount at
which they are carried in the records (carrying amount). For example, if a
machine is sold for Rs. 15,000 when its value in the statement of financial
position is Rs. 10,000, there is a gain on disposal of Rs. 5,000.

The term revenue means income earned in the course of normal business
operations. In a statement of comprehensive income , revenue and other
income are reported as separate items.
Expenses
Expenses consist of:

expenses arising in the ordinary course of activities, including the cost of

sales, wages and salaries, the cost of the depletion of non-current assets,
interest payable on loans and so on

losses arising from disasters such as fire and flood, and also losses from
disposing of non-current assets for less than their carrying value in the
statement of financial position.

Format of a simple statement of comprehensive income

The order of presentation is usually as follows:

revenue (sales)

the cost of sales

gross profit (sales minus the cost of sales)

other income, such as interest income and gains on the disposal of noncurrent assets

other expenses, which might be itemised in some detail. (There is no rule

about the sequence of expenses in the list, but it is usual to show expenses
relating to administration, followed by expenses relating to selling and

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distribution, and finally expenses relating to financial matters, such as

interest charges, bad debts and audit fees.)

net profit (gross profit plus other income and minus other expenses).

A companys statement of comprehensive income would also include the tax

charge on the companys profits.
Example: Statement of comprehensive income
Lahore Shipping Limited: Statement of comprehensive income for the
year ended [date]
Rs. (000s).
Revenue
Cost of sales
Gross profit
Other income:
Gain on disposal of non-current asset
Expenses
Employees salaries
Depreciation
Rental costs
Telephone charges
Advertising costs
Selling costs
General expenses
Interest charges
Bad debts

Rs. (000s)
800,000
500,000
300,000
10,000
310,000

120,000
10,000
30,000
15,000
30,000
40,000
20,000
3,000
2,000
270,000
40,000

Net profit

Gross profit and net profit

It is usual to show both the gross profit and the net profit in a statement of
comprehensive income .

Gross profit is the sales revenue minus the cost of sales in the period, and

Net profit (or loss) is the profit after taking into account all other income and
all other expenses for the period.

The expenses included in cost of sales differ according to the activities or type
of industry in which the entity operates. For example:

in a retailing business, the cost of sales might be just the purchase cost of
the goods that have been sold

in a manufacturing business, the cost of sales might be the cost of

producing the goods sold during the period.

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3.4 Relationship between the statement of comprehensive income and the

statement of financial position
The statement of financial position shows the equity of a business at a point in
time.
The statement of comprehensive income ends with a figure showing net profit for
the period. Profit belongs to the owner (or owners) of the business. It is therefore
an addition to equity.
The statement of comprehensive income links last years statement of financial
position to that constructed at the end of this year.

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THE NEEDS OF USERS

Section overview

The objective of financial reporting

Informational needs of those who use financial statement

4.1 The objective of financial reporting

The objective of general purpose financial reporting is to provide financial
information about the reporting entity that is useful to existing and potential
investors, lenders and other creditors in making decisions about providing
resources to the entity.
Most users cannot insist that businesses supply them with specific information.
Instead they have to rely on the financial statements produced by a business for
much of the financial information they need.
In other words, financial statements are drafted to provide information that should
be useful to most users but will not necessarily satisfy all of their needs. The
users also have to look elsewhere.

4.2 Informational needs of those who use financial statements

Investors
Investors in a business entity are the providers of risk capital. Unless they are
managers as well as owners, they invest in order to obtain a financial return on
their investment. They need information that will help them to make investment
decisions.
In the case of shareholders in a company, these decisions will often involve
whether to buy, hold or sell shares in the company. Their decision might be
based on an analysis of the past financial performance of the company and its
financial position, and trying to predict from the past what might happen to the
company in the future. Financial statements also give some indication of the
ability of a company to pay dividends to its shareholders out of profits.
Lenders
Lenders, such as banks, are interested in financial information about businesses
that borrow from them. Financial statements can help lenders to assess the
continuing ability of the borrower to pay interest, and its ability to repay the loan
principal at maturity.
Suppliers and other trade creditors
Financial information about an entity is also useful for suppliers who provide
goods on credit to a business entity, and other trade creditors who are owed
money by the entity as a result of debts incurred in its business operations (such
as money owned for rent or electricity or telephone charges). They can use the
financial statements to assess how much credit they might safely allow to the
entity.

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Government
The government and government agencies are interested in the financial
statements of business entities. They might use this information for the purpose
of business regulation or deciding taxation policies.
The public
In some cases, members of the general public might have an interest in the
financial statements of a company. The IASB Framework comments: For
example, entities may make a substantial contribution to the local economy in
many ways including the number of people they employ and their patronage of
local suppliers.
Employees
Employees need information about the financial stability and profitability of their
employer. An assessment of profitability can help employees to reach a view on
the ability of the employer to pay higher wages, or provide more job opportunities
in the future.
Customers
Customers might be interested in the financial strength of an entity, especially if
they rely on that entity for the long-term supply of key goods or services.
Managers
Managers are not included in this list of users by the IASB Framework, because
management should have access to all the financial information they need, and
in much more detail than financial statements provide. However, management is
responsible for producing the financial statements and might be interested in the
information they contain.

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BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS
Section overview

Introduction

The difference between capital transactions and revenue transactions

Capital and revenue expenditure

Revenue income and capital receipts

5.1 Introduction
A business transaction is an interaction between a business and customer,
supplier or any other party with whom they do business. It is an economic event
that must be recorded in the businesss accounting system.
There are many different types of business transaction including:

Cash sales of goods or services.

Credit sales of goods or services.

Receipt of cash from a customer to whom a sale on credit has been made.

Cash purchase of raw materials or goods.

Credit purchase of raw materials or goods.

Payment of cash to a supplier from whom a credit purchase has been

made.

Receipt of loan proceeds.

Repayment of a loan.

Payments made to employees.

Payments made to the government (for example taxes).

Purchase of non-current assets.

There are many mores examples.

Classification of business transactions
Business transactions can be classified in a number of ways including:

Simple transactions and complex transactions

One-off transactions and ongoing transactions

Capital transactions and revenue transactions

Simple or complex
Many transactions involve simple exchanges. For example, the sale of a
Samsung Galaxy phone by a retailer to a customer for cash is a simple
transaction. If the same sale is made on credit (where the customer does not pay
immediately) the transaction is more complex. In this case it might involve a
series of payments and some of the amount received might constitute interest.

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One-off transactions and ongoing transactions

Many transactions might occur on a single occasion. However, there are some
relationships which lead to a series of transactions of an ongoing nature. For
example, a person buying a Samsung Galaxy would need a contract with a
mobile phone network. This contract would involve a series of commitments by
each party and result in a series of payments by the owner of the phone to the
network provider in return for the provision of service of a specified level.
One of the most important ongoing relationships is that between a person or a
business and their banks. These may last for many years and involve the
provision of a series of different services through a whole series of transactions.

5.2 The difference between capital transactions and revenue transactions

A business entity normally operates over many years, but prepares financial
statements annually (at the end of each financial year).

It spends money for both the long term, by investing in machinery,

equipment and other assets. It also spends money on day-to-day
expenses, such as paying for supplies and services, and paying wages or
salaries to employees.

It receives income from its business operations. It might also receive

income from other sources, such as a new bank loan, or new capital
invested by its owner.

A distinction is made between capital and revenue items:

Items of a long-term nature, such as property, plant and equipment used to

carry out the operating activities of the business, are capital items.

Items of a short-term nature, particularly items that are used or occur in the
normal cycle of business operations, are revenue items.

As a rough guide (but which is not strictly accurate):

capital items will be reported in the statement of financial position, because

they are of a long-term nature

revenue items are at some stage reported as income or expenses in the

statement of comprehensive income.

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5.3 Capital and revenue expenditure

Capital expenditure is expenditure made to acquire or improve long term assets
that are used by the business:
Examples include:

purchase of property, plant and equipment, office equipment; and motor

vehicles;

installation costs associated with new equipment;

improvements and additions to existing non-current assets (for example,

building extensions, installation of air-conditioning etc.)

Fees paid to raise long term finance are also deemed to be capital in nature.

To pay fees associated with raising long term finance

A capital asset is a non-current asset

The IASB defines capitalisation as recognising a cost as an asset or part of the
cost of as an asset. So when an item of cost is capitalised it is treated as an
asset rather than an expense.
Revenue expenditure is expenditure on day-to-day operating expenses.
Examples include:

Purchase of goods meant for resale in the normal course of business;

Purchase of raw materials and components used to manufacture goods for

resale in the normal course of business;

Expenditures made to meet the day to day running costs of a business (for
example, rent, energy, wages etc.)

Expenditures made to repair non-current assets.

Expenditures made to distribute goods to customers.

Costs of administering a business (for example, accounting services,

licence fees etc.)

Revenue expenditure is reported as expenditure in the statement of

comprehensive income.
It is not always easy to distinguish between capital and revenue transactions.
Illustration:
A business has two identical vehicles each with engine problems.
Vehicle A engine is repaired costs associated with the repair are revenue
expenditure
Vehicle B engine is replaced this is capital expenditure.

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5.4 Revenue income and capital receipts

Revenue income is income arising from the normal operations of a business
from its investments.
Examples include:

Revenue from the sale of goods.

Commissions and fees received and receivable from the provision of a

service.

Interest received and receivable from savings.

Rent received and receivable from letting out property.

Revenue is reported in the statement of profit or loss in the statement of

comprehensive income.
Capital receipts are receipts of long term income, such as money from a bank
loan, or new money invested by the business owners (which is called capital).
Capital receipts affect the financial position of an entity, but not its financial
performance. Capital receipts are therefore excluded from the statement of
comprehensive income.
Illustration:
A business entity borrows $100,000 from a bank for five years and pays interest of
$8,000 on the loan for the first year.
The loan is a non-current liability (and part of the long-term capital of the business
a capital receipt) but the interest is an expense (revenue expenditure).
A business has two identical vehicles each with engine problems.
The engine of one is repaired costs associated with the repair are revenue
expenditure
The engine of the second is replaced this is capital expenditure.

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CHAPTER

Certificate in Accounting and Finance

Introduction to accounting

Accounting concepts
and terminology
Contents
1 Accounting concepts
2 The Elements of financial statements

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INTRODUCTION
Learning outcomes
To enable candidates to equip themselves with the fundamental concepts of accounts
needed as a foundation for higher studies of accounting.
LO 1

Understand the nature of accounting, elements of accounts and double

entry rules.

LO1.3.1

Fundamental accounting concepts: Describe and illustrate the main concepts,

namely, accrual, consistency, and completeness

LO1.3.2

Fundamental accounting concepts: Demonstrate familiarity with the concepts

of true and fair view, materiality, prudence, going concern and substance over
form

LO1.3.3

Fundamental accounting concepts: Apply the concepts of accrual, consistency

and completeness to simple and well explained circumstances.

LO 2

Identify financial transactions and make journal entries

LO2.1.1

Elements of financial statements: Define and give examples of assets,

liabilities, equity, income and expenses

LO2.1.2

Elements of financial statements: Apply the underlying concepts of assets,

liabilities, income and expenses in simple and well explained circumstances.

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ACCOUNTING CONCEPTS
Section overview

Introduction

Accruals basis (matching concept)

Consistency

Completeness

True and fair view (faithful representation)

Materiality

Prudence

Going concern basis

Substance over form

1.1 Introduction
The IASB (International Accounting Standards Board) have published a
document called the Conceptual Framework. This document sets out the
fundamental concepts that provide a foundation for financial reporting.
In effect it provides a series of answers to fundamental questions.
Example:
Question: What is the objective of financial reporting?
Answer: The objective of financial reporting is to provide financial information
about the reporting entity that is useful to existing and potential investors, lenders
and other creditors in making decisions about providing resources to the entity.

The Conceptual Framework is in the process of being revised. This has resulted
in the removal of certain concepts from the document. However, accounting
standards have historically taken these into account so it is still important to know
about them.
Note also that some concepts are explained in IAS 1 Presentation of Financial
Statements. Detail of this standard is beyond the scope of your syllabus but is
covered by later syllabuses.
Knowledge of the following concepts is required by your syllabus.

Accounting concepts

Accruals basis

Completeness

True and fair view/faithful representation

Materiality

Prudence

Going concern basis

Substance over form

The elements of financial statements

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1.2 Accruals basis (matching concept)

Accruals basis accounting (accruals accounting, the accruals concept) depicts
the effects of transactions and other events and circumstances on a reporting
entitys economic resources and claims in the periods in which those effects
occur, even if the resulting cash receipts and payments occur in a different
period.

Revenue from sales and other income should be reported in the period
when the income arises (which might not be the same as the period when
the cash is received).

The cost of sales in the statement of comprehensive income must be

matched with the sales. Income and matching expenses must be reported
in the same financial period.

Other expenses should be charged in the period to which they relate, not
the period in which they are paid for.

Illustration: Statement of comprehensive income

Rs
Revenue (from sales made in the period)

Cost of sales (costs matched with sales made in the period

(X)

Gross profit
Other costs (charged in the period in which the benefit paid
for is used)

Net profit

(X)
X

Example 1: Accruals basis

A company prepares its financial statements to the 30 June each year.
It sells goods for Rs. 50,000 to a customer on 6 June Year 2, but does not receive a
cash payment from the customer until 15 August Year 2.
Accruals basis:
The sale is recognised as income in the year to 30 June Year 2, even though the
cash is not received until after the end of this financial year.

Example 2: Accruals basis

A company starts in business on 1 September Year 1. It acquires an office for
which it pays one years rent in advance, to 31 August Year 2.
The cost of the annual rental is Rs. 120,000. The company prepares its financial
statements for a financial period ending on 31 December each year.
Accruals basis:
The office rental cost in the period to 31 December Year 1 is the cost of just four
months rent.
The expense is therefore Rs. 40,000 (Rs. 120,000 4/12) in Year 1, and there has
been a prepayment for Rs. 80,000 that relates to the next financial period, the year
to 31 December Year 2.

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Definitions
Prepayment.
A prepayment is an amount of money paid in advance for benefits that will be
received in the next accounting period.
A prepayment in Year 1 of some expenses relating to Year 2 should not be charged
as an expense in Year 1, but should be treated as an expense in Year 2.
Accrued expense or accrual.
An accrual or accrued expense is an amount that an entity owes in respect of a
benefit it has received in a period but for which it has not yet been invoiced. An
accrual is an estimate of the cost of the benefit received.

Example: Accrual
A company rents office space at a cost of Rs. 6,000,000 per year paid 12 months
in arrears (this means that the company pay the rent at the end of the year).
The first payment is due on 30 June Year 2.
The company prepares its financial statements to 31 December each year.
Accruals basis:
The company will not have received an invoice for the rent when it is preparing its
financial statements for 31 December Year 1
However, it knows that it has occupied the office space for six months. The
company would recognise a liability for rental costs for six months (Rs. 3,000,000)
and also include this as an expense in profit and loss for Year 1.
This is described as accruing an expense or making an accrual.

Accounting for accruals and prepayments is described in detail in a later chapter.

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1.3 Consistency
The content of the financial statements must be presented consistently from one
period to the next.
The presentation can be changed only if necessary to improve the quality of
information presented in terms of its usefulness to the users or if a new rule
requires a change.
Example: Consistency
A manager of a business has been promised a bonus if he can improve gross profit
to more than 10% above what it was last year.
In the event the results of the business have been exactly the same but the
manager has prepared the financial statements on a slightly different basis.
2012
2013
Rs.000

Rs.000

25,000

25,000

Production costs

10,000

10,000

Warehousing costs

10,000

Sales
Cost of sales:

Gross profit
Less: Other expenses
Net profit

(20,000)

(10,000)

5,000

15,000

(4,000)

(14,000)

1,000

1,000

The manager has presented the information in a different way. This

years presentation is inconsistent with last years.
This might mislead the user of the financial statements (in this case the
person who will decide if the manager will receive a bonus).
It might be that the managers presentation is correct but in this case
the previous years results should be represented onto a consistent basis
in order to prevent a misleading impression.

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1.4 Completeness
The objective of financial reporting is to provide useful information. Information is
only useful if a person can rely on it.
To be reliable, information should be complete, subject to materiality and cost.
(There is no need to include information if it is not material, and greater accuracy
is not required if the cost of obtaining the extra information is more than the
benefits that the information will provide to its users).
Materiality is explained below.
Completeness refers to whether all transactions that occurred during the period
have been recorded.
Example: Completeness
The accruals example can be used to illustrate this.
A company rents office space at a cost of Rs. 6,000,000 per year paid 12 months
in arrears (this means that the company pay the rent at the end of the year).
The first payment is due on 30 June Year 2.
The company prepares its financial statements to 31 December each year.
The company will not have received an invoice for the rent when it is preparing its
financial statements for 31 December Year 1
If the company does not accrue for the expense that relates to the 6 months to 31
December year 1 the information would be incomplete.

1.5 True and fair view (faithful representation)

Financial statements should give a true and fair view of the financial position,
financial performance and changes in financial position of an entity. Another way
of saying this is that financial statements should provide a faithful
representation of these.
This is achieved by following all the rules set out in law and accounting standards
Faithful representation
Financial reports represent economic phenomena by depicting them in words
and numbers.
To be useful, financial information must not only represent relevant phenomena,
but it must also faithfully represent the phenomena that it purports to represent.
A perfectly faithful representation would have three characteristics. It would be:

complete the depiction includes all information necessary for a user to

understand the phenomenon being depicted, including all necessary
descriptions and explanations.

neutral the depiction is without bias in the selection or presentation of

financial information; and

free from error where there are no errors or omissions in the description
of the phenomenon, and the process used to produce the reported
information has been selected and applied with no errors in the process.

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1.6 Materiality
The relevance of information is affected by its materiality.
Information is material if omitting it or misstating it could influence decisions that
users make on the basis of financial information about a specific reporting entity.
An error which is too trivial to affect a users understanding of financial statement
is referred to as immaterial.
There is no absolute measure of materiality that can be applied to all businesses.
In other words there is no rule that says any item greater than 5% of profit must
be material. Whether an item is material or not depends on its magnitude or its
nature or both in the context of the specific circumstances of the business.
Magnitude
Whether an item of a given size is deemed to be material depends on the context
of the number in relation to other numbers in the financial statements.
Example: Materiality
Two similar businesses prepare financial statements that show that each has noncurrent assets of Rs. 10,000,000 and each has a profit for the year of Rs. 100,000.
Each business discovers a Rs. 20,000 error.
Error

Comment

1:

This relates to how Business A

arrived at the total of noncurrent assets which are now
overstated by Rs. 20,000.

This is immaterial. Rs. 20,000 is a

small error in the context of the
non-current asset figure and its
omission would not be misleading.

This relates to how Business B

arrived at the profit for the
year which is now overstated
by Rs. 20,000.

This is material. Omitting this

amount means that profit is
misstated by 20%

Example: Materiality
A business owes Mr A Rs. 1,000,000 and is owed Rs. 950,000 by Mr B.
Instead of showing an asset of Rs. 950,000 and a liability of Rs. 1,000,000, the
business shows a single liability of Rs. 50,000.
This is a material misstatement. Although the amount is correct it hides the fact
that the amount is in fact made of two much larger amounts. A user would be
unable to judge the risk associated with Mr Bs ability of pay unless the two
amounts are shown separately.
Nature
Businesses are sometimes placed under a legal obligation to disclose certain
information in their financial statements (for example, companies must disclose
directors remuneration). Omission of such amounts is always a material
misstatement regardless of the size of the amount in relation to the other
numbers in the financial statements.

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This is only mentioned for illustrative purposes. Examples of this kind are beyond
the scope of this syllabus.

1.7 Prudence
Financial statements must sometimes recognise the uncertainty in business
transactions. For example, if a business is owed Rs. 1,000,000 by a number of its
customers, there will be some uncertainty as to whether all the money will
actually be collected. Prudence involves allowing for some caution in preparing
financial statements, by making reasonable and sensible allowances in order to
avoid overstating assets or income and to avoid understating expenses or
liabilities.
As a general indication of prudence, rules exist to prevent a business recognising
an asset in its financial statements at an amount greater than the cash it will
generate. When such a circumstance arises the asset is reduced in value down
to the cash expected to result from the ownership of the asset.
Example: Prudence
A company has receivables of Rs. 10,000,000.
The company knows from experience that about 2% of its receivables will not be
collected because of customers being in financial difficulty.
It is prudent to make an allowance for doubtful debts to 2% of receivables (but it
would be inappropriate to make an excessive allowance, say 10% of receivables).
The company would recognise an allowance of Rs. 200,000 to set against the
receivable in the statement of financial position showing a net amount of Rs.
9,800,000 (10,000,000 less 200,000).
The Rs.200,000 would also be recognised as an expense in the statement of
comprehensive income.
Accounting for bad and doubtful debts is described in detail in a later chapter.

1.8 Going concern basis

This means that financial statements are prepared on the assumption that the
entity will continue to operate for the foreseeable future, and does not intend to
go into nor will be forced into liquidation. The going concern assumption is
particularly relevant for the valuation of assets.
The going concern basis of accounting is that all the items of value owned by a
business, such as inventory and property, plant and equipment, should be valued
on the assumption that the business will continue in operation for the foreseeable
future. The business will not close down or be forced to close down and sell off
all its items (assets). This assumption affects the value of assets and liabilities of
an entity, as reported in the financial statements.
If a business entity is not a going concern, and is about to be closed down and
liquidated, the value of its assets would be their estimated value in the liquidation
process. Assets are valued differently on a going concern basis.

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1.9 Substance over form

The use of the term faithful representation (see above) means more than that the
amounts in the financial statements should be materially correct. It implies that
information should present clearly the transactions and other events that it is
intended to represent.
To provide a faithful representation, financial information must account for
transactions and other events in a way that reflects their substance and
economic reality (in other words, their true commercial impact) rather than their
legal form. If there is a difference between economic substance and legal form,
the financial information should represent the economic substance.
IFRSs contain many rules that are based on this concept.
Example: Substance over form (leases)
Alpha rents (leases) an asset from Beta.
The asset is expected to be useful for 10 years after which it will be scrapped.
Alpha has a contract to use the asset for 10 years.
Analysis:
The substance of the transaction is that Alpha has bought the asset from Beta.
Beta would only agree to let Alpha use the asset for all of its useful life if the
rentals received from Alpha covered Betas costs of buying the asset and gave Beta
a financial return. This is the same as Alpha borrowing money and buying the
asset.
Alpha must recognise the leased asset as if it owns it and also must recognise a
liability to pay for the asset.

Example: Substance over form (sale and repurchase agreements)

Gamma sells an asset to Delta for Rs. 1,000,000.
There is a contract in place under which Gamma must buy the asset back off Delta
for Rs. 1,100,000 in 12 months time.
Gamma continues to use the asset in exactly the same way as before, even though
Delta is now its legal owner.
Analysis:
The substance of the transaction is that Gamma has not sold the asset to Delta but
has borrowed money from Delta.
Gamma must recognise a liability for Rs. 1,000,000.

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Chapter 2: Accounting concepts and terminology

THE ELEMENTS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

Section overview

Introduction

Assets

Liabilities

Equity

Income

Expenses

Measurement of assets and other elements

2.1 Introduction
The objective of financial reporting is to provide useful information. In order to be
useful information must be understandable. A large company enters into
thousands of transactions so in order for users to be able to understand the
impact of these they must be summarised in some way.
Financial statements group transactions into broad classes according to their
economic characteristics. These broad classes are called the elements of
financial statements.

The elements directly related to the measurement of financial position in

the statement of financial position are assets, liabilities and equity.

The elements directly related to the measurement of performance in the

statement of comprehensive income are income and expenses.

2.2 Assets
An asset is defined as:

a resource controlled by the entity;

as a result of past events; and

from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity.

Resource controlled by the entity

Control is the ability to obtain economic benefits from the asset, and to restrict
the ability of others to obtain the same benefits from the same item.
An entity usually uses assets to produce goods or services to meet the needs of
its customers, and because customers are willing to pay for the goods and
services, this contributes to the cash flow of the entity. Cash itself is an asset
because of its command over other resources.
Many assets have a physical form, but this is not an essential requirement for the
existence of an asset.
The result of past events
Assets result from past transactions or other past events. An asset is not created
by any transaction that is expected to occur in the future but has not yet
happened. For example, an intention to buy inventory does not create an asset.

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Expected future economic benefits

An asset should be expected to provide future economic benefits to the entity.
Providing future economic benefits can be defined as contributing, directly or
indirectly, to the flow of cash (and cash equivalents) into the entity.

2.3 Liabilities
A liability is defined as:

a present obligation of an entity

arising from past events

the settlement of which is expected to result in an outflow of resources that

embody economic benefits.

Present obligation
A liability is an obligation that already exists. An obligation may be legally
enforceable as a result of a binding contract or a statutory requirement, such as a
legal obligation to pay a supplier for goods purchased.
Obligations may also arise from normal business practice, or a desire to maintain
good customer relations or the desire to act in a fair way. For example, an entity
might undertake to rectify faulty goods for customers, even if these are now
outside their warranty period. This undertaking creates an obligation, even
though it is not legally enforceable by the customers of the entity.
Past transactions or events
A liability arises out of a past transaction or event. For example, a trade payable
arises out of the past purchase of goods or services, and an obligation to repay a
bank loan arises out of past borrowing.
Future outflow of economic resources
The settlement of a liability should result in an outflow of resources that embody
economic benefits. This usually involves the payment of cash or transfer of other
assets. A liability is measured by the value of these resources that will be paid or
transferred.
Some liabilities can be measured only with a substantial amount of estimation.
These may be called provisions.

2.3 Equity
Equity is the residual interest in an entity after the value of all its liabilities has
been deducted from the value of all its assets. It is a balance sheet value of the
entitys net assets. It does not represent in any way the market value of the
equity.
Equity of companies may be sub-classified into share capital, retained profits and
other reserves.

2.4 Income
Financial performance is measured by profit or loss. Profit is measured as
income less expenses. Income includes both revenue and gains.

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Revenue is income arising in the course of the ordinary activities of the

entity. It includes sales revenue, fee income, royalties income, rental
income and income from investments (interest and dividends).

Gains include gains on the disposal of non-current assets. Realised gains

are often reported in the financial statements net of related expenses. They
might arise in the normal course of business activities. Gains might also be
unrealised. Unrealised gains occur whenever an asset is revalued upwards,
but is not disposed of. For example, an unrealised gain occurs when
marketable securities owned by the entity are revalued upwards.

2.5 Expenses
Expenses include:

Expenses arising in the normal course of activities, such as the cost of

sales and other operating costs, including depreciation of non-current
assets. Expenses result in the outflow of assets (such as cash or finished
goods inventory) or the depletion of assets (for example, the depreciation of
non-current assets).

Losses include for example, the loss on disposal of a non-current asset,

and losses arising from damage due to fire or flooding. Losses are usually
reported as net of related income. Losses might also be unrealised.
Unrealised losses occur when an asset is revalued downwards, but is not
disposed of. For example, and unrealised loss occurs when marketable
securities owned by the entity are revalued downwards

2.6 Measurement of assets and other elements

Assets, liabilities, income and expenses can be measured in the following ways
according to circumstance:

Historical cost. This is the actual amount of cash paid or received. For
example, the historical cost of an item of equipment is the amount that it
cost to buy (at some time in the past).

Current cost. Assets might be valued at the amount that would have to be
paid to obtain an equivalent current asset now. For example, if a company
owns shares in another company, these assets might be valued at their
current market value. Similarly, a company that owns a building might
choose to value the building at its current market value, not the amount that
it originally cost.

Realisable value or settlement value. Assets might be valued at the amount

that would be obtained if they were disposed of now (in an orderly
disposal).

Present value. This is a current value equivalent of an amount that will be

receivable or payable at a future time.

The most common method of measurement is historical cost, but the other
methods of measurement are also used in certain cases. These cases are not in
your syllabus.

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2.7 Other terms

Accounts
The word account is used in a number of ways:
Term

Meaning

An account

A record of an individual type of asset, liability, income,

expense or equity.
A record of amounts owed by an individual customer (an
asset) or amounts owed to an individual supplier (a
liability.

The accounts

A term used to refer to the accounting records of a

business.

A set of accounts

A term used to refer to a set of financial statements.

Statement of comprehensive income

This is a statement of performance with two sections:

a statement of profit or loss; and

a statement of other comprehensive income.

Only specified transactions are recognised in the statement of other

comprehensive income and these are all outside the scope of your syllabus.
Therefore, any statement of comprehensive income within your syllabus
comprises only a statement of profit or loss.
Recognition
This refers to putting an item into the bookkeeping system (performing double
entry on it (see chapter 4). You will see phrases like this item is recognised as
an asset.
Sometimes you will see a statement that an item should be taken to profit or loss.
This simply means that it should be recognised in the statement of
comprehensive income.
Cost
The amount of cash or cash equivalents paid or the value of the other
consideration given to acquire an asset at the time of its acquisition or
construction.
Cash refers to actual cash on hand and amounts held in demand deposits (those
that can be instantly accessed)
Cash equivalents are short-term, highly liquid investments. (This is a simplified
definition and only given for completeness. The term is outside the scope of your
syllabus).
Net
This refers to the result of adding a positive and negative number together. The
result might be a net asset, net liability, net income or net expense.

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CHAPTER

Certificate in Accounting and Finance

Introduction to accounting

The accounting equation

Contents
1 The accounting equation
2 Preparing a simple statement of financial position and
statement of comprehensive income

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INTRODUCTION
Learning outcomes
To enable candidates to equip themselves with the fundamental concepts of accounts
needed as a foundation for higher studies of accounting.
LO 2

Identify financial transactions and make journal entries

LO2.3.1

Double entry: Understand and apply, the accounting equation (Assets =

Liabilities + Equity) in simple practical and common scenarios

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Chapter 3: The accounting equation

THE ACCOUNTING EQUATION

Section overview

A simple representation of the statement of financial position

The effect of financial transactions on the accounting equation

Drawings

Links between the statement of comprehensive income and the statement of

financial position

Using the accounting equation

1.1 A simple representation of the statement of financial position

The accounting equation is a simplified way of showing a statement of financial
position. The equation is:
Formula: Accounting equation
Assets

Equity

Liabilities

Each new financial transaction affects the numbers in the accounting equation,
but the accounting equation must always apply. Total assets must always be
equal to the combined total of equity plus liabilities.
The accounting equation is a useful introduction to the preparation of a simple
statement of comprehensive income and statement of financial position. It is also
a useful introduction to the principles of double-entry book-keeping, and the
duality concept that every transaction has two aspects that must be recorded.
The accounting equation and the business entity concept
The use of the accounting equation is based on the business entity concept, that
a business is a separate entity from the person or persons who own it. The owner
puts capital into the business, and the business owes this to the owner.
Illustration:
Farid sets up a business Farids Security Services and puts some capital into the
business.
The accounting system of the business would consider that Farids Security
Services is an entity on its own, separate from Farid, and that Farid is an owner to
which the business owes the capital.

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1.2 The effect of financial transactions on the accounting equation

The effect of financial transactions on the accounting equation will be explained
by looking at a series of business transactions for a newly-established sole
traders business.
Example : Abbas Transaction 1
Setting up a business by introducing capital
Abbas has decided to set up in business selling football shirts from a stall in the
market place.
He begins by putting Rs. 30,000 into a bank account for the business.
This transaction is recorded in the accounting equation as follows:
Assets

Equity +

Rs.
Cash

Liabilities

Rs.

30,000

Capital

30,000 =

Rs.

30,000
30,000 +

Capital has been introduced into the new business. This is recorded as the
owners capital.
The new business also has cash in the bank, which is an asset.
Assets and equity have both increased by Rs. 30,000.

Example : Abbas Transaction 2

Borrowing money
Abbas borrows Rs. 40,000 from his brother to purchase a motor van for the
business.
The business acquires a new asset a motor van but has also acquired a liability
in the form of the loan.
After the van has been purchased, the accounting equation changes to:
Assets

=
Rs.

Cash
Van

30,000
40,000

+ Liabilities

Equity
Rs.
Capital

70,000 =

30,000

Rs.
Loan

30,000 +

40,000
40,000

Assets and liabilities have both increased by Rs. 40,000.

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Example : Abbas Transaction 3

Buying an asset for cash
Abbas buys a market stall and pays Rs. 5,000 in cash.
The business has used one asset (cash) to acquire a different asset (a stall). There
is no change in the total assets, simply a change in the make-up of the assets.
After the stall has been purchased, the accounting equation changes to:
Assets

Equity +

Rs.
Cash
Stall

25,000
5,000

Van

40,000

Liabilities

Rs.

Capital

Rs.

30,000

Loan

30,000 +

70,000 =

40,000
40,000

Example : Abbas Transaction 4

Buying assets (inventory) on credit
Abbas now buys some football shirts for Rs. 18,000. He buys these on credit, and
does not have to pay for them immediately.
The business has acquired more assets (shirts = inventory). In doing so, it has
created another liability, because it now owes money to its supplier, who is
recorded as a trade payable.
Both assets and liabilities have increased by the same amount.
After the shirts have been purchased, the accounting equation changes to:
Assets

=
Rs.

Cash

25,000

Inventory

18,000

Stall

5,000

Van

40,000
88,000

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+ Liabilities

Equity
Rs.

Capital
=

30,000
30,000 +

41

Rs.

Loan

40,000

Payables

18,000
58,000

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Introduction to accounting

Example : Abbas Transaction 5

Making a cash payment to settle a liability
Abbas pays Rs. 10,000 to his suppliers for some of the shirts he purchased.
The payment reduces the liabilities of the business, but also reduces its assets
(cash) by the same amount.
After the payment has been made the accounting equation changes to:
Assets

Equity +

Rs.
Cash

15,000

Inventory

18,000

Stall

5,000

Van

40,000
78,000

Liabilities

Rs.

Rs.

Loan
Capital
=

30,000

Payables

30,000 +

40,000
8,000
48,000

Example : Abbas Transaction 6

Cash sales (leading to recognising cost of sales and profit)
Abbas sells 50% of the shirts (cost = Rs. 9,000) for Rs. 12,000 in cash.
The business has sold assets that cost Rs. 9,000. It has received Rs. 12,000 in
cash, and the difference is the profit on the sales.
Profit is added to the owners capital.
After the sale, the accounting equation changes to:
Assets

Equity +

Rs.
Cash

Rs.

27,000

Capital:

Inventory

9,000

Original

Stall

5,000

Profit

Van

40,000
81,000

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Liabilities

30,000
3,000
33,000

33,000 +

42

Rs.

Loan
Payables

40,000
8,000
48,000

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Chapter 3: The accounting equation

Example : Abbas Transaction 7

Credit sales (leading to recognising cost of sales and profit)
Abbas sells shirts for Rs. 9,000, to a shop owner in another town. These shirts
originally cost Rs. 5,000. He sells the shirts on credit, giving the purchaser one
month to pay.
The business has sold for Rs. 9,000 assets that cost Rs. 5,000. The difference is
the profit of Rs. 4,000 on the sale. Profit adds to the owners capital, taking the
total profit earned so far from Rs. 3,000 to Rs. 7,000. With this transaction,
however, the business is still owed money from the customer for the sale.
Money owed by a customer for a sale on credit is called a trade receivable. A
trade receivable is an asset.
After the sale, the accounting equation changes to:
Assets

Equity +

Rs.
Cash

Rs.

27,000

Capital:

Inventory

4,000

Original

Receivable

9,000

Profit

Stall

5,000

Van

40,000
85,000

Liabilities
Rs.

30,000
7,000
37,000

Loan
Payables

37,000 +

40,000
8,000
48,000

Practice question
Continuing the Abbas example construct an accounting equation after each
of the following transactions
1

Transaction 8: Abbas repays Rs. 10,000 of the loan.

2
3

Transaction 9: Abbas pays his trade suppliers Rs. 6,000.

Transaction 10: Abbas receives Rs. 8,000 of the money owed to him by
the customer (trade receivable).
Transaction 11: Abbas purchases another Rs. 2,500 of shirts, on credit.

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1.3 Drawings
The owner or owners of a business can draw out the profits that the business
makes. If they wish to do so, they can draw out all their profits. In practice,
however, owners usually draw some profits and leave the rest in the business, to
finance the growth of the business.

Profits that are kept in the business are called retained earnings.

Profits that are drawn out of the business are called drawings, in the case
of businesses owned by sole traders or partnerships. Profits paid out to the
shareholders of companies are called dividends.

Drawings are usually in cash. However, an owner might take out some inventory
from the business for his own personal use, or even a larger asset such as a
motor vehicle. Taking inventory or other assets is a form of drawing, as well as
cash.
Example : Abbas Transaction 12
Suppose that the accounting equation of Abbas is as follows:
Assets =

Equity +

Rs.
Cash

Liabilities

Rs.

19,000

Capital:

Inventory

6,500

Original

Receivable

1,000

Profit

Stall

5,000

Van

40,000

Rs.

30,000
7,000
37,000

Loan
Payables

71,500 =

37,000 +

30,000
4,500
34,500

Abbas decides to take Rs. 4,000 in cash out of his business, and he also takes
inventory with a value of Rs. 2,000.
The assets of the business are reduced by Rs. 6,000 (cash + inventory), and capital
is reduced by the same amount.
The accounting equation now changes as follows:
= Equity

Assets
Rs.
Cash
Inventory

+ Liabilities
Rs.

15,000

Capital:

4,500

Original

30,000

Receivables

1,000

Profit

7,000

Stall

5,000

Van

40,000

Drawings
Retained
profits

65,500 =

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(6,000)

Loan

31,000

Payables

31,000

44

Rs.

30,000
4,500
34,500

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Chapter 3: The accounting equation

1.4 Links between the statement of comprehensive income and the statement
of financial position
A statement of financial position shows the financial position of a business at a
given point in time and is a representation of the accounting equation.
A statement of comprehensive income shows the profit or loss for a period of
time.
However, there are links between the two financial statements.

Profit in the statement of comprehensive income affects the statement of

financial position, by adding to the owners capital.

Drawings out of profits also affect the statement of financial position, by

reducing the owners capital.

1.5 Using the accounting equation

The accounting equation is:
Formula: Accounting equation
Assets = Liabilities + Equity
A

or

Assets
A

Liabilities
L

Equity

Assets minus liabilities is usually called net assets.

A change on one side of an equation must be matched by a change on the other.
Therefore, an increase in net assets means a matching increase in equity capital
and a fall in net assets means a matching fall in equity capital.
Movements in equity are caused by:

profit being added to capital or losses deducted from capital; and

the introduction of more capital into the business (perhaps by providing it

with additional cash or other assets);

payments to the owners in the form of drawings (or dividends in the case of
a company).

In other words, net assets will change in value between the beginning and end of
a financial year by the amount of profit (or loss) in the period, new capital
introduced and drawings or dividends taken out.
Illustration:
Rs.
Opening equity/net assets (ONA)

Profit (P)

Capital introduced (CI)

Drawings (D)

(X)

Closing equity/net assets (CAN)

The value of any term can be calculated if the others are known.

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Example:
Sohaib operates a business as a sole trader.
On 1 July 2013 the net assets of the business were Rs. 670,000.
During the year to 30 June 2014, the business made a profit of Rs. 250,000 and
Sohaib took out Rs. 220,000 in drawings.
Due to a shortage of cash in the business, he paid in additional capital of Rs.
40,000 in early June 2014.
The net assets of the business at 30 June 2014 can be calculated as follows:
Rs.
Opening equity (net assets)

670,000

Profit

250,000

Capital introduced

40,000

Drawings

(220,000)

Closing equity (net assets)

740,000

Example:
Nadia operates a business as a sole trader. On 31 March 2013 the net assets of
the business were Rs. 950,000.
During the year to 31 March 2013, the business made a loss of Rs. 20,000 and
Nadia took out Rs. 150,000 in drawings during the year. She was also required to
invest a further Rs. 290,000 during the year.
The opening net assets of the business at 1 April 2012 can be calculated by
working backwards to identify what they need to be in order to make the sum
work.
Rs.
Opening equity (net assets)

Rs.

Therefore

830,000

Loss

(20,000)

(20,000)

Capital introduced

290,000

290,000

Drawings

(150,000)

(150,000)

Closing equity (net assets)

950,000

950,000

A missing figure identified in this way is described as a balancing figure.

A balancing figure is a number identified to make a sum work.
The opening assets could also be identified using an equation based
approach:
ONA L + CI D = CNA.
ONA 20,000 + 290,000 150,000 = 950,000.
ONA = 950,000 + 20,000 290,000 + 150,000 = 830,000
This technique can be used in situations where the accounting records are
incomplete for some reason. It is covered again in a later chapter.

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Chapter 3: The accounting equation

PREPARING A SIMPLE STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL POSITION AND

STATEMENT OF COMPREHENSIVE INCOME
Section overview

Identifying the elements for a statement of financial position or statement of

comprehensive income

Useful guidelines

Exercise

2.1 Identifying the elements for a statement of financial position or statement of

comprehensive income
To prepare a statement of financial position and statement of comprehensive
income, several adjustments must be made to the accounting records at the end
of the financial year. These adjustments (such as adjustments for the
depreciation of non-current assets, for accruals and prepayments, for bad and
doubtful debts and for opening and closing inventory values) are explained in
later chapters.
At this stage, however, it is a useful exercise to test your ability to prepare a
simple statement of financial position and statement of comprehensive income
from lists of assets, liabilities, equity, income and expenses.

2.2 Useful guidelines

The data for preparing financial statements comes from the accounting records,
which are described in a later chapter.
A list of balances is obtained from the accounting records, for assets, liabilities,
capital, expenses and income.
In the example below, the list of balances is used to prepare a statement of
comprehensive income for the period and a statement of financial position as at
the period end.
Opening and closing inventory and the cost of sales
The cost of sales in the statement of comprehensive income is not the cost of
goods purchased or the cost of goods produced. It must be the cost of the goods
sold. The accruals or matching concept must be applied.
When there are differences between the quantity of materials purchased or
made, and the quantity of materials used or sold, there is an increase or
decrease in inventory during the period.
To calculate the cost of sales for a statement of comprehensive income, it is
necessary to make an adjustment for changes in the amount of inventory.

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Illustration: Cost of sales

Rs.
Opening inventory

Purchases

(X)

This is the total amount of goods

that were available to be sold.
This is the total amount of goods
still held at the end of the period.

Therefore, this is the total amount of

goods that were sold.

X
Less: Closing inventory
Cost of sales

Example: Cost of sales

Opening inventory

Rs.
5,000

Purchases

45,000
50,000

Less: Closing inventory

(12,000)

Cost of sales

38,000

The statement of comprehensive income will provide a figure for profit or loss for
the period.
The statement of financial position and the statement of comprehensive income
can be prepared in any order but the statement of financial position can only be
completed after the profit or loss for the period is known because this figure
becomes part of the equity capital.

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2.3 Exercise
This is an introductory example to illustrate the basic principles. In practice there
would always be adjustments to make in order to arrive at the corrected figures
for inclusion in the financial statements. These are explained in later chapters.
The first step is to identify which balances are income and expenses for inclusion
in the statement of comprehensive income and which balances are assets,
liabilities and equity for inclusion in the statement of financial position.

Practice question
Mujtaba began trading began on 1 January 2013.
The following information has been extracted from his accounting records at
30th June 2013.
Rs.
Sales

184,620

Purchases

146,290

Salaries

21,500

Motor expenses

5,200

Rent

6,700

Insurance

1,110

General expenses

1,050

Premises

15,000

Motor vehicles

12,000

Trade receivables

19,500

Trade payables

15,380

Cash

16,940

Drawings

8,950

Capital

54,240

Inventory as at 30th June 2013 was Rs.25,480.

Prepare a statement of comprehensive income for the six months ended
30th June 2013 and a statement of financial position as at that date.
Remember that the capital at the beginning of the year is adjusted for the profit
and drawings during the year, to obtain the owners capital at the end of the year.

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Introduction to accounting

SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1

Solutions
1. After transaction 8 (Cash falls by 10,000; Loan falls by 10,000)
Assets

=
Rs.

Cash

Rs.

17,000

Capital:

Inventory

4,000

Original

Receivable

9,000

Profit

Stall

5,000

Van

40,000
75,000

+ Liabilities

Equity

Rs.

30,000
7,000
37,000

Loan
Trade
payables

37,000 +

30,000
8,000
38,000

2. After transaction 9 (Cash falls by 6,000; Trade payables falls by 6,000)

Assets

=
Rs.

Cash

Rs.

11,000

Capital:

Inventory

4,000

Original

Receivable

9,000

Profit

Stall

5,000

Van

40,000
69,000

+ Liabilities

Equity

Rs.

30,000
7,000
Loan
Trade
payables

37,000

37,000 +

30,000
2,000
32,000

3. After transaction 10 (Cash increases by 8,000; Receivables fall by 8,000)

Assets

=
Rs.

Cash

Rs.

19,000

Capital:

Inventory

4,000

Original

Receivable

1,000

Profit

Stall

5,000

Van

40,000
69,000

Emile Woolf International

+ Liabilities

Equity

30,000
7,000
37,000

37,000 +

50

Rs.

Loan
Trade
payables

30,000
2,000
32,000

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

Chapter 3: The accounting equation

Solutions

4. After transaction 11 (Inventory increases by 2,500; Trade payables increase by 2,500)

Assets

=
Rs.

Cash

Rs.

19,000

Capital:

Inventory

6,500

Original

Receivable

1,000

Profit

Stall

5,000

Van

40,000
71,500

+ Liabilities

Equity

30,000
7,000
37,000

Rs.

37,000 +

Loan
Trade
payables

30,000
4,500
34,500

Solution: Mujtaba: Statement of comprehensive income for the six months ended
30th June 2013.
Rs.
Rs.
Sales

184,620

Inventory at 1 January 2013

Purchases

146,290
146,290

Inventory at 31 December 2013

(25,480)

Cost of sales

120,810

Gross profit

63,810

Salaries

21,500

Motor expenses

5,200

Rent

6,700

Insurance

1,110

General expenses

1,050
(35,560)

Net profit

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28,250

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Introduction to accounting

Solution: Mujtaba: Statement of financial position as at 30th June 2013.

Rs.

Rs.

Non-current assets:
Premises

15,000

Motor vehicles

12,000
27,000

Current assets:
Inventory

25,480

Trade receivables

19,500

Cash at bank

16,940
61,920

Total assets

88,920

Capital at 1st January 2013

54,240

Net profit for the year

28,250
82,490

Less: Drawings
Capital at

30th

(8,950)

June 2013

73,540

Current liabilities:
Trade payables

15,380

Total capital and liabilities

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88,920

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The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

CHAPTER

Certificate in Accounting and Finance

Introduction to accounting

Double entry bookkeeping

Contents
1 Introduction to accounting systems
2 Basic rules of double entry bookkeeping
3 Account balances and the trial balance
4 The General journal
5 General ledger

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Introduction to accounting

INTRODUCTION
Learning outcomes
To enable candidates to equip themselves with the fundamental concepts of accounts
needed as a foundation for higher studies of accounting.
LO 2

Identify financial transactions and make journal entries

LO2.3.1

Double entry: Understand and apply, the accounting equation (Assets =

Liabilities + Equity) in simple practical and common scenarios

LO2.3.2

Double entry: Identify financial and non-financial transactions in a well-defined

scenario

LO2.3.3

Double entry: Understand and apply the concept of double entry accounting to
simple and common business transactions

LO2.2.1

Chart of accounts: Understand the meaning of a chart of accounts

LO2.2.2

Chart of accounts: Explain the purpose of establishing a chart of accounts

LO2.2.3

Chart of accounts: Construct a chart of accounts using given data

LO 3

Prepare general ledger accounts and a trial balance.

LO3.1.1

General ledger: Describe the main features of the general ledger

LO3.1.2

General ledger: Post entries in the general ledger

LO3.2.1

Trial balance: Understand the purpose of the trial balance

LO3.2.2

Trial balance: Understand and demonstrate mapping between general ledger

balances and the trial balance

LO3.2.3

Trial balance: Identify the limitations of a trial balance.

LO 2

Identify financial transactions and make journal entries

LO2.4.1

General journal: List and describe the basic contents of the general journal

LO2.4.2

General journal: Prepare and use the general journal to record journal entries

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Chapter 4: Double entry bookkeeping

INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS

Section overview

The dual nature of transactions

Overview of accounting

1.1 The dual nature of transactions

The previous chapter explained the accounting equation. It illustrates the most
important concept in accounting. That is that every transaction must be entered
in two places or the equation would fail.
There is no exception to this rule. Every transaction that affects assets, liabilities,
capital, income or expenses must have an offsetting effect to maintain the
accounting equation. Every transaction must be recorded (entered) in two places.
The process of doing this is called double entry book-keeping.
The accounting equation is useful to give an overview of the accounting process
but it is not very practical as a tool to account for the transactions of a business.
A business might enter into many thousands of transactions and it would be very
time consuming to redraft the equation after each of them. A system is needed to
allow large numbers of transactions to be recorded and then summarised to allow
the production of financial statements on a periodic basis.
Book-keeping
Book-keeping is the process of recording financial transactions in the accounting
records (the books) of an entity.
All transactions are analysed into different types and are then recorded in a
series of individual records called accounts. There is a separate account for each
different type of transaction, or that is to say, for each type of asset, liability,
income, expense, and owners capital.
Accounts are kept together in a ledger. A ledger is a term meaning a collection of
related accounts.
There are different types of ledgers in an accounting system but the accounts
that record the double entries for each transaction are kept in the general
ledger, (also known as the nominal ledger or the main ledger)
This session will continue to explain the process of double entry bookkeeping but
before that there is an overview of the accounting process. Later sections and
chapters will add to this in detail.

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Introduction to accounting

1.2 Overview of accounting

Illustration:

A trial balance can be extracted at any time but the rest of this book will
assume it to be at the end of an accounting year.
Any adjustments made to the trial balance must also be reflected in the
general ledger accounts. In other words, if something is added in after
the trail balance is extracted it must also be added into the general
ledger.
There is a large exercise to tidy up the general ledger once the year-end
financial statements are produced. It involves clearing all of the income
and expense accounts into a statement of comprehensive income
account. The balance on this account is then transferred to equity. This is
to prepare the general ledger for the next accounting period.

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Chapter 4: Double entry bookkeeping

BASIC RULES OF DOUBLE ENTRY BOOKKEEPING

Section overview

Debit and credit entries, and T accounts

The rules of debits and credits

Double entry book-keeping and the cash account

2.1 Debit and credit entries, and T accounts

Financial transactions are recorded in the accounts in accordance with a set of
rules or conventions. The following rules apply to the accounts in the main ledger
(nominal ledger or general ledger).

Every transaction is recorded twice, as a debit entry in one account and as

a credit entry in another account.

Total debit entries and total credit entries must always be equal. This
maintains the accounting equation.

It therefore helps to show accounts in the shape of a T, with a left-hand and a

right-hand side. (Not surprisingly this presentation is known as a T account). By
convention:

debit entries are made on the left-hand side and

credit entries are on the right-hand side.

Illustration:
Account name
Debit side (Dr)
Debit transactions
entered on this side
Enter reference to the
account where the
matching credit entry is
made

Rs.

Credit side (Cr)

Credit transactions entered
on this side
Enter reference to the
account where the
matching debit entry is
made

Rs.
Amount

By convention, the terms debit and credit are shortened to Dr and Cr

respectively.
Alternative presentation
Accounts might also be presented in columnar forms. If this presentation is used
care must be taken over the meaning of debit and credit in the context of the
account. For example, a debit in a credit account would be shown as a
deduction. In other words, it is easier to make mistakes with this format.
However, it can be useful when you want to show a single account or use a
single account as a working. You will see examples of this presentation in later
chapters but for now we will only use T accounts.

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2.2 The rules of debits and credits

In the main ledger, there are accounts for assets, liabilities, equity, income and
expenses. The rules about debits and credits are as follows:
Illustration:
Account name
Debit side (Dr)
Record as a debit entry:

Credit side (Cr)

Record as a credit entry:

An increase in an asset

A reduction in an asset

An increase in an expense

A reduction in an expense

A reduction in a liability

An increase in a liability

A reduction in income
A reduction in capital
(drawings, losses)

An increase in income
An increase in capital
(capital introduced profit)

You need to learn these basic rules and become familiar with them. Remember
that in the main ledger, transactions entered in the debit side of one account
must be matched by an offsetting credit entry in another account, in order to
maintain the accounting equation and record the dual nature of each transaction.
Example
A purchase invoice is received for electricity charges for Rs. 2,300
The double entry is:
Debit: Electricity charges (= increase in expense)
Credit: Total trade payables (= increase in liability)
Electricity expense
Rs.
Trade payables

Rs.

2,300

Expenses payables
Rs.

Rs.
Electricity expense

2,300

This can be written as:

Dr

Electricity expense
Cr

2,300

Expenses payables

2,300

This is known as a journal entry (or journal for short). Journal entries are
covered in more detail later in this chapter.

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Chapter 4: Double entry bookkeeping

2.3 Double entry book-keeping and the cash account

An entity would usually keep separate accounts to record cash. One is for cash in
hand and the other for cash at bank.
It might help to learn the rules of double entry by remembering that transactions
involving the receipt or payment of cash into the cash at bank account (or cash in
hand account) are recorded as follows:

The cash at bank account is an asset account (money in the bank is an

asset).

Receipts of cash: These are recorded as a debit entry in the cash at bank
account, because receipts add to cash (an asset).

Payments of cash. Payments reduce cash, so these are recorded as a

credit entry in the cash at bank account.

Illustration:
Cash at bank
Debit side (Dr)
Record as a debit entry:

Credit side (Cr)

Record as a credit entry:

Transactions that provide an

INCREASE in cash
The matching credit entry might be
to
(1) a sales account for cash sales
(2) the total trade receivables
account for payments received
from credit customers
(3) the capital account for new
capital introduced by the owner
in the form of cash

Transactions that result in a

REDUCTION in cash
The matching debit entry might be to
(1) an expense account, for payments
of cash expenses
(2) the total trade payables account,
for payments to suppliers for
purchases on credit/amounts
owing
(3) a payment in cash for a new
asset,
(4) a drawings account, for
withdrawals of profit by the
business owner

Section 1 of this chapter explained the accounting equation and illustrated it with
an example where Abbas set up a business. This session continues by showing
how the same transactions would be recorded in ledger accounts.
The transactions are repeated on the next page for convenience.

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Introduction to accounting

Example: Abbas revisited

1

Abbas introduces Rs. 30,000 cash as capital.

Abbas borrows Rs. 40,000 to purchase a van.

Abbas buys a market stall for Rs. 5,000 cash.

Abbas buys inventory for Rs. 18,000 on credit.

Abbas pays his supplier Rs. 10,000.

Abbas sells inventory for Rs. 12,000 cash.

Abbas sells inventory for Rs. 9,000 on credit.

Abbas repays Rs. 10,000 of the loan.

Abbas pays his trade suppliers Rs. 6,000.

10

Abbas receives Rs. 8,000 of the money owed to him by the customer
(trade receivable).
Abbas purchases another Rs. 2,500 of shirts, on credit.

11
12

Abbas drew Rs.4,000 cash out of the business and also took
inventory which cost 2,500 for his own use.
Post all transactions to ledger accounts.

Example: Abbas Transaction 1

Abbas sets up a business by putting Rs. 30,000 into a bank account.
This increases the cash of the business, and its capital.
The double entry is:
Dr Bank (or cash)
Cr Capital

30,000
30,000
Capital
Rs.

Rs.
(1) Bank

30,000

Bank
Rs.
(1) Capital

Rs.

30,000

Note: The entry in each account shows the account where the matching debit
or credit entry appears.

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Chapter 4: Double entry bookkeeping

Example: Abbas Transaction 2

Abbas borrows Rs. 40,000 to purchase a van.
There are two separate transactions, the loan of cash and the purchase of the van.
The double entries are:
Dr Bank
Cr Loan

40,000

Dr Van

40,000

Cr Bank

40,000
40,000

Bank
Rs.

Rs.

(1) Capital

30,000

(2a) Loan

40,000

(2b) Van

40,000

Loan
Rs.

Rs.
(2a) Bank

40,000

Van
Rs.
(2b) Bank

Rs.

40,000

Example: Abbas Transaction 3

Abbas buys a market stall for Rs. 5,000.
The double entry is:
Dr Stall
Cr Bank

5,000
5,000
Bank
Rs.

Rs.

(1) Capital

30,000

(2b) Van

40,000

(2a) Loan

40,000

(3) Stall

5,000

Stall
Rs.
(3) Bank

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5,000

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Introduction to accounting

The next transaction is a purchase of inventory. This is reflected in an account

called purchases rather than inventory. You will see why later.
Example: Abbas Transaction 4
Abbas purchases inventory for Rs. 18,000 on credit.
The double entry is:
Dr Purchases
Cr Bank

18,000
18,000
Purchases
Rs.

Rs.

18,000

(4) Trade payables

Trade payables
Rs.

Rs.
(4) Purchases

18,000

Note on purchases of inventory

Notice that in this type of book-keeping system, there is no separate account for
inventory.
Purchases of materials and goods for re-sale are recorded in a purchases
account, which is an expense account.
Inventory is ignored until such time as when the business wishes to calculate
profit (usually the end of an accounting period) when it is counted and valued.
This value is then used in a calculation of a cost of sale figure. (This will be
demonstrated a little later in this chapter and the full inventory double entry
explained in chapter 9).
Example: Abbas Transaction 5
Abbas pays Rs. 10,000 to the supplier.
The double entry is:
Dr Trade payables
Cr Bank

10,000
10,000
Bank
Rs.

Rs.

(1) Capital

30,000

(2b) Van

40,000

(2a) Loan

40,000

(3) Stall

5,000

(5) Trade payables

10,000

Trade payables
Rs.
(5) Bank

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62

Rs.
(4) Purchases

18,000

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Chapter 4: Double entry bookkeeping

Example: Abbas Transaction 6

Abbas sells inventory for Rs. 12,000 cash.
The double entry is:
Dr Bank
Cr Sales

12,000
12,000
Bank
Rs.

Rs.

(1) Capital

30,000

(2b) Van

40,000

(2a) Loan

40,000

(3) Stall

5,000

(6) Sales

12,000

(5) Trade payables

10,000

Sales
Rs.

Rs.
(6)

Bank

12,000

Example: Abbas Transaction 7

Abbas sells inventory for Rs. 9,000 on credit.
The double entry is:
Dr Trade receivables
Cr Sales

9,000
9,000
Trade receivables
Rs.

(7) Sales

Rs.

9,000
Sales
Rs.

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Rs.
(6)

Bank

(7)

Trade receivables

12,000
9,000

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

Introduction to accounting

Example: Abbas Transaction 8

Abbas repays Rs. 10,000 of the loan
The double entry is:
Dr Loan
Cr Bank

10,000
10,000
Bank
Rs.

Rs.

(1) Capital

30,000

(2b) Van

40,000

(2a) Loan

40,000

(3) Stall

5,000

(6) Sales

12,000

(5) Trade payables

10,000

(8) Loan

10,000

Loan
Rs.
(8) Bank

Rs.

10,000

(2a) Bank

40,000

Example: Abbas Transaction 9

Abbas pays Rs. 6,000 to the supplier.
The double entry is:
Dr Trade payables
Cr Bank

6,000
6,000
Bank
Rs.

Rs.

(1) Capital

30,000

(2b) Van

40,000

(2a) Loan

40,000

(3) Stall

5,000

(6) Sales

12,000

(5) Trade payables

10,000

(8) Loan

10,000

(9) Trade payables

6,000

Trade payables
Rs.
(5) Bank

10,000

(9) Bank

6,000

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Rs.
(4) Purchases

18,000

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Chapter 4: Double entry bookkeeping

Example: Abbas Transaction 10

Abbas receives Rs. 8,000 from a customer.
The double entry is:
Dr Bank

8,000

Cr Trade receivables

8,000
Bank
Rs.

Rs.

(1) Capital

30,000

(2b) Van

40,000

(2a) Loan

40,000

(3) Stall

5,000

(6) Sales

12,000

(5) Trade payables

10,000

(10) Trade receivables

8,000

(8) Loan

10,000

(9) Trade payables

6,000

Trade receivables
Rs.
(7) Sales

9,000

Rs.
(10) Bank

8,000

Example: Abbas Transaction 11

Abbas purchases inventory for Rs. 2,500 on credit.
The double entry is:
Dr Purchases
Cr Bank

2,500
2,500
Purchases
Rs.

(4) Trade payables

18,000

(11) Trade payables

2,500

Rs.

Trade payables
Rs.

Rs.

(5) Bank

10,000

(4) Purchases

18,000

(9) Bank

6,000

(11) Purchases

2,500

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Introduction to accounting

Example: Abbas Transaction 12

Abbas draws Rs. 4,000 cash and took inventory which cost Rs. 2,500 for his own
use.
If an owner takes inventory for his own use it means that some of the purchases
have not been for the business. This is reflected in the double entry by reducing
purchases.
There are two transactions but they can be combined into the following double
entry:
Dr Bank

6,500

Cr Bank

4,000

Cr Purchases

2,000
Bank
Rs.

Rs.

(1) Capital

30,000

(2b) Van

40,000

(2a) Loan

40,000

(3) Stall

5,000

(6) Sales

12,000

(5) Trade payables

10,000

(10) Trade receivables

8,000

(8) Loan

10,000

(9) Trade payables

6,000

(12a) Drawings

4,000

Purchases
Rs.
(4) Trade payables

18,000

(11) Trade payables

2,500

Rs.
(12b) Drawings

2,000

Drawings
Rs.
(12a) Bank

4,000

(12b) Bank

2,000

Rs.

There is a practice question on page 87 of this chapter.

You may attempt part a of the exercise now or you could attempt the whole
exercise after you have finished section 3 of this chapter.

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Chapter 4: Double entry bookkeeping

ACCOUNT BALANCES AND THE TRIAL BALANCE

Section overview

Closing off an account (and bringing down the balance)

Trial balance

Preparing accounts from a trial balance

3.1 Closing off an account and bring down the balance

The balance on an account can be established at any time as the difference
between the total value of debit entries and the total value of credit entries.

If total debit entries in an account exceed total credits, there is a debit

balance on the account.

If total credit entries in an account exceed total debits there is a credit

balance on the account.

When the balance on an account is established at the end of a period the

process is described as closing off the account and bringing down the balance
(though the same process is used whenever a balance is extracted). The figure
identified in this way is called the closing balance.

Balances on expense accounts and income accounts are transferred to the

statement of comprehensive income. (Note: There might be some accruals
and prepayments on expense accounts. These are explained in a later
chapter.)

Balances on the asset, liability and capital accounts are carried forward as
closing balances at the end of the period, and become opening balances at
the beginning of the next period.

Example: Closing off and bringing down a balance (Using Abbass cash account
after transaction 12)
Step 1: Add up both sides of the account
Bank
Rs.

Rs.

(1) Capital

30,000

(2b) Van

40,000

(2a) Loan

40,000

(3) Stall

5,000

(6) Sales

12,000

(5) Trade payables

10,000

(10) Trade receivables

8,000

(8) Loan

10,000

(9) Trade payables

6,000

(12a) Drawings

4,000

90,000

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75,000

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Introduction to accounting

Example: Closing off and bringing down a balance (continued)

Step 2: Leave a line and write the biggest figure in totalling lines on each side of
the account.
Bank
Rs.

Rs.

(1) Capital

30,000

(2b) Van

40,000

(2a) Loan

40,000

(3) Stall

5,000

(6) Sales

12,000

(5) Trade payables

10,000

(10) Trade receivables

8,000

(8) Loan

10,000

(9) Trade payables

6,000

(12a) Drawings

4,000

90,000

75,000

90,000

90,000

Step 3: One side of the account will not add to the total. Insert a balancing
figure describing this as balance c/d (carried down)
Bank
Rs.

Rs.

(1) Capital

30,000

(2b) Van

40,000

(2a) Loan

40,000

(3) Stall

5,000

(6) Sales

12,000

(5) Trade payables

10,000

(10) Trade receivables

8,000

(8) Loan

10,000

(9) Trade payables

6,000

(12a) Drawings

4,000

90,000

75,000
Balance c/d

90,000

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15,000
90,000

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Chapter 4: Double entry bookkeeping

Example: Closing off and bringing down a balance (continued)

Step 4: Write the balancing figure below the totalling lines on the other side of the
account describing it as balance b/d (brought down)
Bank
Rs.

Rs.

(1) Capital

30,000

(2b) Van

40,000

(2a) Loan

40,000

(3) Stall

5,000

(6) Sales

12,000

(5) Trade payables

10,000

(10) Trade receivables

8,000

(8) Loan

10,000

(9) Trade payables

6,000

(12a) Drawings

4,000

90,000

75,000
Balance c/d

90,000
Balance b/d

15,000
90,000

15,000

Note that it is usual to skip step 2 and not write in the subtotals but go straight to
step 3.
The full working in that case would look like this:
Example: Closing off and bringing down a balance (Using Abbass cash account
after transaction 12)
Bank
Rs.

Rs.

(1) Capital

30,000

(2b) Van

40,000

(2a) Loan

40,000

(3) Stall

5,000

(6) Sales

12,000

(5) Trade payables

10,000

(10) Trade receivables

8,000

(8) Loan

10,000

(9) Trade payables

6,000

(12a) Drawings
Balance c/d

4,000

90,000
Balance b/d

15,000
90,000

15,000

In this example, there is a debit balance on the bank account at the end of the
period. The debit balance of Rs. 15,000 is brought forward as the opening
balance on the account at the beginning of the next period.
This indicates that the business has an asset (a debit balance) of cash in the
bank account totalling Rs. 15,000.
Note
In the above example we used c/d and b/d as a description of the balance on the
closing off of the account.
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Introduction to accounting

You might also use c/f (which stands for carried forward) and b/f (which stands
for brought forward).
Returning to Abbas.
Example: Abbas All accounts closed off with balances brought down
Capital
Rs.

Rs.
(1) Bank

Balance c/d

30,000

30,000
30,000

30,000
Balance b/d

30,000

Loan
Rs.
(8) Bank
Balance c/d

Rs.

10,000

(2a) Bank

40,000

30,000
40,000

40,000
Balance b/d

30,000

Van
Rs.
(2b) Bank

Rs.

40,000
Balance c/d
40,000

Balance b/d

40,000
40,000

40,000
Stall
Rs.

(3) Bank

Rs.

5,000
Balance c/d
5,000

Balance b/d

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Chapter 4: Double entry bookkeeping

Example: Abbas All accounts closed off

Purchases
Rs.
(4) Trade payables
(11) Trade payables

Rs.

18,000 (12b) Drawings

2,500
Balance c/d

18,500
20,500

20,500
Balance b/d

2,000

18,500
Trade payables
Rs.

(5) Bank
(9) Bank
Balance c/d

Rs.

10,000 (4) Purchases

6,000 (11) Purchases
4,500

18,000

20,500

20,500
Balance b/d

2,500

4,500

Trade receivables
(7) Sales

Balance b/d

Rs.

Rs.

9,000 (10) Bank

Balance c/d

8,000

9,000

9,000

1,000

1,000
Sales
Rs.

Balance c/d

Rs.
(6)

Bank

(7)

Trade receivables

12,000
9,000

21,000
21,000

21,000
Balance b/d

21,000

Drawings
Rs.

Rs.

(12a) Bank

4,000

(12b) Bank

2,000 Balance c/d

6,000

6,000

6,000

Balance b/d

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3.2 Trial balance

The balance extracted for any single account is the net of all of the debit and
credit entries in that account.
If double entries have been posted correctly then the total of all debit entries
made to all of the accounts in the general ledger must equal the total of all credit
entries. It follows that if balances are extracted for every account in the general
ledger the sum of the debit balances must equal the sum of the credit balances.
A trial balance is a list of all the debit balances and all the credit balances on the
accounts in the main ledger. A trial balance is extracted from the main ledger
simply by listing the balances on every account.
The normal method of presentation is to present the balances in two columns,
one for debit balances and one for credit balances.

Debit balances are assets, expenses or drawings.

Credit balances are liabilities, income or equity (capital including share

capital and reserve accounts in the case of a company).

Example: Abbas Trial balance as at (it would be usual to give a date)

Dr
Bank

Cr

15,000

Capital

30,000

Loan

30,000

Van
Stall
Purchases

40,000
5,000
18,500

Trade payables
Trade receivables

4,500
1,000

Sales
Drawings

21,000
6,000
85,500

85,500

The purpose of a trial balance

A trial balance has two main purposes.

It is a starting point for producing a statement of comprehensive income

and a statement of financial position at the end of an accounting period.

It is a useful means of checking for errors in the accounting system. Errors

must have occurred if the total of debit balances and total of credit balances
on the main ledger accounts are not equal. (This is covered in chapter 11).

There is a practice question on page 87 of this chapter.

If you have already attempted part a then do part b now.
Otherwise do the whole exercise after completing all of section 3 of this chapter.

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3.3 Preparing accounts from a trial balance

Year-end adjustments
The trial balance provides a foundation for preparing a statement of
comprehensive income and a statement of financial position at the end of an
accounting period.

A trial balance is extracted from the general ledger, and various year-end
adjustments are then made to the accounts.

These adjustments (covered later in chapters 6 to 9) include adjustments

for:

Depreciation expense (to reflect the use of non-current assets);

Accruals and prepayments;

Bad and doubtful debts; and

Inventory.

Further adjustments are made as necessary to deal with items missed or

incorrectly dealt with during a period.

When the year-end adjustments have been made, a statement of comprehensive

income and then a statement of financial position can be prepared, using the
adjusted balances.
This session will now use the trial balance of Abbas to illustrate the preparation of
a set of accounts from a trial balance.
A useful first step is to identify the different types of balance (this will become
automatic for you very quickly).
Example: Abbas Trial balance as at 31 December 2013
Which element?
Dr
Bank

Cr

15,000

Asset

Capital

30,000

Equity

Loan

30,000

Liability

Van
Stall
Purchases

40,000

Asset

5,000

Asset

18,500

Trade payables
Trade receivables

4,500
1,000

Sales
Drawings

Expense
Liability
Asset
21,000

6,000
85,500

Income
Equity

85,500

Extra information:
The closing inventory of Abbas is Rs. 4,500

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The only closing adjustment in the case of Abbas is in respect of the closing
inventory.
Opening and closing inventory and the cost of sales
This appeared in the previous chapter. It is repeated here for your convenience.
The cost of sales in the statement of comprehensive income is not the cost of
goods purchased or the cost of goods produced. It must be the cost of the goods
sold. The accruals or matching concept must be applied.
When there are differences between the quantity of materials purchased or
made, and the quantity of materials used or sold, there is an increase or
decrease in inventory during the period.
To calculate the cost of sales for a statement of comprehensive income, it is
necessary to make an adjustment for changes in the amount of inventory.
Illustration: Cost of sales
Opening inventory
Purchases

Rs.
X
X

Less: Closing inventory

(X)

This is the total amount of goods

that were available to be sold.
This is the total amount of goods
still held at the end of the period.

Cost of sales

Therefore, this is the total amount of

goods that were sold.

Inventory, at any point in time, represents goods made or purchased with the
intention of selling them in the ordinary course of business, which remain unsold
at that point in time.
Closing inventory is recognised as an asset and as a deduction against the cost
of sales expense. (The double entry is Dr Inventory (asset) in the statement of
financial position and Cr Cost of sales (reduction of an expense) in the statement
of comprehensive income. This covered in detail in chapter 9).

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Example: Abbas Statement of comprehensive income for the period ending 31

December 2013
Rs.
Sales
Opening inventory (none as it is the first
period of trading)
Purchases
Inventory at 31 December Year 5
Cost of sales
Gross profit
Less: Expenses (none in this case)
Net profit

0
18,500
18,500
(4,500)
14,000
7,000
0
7,000

Abbas: Statement of financial position as at 31 December 2013.

Rs.
Non-current assets:
Van
Stall
Current assets:
Inventory
Trade receivables
Bank

Rs.
21,000

Rs.
40,000
5,000
45,000

4,500
1,000
15,000
20,500
65,500

Total assets
Capital introduced at start of business
Net profit for the year

30,000
7,000
37,000
(6,000)
31,000

Less: Drawings
Capital at period end
Non-current liabilities
Loan
Current liabilities:
Trade payables
Total capital and liabilities

30,000
4,500
65,500

Complete the practice question on page 87 of this chapter.

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Introduction to accounting

THE GENERAL JOURNAL

Section overview

Journal entries

Illustration using Abbas

4.1 Journal entries to record transactions

The general journal (journal for short) is a book of prime entry that is used to
record transactions that are not recorded in any other book of original entry.
The journal might be used to provide a record and explanation of:

postings from books of prime entry (explained in chapter 5);

year-end adjustments (chapters 6 to 9);

correction of errors (chapter 11) or

any other adjustment.

The format of a journal entry is as follows:

Illustration:
Debit
Name of the account with the debit entry
Name of the account with the credit entry

Credit

X
X

Narrative explaining or describing the transaction

In practice, not all entries are recorded in a journal or journalised but of course it
is possible to write a journal for any transaction. You might be required to record
double entry transactions as journal entries. This is simply a requirement to
show the debit and credit entries for a transaction, without preparing T accounts.

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4.2 Illustration using Abbas

Example: Abbas revisited
1

Abbas introduces Rs. 30,000 cash as capital.

2
3

Abbas borrows Rs. 40,000 to purchase a van.

Abbas buys a market stall for Rs. 5,000 cash.

Abbas buys inventory for Rs. 18,000 on credit.

Abbas pays his supplier Rs. 10,000.

Abbas sells inventory for Rs. 12,000 cash.

Abbas sells inventory for Rs. 9,000 on credit.

Abbas repays Rs. 10,000 of the loan.

Abbas pays his trade suppliers Rs. 6,000.

10

Abbas receives Rs. 8,000 of the money owed to him by the customer
(trade receivable).
Prepare journals for each of the above transactions.

Example: Abbas Journalising transactions

Transaction 1

Debit

Cash

Credit

30,000

Capital

30,000

Being: The introduction of capital at the start of a new business

Transaction 2
Cash

40,000

Loan payable

40,000

Asset Van

40,000

Cash

40,000

Being: The borrowing of cash and the purchase of a van.

Transaction 3
Asset Market stall

5,000

Cash

5,000

Being: The purchase of a market stall

Transaction 4

Debit

Purchases

Credit

18,000

Payables

18,000

Being: The purchase of inventory on credit

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Example: Abbas Journalising transactions (continued)

Transaction 5
Payables

Debit
10,000

Cash

Credit
10,000

Being: A payment to a supplier.

Transaction 6
Cash

12,000

Sales

12,000

Being: The cash sale of inventory.

Transaction 7
Receivables

9,000

Sales

9,000

Being: The sale of inventory on credit.

Transaction 8
Loan payable

10,000

Cash

10,000

Being: A part repayment on the loan.

Transaction 9
Payables

6,000

Cash

6,000

Being: Payment to suppliers.

Transaction10
Cash

8,000

Receivables

8,000

Being: Cash received from credit customer

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Chapter 4: Double entry bookkeeping

GENERAL LEDGER
Section overview

Introduction

Chart of accounts

Year end exercise

5.1 Introduction
The general ledger is a document which contains all of the individual accounts
which are used to record the double entries of a business. It may have physical
form as a book or it may be a software application.
All of the financial transactions of a business are entered into appropriate
accounts in the general ledger. The balances on these individual accounts can
be extracted as a trial balance as a step in preparing financial statements for the
business.
Usually a business will organise its general ledger into the specific accounts
which it uses. As part of this process, it might employ a coding system under
which each individual ledger account is assigned a unique code.
The list of these codes is called a chart of accounts.

5.2 Chart of accounts

This is a list of accounts created by a business to be used to organise its financial
transactions into identified categories of assets, liabilities, income and expenses.
Each general ledger account is identified by a unique code and heading. This
allows a business to generate instructions and policies to be followed by those
members of staff responsible for recording information.
The list is typically arranged in the order of the customary appearance of
accounts in the financial statements, statement of financial position general
ledger accounts followed by statement of comprehensive income general ledger
accounts. The structure and headings in the list aim to result in consistent posting
of transactions.
A company might have complete freedom in designing its chart of accounts
(within the boundaries set by the rules of accounting). In some countries, the
government might issue a generic chart of accounts from which a business
selects those codes that are appropriate to its needs.
The aim of the chart is to ensure that all transactions are recognised in
accordance with the requirements of the business.

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Illustration: Chart of accounts

Each major heading in the financial statements might be given a range of codes
from which codes can be selected for individual general ledger accounts:
Code range

Code range

Non-current assets

100199

Income

600699

Current assets

200299

Expenses

700799

Non-current liabilities

300399

Current liabilities

400499

Equity

500599

Individual ledger accounts within the above range for non-current assets:
Non-current assets

Code

Land

110

Office buildings

120

Warehouses

130

Factories

140

5.3 Year-end exercise

An earlier section in this chapter explained that the trial balance is a foundation
for preparing a statement of comprehensive income and a statement of financial
position at the end of an accounting period. The trial balance is extracted and
various year-end adjustments are then made to the accounts after which a
statement of comprehensive income and then a statement of financial position
can be prepared, using these adjusted balances.
Any of these adjustments must also be recorded in the general ledger accounts
so that these agree with balances on the financial statements.
At the end of the period there is another exercise to perform in order to prepare
the general ledger for use in the next accounting period.
You may have noticed that profit is calculated after the trial balance has been
extracted. This means that there is no profit figure in the general ledger. Rather, it
is represented by all of the balances on the income and expense accounts.
These must all be transferred to a general ledger profit or loss account. The
balance on this account will then be the profit or loss for the period. This
balanced is transferred to the equity account.

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Process:
Step 1: Perform double entry as necessary to capture the year-end adjustments
in the general ledger accounts.
Step 2: Perform double entry to transfer all incomes statements amounts to a
profit or loss general ledger account.
Step 3: Close off this account
Step 4: Transfer the balance on this account to capital.
Step 5: Transfer the balance on the drawings account to capital and close off the
capital account.
This session will now use the information about Abbas to illustrate this exercise.
Example: Abbas Trial balance (reordered for this section) before the inventory
adjustment was as follows:
Dr
Bank

Cr

15,000

Loan

30,000

Van

40,000

Stall

5,000

Trade payables

4,500

Trade receivables

1,000

Capital

30,000

Drawings

6,000

Sales

21,000

Purchases

18,500
85,500

85,500

Reminder: The closing inventory of Abbas is Rs. 4,500

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Step 1: Perform double entry in the general ledger for the year-end adjustments
Bank
Balance b/d

15,000
Loan
Balance b/d

30,000

Van
Balance b/d

40,000
Stall

Balance b/d

5,000
Trade payables
Balance b/d

4,500

Trade receivables
Balance b/d

1,000
Capital
Balance b/d

30,000

Drawings
Balance b/d

6,000
Sales
Balance b/d

21,000

Purchases
Balance b/d

18,500

Inventory (statement of comprehensive income)

Balance b/d

4,500

Inventory (asset)
Balance b/d

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Example: Step 2: Perform double entry to transfer all incomes statements amounts
to a profit or loss general ledger account.
Bank
Balance b/d

15,000
Loan
Balance b/d

30,000

Van
Balance b/d

40,000
Stall

Balance b/d

5,000
Trade payables
Balance b/d

4,500

Trade receivables
Balance b/d

1,000
Capital
Balance b/d

30,000

Drawings
Balance b/d

6,000
Profit or loss (NEW ACCOUNT)

Purchases

18,500

Sales
Inventory

21,000
4,500

Sales
Profit or loss

21,000 Balance b/d

21,000

Purchases
Balance b/d

18,500 Profit or loss

18,500

Inventory (statement of comprehensive income)

Profit or loss

4,500 Balance b/d

4,500

Inventory (asset)
Balance b/d

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Step 3: Close off the profit or loss account. (Only those accounts affected are
shown).
Capital
Balance b/d

30,000

Drawings
Balance b/d

6,000
Profit or loss (NEW ACCOUNT)

Purchases

18,500 Sales
Inventory

Balance c/d

21,000
4,500

7,000
25,500

25,500
Balance b/d

7,000

Step 4: Transfer the balance on this account to capital.

Capital
Balance b/d

30,000

Profit for the period

7,000

Drawings
Balance b/d

6,000
Profit or loss (NEW ACCOUNT)

Purchases

18,500 Sales
Inventory

Balance c/d

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7,000
25,500

25,500
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21,000

7,000

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Chapter 4: Double entry bookkeeping

Step 5: Transfer the balance on the drawings account to capital and close off the
capital account.
Capital
Drawings
Balance c/d

6,000

Balance b/d

30,000

Profit for the period

7,000

31,000
37,000

37,000
Balance c/d

31,000

Drawings
Balance b/d

6,000 Capital

6,000

Final balances in the general ledger

Bank
Balance b/d

15,000
Loan
Balance b/d

30,000

Van
Balance b/d

40,000
Stall

Balance b/d

5,000
Trade payables
Balance b/d

4,500

Trade receivables
Balance b/d

1,000
Capital
Balance b/d

31,000

Inventory (asset)
Balance b/d

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5.4 Year-end exercise in journals

Section 4 of this chapter explained the role of the journal.
The Abbas year end exercise would require the following journals.
Example: Abbas end of year general ledger exercise
Step 1

Debit

Inventory asset

4,500

Inventory (statement of comprehensive

income)

Credit

4,500

Being: The recognition of closing inventory

Step 2
Sales

21,000

Profit or loss

21,000

Profit or loss

18,500

Purchases

18,500

Inventory (statement of comprehensive

income)
Profit or loss

4,500
4,500

Being: Transfer of income and expense amounts to profit or loss

Step 4 (there was no double entry in step 3)
Profit or loss

7,000

Capital

7,000

Being: Transfer of profit for the period into capital

Step 5
Capital

6,000

Drawings

6,000

Being: Transfer of drawings for the period into capital

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Practice question
Naseer sets up a trading business, buying and selling goods.
Record the following transactions which, occurred during his first month of
trading (July 2013) in the relevant ledger accounts.
1
Naseer introduced Rs. 500,000 into the business by paying money
into a business bank account.
2
The business bought a motor van for Rs. 60,000. Payment was by
cheque.
3
The business bought some inventory for Rs. 30,000, paying by
cheque.
4
The entire inventory purchased (transaction 3) was sold for Rs.
50,000 in cash.
5
More inventory was purchased for Rs. 100,000 on credit.
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

50% of the inventory purchased in transaction 5 was sold for Rs.

80,000. All these sales were on credit.
A payment of Rs. 30,000 was made to a supplier for some of the
purchases.
A payment of Rs. 40,000 was received from a customer for some of
the sales on credit.
Naseer drew Rs. 10,000 from the bank account for his personal use.
Naseer paid Rs. 2,000 for diesel for the motor van using a business
cheque
The business paid Rs. 15,000 by cheque for the premium on an
insurance policy.
The business received a bank loan of Rs. 100,000, repayable in two
years.

a)

Post all transactions to ledger accounts.

b)

Close off each account and extract a trial balance.

c)

Prepare a statement of comprehensive income and a statement of

financial position. (Assume that Naseer has closing inventory of Rs,
50,000).

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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1a

Solution
Bank
Rs.

Rs.

500,000 (2) Motor van

60,000

(4) Sales

50,000 (3) Purchases

30,000

(8) Trade receivables

40,000 (7) Trade payables

30,000

(1) Capital

(12) Bank loan

100,000 (9) Drawings

(10) Motor expenses
(11) Insurance
Balance c/d

2,000
15,000
543,000
690,000

690,000
Balance b/d

10,000

543,000
Capital
Rs.

Rs.
(1) Bank

Balance c/d

500,000

500,000
500,000

500,000
Balance b/d

500,000

Motor van
Rs.
(2) Bank

Rs.

60,000
Balance c/d

60,000

60,000
Balance b/d

60,000

60,000
Purchases
Rs.

(3) Bank
(5) Trade payables

Rs.

30,000
100,000
Balance c/d
130,000

Balance b/d

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1a

Solution (continued)
Sales
Rs.

Balance c/d

Rs.
(4) Bank

50,000

(6) Trade receivables

80,000

130,000
130,000

130,000
Balance b/d

130,000

Trade payables
Rs.
(7) Bank
Balance c/d

Rs.

30,000 (5) Purchases

70,000

100,000
100,000

100,000
Balance b/d

70,000

Trade receivables
Rs.
(6) Sales

Rs.

80,000 (8) Bank

Balance c/d

80,000

80,000
Balance b/d

40,000
40,000

40,000
Drawings
Rs.

(9) Bank

Rs.

10,000
Balance c/d

10,000

10,000
Balance b/d

10,000

10,000
Motor expenses
Rs.

(10) Bank

Rs.

2,000
Balance c/d
2,000

Balance b/d

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1a

Solution (continued)
Insurance
Rs.
(10) Bank

Rs.

15,000
Balance c/d

15,000

15,000
Balance b/d

15,000

15,000
Bank loan
Rs.

Rs.
(12) Bank

Balance c/d

100,000

100,000
100,000

100,000
Balance b/d

100,000

1b

Solution
Naseer: Trial balance as at 31 July 2013
Dr
Bank

543,000

Capital
Van
Purchases

500,000
60,000
130,000

Trade payables
Trade receivables

70,000
40,000

Sales
Drawings
Motor expenses
Insurance

130,000
10,000
2,000
15,000

Bank loan

100,000
800,000

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Chapter 4: Double entry bookkeeping

1c

Solution
Naseer: Statement of comprehensive income for the month ending 31 July 2013
Rs.
Rs.
Sales

130,000

Opening inventory

Purchases

130,000
130,000

Closing inventory

(50,000)

Cost of sales

80,000

Gross profit

50,000

Motor expenses

2,000

Insurance

15,000
(17,000)

Net profit

33,000

Naseer: Statement of financial position as at 31 July 2013

Rs.

Rs.

Non-current assets:
Van

60,000

Current assets:
Inventory

50,000

Trade receivables

40,000

Bank

543,000
633,000

Total assets

693,000

Capital at 1st January 2013

500,000

Net profit for the year

33,000
533,000

Less: Drawings
Capital at

30th

(10,000)

June 2013

523,000

Non-current liabilities
bank loan

100,000

Current liabilities:
Trade payables

70,000

Total capital and liabilities

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CHAPTER

Certificate in Accounting and Finance

Introduction to accounting

Sales and purchases

Contents
1 Introduction to books of prime entry
2 Accounting for sales
3 Accounting for purchases
4 Accounting for cash
5 Petty cash

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INTRODUCTION
Learning outcomes
To enable candidates to equip themselves with the fundamental concepts of accounts
needed as a foundation for higher studies of accounting.
LO 2

Identify financial transactions and make journal entries

LO2.5.1

Sales journal and the sales ledger: Describe the basic contents of the sales
day book and the customer/debtors ledger

LO2.5.2

Sales journal and the sales ledger: Record entries in the sales day book and
the customer/debtors ledger.

LO2.6.1

Purchase journal and the purchase ledger: Describe the basic contents of the
purchase journal and purchase ledger/creditors ledger.

LO2.6.2

Purchase journal and the purchase ledger: Record entries in the purchase
journal and purchase ledger/creditors ledger.

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Chapter 5: Sales and purchases

INTRODUCTION TO BOOKS OF PRIME ENTRY

Section overview

The role of books of prime entry

Posting transactions

1.1 The role of books of prime entry

Book-keeping is the process of recording financial transactions in the accounting
records (the books) of an entity. Transactions are recorded in accounts, and
there is a separate account for each different type of transaction.
It is often the case that individual transactions are not recorded in the ledger
accounts as they occur. Instead, they are recorded initially in records called
books of prime entry (also known as books of original entry). Each of these
books or journals is used to record different types of transaction. Periodically
the totals of each type of transaction are double entered into the appropriate
ledger accounts in the general ledger.
Books of prime entry include the following:
Book of prime entry

Function

Sales day book,

Records sales on credit (receivables) from sales

invoices.

Sales returns day

book

Records items returned by credit customers (credit

notes issued to customers).

Purchases day book

Records purchases on credit from suppliers (trade

payables) from purchase invoices.

Purchases returns
day book

Records returns of purchases on credit.

Cash book

Records cash received into the bank account and

cash paid out of the bank account.
Cash receipts and payments are very much a part of
the sales and purchases cycles.

Journal

Records transactions that are not recorded in any of

the other books of original entry.

Books of prime entry are a useful means of summarising large numbers of similar
transactions like credit sales, credit purchases and cash and bank payments and
receipts.

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1.2 Posting transactions

You may find it useful to refer back to the diagram at paragraph 1.2 of chapter 4
before reading this section.
Books of prime entry are used to reduce the number of transactions that have to
be recorded in the general ledger. For example, instead of recording 1,000
separate sales, a business could add them up and perform a single double entry
on the totals. This means that the general ledger will contain one account for
receivables in total rather than an account for each individual customer. This
account is called the receivables control account. (Note, that in practice it might
have another name but that does not affect its function).
Definition: Control account
An account which summarises a large number of transactions.
(Examples include receivables control account, payables control account and
payroll control account).

However, this does create another problem. A business must have information
about the individual customers to whom sales have been made and who owe
them money. In order to provide this information a second record is kept of the
individual balances of individual customers. This record is called the receivables
ledger (or the sales ledger
The receivables control account and the receivables ledger are updated at the
same time. The process of transferring the details of transactions from the books
of prime entry to the accounts in the ledgers is called posting the transactions.
The balance on the receivables control account should always equal the total of
the list of balances in the receivables ledger. If this is not the case an error has
been made and must be investigated. This is covered in chapter 10.
The receivables control account is part of the double entry system. Any entry into
the receivables control account must be accompanied by an equal and opposite
entry elsewhere in the general ledger.
The receivables ledger is not part of the double entry system. Any entry in it
simply reflects entries that have been made in the receivables control account in
the general ledger and not the other side of those entries. ). It is sometimes
described as a memorandum account.
Note that all the comments above could equally have been made in respect of
purchases. Purchases are recorded in a purchases day book and posted to a
payables control account in the general ledger. This is supported by a payables
ledger which is a list of amounts owed by the business to individual suppliers.
This is a little complicated at first sight but this chapter continues to explain the
above in some detail.

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ACCOUNTING FOR SALES

Section overview

Documents in the sales cycle

Recording sales

Recording sales returns

Discounts allowed

Receivables control account

Terminology

2.1 Documents in the sales cycle

A business tries to make a profit by selling goods or services to customers. This
creates revenue or income for the business.
Sales might be for cash or (coin, by debit card, credit card, cheque or by some
less common method such as bankers draft) or on credit.
The following documents might be used in a system designed to account for
sales.
Impacts double
entry?

Document

Purpose

Sales order

From the customer placing an order.

No

Goods
despatched
note

A notice to the customer to inform them

that the goods have been despatched and
are on their way.

No

Delivery note

A note that accompanies the goods. (A

customer will check this to make sure that
it agrees with his order and that it is
consistent with what has actually been
delivered.

No

Sales invoice

A request for payment from the customer

for goods delivered.

Yes

Invoices normally show a date, details of

transaction and payment terms.
Statement

A document to show the customer the

amount still owed at a point in time.

No

It will be the net amount of all invoices

issued less cash received by the business
up to a point in time.
Credit note

Issued when a customer returns goods

and the business agrees to this.

Yes

The business issues a credit note to

acknowledge that the amount specified is
no longer owed to them by the customer.

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Illustration: Credit note

A issues an invoice to a customer for Rs. 20,000.
A later agrees to reduce the amount payable by Rs. 1,000 because some of the
goods were of poor quality.
A issues a credit note to the customer for Rs. 1,000.
The customer is now required to pay Rs. 19,000 which is the invoice for Rs. 20,000
less the credit note for Rs. 1,000.

2.2 Recording sales

Sales day book
The sales day book is one of the books of prime entry. It is used to make an
initial record of sales on credit. Credit sales transactions are entered in the sales
day book as a list.
Double entry and updating the receivables ledger
Periodically (daily, weekly, monthly) a total for all transactions is posted to sales
and the receivables control account in the general ledger, and the individual
amounts used to update the customers individual balances in the receivables
ledger.

The total value of the transactions (since the previous time that entries
were posted to the ledger) is transferred as a double entry to the general
ledger:

Each individual transaction is transferred to the receivables ledger and

recorded in the account of the individual customer which is debited with the
value of the transaction.

Illustration:
Sales on credit

Debit

General ledger:
Receivables control account

Credit

Sales

Receivables ledger:
Individual customer accounts

There is a diagram showing an overview of this system together with the

purchases and cash system at the end of this chapter.
Responsibilities
The duty of the main accountant is to maintain the general ledger and extract
financial information from it. The main accountant will also oversee accounting
assistants (accounts clerks) whose duties are to maintain the day books,
subsidiary ledger and thus the list of balances.

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Example: Recording sales

A company made the following sales which are to be posted to the general ledger
and the receivables ledger.
Sales day book:
Customer:

Sale

Danish

25,000

Fahad

10,000

Hasan

40,000
75,000

General ledger
Receivables control account
Rs.
Sales

Rs.

75,000
Sales
Rs.

Rs.
Receivables

75,000

Receivables ledger
Danish
Rs.
Sales

Rs.

25,000
Fahad
Rs.

Sales

Rs.

10,000
Hasan
Rs.

Sales

Rs.

40,000

The postings to the general ledger might be recorded as a journal entry:

Debit
Credit
Rs.
Receivables control account

Rs.

75,000

Sales

75,000

Being: Posting of sales from the sales day book.

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2.3 Recording sales returns

Sales returns day book
The sales returns day book is a book of prime entry that records goods returned
by customers (perhaps because they are damaged or of unacceptable quality).
When goods are returned, a credit note is issued to the customer.
Double entry and updating the receivables ledger
Periodically (daily, weekly, monthly) a total for all returns is posted to the general
ledger and the individual amounts used to update the customers individual
balances in the receivables ledger.
Illustration:
Sales on credit

Debit

General ledger:
Sales returns

Receivables

Credit

Receivables ledger:
Individual customer accounts

Example
A company made the following sales which are to be posted to the general ledger
and the receivables ledger.
Sales day book
Customer: A

Rs.
40,000

Customer: B

50,000

Customer: C

30,000

Customer: D

20,000
140,000 (1)

Sales returns day book

Customer: A
Cash received

Rs.
5,000 (2)

Customer: B

Rs.
40,000

Customer: C

20,000
60,000 (3)

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Example: General ledger

Receivables control account
Rs.
Sales (1)

Rs.

140,000 Sales returns (2)

5,000

Cash (3)

60,000

Balance c/d

75,000
140,000

140,000
Balance c/d

75,000
Sales
Rs.

Rs.
Receivables (1)

140,000

Sales returns
Rs.
Receivables (2)

Rs.

5,000
Bank
Rs.

Receivables (3)

Rs.

60,000

The postings to the general ledger might be recorded as journal entries

Debit
Credit
Rs.
Receivables control account

Rs.

140,000

Sales

140,000

Being: Posting of sales from the sales day book.

Sales returns

5,000

Receivables control account

5,000

Being: Posting of sales returns from the sales returns day book.
Bank

60,000

Receivables control account

60,000

Being: Cash received from customers

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Example: Receivables ledger

Customer A
Rs.
(1a) Sales

40,000

Rs.
(2a) Sales returns
Balance c/d

40,000
Balance c/d

5,000
35,000
40,000

35,000
Customer B
Rs.

(1b) Sales

50,000

Rs.
(3a) Bank

40,000

Balance c/d

10,000

50,000
Balance c/d

50,000

10,000
Customer C
Rs.

(1c) Sales

Rs.

30,000 (3b) Bank

Balance c/d

10,000
30,000

30,000
Balance c/d

20,000

10,000
Customer D
Rs.

(1d) Sales

Rs.

20,000

The balances on the accounts in the receivables ledger in total are

Rs.
Customer: A

35,000

Customer: B

10,000

Customer: C

10,000

Customer: D

20,000
75,000

The receivables ledger contains the accounts for each customer who is sold
items on credit. Each receivables account shows how much the individual
customer has purchased on credit, details of sales returns (i.e. any credit notes),
how much he/she has paid and what he/she currently owes.

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2.4 Discounts allowed

Introduction
Businesses sometimes give discounts to customers.
There are two main types of discount:

trade discount; and

settlement discount (or cash discount).

Trade discount
This is price reduction given to a customer. The invoice is issued at the reduced
amount so there are no double entry problems caused by this type of discount.
There is simply a sale at a lower price.
Example: Trade discounts
A building merchant offers bags of cement for sale at Rs.500 per bag.
The price is reduced to Rs. 450 for any customer who buys 10 or more bags.
The reduction of Rs. 50 per bag is a trade discount.
Arif buys 20 bags off the building merchant.
If there were no discount Arif would have to pay Rs. 10,000. However, because of
the discount Arif has to pay only Rs.9,000.
Note that from the builders point of view this is a sale for Rs.9,000. There is no
special accounting needed for trade discounts.

Settlement discounts
A settlement discount might be offered in order to persuade credit customers to
pay earlier.
When a business makes a sale it does not know whether the customer will take
advantage of the settlement discount or not so the invoice is issued at the full
amount. An adjusting entry is made if a customer subsequently takes the
discount.
If a discount is taken it is known as a discount allowed from the point of view of
the seller and a discount received from the point of view of the buyer. Discounts
received and discounts allowed are recorded in the ledger accounts.
Example: Settlement discounts
A building merchant offers credit terms to large customers.
It offers a 3% discount to any credit customer who settles an invoice within 30
days. (This means that the customer would only pay 97% of the invoice amount).
The reduction of 3% is a settlement discount.
Bashir Builders buys goods worth Rs. 80,000.
If Bashir Builders pays within 30 days it need only pay Rs.77,600.
If Bashir Builders does not pay within 30 days it must pay Rs.80,000..

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Discounts allowed
Discounts allowed are settlement discounts that a business offers to its credit
customers. It is up to the customer to decide whether to pay the full amount or to
pay the smaller amount earlier.
Accounting for discounts allowed
A business will only know if a customer is taking a settlement discount that has
been offered when the payment is received. If the customer has taken the
discount then a smaller payment will be received.
Discounts allowed to customers are recorded in a discounts allowed account.
This is an expense account.
Illustration: Discount allowed double entry
Debit
Bank (cash received)

Discount allowed (discount taken by the customer)

Trade receivables

Credit

Discounts allowed do not affect the total figure for sales in the period. In this
respect they differ from sales returns, which do reduce total sales revenue.

Discounts allowed are accounted for separately as an expense for the

period.

They are not accounted for as a deduction from total sales revenue.

Example: Discount allowed

Asad has sold goods to Bashir for Rs. 80,000.
Asad offers a 3% settlement discount if payment is made within 20 days.
Bashir pays in 19 days.
Asad would record the transaction as follows:
Debit

Credit

At date of sale:
Trade receivables

80,000

Sales

80,000

At date that payment is received

Bank (cash received = 97% of 80,000)
Discount allowed (discount taken by the customer
= 3% of 80,000)
Trade receivables

77,600
2,400
80,000

Discounts allowed and the receivables ledgers

Discounts allowed must also be recorded in the individual customer accounts in
the receivables ledger.

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2.5 Receivables control account

A receivables ledger control account is the name given to the account in the
general ledger for total receivables. A control account is an account that records
total amounts in this case, total amounts for receivables.
The receivables ledger control account records all transactions involving credit
customers.

Debit entries in the receivables control account are transactions that add to
the total amount of receivables.

Credit entries in the receivables ledger control account are transactions that
reduce the total amount of receivables.

Illustration: Double entries into receivables control account

Receivables control account
Debit side (Dr)

Credit side (Cr)

Balance b/d

Credit sales

Payments received from

credit customers

Dishonoured cheques
(see below)

Sales returns

Discounts allowed for

early payment

Bad debts written off

(explained later in
chapter 7).

Contra entries (explained

later in this chapter)
Balance c/d
X
Balance b/d

X
X
X

Dishonoured cheques
These are cheques received from customers where subsequently the bank
refuses to make payment.
When a business receives a cheque from a customer it recognises that as an
amount paid. If the business presents the cheque to the bank for payment and
the bank refuse to accept it (perhaps because of insufficient funds in the
customers account) the business is still owed the money and must reverse the
original entry (Dr Receivables, Cr Bank).

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Entries not recorded in the receivables control account

Only transactions that relate to credit sales are recorded in the receivables ledger
control account.
The following transactions are not recorded in the receivables ledger control
account:

Cash sales (for which the entry is Dr Bank, Cr Sales);

Changes in the allowance for irrecoverable debts account (covered later in

chapter 7).

The balance on the receivables control account might be described as trade

receivables on the face of the statement of financial position.

2.6 Terminology
This chapter uses certain terminology to explain how sales might be accounted
for. This is an area where you may see different terms used to describe what has
been described above.
Used in this chapter

Common alternative

Sales day book

Sales journal

Receivables ledger

Debtors ledger,
Sales ledger

Receivables control account

Receivables ledger control account

Sales ledger control account
Total sales control account
Debtor control account
Account receivable control account

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ACCOUNTING FOR PURCHASES

Section overview

Documents in the purchases cycle

Recording purchases

Recording purchase returns

Discounts received

Payables control account

Contra entries

Terminology

3.1 Documents in the purchases cycle

Businesses make purchases from suppliers. Purchases are similar in many
respects to sales, except that the business is buying from a supplier rather than
selling to a customer.
The following documents might be used in a system designed to account for
purchases.
Impacts double
entry?

Document

Purpose

Purchase
order

A document sent by the business to place

an order.

No

Goods
received note

A document produced when goods are

received.

No

It is produced after the goods have been

checked against the delivery note and
what has actually been received.
The GRN is sent to accounts staff who will
check that what has been received is what
was ordered and that the invoice agrees
with what was received.
Purchase
invoice

A request for payment from the supplier

for goods delivered.

Yes

Statement

A document from the supplier to show the

amount still owed at a point in time.

No

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3.2 Recording purchases

Purchases day book
The purchases day book is one of the books of prime entry. It is used to make an
initial record of purchases on credit. Purchase transactions on credit are entered
in the purchases day book as a list.
There may be several categories of item or service purchased each of which
must be posted to an appropriate account.
Double entry and updating the payables ledger
Periodically (daily, weekly, monthly) a total for all transactions is posted to
purchases and other expense accounts with the other side of the entry posted to
the payables control account in the general ledger.
In addition the individual amounts are used to update the suppliers individual
balances in the payables ledger.
The payables (purchase) ledger is also used to record purchase invoices from
suppliers of other items, as well as purchases of goods. (For example the
payables ledger is used to record details of invoices for rental costs, telephone
expenses, and electricity and gas supplies and so on).
Details of these expenses must be posted from the purchases ledger to the
relevant accounts in the general ledger.
To facilitate this, a day book might have analysis columns which show the
different types of expense.
Details of each individual invoice are also posted to the account of the individual
supplier in the payables ledger.
Illustration:
Purchases on credit

Debit

General ledger:
Purchases

Expense 1

Credit

Expense 2 (etc.)
Payables control account

Payables ledger:
Individual customer accounts

There is a diagram showing an overview of this system together with the sales
and cash system at the end of this chapter.

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Illustration: Recording purchase

Purchase day book

Total

Purchases

Energy

Sundry

Rs. (000)

Rs. (000)

Rs. (000)

Rs. (000)

3 May

BV Supplies

500

500

3 May

South Electric

1,200

3 May

CD Power

3,000

3 May

Sad Stationery

3 May

Woods Widgets

4,800

4,800

3 May

Small Plastic

3,200

3,200

3 May

Southern Gas

750

750

3 May

IT Solutions

500

500

1,200
3,000

650

14,600

650

8,500

3,000

3,100

A journal can easily be constructed to affect the double entry

Debit
Credit
Rs.
8,500

Purchases
Payables control account

8,500

Energy expenses

3,000

Payables control account

3,000

Sundry expenses

3,100

Payables control account

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3.3 Recording purchase returns

Purchases returns day book
The purchases returns day book is similar to the purchases day book, except that
it records goods returned to suppliers.
When goods are returned to a supplier, a credit note is received. The purchases
returns day book records the credit note details.
The total purchases returns are posted to the general ledger, by:

debiting the total trade payables account

crediting the purchases returns account, or possibly the purchases account.

Returns to individual suppliers are also debited in the suppliers individual

account in the payables ledger.
Illustration:
Purchase returns

Debit

Credit

General ledger:
Payables

Purchase returns

Payables ledger:
Individual customer accounts

Example
A company made the following sales which are to be posted to the general ledger
and the receivables ledger.
Purchases day book
Supplier: A

Rs.
30,000

Supplier: B

60,000

Supplier: C

20,000

Supplier: D

70,000
180,000 (1)

Purchase returns day book

Rs.

Supplier: B

20,000 (2)

Cash paid to:

Supplier: A

Rs.
29,000

Supplier: D

25,000
54,000 (3)

Discount received

Rs.
1,000 (4)

Supplier: A

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Example: General ledger

Payables control account
Rs.

Rs.

Purchase returns (2)

20,000 Purchases (1)

Bank (3)

54,000

Discount received (4)

Balance c/d

180,000

1,000
105,000
180,000

180,000
Balance c/d

105,000

Purchases
Rs.
Payables (1)

Rs.

180,000
Purchase returns
Rs.

Rs.
Payables (2)

20,000

Bank
Rs.

Rs.
Payables (3)

54,000

Discount received
Rs.

Rs.
Payables (4)

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Example: General ledger

The postings to the general ledger might be recorded as journal entries
Debit
Credit
Rs.
Purchases

Rs.

180,000

Payables control account

180,000

Being: Posting of purchases from the purchases day book.

Payables control account

20,000

Purchase returns

20,000

Being: Posting of purchase returns from the purchase returns day book.
Payables control account

54,000

Bank

54,000

Being: Cash paid to suppliers

Payables control account

1,000

Bank

1,000

Being: Discounts received

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Example: Payables ledger

Supplier A
Rs.
(3a) Bank
(4) Discount received

Rs.

29,000 (1a) Purchases

30,000

1,000
30,000

30,000
Supplier B
Rs.

Rs.

(2) Purchase returns

20,000 (1b) Purchases

Balance c/d

40,000

60,000
60,000

60,000
Balance c/d

40,000

Supplier C
Rs.

Rs.
(1c) Purchases

20,000

Supplier D
Rs.

Rs.

(3b) Bank

25,000 (1d) Purchases

Balance c/d

45,000

70,000
70,000

70,000
Balance c/d

45,000

The balances on the accounts in the payables ledger in total are

Rs.
Supplier: B

40,000

Supplier: C

20,000

Supplier: D

45,000

Supplier: A

105,000
The payables ledger contains the accounts for each supplier of goods or
services on credit. Each trade payables account shows how much the entity has
bought on credit from a particular supplier, details of purchase returns, how much
it has paid and what it currently owes to the supplier.

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3.4 Discounts received

Discounts received are settlement discounts that a business has been offered by
its suppliers and which it takes up. The business pays earlier but pays less.
Accounting for discounts received
The invoice is recorded in payables at the full amount when it is received.
Discount received can only be recognised when payment is earned within a given
time frame so that a business becomes entitled to a discount.
Discounts received from suppliers are recorded in a discounts received account.
If a business decides to take up the offer of a settlement discount by paying the
smaller amount sooner, the double entry for the payment is:
Illustration: Discount received double entry
Debit
Trade payables

Credit

Bank (cash paid to supplier)

Discount received (discount taken by us)

The entry in the discount received account is a credit entry because it is

effectively a reduction in an expense. In the statement of comprehensive income,
it will be shown either as other income or as a negative expense.
Discounts received do not affect the total figure for purchases in the period, or
the total cost of sales. In this respect they differ from purchase returns, which do
reduce total purchase costs.

Discounts received are accounted for as an addition to profit in the period.

They are not accounted for as a deduction from purchase costs.

Example: Discount received

Asad has sold goods to Bashir for Rs. 80,000.
Asad offers a 3% settlement discount if payment is made within 20 days.
Bashir pays in 19 days.
Bashir would record the transaction as follows:
Debit

Credit

At date of purchase:
Purchase

80,000

Trade payables

80,000

At date of payment
Trade payables

80,000

Bank (cash paid = 97% of 80,000)

77,600

Discount received (discount taken by us = 3% of

80,000)

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Discounts received and the payables ledgers

Discounts received are recorded in the individual supplier accounts in the
payables ledger.

3.5 Payables control account

The payables ledger control account is the name given to the account in the
general ledger for total trade payables.
Opening payables balance
The opening balance in the payables ledger control account is a credit balance,
because amounts payable are a liability.
The payables ledger control account records all transactions involving credit
purchases. Since business entities make most of their purchases on credit, the
control account records virtually all purchases.

Credit entries in the payables control account are transactions that add to
the total amount of payables.

Debit entries in the payables ledger control account are transactions that
reduce the total amount of payables.

Illustration: Double entries into payables control account

Payables control account
Debit side (Dr)

Credit side (Cr)

Purchase returns

Payments to suppliers

Discounts received for

early payment

Contra entries
(explained later in this
chapter)
Balance c/d

Balance b/d

Purchases

X
X

X
Balance b/d

The balance on the payables control account might be described as trade

payables on the face of the statement of financial position.

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3.6 Contra entries

A business might sell goods or services to another business, and also buy goods
or services from that same business.
The other business is both a customer and a supplier, and might therefore be a
receivable and a trade payable at the same time. When this happens, the two
businesses might agree to offset the amounts that they owe each other, leaving a
net amount payable by the business with the higher debt.
A contra entry is a double entry that offsets one amount against another.
Contra entries must be made in the general ledger and also the receivables and
payables ledgers.
Illustration: Contra entry
Sales on credit

Debit

Credit

General ledger:
Payables control account

Receivables control account

Receivables ledger:
Individual customer account

Payables ledger:
Individual customer account

Example: Contra entry

A buys goods from Z, and also sells services to Z.
A currently owes Rs. 120,000 to Z and is owed Rs. 50,000 by Z.
A and Z might agree to offset these two debts, leaving A owing the net amount of
Rs. 7,000 to Z.
A contra entry is used to record this agreement in the accounting system.
Books of A:
Debit
Credit
General ledger
Rs.
Rs.
Payables control account

50,000

Receivables control account

50,000

(This reduces the balance on both accounts)

Receivables ledger:
Zs account (owed by Z)

50,000

Payables ledger:
Zs account (owed to Z)

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3.7 Terminology
This chapter uses certain terminology to explain how purchases might be
accounted for. This is an area where you may see different terms used to
describe what has been described above.
Used in this chapter

Common alternative

Purchases day book

Purchases journal

Payables ledger

Creditors ledger,
Purchases ledger

Payables control account

Payables ledger control account

Purchases ledger control account
Total purchases control account
Creditor control account
Account payable control account
Bought ledger adjustment account

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Introduction to accounting

ACCOUNTING FOR CASH

Section overview

The cash book

Cash receipts

Cash payments

4.1 The cash book

The cash book is often a book of prime entry. It is used to record receipts and
payments of cash into the business bank account.
The cash book has two sides, a side for receipts of money and a side for
payments. Both sides have a number of columns so that cash receipts and
payments can be analysed to make it easier to construct journals for double
entry.
A business can analyse the amounts received and paid in any way it chooses.

4.2 Cash receipts

Cash from cash sales is banked on a regular basis. It is entered as a cash receipt
in the cash book when it has been banked.
Cash might be received from a credit customer in a number of ways. Usually
payment is made by cheque or by bank transfer. Payments by cheques must be
banked on a regular basis. When a cheque is received it is entered into the cash
book as a cash receipt.
On a periodic basis the receipts side of the cash book is summed and totals
posted to the general ledger. Amounts received from credit customers are also
recognised in the customers personal account in the receivables ledger must
also be adjusted.
Some businesses might choose to use a column in the cash receipts side of the
cash book to record discounts allowed. This is nothing to do with cash as such
but the discounts might be recorded here so that the business is able to keep
track of it. Such a record is described as being a memorandum (reminder).

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A simplified example of the cash receipts side of the cash book is shown below.
Illustration: Cash receipts

Total

Receivables

Discount
allowed
(memo only)
Rs.

Other
receipts
Rs.

Rs.
28,500

Rs.
28,500

K Brown

5,000

5,000

Banking from
cash sale
Dividend

1,000

1,000

5,000

5,000

Smith Company

1,500

C Cropper

57,000

57,000

VB Industries

87,000

87,000

183,500

177,500

6,000

3,000
4,500

A journal can easily be constructed to affect the double entry

Debit
Credit
Rs.
Bank

Rs.

183,500

Receivables control account

177,500

Sale

1,000

Dividend income

5,000

And
Discounts allowed

4,500

Receivables control account

4,500

The cash received from individual customers and the discounts allowed to
individual customers must be credited to their individual accounts in the
receivables ledger.

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4.3 Cash payments

Cash payments are recorded in a similar way to cash receipts. Payments are
recorded in both the general ledger and (if the payment is to a supplier) in the
account of the supplier in the payables ledger.
A business might choose to record discounts received in a memorandum column
in the cash book.
A simplified example of the cash payments side of the cash book is shown below.
Illustration: Cash payments
Total

Payables

Expenses

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

KPT Supplies

59,000

59,000

Duck Company

86,000

86,000

Rent

74,500

Fast Supplies

Discount
received
Rs.
1,000

74,500

2,200

2,200

221,700

147,200

74,500

1,000

A journal can easily be constructed to affect the double entry

Debit
Credit
Rs.
Payables control account

Rs.

147,200

Expenses

74,500

Bank

221,700

And
Discounts received

1,000

Payables control account

1,000

The cash paid to individual suppliers and the discounts received from individual
suppliers will be debited to their individual accounts in the payables ledger.
There is a diagram showing an overview of this system together at the end of this
chapter.

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Chapter 5: Sales and purchases

PETTY CASH
Section overview

Definition of petty cash

Recording petty cash transactions

5.1 Definition of petty cash

Petty cash is cash (notes and coins) held by a business to pay for small items of
expense, in situations where it is more convenient to pay in notes and coin than
to pay through the bank account. Petty cash might be used, for example, to pay
for bus fares, taxi fares, tea and coffee for the office, and so on.

5.2 Recording petty cash transactions

When petty cash transactions take place, for example petty cash is spent on tea
and coffee for the office, the entity needs to record both an expense, and a
reduction in the asset petty cash.
These entries are made in the main ledger accounts as follows:
Illustration: x
Debit
Office expenses

Credit

Petty cash

Although the amounts involved in petty cash are, for most businesses, very
small, the cash in the tin is one of the easiest assets to be stolen or lost.
Usually the responsibility for looking after the petty cash is assigned to an
accounts clerk who will pay out any cash to a person as long as that person is
able to present an invoice for an amount spent or sign a note to say that they
have received cash. The accounts clerk will also maintain a petty cash book. This
is a book of prime entry and is summarised and posted to the general ledger on a
periodic basis,
Imprest system
A very common petty cash system is called the imprest system. Under this
system a set amount is established (say Rs.10,000). This set amount is called
the imprest.
At any moment in time, the petty cash balance plus the amounts on invoices and
notes should sum to the imprest. Periodically the invoices are removed and
replaced by cash to re-establish the imprest in cash.

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Example:
A business uses an imprest system to control its petty cash.
The imprest is set at Rs. 10,000.
At the start of the month there is Rs. 10,000 cash in the petty cash tin.
An amount of Rs. 600 is paid to Laila to compensate her for a payment she made
out of her own pocket on behalf of the business.
After this transaction the petty cash tin will contain Rs.9,400 cash and an invoice
from Laila for Rs.600. These two amounts add back to the imprest.

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Illustration: Overview

Chapter 5: Sales and purchases

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CHAPTER

Certificate in Accounting and Finance

Introduction to accounting

Depreciation
Contents
1 End of year adjustments
2 Non-current assets
3 Depreciation and carrying amount
4 Methods of calculating depreciation

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INTRODUCTION
LO 4

Make adjustment at the end of the reporting period.

LO4.1.1

Depreciation: Calculate depreciation expense using straight line, diminution

balance, sum-of-digits and number of units produced methods

LO4.1.2

Depreciation: Post journal entry to record depreciation expense

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END OF YEAR ADJUSTMENTS

Section overview

The need for end-of-year adjustments

Check list of end-of-year adjustments

1.1 The need for end-of-year adjustments

Start of a financial year
At the start of a financial year the asset, liability and capital accounts in the
general ledger contain the balances brought forward at the end of the last year as
set out in last years statement of financial position.
The income and expense accounts in the general ledger are empty as they will
have been transferred to the income and expense account for the calculation of
profit.
During the financial year
During the year the business records transactions to appropriate accounts in the
general ledger.
The balances on the asset and liability accounts at any one time reflect the
position at the start of the year and the effect of transactions relevant to those
accounts that have occurred during the period.
The balances on the income and expense accounts reflect the activity during the
period.
End of a financial year
Balances on the accounts in the general ledger are extracted to produce a trial
balance. The trial balance is the net effect of all of the transactions in the year
and forms the basis for the preparation of the financial statements.
However, certain adjustments must be made to income, expenses, assets and
liabilities before the financial statements can be finalised to take account of items
not captured as regular accounting transactions.
Adjustments are needed for:

opening and closing inventory

accrued expenses and prepaid expenses

bad and doubtful debts

non-current assets and depreciation.

Having made the adjustments, a business can then prepare its financial
statements, calculating the profit or loss it has made for the year and adding the
resultant figure to capital.
A general ledger exercise is then carried out:

Balances on income and expense accounts are transferred to a profit or

loss account. The balance on this account is the profit or loss for the year
and should agree with the profit or loss shown in the statement of
comprehensive income.

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The profit for the year is added to capital, or the loss is subtracted from
capital.

1.2 Check list of end-of-year adjustments

A check list showing the end-of-year adjustments required to prepare financial
statements is shown below.
The first of these is explained in detail in this chapter and explanations of the rest
follow in subsequent chapters.
Accounting area

Nature of the end of year adjustment

Non-current
assets and
depreciation

A depreciation charge for non-current assets is

calculated, and included in the statement of
comprehensive income.

Chapter
6

The carrying amount of non-current assets in

the statement of financial position is reduced
by accumulated depreciation on those assets.
Bad debts and
doubtful debts

Establish the amount of bad debts to be written

off and the change in an allowance for doubtful
debts. These items are included in the
statement of comprehensive income.

In the statement of financial position, total

receivables are reduced by bad debts written
off. In addition, the allowance for doubtful
debts is set off against the figure for total
receivables.
Accruals and
prepayments

Establish the amount of accrued expenses or

prepaid expenses at the end of the financial
year.

Opening and closing accrued expenses or

prepaid expenses are needed to calculate the
amount to include in the statement of
comprehensive income for certain expense
items.
Accruals and prepayments also appear in the
statement of financial position.
Opening and
closing inventory

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Establish the value of closing inventory.

Use the values for opening and closing

inventory to calculate the cost of sales and
gross profit for the statement of comprehensive
income.

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NON-CURRENT ASSETS
Section overview

Introduction

Capital and revenue items: capital and revenue expenditure

Depreciation and non-current assets

2.1 Introduction
The assets of a business are classified as current assets or non-current assets.
IAS 1 (Presentation of financial statements) defines current assets and then
states that all other assets should be classified as non-current assets.
Current assets include, cash, receivables, prepayments (see chapter 7) and
inventory. They are all items that will be used or recovered in the short term.
A non-current asset is an asset which is used by the business over a number of
years.
Non-current assets may be:

Tangible non-current assets. These are physical assets, such as land

and buildings, plant and equipment, and motor vehicles; or

Intangible non-current assets. These are assets that do not have a

physical existence such as patent rights.

Non-current assets are initially recorded in the accounts of a business at their

cost. The cost of an item of property, plant and machinery consists of:

its purchase price after any trade discount has been deducted, plus any
import taxes or non-refundable sales tax; and/or

the directly attributable costs of bringing the asset to the location and
condition necessary for it to be capable of operating in the manner intended
by management (IAS 16 Property, plant and machinery). These directly
attributable costs may include:

employee costs arising directly from the installation or construction of

the asset

the cost of site preparation

delivery costs (carriage inwards)

installation and assembly costs

professional fees directly attributable to the purchase.

A question might provide information about the installation cost of an asset. This
is capitalised as part of the cost of the asset.

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2.2 Capital and revenue items: capital and revenue expenditure

The difference between capital and revenue items, and between capital and
revenue expenditure was explained in an earlier chapter.
Improvements are capitalised
Expenditure on a non-current asset after acquisition is treated as capital
expenditure when it represents an improvement. This is added to the cost of the
original asset.
Repairs are expensed
Expenditure on a non-current asset after acquisition is treated as revenue
expenditure when it is incurred to make a repair. This is recognised as an
expense in the statement of comprehensive income.
Advance payments
A business might make an advance payment towards a non-current asset.
This is recognised as a receivable known as an advance. It represents the right
that the business has to receive an asset (or part of one) at some time in the
future.
Illustration: Advance payments
Debit
Receivable Advance

Credit

Cash (bank)

Advances are not depreciated. An advance will become part of the cost of an
asset when it is purchased.
Illustration: Treatment of advance when asset is purchased
Debit
Cost of the asset

Receivable Advance

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2.4 Depreciation and non-current assets

A business invests in assets in order to generate profit.
The accruals concept results in the recognition of revenue and the cost of
earning that revenue in the statement of comprehensive income in the same
accounting period.
This is relatively straight forward for costs. For example, rent for a period enables
a business to use premises that are used to make profit. The rent is charged to
statement of comprehensive income.
Examples: Recognition of costs in the statement of comprehensive income
Rental
expense

Energy
expense
Inventory

Rental payments due in a period enable a business to use

premises that are used to make profit.
The rent is charged to the statement of comprehensive
income.
Energy used in a period enables a business to make profit.
Energy is charged to the statement of comprehensive
income.
Items sold in the period are recognised in the statement of
comprehensive income at the same time as the revenue
from selling those items.

Expenditure on non-current assets is also incurred to enable a business to

generate a profit. A non-current asset will help a business generate profit over
several accounting periods. The cost of the benefit received from the use of such
an asset must be recognised in the statement of comprehensive income in the
same period that the benefit is recognised.
Depreciation
Depreciation is an expense that matches the cost of a non-current asset to the
benefit earned from its ownership. It is calculated so that a business recognises
the full cost associated with a non-current asset over the entire period that the
asset is used. In effect, the cost of the asset is transferred to the statement of
comprehensive income over the life of the asset. This may be several years.
This section explains depreciation as an expense calculated at the end of the
accounting period as an end-of-year adjustment. This might be the case for small
businesses but larger businesses will often use software that is able to recognise
depreciation on a monthly basis.

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DEPRECIATION AND CARRYING AMOUNT

Section overview

Definition of depreciation

Accounting for depreciation

The purpose of depreciation

3.1 Definition of depreciation

Depreciation is a method of spreading the cost of a non-current asset over its
expected useful life (economic life), so that an appropriate portion of the cost is
charged in each accounting period.
Definitions (from IAS 16)
Depreciation: The systematic allocation of the depreciable amount of an asset over
its useful life.
Depreciable amount: The cost of an asset (or its revalued amount, in cases where a
non-current asset is revalued during its life) less its residual value.
Residual value: The expected disposal value of the asset (after deducting disposal
costs) at the end of its expected useful life.
Useful life: The period over which the asset is expected to be used by the business
entity.
Note that the revaluation of non-current assets and the disposal (sale) of noncurrent assets are not in this syllabus. They are mentioned above for
completeness. You will learn about these in later syllabuses.

Example: Depreciation
An item of equipment cost Rs. 300,000 and has a residual value of Rs. 50,000 at
the end of its expected useful life of four years.
Depreciation is a way of allocating the depreciable amount of Rs. 250,000 (= Rs.
300,000 - Rs. 50,000) over the four years of the assets expected life.
Depreciation should be charged as an expense in the statement of
comprehensive income each year over the life of the asset.
Depreciation of a new asset commences from the date that an asset is available
for use.
Most non-current assets must be depreciated, although there are some
exceptions to this rule. For example, land is not depreciated because it has an
indefinite useful life.

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3.2 Accounting for depreciation

The double entry for depreciation is carried out using two accounts (for each
category of non-current asset).
Illustration: Depreciation double entry
Debit
Depreciation expense

Credit

Accumulated depreciation

The balance on the depreciation expense account is taken to the statement of

comprehensive income as an expense for the period.
The accumulated depreciation account contains all of the depreciation
recognised to date. When the final statement of financial position is prepared it is
deducted from the cost of the assets. The non-current asset figure in the
statement of financial position is made up of two figures, the cost less
accumulated depreciation.
The balance on the accumulated depreciation account is carried forward as a
(credit) balance at the end of the period and appears in the statement of financial
position as a deduction from the cost of the non-current assets. The figure that
appears in the statement of financial position is known as the carrying amount
(or net book value).
Illustration: Carrying amount of a non-current asset
Rs.
Non-current asset at cost

Less accumulated depreciation

Carrying amount (net book value)

(X)
X

This figure appears on the face of

the statement of financial position

Accounts in the ledger for non-current assets and accumulated depreciation

There are separate accounts in the general ledger for each category of noncurrent assets (for example, an account for land and buildings, an account for
plant and machinery, an account for office equipment, an account for motor
vehicles, and so on) and the accumulated depreciation for each of these
categories of non-current assets.
This means that each category of non-current assets can be shown separately in
the financial statements.

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Example: Accounting for depreciation

A company purchases a non-current asset in Year 1 for Rs. 90,000.
In Year 1, the depreciation charge is Rs. 15,000.
These transactions should be recorded as follows:
Asset account
Year 1
Cash/creditors

Rs.
90,000 Balance c/f
90,000

Year 2
Balance b/f

Rs.
90,000
90,000

90,000
Accumulated depreciation account

Year 1
Balance c/f

Rs.
15,000 Depreciation account
15,000

Rs.
15,000
15,000

Balance b/f

15,000

Year 2
Depreciation account
Year 1
Accumulated depreciation

Rs.
15,000 Statement of
comprehensive income
15,000

Rs.
15,000
15,000

At the end of Year 1, the carrying amount of the asset in the statement of
financial position is:
Rs.
Non-current asset at cost (or valuation)
Less: Accumulated depreciation
Carrying amount

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90,000
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75,000

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Example continued:
The depreciation charge In Year 2 is also Rs. 15,000.
The ledger accounts in Year 2 will be as follows:
Asset account
Year 2
Balance b/f

Rs.
90,000 Balance c/f
90,000

Year 3
Balance b/f

Rs.
90,000
90,000

90,000
Accumulated depreciation account

Year 2
Balance c/f

Rs.

Balance b/f
30,000 Depreciation account
30,000

Rs.
15,000
15,000
30,000

Balance b/f

30,000

Year 3
Depreciation account
Year 2
Accumulated depreciation

Rs.
15,000 Statement of
comprehensive income

Rs.
15,000

At the end of Year 2, the carrying amount of the asset in the statement of
financial position is:
Rs.
Non-current asset at cost (or valuation)
Less: Accumulated depreciation
Carrying amount

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90,000
(30,000)
60,000

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Practice question
An item of equipment cost Rs. 40,000 at the beginning of Year 1. It has an
expected life of 5 years.
The annual depreciation charge is Rs. 8,000.
Complete the following ledger accounts for Years 1 and 2 and calculate the
carrying amount of the asset at the end of each period.
a

equipment account

b
c

accumulated depreciation of equipment account

depreciation of equipment account

3.3 The purpose of depreciation

It is important to understand the purpose of depreciation. Depreciation is an
application of the accruals concept or matching concept.
When a non-current asset is purchased the cost is:

taken to the non-current asset account at cost and

shown in the statement of financial position.

The cost is capitalised. However this asset is used within the business in order to
earn profits. Therefore some element of its original cost must be charged to the
statement of comprehensive income (charged to profit and loss) each period in
order to match the consumption of the cost or value of the assets with the
income that the asset is generating.
Depreciation is the element of the cost of the non-current asset that is charged to
the statement of comprehensive income each period.
There are several ways of calculating the depreciation charge for the year.

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METHODS OF CALCULATING DEPRECIATION

Section overview

Straight-line method

Reducing balance method

Sum-of-the-digits method

Depreciation by the number of units produced

4.1 Straight-line method

Definition: Straight line depreciation
Where the depreciable amount is charged in equal amounts to each reporting
period over the expected useful life of the asset.

Formula: Straight-line depreciation

Depreciation charge
for the year

Cost of asset less expected residual value

Expected useful life (years)

With the straight-line method, the annual depreciation charge is the same for
each full financial year over the life of the asset (unless the asset is subsequently
re-valued during its life).
This is the most common method in practice, and the easiest to calculate.
Example: Straight line depreciation
A machine cost Rs. 250,000. It has an expected economic life of five years and an
expected residual value of Rs. 50,000 at the end of that time.
Annual depreciation is:
Depreciation charge

250,000 50,000

5 years

Rs. 40,000 per

annum

An exam question might state that a full years depreciation is charged in the year
of acquisition. This would mean that a full annual charge would be recognised
even if the asset was only owned for the last few months of the year.
Example: Straight line depreciation mid-year acquisition
A machine cost Rs. 250,000. It has an expected economic life of five years.
It is expected that the machine will have a zero scrap value at the end of its useful
life.
The machine was bought on the 1st September and the company has a 31st
December year end.
The depreciation charge in the first year of ownership is:
Depreciation charge

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5 years

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Depreciation as a percentage of cost

Another way of stating straight-line depreciation is to express the annual
depreciation charge as a percentage of the cost of the asset. For example,
suppose that an asset has an expected life of 10 years and zero residual value. If
straight-line depreciation is used, the annual depreciation charge will be 10% of
the cost of the asset.
Similarly, if an non-current asset has an expected life of six years and a residual
value equal to 10% of its cost, straight-line depreciation would be 15% of cost
each year (= (100% 10%)/6 years).

4.2 Reducing balance method

Definition: Reducing balance method
Where the annual depreciation charge is a fixed percentage of the carrying amount
of the asset at the start of the period.

Formula: Reducing balance depreciation

Depreciation charge
for the year

Carrying amount at
the start of the year

Fixed %

The annual depreciation charge is highest in Year 1 and lowest in the final year
of the assets economic life.
Example: Reducing balance method
A machine cost Rs. 100,000. It has an expected life of five years, and it is to be
depreciated by the reducing balance method at the rate of 30% each year.
Annual depreciation and carrying amount over the life of the asset will be as
follows.
Annual depreciation
Carrying amount
charge (at (30% of
Carrying amount
Year
at start of year
the reducing balance)
at end of year
1

Rs.
100,000

Rs.
30,000

Rs.
70,000

70,000

21,000

49,000

49,000

14,700

34,300

34,300

10,290

24,010

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Calculating the reducing balance

The reducing balance reduces the cost of an asset down to its expected residual
value over its expected useful life.
The reducing balance percentage can be calculated using the following formula.
Formula: Calculation of reducing balance percentage
Residual value
Cost

Where:
x = The reducing balance percentage
n = Expected useful life.

Example: Reducing balance

An asset cost Rs. 10,000 and has an expected residual value of Rs. 2,000 at the
end of its expected useful life which is 5 years.
The reducing balance percentage is calculated as follows.
Residual value
Cost

2,000
10,000

0.275 or 27.5%

This percentage reduces Rs.10,000 to Rs. 2,000 over 5 years.

Year

Carrying
amount at start
of year
Rs.

Annual depreciation
charge (at (27.5%
reducing balance)
Rs.

Carrying
amount at end
of year
Rs.

10,000

2,750

7,250

7,250

1,994

5,256

5,256

1,445

3,811

3,811

1,048

2,763

2,763

763

2,000

Note that the depreciation charge in year 5 contains a rounding

difference of 3.

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4.3 Sum-of-the-digits method

Definition
Where depreciation is calculated by multiplying the depreciable amount by a
fraction where numerator is the remaining life of the asset at the start of the
period and the denominator is the sum of all the years useful life at the start of
ownership.

This is another method of depreciation that charges the highest amount in the
first year and the lowest amount in the final year.
Example: Sum of the digits
A machine cost Rs. 500,000 and was expected to have a useful life of 5 years.
Annual depreciation over the life of the asset will be as follows.
Step 1: Calculate the sum of the digits (the denominator in the fraction)
Year
1
2
3
4
5
Sum of the digits

15

Step 2: Calculate the annual depreciation charge in each year

Year

Remaining useful life at

the start of the year

Emile Woolf International

Annual depreciation charge

5
500,000=166,667
15
4
500,000=133,333
15
3
500,000=100,000
15
2
500,000=66,667
15
1
500,000=33,333
15

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There following formula can be used to calculate the sum of the digits:
Formula: Sum of the digits
Sum of the digits=

n n+1
2

Where:
n = the useful life at the start of ownership

Example: Sum of the digits by formula

5 year useful life
Sum of the digits=

n n+1 5 5+1 30
=
= =15
2
2
2

25 year useful life

Sum of the digits=

n n+1 25 25+1 650

=
=
=325
2
2
2

4.4 Depreciation by number of units produced

Definition
Where depreciation is calculated by expressing the useful life of an asset in terms
of its expected total output and allocating the annual charge to depreciation based
on actual output.

Formula: Depreciation by number of units produced

Depreciation charge
for the year

Cost of asset less expected

residual value
Expected total output of
asset over its life

Output this
year

Example: Number of units produced

A machine cost Rs. 500,000.
It is expected to produce 5,000,000 units over its useful life.
47,850 units were made in the first year of production.
The depreciation charge in the first year of ownership is:
=

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Rs.500,000
47,850=Rs. 4,875
5,000,000

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Practice questions
1

An item of equipment cost Rs. 1,260,000. It has an expected useful life

of six years and an expected residual value of Rs. 240,000. Using the
straight-line method of depreciation:
What is the annual depreciation charge?
What will be the carrying amount of the asset after four years?

The financial year of a company is 1st January to 31st December. A

non-current asset was purchased on 1st May for Rs. 60,000. Its
expected useful life is five years and its expected residual value is zero.
It is depreciated by the straight-line method.
What will be the charge for depreciation in the year of acquisition if a
proportion of a full years depreciation is charged, according to the
period for which the asset has been held?
A non-current asset cost Rs. 64,000. It is depreciated by the reducing
balance method, at the rate of 25% each year.

What is the annual depreciation charge in Year 1, Year 2 and Year 3?

A motor vehicle cost Rs.400,000. It has an expected residual value
after 5 years of Rs.40,000.
What will be the annual charge for depreciation each year if the sumof-the-digits method of depreciation is used?
What will be the carrying amount of the asset at the end of Year 2?
An office property cost Rs. 5 million, of which the land value is Rs. 2
million and the cost of the building is Rs. 3 million. The building has an
estimated life of 50 years.
What is the annual depreciation charge on the property, using the
straight-line method?

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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1

Solution
a

Equipment account
YEAR 1

Rs.

Cash

Rs.

40,000 Balance c/d

40,000

40,000

40,000 Balance c/d

40,000

40,000

40,000

40,000

YEAR 2
Balance b/d

40,000

Balance b/d

Equipment accumulated depreciation

b
YEAR 1

Rs.

Rs.

Balance c/d

8,000

Depreciation

8,000
8,000

8,000
YEAR 2
Balance b/d

Balance b/d

8,000

16,000 Depreciation
16,000

8,000
16,000

Balance b/d

16,000

Depreciation expense
YEAR 1

Rs.

Rs.

Acc. depreciation

Statement of
8,000 comprehensive income
8,000

8.000
8,000

Statement of
8,000 comprehensive income
8,000

8.000
8,000

YEAR 2
Acc. depreciation

Carrying amounts at:

Cost
Accumulated depreciation
Carrying amount

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Year 1 (Rs.)

Year 1 (Rs.)

40,000

40,000

8,000

16,000

32,000

24,000

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Introduction to accounting

Solutions
1

Annual depreciation = Rs.(1,260,000 240,000)/6 years = Rs.170,000.

After 4 years:

Rs.

Asset at cost

1,260,000

Less accumulated depreciation: Rs. 170,000 x 4)

680,000

Net book value

580,000

Annual depreciation = Rs.(60,000 0)/5 years = Rs.12,000.

Charge in the year of acquisition = Rs. 12,000 8 months/12 months =Rs. 8,000

Rs.
Cost of the asset

64,000

Year 1 depreciation (25%)

(16,000)

Carrying amount at the end of year 1

48,000

Year 2 depreciation (25%)

(12,000)

Carrying amount at the end of year 2

36,000

Year 3 depreciation (25%)

(9,000)

Carrying amount at the end of year 3

27,000

Sum of the digits = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15

Cost of the asset

400,000

Year 1 depreciation (5/15 Rs.(400,000 40,000)

Carrying amount at the end of year 1
Year 2 depreciation

(4/15

(120,000)
280,000

Rs.(400,000 40,000)

Carrying amount at the end of year 2

5

Rs.

(96,000)
184,000

Annual depreciation = Rs.(3,000,000)/50 years = Rs.60,000.

(Land is not depreciated (except in certain circumstances).

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CHAPTER

Certificate in Accounting and Finance

Introduction to accounting

Bad and doubtful debts

Contents
1 Bad debts and doubtful debts
2 Doubtful debts

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Introduction to accounting

INTRODUCTION
Learning outcomes
To enable candidates to equip themselves with the fundamental concepts of accounts
needed as a foundation for higher studies of accounting.
LO 4

Make adjustment at the end of the reporting period.

LO4.2.1

Bad and doubtful debts: Estimate allowance for bad debts based on a given
policy

LO4.2.2

Bad and doubtful debts: Post journal entry to record bad debt expense

LO4.2.3

Bad and doubtful debts: Compute and record write off and understand its
impact on allowance for bad debts.

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Chapter 7: Bad and doubtful debts

BAD DEBTS AND DOUBTFUL DEBTS

Section overview

Introduction

Accounting for bad debts

Bad debts recovered

1.1 Introduction
A business might make all its sales for cash but many businesses make some or
even all their sales on credit. There is often no alternative to offering credit to
customers. If competitors offer credit, then a business will have little alternative
but to offer credit as well so as not to lose custom. A major benefit of offering
credit is that it usually increases revenue, compared to what revenue would be if
all sales were for cash.
If sales are made on credit, there is always a chance that some customers will fall
into financial difficulty and be unable to pay what they owe.
It would be misleading to the users of the financial statements if a business
continued to show receivables where is no chance, or only a slight chance of
collecting them.
The application of the concept of prudence would require that there should be an
adjustment to reflect the fact that there are some receivables which the business
thinks that it will not recover.
There are two categories of problem receivables for which adjustment might be
required.
Bad debts (also known as irrecoverable debts or receivables)
A bad debt is an amount owed by a customer that the business believes it will
never be able to collect.
Examples of circumstances that might lead to the conclusion that a receivable is
irrecoverable include:

The bankruptcy or insolvency of a customer.

The death of a customer who has left insufficient assets to pay off his
debts.

A dispute with a customer over whether a contract has been fulfilled or not.

The dishonesty of a customer (where a person has obtained goods on

credit with no intention to pay).

Doubtful debts
A doubtful debt is an amount owed by a customer that the business believes
might prove difficult to collect but they still hope to do so. For example, the
business might know that the customer is in difficulty but that he might be able to
work his way out of it. This casts doubt on the collectability of the receivable but it
still might be possible if the customer is able to recover from his difficulties.

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Examples of circumstances that might lead to the conclusion that a receivable is

doubtful include:

A customer experiencing cash flow problems.

A customer taking an unusually long time to settle a debt.

A customer experiencing operational difficulties which might lead to

financial problems (for example, strikes, natural disasters disrupting
production etc.).

Bad debts and doubtful debts are accounted for differently, although there is
often just a single bad and doubtful debts expense account in the general
ledger.
Prudence
A business should not show an asset in its financial statements at an amount
greater than the cash it will generate. When such a circumstance arises the asset
is reduced in value down to the cash expected to result from the ownership of the
asset.

1.2 Accounting for bad debts

Bad debts are receivables that an entity is owed, but that it now does not expect
to collect.
When a specific debt (receivable) is considered bad or irrecoverable, it is written
off. This means that it is removed from the accounting system and supporting
records.
Illustration: Write off of bad debt double entry
Write off of bad debt

Debit

Credit

General ledger:
Bad and doubtful debts expense
Receivables

X
X

Receivables ledger:
Individual customer accounts

When a bad debt is written off, it is reduced to zero in the receivables ledger (and
total receivables account):

The total value of receivables is reduced (reducing assets).

The bad debt is recorded as an expense (reducing profit and hence capital).

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Chapter 7: Bad and doubtful debts

Example: Write off of bad debt

A business has trade receivables of Rs. 750,000 but decides to write off a bad debt
of Rs. 15,000.
Receivables control account
Rs.
750,000 Bad and doubtful debts
Closing balance c/f
750,000

Balance b/f

Opening balance b/f

735,000

Bad and doubtful debts account (expense)

Rs.
Receivables

Rs.
15,000
735,000
750,000

Rs.

15,000

At the end of the financial period, the bad debt expense is transferred to the
statement of comprehensive income as an expense for the period.
General ledger

Rs.

Statement of comprehensive income

Rs.

15,000

Bad and doubtful debts

15,000

(This reduces the balance on both accounts)

The balance on the customers account in the receivables ledger is
reduced by Rs.1 5,000 (in all probability, from Rs. 15,000 to Rs. 0.)

1.3 Bad debts recovered

On rare occasions cash in respect of a debt that had been written off as bad in a
previous year is subsequently received in a later period. The double entry for
recording the recovery of a bad debt is:
Illustration: Subsequent recovery of bad debt double entry
Write off of bad debt

Debit

General ledger:
Cash

Credit

Bad debt expense

The credit reduces the bad debt expense account. This recognises that the
business had previously recognised an expense when it first wrote off the debt
where, in hindsight, it need not have done so.

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DOUBTFUL DEBTS
Section overview

Basic double entry for doubtful debts

Accounting for changes in the allowance account

Bad and doubtful debts together

Doubtful debts recovered

Aged receivables analysis

Summary of the rules on bad and doubtful debts

2.1 Basic double entry for doubtful debts

As stated above, a doubtful debt is an amount owed by a customer that the
business believes might prove difficult to collect but they still hope to do so.
The accounting treatment has to serve two objectives.

The exercise of prudence requires that the value of the receivable should
be adjusted downwards (perhaps to zero) and an expense recognised for
the loss in value; but

The receivable must stay in the accounting records so that the business
continues to chase payment.

This is achieved in the following way. Instead of writing off the debt (which would
remove it from the records) a business sets up an allowance account.
Illustration: Accounting for doubtful debts basic double entry
Debit

Credit

General ledger:
Bad and doubtful debts expense

Allowance for doubtful debts

Receivables ledger:
No entry

Note that the allowance account might also be called the provision for
doubtful debts account.
The allowance is a credit balance which is then set against the carrying amount
of the receivables in the statement of financial position.
Illustration: Presentation of receivables in statement of financial position
In the statement of financial position:
Trade receivables (net of bad debts written off)

Rs.
X

Allowance for doubtful debts

(X)

Figure shown for trade receivables on the face of the

statement of financial position

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Chapter 7: Bad and doubtful debts

Measurement of the allowance

An allowance is only recognised for a debtor (receivable) if the business knows
that the debtor might not pay. Therefore, when a business has information about
the financial difficulties of specific debtors it would set up an allowance account
for these.
In addition, a business with many debtors would know from experience that at
each year end some of the debtors are in difficulty but it does not know who
these are yet. In such cases a business might recognise a further general
amount in the allowance. Note that the business would have to justify this
amount; it cannot recognise a general allowance as it pleases. This must be
based on verifiable experience.
Example: Measuring allowance for doubtful debts
The Kasur Cotton Company has receivables at the year-end of Rs.1,500,000.
It has carried out a year-end review of its receivables and discovered that a
customer owing Rs.75,000 has suffered a fire at their factory which will stop
production for 3 months. The chief accountant believes that this casts doubt on
their ability to pay their debt.
In addition, it is The Kasur Cotton Company to recognise an allowance for 5% of its
receivables. This is based on experience and the treatment has been approved by
the companys auditor.
The Kasur Cotton Company would recognise the following allowance:
Rs.
Allowance for specific receivable

75,000

General allowance:
Total receivables

1,500,000

Less amount for which there is a specific allowance

(75,000)
1,425,000

General allowance @ 5%

71,250

Total allowance required

146,250

In the statement of financial position:

Rs.

Trade receivables

1,500,000

Allowance for doubtful debts

(146,250)

Figure shown for trade receivables on the face of the

statement of financial position

1,353,750

In summary, when a bad debt is written off, receivables are reduced. An

allowance for irrecoverable debts is different from bad debts. When an allowance
for irrecoverable debts is created, total receivables are not reduced. Instead, the
allowance for irrecoverable debts is recorded in a separate account in the
general ledger an allowance for irrecoverable debts account. This always has a
credit balance.

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2.2 Accounting for changes in the allowance account

The double entry shown above is a little simplistic. In practice a business will
recognise an allowance balance at each year end. When this is the case it is the
movement on the allowance that is recognised as an expense.
Example: Accounting for change in the allowance
A business started on 1st January Year 1.
The balance on receivables and the required allowance for doubtful debts at the
end of each of the first three years were as follows:
Receivables
Allowance required

Year 1
1,000,000

Year 2
1,200,000

Year 3
900,000

20,000

24,000

18,000

The example continues on the next page.

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Chapter 7: Bad and doubtful debts

Example: Accounting for change in the allowance

Bad and doubtful debts expense account
YEAR 1
Allowance account (1)

Rs.

Rs.

Statement of
20,000 comprehensive income
20,000

20,000

Statement of
4,000 comprehensive income
4,000

4,000

20,000

YEAR 2
Allowance account (2)
YEAR 3
Statement of
comprehensive
income

4,000

6,000 Allowance account (3)

6,000

6,000
6,000

Allowance for doubtful debts

YEAR 1
Balance b/d
Balance c/d

Rs.

Rs.

0 Expense account (1)

20,000

20,000

20,000

20,000

YEAR 2
Balance b/d
Balance c/d

20,000

24,000 Expense account (2)

24,000

4,000
24,000

6,000 Balance b/d

18,000

24,000

24,000

24,000

YEAR 3
Expense account (3)
Balance c/d

Balance b/d

18,000

Note that in year 3 there is a credit to the bad debt expense. This would
reduce the expense recognised in the year (or may even be an item of
income).

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Introduction to accounting

Example: Accounting for change in the allowance Continued

The following figures would appear in the statement of financial position at each
year-end:
Receivables
Allowance required

Year 1
1,000,000

Year 2
1,200,000

Year 3
900,000

(20,000)

(24,000)

(18,000)

980,000

1,176,000

882,000

It is not obvious in the above example but the way to calculate the expense in
respect of the allowance account is to identify the movement on the allowance.
Remember that any balance on the allowance account is a credit balance.
Illustration: Change in the allowance
Debit

Credit

Increase in allowance
Bad and doubtful debts expense

Allowance for doubtful debts

Decrease in allowance
Allowance for doubtful debts

Bad and doubtful debts expense

Example: Accounting for change in the allowance Continued

Year 2
Allowance required at the start of the year

Year 2
20,000 Cr

Allowance required at the end of the year

24,000 Cr
4,000 Cr

In order to change a credit balance of 20,000 to a credit balance of

24,000 we must:
Dr
Cr
Bad and doubtful debts expense
Allowance for doubtful debts

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4,000
4,000

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Chapter 7: Bad and doubtful debts

Year 3
Year 3
Allowance required at the start of the year

24,000 Cr

Allowance required at the end of the year

18,000 Cr
6,000 Dr

In order to change a credit balance of 24,000 to a credit balance of

18,000 we must:
Dr
Cr
Allowance for doubtful debts

6,000

Bad and doubtful debts expense

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Introduction to accounting

2.3 Bad and doubtful debts together

Any question on this area will involve both bad debts and doubtful debts.
This is best seen with an example.
Example:
A business has trade receivables of Rs. 75,000.
It identifies that Rs. 5,000 of these debts are irrecoverable and should be written
off.
An allowance for irrecoverable debts of Rs. 2,000 should be created. It is the first
time that the business has opened such an account.
These transactions will be accounted for as follows:

Opening balance b/f

Opening balance b/f

Receivables account
Rs.
75,000 Bad debt expense (1)
Closing balance c/f
75,000
70,000

Rs.
5,000
70,000
75,000

Note: The balance on the trade receivables account is reduced by the bad
debts written off, but not by the allowance for doubtful debts.

Receivables (1)
Allowance (2)

Bad and doubtful debts(expense)

Rs.
5,000 Statement of comprehensive
income
2,000
7,000
Allowance for doubtful debts
Rs.
B and DD expense (2)

Rs.
7,000
7,000
Rs.
2,000

In the statement of financial position, trade receivables will be reported as:

Rs.
Trade receivables
Less: Allowance for irrecoverable debts

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2,000
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Chapter 7: Bad and doubtful debts

Example (continued into year 2)

In year 2, credit sales were Rs. 200,000, receipts from customers were Rs.
185,000 and bad debts written off were Rs. 8,000.
The allowance for irrecoverable debts is to be reduced from Rs. 2,000 to Rs. 1,500.
These transactions can be summarised as follows:

Opening balance b/f

Sales
Opening balance b/f

Receivables (1)

Receivables account
Rs.
70,000 Bank
200,000 Bad debt expense (1)
Closing balance c/f
270,000
77,000
Bad and doubtful debts(expense)
Rs.
8,000 Allowance (2)
Statement of
comprehensive income
8,000

Rs.
185,000
8,000
77,000
270,000

Rs.
500
7,500
8,000

Note: The amount charged in this account as an expense for the period is
the bad debt written off minus the reduction in the allowance for
irrecoverable debts.

B and DD expense (2)

(2,000 1,500)
Closing balance c/f

Allowance for doubtful debts

Rs.
Opening balance b/f
500
1,500
2,000
Opening balance b/f

Rs.
2,000
2,000
1,500

In the statement of financial position, trade receivables will be:

Rs.
Trade receivables
Less: Allowance for irrecoverable debts

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77,000
1,500
75,500

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Introduction to accounting

Practice question
Continuing the same example above, the following year (Year 3) sales (all
on credit) were Rs. 250,000, receipts from customers were Rs. 252,000
and bad debts written off were Rs. 7,000.
It is decided to reduce the allowance for doubtful debts from Rs. 1,500 to
Rs. 900. Record these transactions in the following ledger accounts:
a) Receivables control account
b)
c)

Bad and doubtful debts

Allowance for doubtful debts

2.4 Doubtful debts recovered

The accounting treatment to record a receipt of cash in respect of a doubtful debt
is the same as for any other debt.
Illustration: Subsequent recovery of doubtful debt double entry
Debit

Credit

General ledger:
Cash

Receivables

Receivables ledger:
Individual customer accounts

There is no special accounting treatment to reflect the fact that the business has
received cash for a debt against which it has already recognised an expense.
Common sense suggests that the business should now recognise a credit to the
statement of comprehensive income but this happens automatically through the
use of basic allowance accounting.
This is because the recovered amount will no longer be included as an allowance
when this is re-estimated at the year-end. If all other things are equal this will
cause the allowance account to fall. This fall results in a credit to the bad and
doubtful debt expense account thus reducing the expense recognised in the
statement of comprehensive income.

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Chapter 7: Bad and doubtful debts

Example: Doubtful debts recovered

At the start of a period a business has an allowance for doubtful debts made up
as follows:
Allowance required for customer A receivable

Allowance
6,000 Cr

Allowance required for customer B receivable

2,000 Cr
8,000 Cr

Customer B pays in full during the period.

The only necessary double entry is:
Dr
Cash

Cr

2,000

Receivables control account

2,000

At the period end the allowance for customer Bs receivable is no longer required.
Allowance
Allowance required at the start of the year

8,000 Cr

Allowance required at the end of the year

6,000 Cr
2,000 Dr

In order to change a credit balance of 8,000 to a credit balance of 6,000

we must:
Dr
Cr
Allowance for doubtful debts

2,000

Bad and doubtful debts expense

2,000

Therefore, the credit to the statement of comprehensive income to reflect

the fact that an expense was previously recognised when, with hindsight,
there was no need to do so, happens automatically when the year end
allowance is remeasured.

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2.5 Aged receivables analysis

Preparing an aged receivables analysis is a method of attempting to assess the
likelihood of bad debts or to make an assessment of doubtful receivables. This is
an analysis for each individual credit customer of their total debtor balance,
showing how long each invoice has been outstanding. A typical format for an
aged receivables analysis is given below:
Illustration: Aged debtors (receivables) analysis

Credit
limit
Rs.
20,000

Total
owed
Rs.
5,500

< 30
days
Rs.
3,000

30 60
days
Rs.

60 90
days
Rs.
2,500

Over
90
days
Rs.

15,000

2,700

1,000

1,000

700

Customer

If a customer has old amounts outstanding, these should be investigated and an

attempt should be made to collect payment. However the investigation may
indicate that the amount should either be written off as a bad debt, or that an
allowance should be made for an irrecoverable debt. (In other words, the debt is
not written off yet, but the chances of it being paid look doubtful.)

2.6 Summary of the rules on bad and doubtful debts

The rules for dealing with bad debts and doubtful debts at the end of the financial
year can be summarised as follows.
Illustration:
Annual charge in the statement of comprehensive
income:
Bad debts written off

Rs.
X

Plus: increase in allowance for doubtful debts; or

Less: decrease in allowance for doubtful debts

(X)
X

In the statement of financial position

Rs.

Trade receivables (net of bad debts written off)

Allowance for doubtful debts

Figure shown for trade receivables on the face of the

statement of financial position

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Chapter 7: Bad and doubtful debts

SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1

Solutions
Receivables control account
Opening balance b/f
Sales

Rs.
77,000
250,000

Opening balance b/f

327,000
68,000

Rs.
Bad and doubtful debts
(bad debts written off)
Bank
Closing balance c/f
(= balancing figure)

7,000
252,000
68,000
327,000

Bad and doubtful debts expense

Rs.

Rs.
Trade receivables (= bad
debts written off)

7,000

Allowance for doubtful

debts
(= reduction in allowance)
Statement of
comprehensive income
(= balancing figure)

7,000

1,500
5,500
7,000

Allowance for doubtful debts

Opening balance b/f

Rs.
6,000

Opening balance b/f

6,000
4,500

Rs.
Bad and doubtful debts
(= reduction in allowance)
Closing balance c/f

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4,500
6,000

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Introduction to accounting

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CHAPTER

Certificate in Accounting and Finance

Introduction to accounting

Accruals and prepayments

Contents
1 Accruals and prepayments introduced
2 Accruals
3 Prepayments
4 Unearned and accrued income

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Introduction to accounting

INTRODUCTION
LO 4

Make adjustment at the end of the reporting period.

LO4.3.1

Prepayments and accruals: Understand the matching concept that applies to

prepayments and accruals.

LO4.3.2

Prepayments and accruals: Post journal entries and ledger entries for
prepayments and accruals.

LO4.3.3

Prepayments and accruals: Post adjusting entries to recognize revenues or

expenses

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ACCRUALS AND PREPAYMENTS INTRODUCED

Section overview

The accruals concept (matching concept)

Accruals and prepayments

1.1 The accruals concept (matching concept)

Financial statements are prepared using the accruals basis of accounting rather
than on a cash basis. This means that:

sales are recognised in the same period as the related cost of making the
sale;

income is recognised in the statement of comprehensive income in the

same period as the transaction that gave rise to it (not necessarily when
cash is paid); and

expenses are recognised in the statement of comprehensive income as

they arise (not as they are paid).

For example, the cost of rental charges on office accommodation should be

spread over the period of time to which the rental payments relate, regardless of
when the actual payment of rent occurs.

Illustration: Accruals basis

A business pays annual rental is paid in advance on 1 June each year.
Rent paid on 1 June 2012 = Rs. 240,000
Rent paid on 1 June 2012 = Rs. 300,000
The financial year ends on 30 September.
The rental expense for the year ended 30 September 2013 is:
Period:

Rs.

1 October 2012 to 31 May 2013

8/12

of 240,000 (the last 8 months of the rental year)

160,000

1 June 2013 to 30 September 2013

4/12

of 300,000 (the first 4 months of the rental year)

100,000
260,000

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1.2 Accruals and prepayments

Accruals
A business might incur an expense before the year end but not receive an
invoice until after the year-end. If this is the case the business must estimate the
amount of the expense and recognise it as an expense and a liability.
The liability is known as an accrual. The business is said to be making an accrual
for the expense or accruing for the expense.
Prepayments
A business might pay or at least be invoiced for some expenses in advance.
When the invoice is received the business will recognise the full liability as a debit
in an expense account. It would be wrong to then clear all of this to the statement
of comprehensive income in the current period. Some of it relates to the next
period. This part must be recognised as an asset (it represents a right to receive
some kind of service in the next period) called a prepayment.
There are two approaches to accounting for both accruals and prepayments:

Method 1 using two accounts; and

Method 2 using one account.

Each of these will be explained in turn.

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ACCRUALS
Section overview

Accrued expenses (accruals)

Method 1: the two account approach for accrued expenses (accruals)

Method 2: the one account approach for accrued expenses (accruals)

2.1 Accruals (accrued expenses)

A business might incur expenses during a period but may not have been sent the
invoice by the period end.
Since there has been no payment and no invoice, a financial transaction has not
yet occurred and there is not yet anything to record as a book-keeping entry in
the ledgers. However, to apply the accruals basis of accounting, the expense
must be charged in the statement of comprehensive income for the accounting
period to which the expense relates. This is done by creating an accrued
expense at the end of the accounting period.
An accrued expense (accrual) is an estimate of the cost that has been incurred in
the financial period, and it is included in expenses in the statement of
comprehensive income for the period and recognised as a liability (called an
accrual) in the statement of financial position.
Accruals are often necessary when expenses are paid in arrears (i.e. at the end
of a period of expense).

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Example:
Wasif set up in business on 1 January Year 1. The business has a 31 December
year end.
The business acquired a telephone system on 1 February.
Telephone charges are paid every 3 three months in arrears and telephone
invoices received in Year 1 are as follows:
Rs.
30 April
31 July
31 October

5,000
7,500
8,500

To calculate the telephone expenses for Year 1, it is necessary to estimate the

expense for November and December, and to make an accrual.
The next invoice (at the end of January Year 2) is expected to be Rs. 9,000.
The accrual for November and December Year 1 should be Rs. 6,000 (Rs. 9,000
2/3).
This can be represented as follows:

There are two ways of accounting for accruals at the end of an accounting
period. These will be explained in turn.

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2.2 Method 1: the two account approach for accrued expenses

This is the easier approach. Also note that it is the method used in computerised
accounting systems.
The accrued expense is recorded in an accrued expenses account. The double
entry for this adjustment is as follows
Illustration: Accruals using two accounts.
Debit
Expense account

Credit

Accruals account

This adds the accrued expense to the expenses recognised as the result of
having received invoices earlier in the current accounting period.
The credit balance on the accruals account is a liability, and is included in the
statement of financial position as a current liability.
Example (continued): Year 1
Payments in the year were:
Rs.
30 April
31 July
31 October

5,000
7,500
8,500

The accrual for November and December Year 1 is Rs. 6,000 (Rs. 9,000 2/3).
Method 1: two account approach
Telephone expenses account
Year 1
Bank
Bank
Bank
Accrued expense (accruals
account)

Rs.

Statement of
5,000 comprehensive income
7,500
8,500
6,000
27,000

Rs.
27,000

27,000

Year 2
Accruals account

6,000

Accruals account
Year 1
Closing balance c/d

Rs.
6,000 Telephone expenses
6,000

Rs.
6,000
6,000

Year 2
Opening balance b/d

6,000

The expense in the statement of comprehensive income for Year 1 is Rs. 27,000
and the accrued expense of Rs. 6,000 is included in the statement of financial
position as a current liability at the end of Year 1.

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Reversal of the accrual

There is a complication. At the year end the expense account is cleared to the
statement of comprehensive income and there is a credit balance carried down
on the accruals account.
Assume that the invoice that arrives in January is Rs. 9,500. The accounting
system will record the following double entry:
Example: January invoice received
Debit
Expense account
Liability

Credit

9,500
9,500

However, an expense of Rs. 6,000 and a liability of Rs. 6,000 has already been
recognised in respect of this invoice. If no further adjustment is made the 6,000 is
being included twice.
There is a simple way to prevent this. The double entry that set up the accrual at
the end of the last period is reversed:
Example: Reversal of the accrual (start of year 2)
The following double entry is processed at the start of year 2:
Debit
Credit
Accruals account

6,000

Expense account

6,000

This removes the accrual so that it is not counted twice as a liability and
the balance on the expense account is adjusted down to the amount that
has not yet been expensed for this invoiced.
Telephone expense account
Year 2
Accruals (reversal)
Payables

6,000

9,500
Accruals

Year 2 (at start of the

year)
Telephone expense

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Example: Year 2
In Year 2, the telephone invoices are as follows:
Rs.
31 January
30 April
31 July
31 October

9,500
9,500
10,000
10,000

To calculate the telephone expenses for Year 2, it is necessary to estimate the

expense for November and December, and to make an accrual.
The next invoice (at the end of January Year 3) is expected to be Rs. 10,500.
The accrual for November and December Year 1 should be Rs. 7,000 (Rs. 10,500
2/3).
This can be represented as follows:

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Example: Year 2
In Year 2, the telephone invoices are as follows:
Rs.
31 January
30 April
31 July
31 October

9,500
9,500
10,000
10,000

To calculate the telephone expenses for Year 2, it is necessary to estimate the

expense for November and December, and to make an accrual.
The next invoice (at the end of January Year 3) is expected to be Rs. 10,500.
The accrual for November and December Year 1 should be Rs. 7,000 (Rs. 10,500
2/3).
Method 1: two account approach
Telephone expenses account
Year 2
Bank
Bank
Bank
Bank
Accrued expense (accruals
account)

Rs.
9,500 Accruals account
(reversal of year 1
accrual)
9,500 Statement of
comprehensive income
10,000
(balancing figure)
10,000
7,000
46,000

Rs.
6,000
40,000

46,000

Year 3
Accruals account

7,000

Accruals account
Year 2
Telephone expense
account (reversal of Year 1
accrual)
Closing balance c/d

Rs.

Opening balance b/d

Rs.
6,000

6,000

Telephone expenses
7,000 account
13,000
Opening balance b/d

7,000
13,000
7,000

The expense in the statement of comprehensive income for Year 2 is Rs. 40,000
and the accrued expense of Rs. 7,000 is included in the statement of financial
position as a current liability at the end of Year 2.

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2.3 Method 2: the one account approach for accrued expenses

This approach is trickier to understand. The accrual is recognised in the expense
account.
There are two ways of achieving this.

The total expense can be calculated and transferred to the statement of

comprehensive income (Dr Statement of comprehensive income; Cr
Expense account) leaving a balancing figure on the expense account as an
accrual; or

The accrual can be calculated and recognised in the expense account

leaving the amount transferred to the statement of comprehensive income
(Dr Statement of comprehensive income; Cr Expense account) as a
balancing figure

Example: Year 1
Wasif set up in business on 1 January Year 1. The business has a 31 December
year end.
The business acquired a telephone system on 1 February.
Telephone charges are paid every 3 three months in arrears and telephone
invoices received in Year 1 are as follows:
Rs.
30 April
31 July
31 October

5,000
7,500
8,500

To calculate the telephone expenses for Year 1, it is necessary to estimate the

expense for November and December, and to make an accrual.
The next invoice (at the end of January Year 2) is expected to be Rs. 9,000.
The accrual for November and December Year 1 should be Rs. 6,000 (Rs. 9,000
2/3).
Method 2: one account approach
Telephone expenses account
Year 1
Bank
Bank
Bank
Closing balance (accrued
expense) c/d

Rs.
5,000 Statement of
comprehensive income
7,500
8,500
6,000
27,000
Opening balance b/d

Rs.
27,000

27,000
6,000

In order to make the above work either:

1)

Calculate the expense transferred to the statement of comprehensive

income (27,000) and calculate the accrual taken as a balancing figure; or

2)

Calculate the accrual needed (6,000) and then calculate the expense
transferred to the statement of comprehensive income (27,000) as a
balancing figure (6,000). This is usually the easiest way.

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There is no need to reverse the accrual using the one account method as it is
already in the expense account at the start of the next year.
Example (continued): Year 2
In Year 2, the telephone invoices are as follows:
Rs.
31 January
30 April
31 July
31 October

9,500
9,500
10,000
10,000

To calculate the telephone expenses for Year 2, it is necessary to estimate the

expense for November and December, and to make an accrual.
The next invoice (at the end of January Year 3) is expected to be Rs. 10,500.
The accrual for November and December Year 1 should be Rs. 7,000 (Rs. 10,500
2/3).
Method 2: one account approach
Telephone expenses account
Year 2
Bank
Bank
Bank
Bank
Closing balance
(accrued expense) c/d

Rs.
9,500 Opening balance b/d
9,500 Statement of
comprehensive income
10,000
10,000
7,000
46,000
Opening balance b/d

Rs.
6,000
40,000

46,000
7,000

In order to make the above work either:

1)

Calculate the expense transferred to the statement of comprehensive

income (40,000) and calculate the accrual taken as a balancing figure
(7,000); or

2)

Calculate the accrual needed (7,000) and then calculate the expense
transferred to the statement of comprehensive income (40,000) as a
balancing figure. This is usually the easiest way.

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Calculating the expense for the statement of comprehensive income

Method 2 requires the calculation of either the closing accrual or the charge to
the statement of comprehensive income, the other number being taken as a
balancing figure. It is almost always easier to calculate the accrual.
The amount charged to the statement of comprehensive income can be
calculated as follows. It is worth spending a little time trying to understand this.
Example: Charge to the statement of comprehensive income
From first principles
Year 1
January

February to April

5,000

May to July

7,500

August to October

8,500

November and December (accrual)

6,000
27,000
Year 2

November to January
Less amount already expensed last year
for November and January

9,500
(6,000)

Therefore: January

3,500

February to April

9,500

May to July

10,000

August to October

10,000

November and December (accrual)

7,000
40,000

In fact, what is going on above can be represented by the following:

Illustration:
Rs.
Invoices/payments for the year

+ Closing accrued expense

X
X

Opening accrued expense

= Expense for the year

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Example:
Year 1

Year 2

9,500

February to April

5,000

9,500

May to July

7,500

10,000

August to October

8,500

+ Closing accrued expense

6,000

10,000
7,000

27,000

46,000

(6,000)

27,000

40,000

Invoices/payments for the year:

January

Opening accrued expense

= Expense for the year

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PREPAYMENTS
Section overview

Prepayments (prepaid expenses)

Method 1: the two accounts method

Method 2: the one account method

3.1 Prepayments (prepaid expenses)

Prepaid expenses are expenses that are recorded in the accounts in the current
period, because a purchase invoice has been received or a payment has been
made, but all or part of the expense relates to a future accounting period.
Prepaid expenses occur whenever payments are made in advance for an
expense item.
To apply the accruals basis of accounting, the expenses that have been recorded
in the accounts but that relate to a future accounting period should be:

excluded from the expenses in the statement of comprehensive income for

the current year and recognised as an asset (a prepayment) at the yearend; and then

included in the expenses for the next financial period (which is the period to
which they relate).

Example: Year 1
Fahad set up in business on 1 January Year 1 preparing financial statements to 31
December each year..
On 1 March he obtains annual insurance on his office building, starting from 1
March at cost of Rs. 24,000, payable annually in advance.
10 months of the insurance cost relates to the current financial period (Year 1) and
2 months of it relates to insurance in the next financial year (January and February
Year 2).
The charge to the statement of comprehensive income for insurance in Year 1
should therefore be Rs. 20,000 (Rs. 24,000 10/12).
The prepaid expense for Year 2 is Rs. 4,000 (Rs. 24,000 2/12).
This can be represented as follows:

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There are two ways of accounting for prepayments at the end of an accounting
period. These will be explained in turn.

3.2 Method 1: the two accounts method

This is the easier approach. Also note that it is the method used in computerised
accounting systems.
The prepayment is estimated and then transferred from the expense account to a
prepayment account:
Illustration: Prepayment using two accounts.
Debit
Prepayment account (an asset)
Expense account

Credit

X
X

The prepayment is a credit entry in the expense account therefore reducing the
expense recognised in the current period.
The debit balance on the prepayments account is included in the statement of
financial position as a current asset.
Example: Year 1
Fahad set up in business on 1 January Year 1 preparing financial statements to 31
December each year..
On 1 March he obtains annual insurance on his office building, starting from 1
March at cost of Rs. 24,000, payable annually in advance.
10 months of the insurance cost relates to the current financial period (Year 1) and
2 months of it relates to insurance in the next financial year (January and February
Year 2).
The charge to the statement of comprehensive income for insurance in Year 1
should therefore be Rs. 20,000 (Rs. 24,000 10/12).
The prepaid expense for Year 2 is Rs. 4,000 (Rs. 24,000 2/12).
Method 1: two accounts approach
Insurance expense
Year 1
Bank

Rs.
24,000 Prepayments
Statement of comprehensive
income
24,000

Rs.
4,000
20,000
24,000

Prepayments account
Year 1
Insurance expense

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4,000

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Reversal of the prepayment

At the beginning of the next accounting period, the balance in the prepayments
account is transferred back to the expense account so that it will be recognised
as an expense in the next accounting period.
Example (continued): Reversal of the prepayment (at the start of year 2)
The following double entry is processed at the start of year 2:
Debit
Credit
Insurance expense

4,000

Prepayments

4,000

This reinstates the prepayment as an expense that relates to the second

year.
Insurance expense
Year 2
Prepayments (reversal)

4,000

Prepayments
Year 2 (at start of the
year)
Balance b/d

4,000

Insurance expense

4,000

Example (continued): Year 2

In Year 2, the annual insurance premium payable on 1 March is Rs. 30,000 for the
year to 28 February Year 3.
The prepaid expense at the end of Year 2 is therefore Rs. 5,000 (Rs. 30,000 2/12)
and the insurance expense in Year 2 is accounted for as follows:
This can be represented as follows:

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Example (continued): Year 2

In Year 2, the annual insurance premium payable on 1 March is Rs. 30,000 for the
year to 28 February Year 3.
The prepaid expense at the end of Year 2 is therefore Rs. 5,000 (Rs. 30,000 2/12)
and the insurance expense in Year 2 is accounted for as follows:
Method 1: two accounts approach
Insurance expense
Year 2
Prepayments
Bank

Year 3
Prepayments (reversal)

Rs.
4,000 Prepayments
30,000 Statement of
comprehensive income
(balancing figure)
34,000

Rs.
5,000
29,000
34,000

5,000
Prepayments

Year 2
Opening balance b/d
Insurance expenses account
Year 3
Opening balance b/d

Rs.
4,000 Insurance expenses
5,000 Closing balance c/d
9,000

Rs.
4,000
5,000
9,000

5,000 Insurance expenses (reversal)

5,000

The expense in the statement of comprehensive income is Rs. 29,000.

This consists of the prepayment at the beginning of the year (Rs. 4,000 for January
and February) plus the expense for the 10 months from March to December ((Rs.
30,000 10/12) = Rs. 25,000).
The prepaid expense of Rs. 5,000 at the end of Year 2 is included in the statement
of financial position as a current asset.

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3.3 Method 2: the one account method

This approach is trickier to understand. The prepayment is recognised in the
expense account.
There are two ways of achieving this.

The total expense can be calculated and transferred to the statement of

comprehensive income (Dr Statement of comprehensive income; Cr
Expense account) leaving a balancing figure on the expense account as a
prepayment; or

The prepayment can be calculated and recognised in the expense account

leaving the amount transferred to the statement of comprehensive income
(Dr Statement of comprehensive income; Cr Expense account) as a
balancing figure.

Example: Year 1
Fahad set up in business on 1 January Year 1 preparing financial statements to 31
December each year..
On 1 March he obtains annual insurance on his office building, starting from 1
March at cost of Rs. 24,000, payable annually in advance.
10 months of the insurance cost relates to the current financial period (Year 1) and
2 months of it relates to insurance in the next financial year (January and February
Year 2).
The charge to the statement of comprehensive income for insurance in Year 1
should therefore be Rs. 20,000 (Rs. 24,000 10/12).
The prepaid expense for Year 2 is Rs. 4,000 (Rs. 24,000 2/12).
Method 2: one account approach
Insurance expenses
Year 1
Bank

Year 2
Opening balance b/d

Rs.
24,000 Statement of
comprehensive income
Closing balance c/d
(prepayment)
24,000

Rs.
20,000
4,000
24,000

4,000

The expense in the statement of comprehensive income is Rs. 20,000 and the
prepaid expense is included in the statement of financial position as a current
asset at the end of Year 1.
There is no need to reverse the prepayment using the one account method as it
is already in the expense account at the start of the next year.

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Example (continued): Year 2

In Year 2, the annual insurance premium payable on 1 March is Rs. 30,000 for the
year to 28 February Year 3.
The prepaid expense at the end of Year 2 is therefore Rs. 5,000 (Rs. 30,000 2/12)
and the insurance expense in Year 2 is accounted for as follows:
Method 2: one account approach
Insurance expenses
Year 2
Opening balance b/d
Bank
Year 3
Opening balance b/d

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4,000 Statement of comprehensive
income
30,000
(balancing figure)
Closing balance c/d
34,000

Rs.
29,000
5,000
34,000

5,000

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3.4 Prepaid expenses: calculating the expense for the statement of

comprehensive income
Method 2 requires the calculation of either the closing prepayment or the charge
to the statement of comprehensive income, the other number being taken as a
balancing figure. It is almost always easier to calculate the prepayment.
The amount charged to the statement of comprehensive income can be
calculated as follows. It is worth spending a little time trying to understand this.
Example: Charge to the statement of comprehensive income
Year 1
January, February

March to December:
10

/12 of 24,000

20,000

Year 2
January, February:
2

/12 of 24,000

4,000

March to December:
10

/12 of 30,000

25,000
29,000

The expense may also be calculated as follows:

Illustration:
Rs.
Invoices/payments for the year

+ Opening prepaid expense

X
X

Closing prepaid expense

(X)

= Expense for the year

Example:
Rs.

Rs.

24,000

30,000

4,000

24,000

34,000

Closing prepaid expense

(4,000)

(4,000)

= Expense for the year

20,000

30,000

Invoices/payments for the year

+ Opening prepaid expense

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UNEARNED AND ACCRUED INCOME

Section overview

Introduction

Unearned income

Accrued income

4.1 Introduction
A business may have miscellaneous forms of income, for example, from renting
out property.
When a business entity has income from sources where payments are made in
advance or in arrears. The accruals basis of accounting applies, and the amount
of income to include in profit and loss for a period is the amount of income that
relates to that period. It may therefore be necessary to apportion income on a
time basis and there may be unearned income or accrued income to account for.
Unearned income
This is where a business has received income in advance. For example, a
business might rent out a property for which the tenant must pay in advance.
Only the income that relates to the period is recognised in the statement of
comprehensive income and the balance is recognised as a liability of the
business. (Note that it is an asset of the tenant).
Accrued income
This is where a business receives income in arrears.
For example, a business might rent out a property for which the tenant must pay
in arrears. The tenant might owe the business money at the businesss year-end.
All of the income that relates to the period must be recognised in the statement of
comprehensive income. It is necessary to recognise the amount owed to the
business as an asset at the year-end.

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4.2 Unearned income

The method of calculating income for the year when there is unearned income is
the same in principle as the method of calculating an expense for the year when
there is an accrued charge or a prepaid expense.
Example: Unearned income
A business rents out a part of its premises.
The rent is payable every six months, on 1 May and 1 November in advance.
The company has a year end of 31 December.
The annual rental for the year to 30 April 2013 was Rs. 48,000 (received in two
amount so of Rs.24,000 on 1 May 2012 and 1 November 2012).
The annual rental and Rs. 60,000 for the year to 30 April 2014 (received in two
amount so of Rs.30,000 on 1 May 2013 and 1 November 2013).
Income for the year ending 31 December 2013 is:
Rs.
For the 4 months 1 January 30 April 2013:
4/12 Rs. 48,000
For the 8 months 1 May 31 December 2013:
8/12 Rs. 60,000

40,000

Rental income for the year to 31 December 2013

56,000

16,000

At 31 December 2012 there was unearned rental income for the period 1
January 30 April 2013.
The amount of unearned income is 4/12 of the Rs. 24,000 received on 1
November 2012 which came to Rs. 16,000. (This represents 4 months at
Rs. 4,000 per month)
This was included as a current liability in the statement of financial
position as at the end of the last financial year.
At 31 December 2013 there is unearned rental income for the period 1
January 30 April 2014.
The amount of unearned income is 4/12 of the Rs. 30,000 received on 1
November 2013 which comes to Rs. 20,000. (This represents 4 months at
Rs. 5,000 per month)
This is recognised as a current liability as at the end of the financial year.
Unearned income (just as for prepayments and accruals) can be accounted for
using either one or two accounts to record the transactions. If two accounts are
used the closing unearned income liability must be reversed to the income
account at the start of the next period (just as is the case for prepayments and
accruals).

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Method 1: Two accounts method

Income has been paid to the business but some of it relates to the next period.
This amount must be transferred from the income account to a liability account
Example: Unearned income
Debit
Income
Unearned income (liability)

Credit

X
X

Example (continued): Unearned income

The double entry is as follows:
Rental income

Unearned income (to be

recognised in 2014)
Statement of
comprehensive income

20,000

Unearned income
(reversal of 2012
unearned income)

16,000

Cash (1 May 2013)

30,000

Cash (1 November 2013)

30,000

56,000
76,000

76,000

Unearned income

Rental income (reversal

of 2012 unearned
income)

16,000

Balance c/d

20,000

Balance b/d (at 1st

January 2013)

16,000

Rental income

20,000
36,000

36,000
Balance b/d

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Chapter 8: Accruals and prepayments

Method 2: One account method

The unearned income is brought down as a liability on the income account.
There are two ways of achieving this.

The total income for the period can be calculated and transferred to the
statement of comprehensive income (Dr Income account; Cr Statement of
comprehensive income) leaving a balancing figure on the expense account
as the unearned income liability; or

The unearned income liability can be calculated and recognised in the

expense account leaving the amount transferred to the statement of
comprehensive income (Dr Income account; Cr Statement of
comprehensive income) as a balancing figure

Example (continued): Unearned income (One account approach)

The double entry is as follows:
Rental income

Statement of
comprehensive income

56,000

Balance c/d

20,000

Balance b/d

16,000

Cash (1 May 2013)

30,000

Cash (1 November 2013)

30,000

76,000

76,000
Balance b/d

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Introduction to accounting

4.3 Accrued income

The method of calculating income for the year when there is accrued income is
the same in principle as the method of calculating an expense for the year when
there is an accrued charge or a prepaid expense.
Example: Accrued income
A business rents out a part of its premises.
Rentals are payable each quarter in arrears on 31 January, 30 April, 31 July and
31 October.
The company has a year end of 31 December.
The annual rental was Rs. 30,000 per year until 31 October 2013 (or Rs. 2,500
per month received in 4 amounts of Rs.7,500 on 31 January, 30 April, 31 July
and 31 October).
The annual rental was increased to Rs. 36,000 per year from 1 November 2013
(or Rs. 3,000 per month received in 4 amounts of Rs.9,000 on 31 January, 30
April, 31 July and 31 October).
Income for the year ending 31 December 2013 is:
Rs.
For the 10 months 1 January 31 October 2013:
10/12 Rs. 30,000
For the 2 months 1 November 31 December 2013:
2/12 Rs. 36,000

25,000

Rental income for the year to 31 December

31,000

6,000

At 31 December 2012 there was rental earned but not yet received.
This is the rental income for November and December 2012, which will
not be received until 31 January 2013.
The amount of the accrued income is Rs. 5,000 (2/3 of 7,500 or 2 months
at Rs. 2,500 per month) and was included in last years income and
recognised as a current asset at the end of last year financial year.
At 31 December 2013 there is rental earned but not yet received.
This is the rental income for November and December 2013, which will
not be received until 31 January 2014.
The amount of the accrued income is Rs. 6,000 (2/3 of 9,000 or 2 months
at Rs. 3,000 per month) and is included in income and recognised as a
current asset at the end of the financial year.
Accrued income (just as for prepayments and accruals) can be accounted for
using either one or two accounts to record the transactions. If two accounts are
used the closing accrued income asset must be reversed to the income account
at the start of the next period (just as is the case for prepayments and accruals).

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Chapter 8: Accruals and prepayments

Method 1: Two accounts method

Income has been earned in the current period. This amount must be recognised.
Example: Accrued income
Debit
Accrued income (asset)
Income

Credit

X
X

Example (continued): Accrued income

The double entry is as follows:
Rental income
Accrued income (reversal
of 2012 accrued income)

Statement of
comprehensive income

5,000

31,000

Cash (31 January 2013)

7,500

Cash (30 April 2013)

7,500

Cash (31 July 2013)

7,500

Cash (31 October 2013)

Accrued income (for
November and December
2013)

7,500

6,000
36,000

36,000
Accrued income
Balance b/d (at 1st
January 2013)

Rental income

5,000

6,000
11,000

Balance b/d

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Rental income (reversal

of 2012 accrued income)

5,000

Balance c/d

6,000
11,000

6,000

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Introduction to accounting

Method 2: One account method

The accrued income is brought down as an asset on the income account.
There are two ways of achieving this.

The total income for the period can be calculated and transferred to the
statement of comprehensive income (Dr Income account; Cr Statement of
comprehensive income) leaving a balancing figure on the expense account
as the accrued income asset; or

The accrued income asset can be calculated and recognised in the

expense account leaving the amount transferred to the statement of
comprehensive income (Dr Income account; Cr Statement of
comprehensive income) as a balancing figure

Example (continued): Accrued income (One account approach)

The double entry is as follows:
Rental income
Balance b/d

Statement of
comprehensive income

5000

31,000
36,000

Balance b/d

Emile Woolf International

Cash (31 January 2013)

7,500

Cash (30 April 2013)

7,500

Cash (31 July 2013)

7,500

Cash (31 October 2013)

7,500

Balance c/d

6,000
36,000

6,000

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CHAPTER

Certificate in Accounting and Finance

Introduction to accounting

9
Inventory

Contents
1 End-of-year adjustments for inventory
2 Other issues

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Introduction to accounting

INTRODUCTION
Learning outcomes
To enable candidates to equip themselves with the fundamental concepts of accounts
needed as a foundation for higher studies of accounting.
LO 4

Make adjustment at the end of the reporting period.

LO4.4.1

Closing entries for inventory: Understand the concepts of periodic and

perpetual inventory system

LO4.4.2

Closing entries for inventory: Identify the need to post the adjustment entries
of inventory at the end of the period in case of periodic inventory system.

LO4.4.3

Closing entries for inventory: Pass the adjusting entries and ledger entries at
the end of the period.

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Chapter 9: Inventory

END-OF-YEAR ADJUSTMENTS FOR INVENTORY

Section overview

Recording inventory

Periodic inventory method (period-end method): accounting procedures

Perpetual inventory method: accounting procedures

Summary of journal entries under each system

1.1 Recording inventory

In order to prepare a statement of comprehensive income it is necessary to be
able to calculate gross profit. This is done by comparing the sale proceeds from
the sale of items of inventory to the cost of those items. This is an application of
the accruals concept (matching principle).
In order to calculate gross profit it is necessary to record opening inventory,
purchases and closing inventory.
There are two main methods of recording inventory.

Periodic inventory method (period end system)

Perpetual inventory system

Each method uses a ledger account for inventory but these have different roles.
A question on year-end adjustments for inventories will normally require you to
use the periodic inventory method but the perpetual inventory system is
examinable in its own right.

1.2 Periodic inventory method (period-end method): accounting procedures

This system is based on the use of two ledger accounts:

Purchases account which is used to record all purchases during the year;
and

Inventory account which is used to record the value of inventory at the

beginning/end of the financial year.

It operates as follows:
Year 1
A business starts on 1 January Year 1. This business has no opening inventory.
All inventory purchased in the year to 31 December Year 1 is recorded in the
purchases account.
Illustration: Purchases through the year
Debit
Purchases
Cash or liabilities

Credit

X
X

At the end of the year a trial balance is extracted. One of the balances in the trial
balance is the purchases figure for the year.

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Introduction to accounting

This is transferred to cost of sales clearing the purchases account to zero.

Illustration: Year end transfer to cost of sales
Debit
Cost of sales
Purchases

Credit

X
X

At the end of the year cost of sales must be calculated. Purchases are not the
same as cost of sales because the company still holds some of the items that it
purchased.
The number of items of inventory still held is established through an inventory
count. This involves the staff of the business counting every item of inventory and
making a record of this. The inventory is then valued (usually at cost). This figure
is the closing inventory.
It is recognised as an asset on the statement of financial position and as a credit
entry on the statement of comprehensive income (where it reduces the cost of
sales expense).
Illustration: Closing inventory double entry
Debit
Inventory (statement of financial position)
Cost of sales (Statement of comprehensive
income)

Credit

X
X

The exact location of the credit entry might be to one of several accounts but
ultimately it always achieves the same purpose, that is, to set reduce cost of
sales. Thus it might be a credit to a statement of comprehensive income
inventory account (which is later transferred to a cost of sales account or it might
be a credit to the cost of sales account.
At the end of year 1 the purchases and the credit entry for closing inventory form
part of the profit for the period. The debit entry for closing inventory is carried
down into year 2 as an asset.
Year 2
The closing inventory in year 1 becomes the opening inventory in year 2
All inventory purchased in the year to 31 December Year 2 is recorded in the
purchases account.
At the end of the year a trial balance is extracted. One of the balances in the trial
balance is the purchases figure for the year. Another of the balances is the
opening inventory which has been there since the start of the year.
The purchases together with the opening inventory are what the business could
have sold in the period. These are both transferred to the cost of sales.

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Chapter 9: Inventory

Illustration: Year end transfer to cost of sales

Debit
Cost of sales

Credit

Purchases

Cost of sales

Inventory (statement of financial position)

Note that this is the transfer of the opening inventory to cost of sales)
At the end of the financial year, the closing inventory is physically counted and
valued. The closing inventory double entry is then processed.
Illustration: Closing inventory double entry
Debit
Inventory (statement of financial position)
Cost of sales (Statement of comprehensive
income)

Credit

X
X

In summary
Opening inventory in the trial balance (a debit balance) and purchases (a debit
balance) are both transferred to cost of sales.
This clears both accounts.
Closing inventory is recognised in the inventory account as an asset (a debit
balance) and the other side of the entry is a credit to cost of sales.
Cost of sales comprises purchase in the period adjusted for movements in
inventory level from the start to the end of the period.
Illustration: Cost of sales

Opening inventory (a debit)

Purchases (a debit)
Closing inventory (a credit)
Cost of sales

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Year 1

Year 2

Rs.

Rs.

(X)

(X)

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Introduction to accounting

Example:
Faisalabad Trading had opening inventory of Rs. 10,000.
Purchases during the year were Rs. 30,000.
Closing inventory at the end of Year 2 was Rs. 12,000.
At the year end the following entries are necessary
Purchases account
Balance b/d

Rs.
30,000 (1) Cost of sales

Rs.
30,000

Inventory account
Balance b/d
(3) Cost of sales
Recognition of closing
inventory
Opening balance b/d

Rs.
10,000 (2) Cost of sales
Removal of opening
inventory
12,000
Closing balance c/d
22,000
12,000

Rs.
10,000

12,000
22,000

Cost of sales
(1) Purchases
(2) Opening inventory

Cost of sales b/f

Rs.
30,000
10,000

Rs.
(3) Closing inventory

12,000

Cost of sales c/f

28,000
40,000

40,000
28,000

The cost of sales total is then transferred to the statement of comprehensive

income.
The cost of sales is part of the statement of comprehensive income and can be
presented as follows:
Rs.
Sales
Opening inventory
Purchases

10,000
30,000
40,000
(12,000)

Closing inventory
Cost of sales
Gross profit

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Rs.
X

(28,000)
X

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Chapter 9: Inventory

Remember the following:

In a period-end system of accounting for inventory, the double entries are

between the inventory account and the statement of comprehensive
income.

The cost of opening inventory is included in the cost of sales. It is an

expense, and expenses are a debit entry. So debit the statement of
comprehensive income (and credit the inventory account) with the cost of
the opening inventory.

The cost of closing inventory is included in the statement of financial

position as an asset, so there must be a debit balance for the closing
inventory. So debit Inventory (and credit Statement of comprehensive
income) with the valuation of the closing inventory.

Practice questions
The following trial balance has been extracted from the ledger of Chiniot
Market Traders at 30 June 2013.

Salaries
Drawings
Lighting and heating
Sales
Trade receivables
Rent
Office expenses
Capital at 1 July 2012
Purchases
Inventory at 1 July 2012
Trade payables
Property, plant and machinery
Cash

Debit

Credit

Rs. 000
10,500
3,000
500

Rs. 000

30,000
10,000
2,000
1,000
27,500
14,000
2,000
4,000
17,500
1,000
61,500

61,500

Closing inventory at 30 June 2013 has been valued at Rs. 1,500,000.

Required
Prepare the statement of comprehensive income for the year to 30 June Year 3
and the statement of financial position as at that date.

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Introduction to accounting

1.3 Perpetual inventory method: accounting procedures

A single account is used to record all inventory movements. The account is used
to record purchases in the period and inventory is brought down on the account
at each year-end. The account is also used to record all issues out of inventory.
These issues constitute the cost of sales.
When the perpetual inventory method is used, a record is kept of all receipts of
items into inventory (at cost) and all issues of inventory to cost of sales.
Each issue of inventory is given a cost, and the cost of the items issued is either
the actual cost of the inventory (if it is practicable to establish the actual cost) or a
cost obtained using a valuation method.
Each receipt and issue of inventory is recorded in the inventory account. This
means that a purchases account becomes unnecessary, because all purchases
are recorded in the inventory account.
All transactions involving the receipt or issue of inventory must be recorded, and
at any time, the balance on the inventory account should be the value of
inventory currently held.
Example:
Faisalabad Trading had opening inventory of Rs. 10,000.
Purchases during the year were Rs. 30,000.
Closing inventory at the end of Year 2 was Rs. 12,000.
The following entries are necessary during the period.
Inventory account
Balance b/d
Cash or creditors
(purchases in the year)

Rs.
10,000 Cost of sales
30,000
Closing balance c/d

Opening balance b/d

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Rs.
28,000

40,000
12,000

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12,000
40,000

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Chapter 9: Inventory

Furthermore, all transactions involving any kind of adjustment to the cost of

inventory must be recorded in the inventory account.
Example:
Gujrat Retail (GR) had opening inventory of Rs. 100,000.
Purchases during the year were Rs. 500,000. Inventory with a cost of Rs. 18,000
was returned to a supplier. One of the purchases in the above amount was subject
to an express delivery fee which cost the company an extra Rs. 15,000 in addition
to the above amount.
GR sold goods during the year which had cost Rs. 520,000. Goods which had cost
Rs. 20,000 were returned to the company.
Just before the year end goods which had cost Rs. 5,000 were found to have been
damaged whilst being handled by GRs staff.
The following entries are necessary during the period.
Inventory account
Balance b/d
Cash or creditors
(purchases in the year)
Special freight charge
Returns from customers

Opening balance b/d

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Rs.
100,000

Rs.

Returns to supplier
500,000
15,000
20,000 Cost of goods sold
Normal loss
Closing balance c/d
635,000
112,000

199

18,000
500,000
5,000
112,000
635,000

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Introduction to accounting

1.4 Summary of journal entries under each system

Periodic inventory
method

Perpetual inventory
method

Opening inventory

Closing inventory as
measured and
recognised brought
forward from last period

Closing balance on the

inventory account as at
the end of the previous
period

Purchase of inventory

Dr Purchases

Dr Inventory

Entry

Cr Payables/cash
Freight paid

Dr Carriage inwards
Cr Payables/cash

Return of inventory to
supplier

Dr Payables

Sale of inventory

Dr Receivables

Cr Payables/cash
Dr Inventory
Cr Payables/cash
Dr Payables

Cr Purchase returns

Cr Inventory
Dr Receivables

Cr Sales

Cr Sales
and
Dr Cost of goods sold
Cr Inventory

Return of goods by a
supplier

Dr Sales returns

Dr Sales returns

Cr Receivables

Cr Receivables
and
Dr Inventory
Cr Cost of goods sold

Normal loss

No double entry

Dr Cost of goods sold

Cr Inventory

Abnormal loss
Closing inventory

Dr Abnormal loss

Dr Abnormal loss

Cr Purchases

Cr Inventory

Counted, valued and

recognised by:

Balance on the inventory

account

Dr Inventory (statement
of financial position)
Cr Cost of sales (cost
of goods sold)

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Chapter 9: Inventory

OTHER ISSUES
Section overview

Valuation of inventory

Cost formulas

Inventory and drawings

2.1 Valuation of inventory

Basic rule
The valuation of inventory can be extremely important for financial reporting,
because the valuations affect both the cost of sales (and profit) and also total
asset values in the statement of financial position.
Inventory must be measured in the financial statements at the lower of:

cost, or

net realisable value (NRV).

Net realisable value is the amount that can be obtained from disposing of the
inventory in the normal course of business, less any further costs that will be
incurred in getting it ready for sale or disposal.

Net realisable value is usually higher than cost. Inventory is therefore

usually valued at cost.

However, when inventory loses value, perhaps because it has been

damaged or is now obsolete, net realisable value will be lower than cost.

The cost and net realisable value should be compared for each separatelyidentifiable item of inventory, or group of similar inventories, rather than for
inventory in total.
Example:
A business has four items of inventory. A count of the inventory has established
that the amounts of inventory currently held, at cost, are as follows:
Rs.
Inventory item A1

Cost
8,000

Sales price
7,800

Selling costs
500

Inventory item A2
Inventory item B1

14,000
16,000

18,000
17,000

200
200

7,500
Inventory item C1
6,000
The value of closing inventory in the financial statements:
A1
A2
B1
C1
Inventory valuation

Emile Woolf International

Lower of:
8,000 or (7,800 500)
14,000 or (18,000 200)
16,000 or (17,800 500)
6,000 or (7,000 200)

201

150
Rs.
7,300
14,000
16,000
6,000
43,300

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Introduction to accounting

2.2 Cost formulas

With some inventory items, particularly large and expensive items, it might be
possible to recognise the actual cost of each item.
In practice, however, this is unusual because the task of identifying the actual
cost for all inventory items is impossible because of the large numbers of such
items.
A system is therefore needed for measuring the cost of inventory.
The historical cost of inventory is usually measured by one of the following
methods:

First in, first out (FIFO)

Weighted average cost (AVCO)

Illustration
On 1 January a company had an opening inventory of 100 units which cost Rs.50
each.
During the month it made the following purchases:
5 April: 300 units at Rs. 60 each
14 July: 500 units at Rs. 70 each
22 October: 200 units at Rs. 80 each.
During the period it sold 800 units as follows:
9 May: 200 units
25 July: 200 units
23 November: 200 units
12 December: 200 units
This means that it has 300 units left (100 + 300 + 500 + 200 (200 + 200 + 200
+ 200 + 200)) but what did they cost?
There are various techniques that have been developed to answer this question.
The easiest of these is called FIFO (first in first out). This approach assumes that
the first inventory sold is always the inventory that was bought on the earliest date.
This means closing inventory is always assumed to be the most recent purchased.
In the above example a FIFO valuation would assume that the 300 items left were
made up of the 200 bought on 22 October and 100 of those bought on 14 July
giving a cost of Rs. 23,000 {(200 @ 80) + (100 @ 70)}
Each of these can be shown on an inventory ledger card as follows.

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Chapter 9: Inventory

Example: Inventory ledger card (FIFO)

Receipts

Issues

Date

Qty

Rs.

1 Jan
b/f

100

50

5 Apr

300

60

Qty

Rs.

5,000

100

50

5,000

18,000

300

60

18,000

400

50/60

23,000

9 May

14 Jul

500

70

Qty

100

50

5,000

100

50

5,000

100

60

6,000

100

60

6,000

200

50/60

11,000

(200)

50/60

(11,000)

200

60

12,000

500

70

35,000

700

60/70

47,000

(200)

60

(12,000)

500

70

35,000

200

80

16,000

700

70/80

51,000

(200)

70

(14,000)

500

70/80

37,000

14,000

(200)

70

(14,000)

51,000

300

70/80

23,000

200
200

80

200

12 Dec

200

Note:

1,100

74,000
minus

800
800

74,000

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60

12,000

16,000

23 Nov

1,100

Rs.

35,000

25 Jul
22 Oct

Balance

minus

203

70
70

14,000

equals
51,000

300
equals

23,000

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Introduction to accounting

The weighted average method calculates a new average cost per unit after each
purchase. This is then used to measure the cost of all issues up until the next
purchase.
Example: Inventory ledger card (weighted average method)
Receipts

Issues

Date

Qty

Rs.

1 Jan
b/f

100

50

5 Apr

300

60

Rs.

5,000

100

50

5,000

18,000

300

60

18,000

400

57.5

23,000

(200)

57.5

(11,500)

200

57.5

11,500

500

70

35,000

700

66.43

46,500

(200)

66.43

(13,286)

200

14 Jul

500

70

200
200

80

200

12 Dec

200

Note:

1,100

74,000

66.43

minus

70.31
70.31

800
800

74,000

Emile Woolf International

57.5

11,500

13,286

500

66.43

33,214

200

80

16,000

700

70.31

49,214

(200)

70.31

(14,062)

500

70.31

35,152

14,062

(200)

70.31

(14,062)

52,910

300

70.31

21,090

16,000

23 Nov

1,100

Rs.

35,000

25 Jul
22 Oct

Balance
Qty

9 May

Qty

minus

204

14,062

equals
52,910

300
equals

21,090

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

Chapter 9: Inventory

2.3 Inventory and drawings

The owner of a sole trader business might decide to take some inventory for his
or her personal use. For example, the owner of a local shop might take some of
the goods bought for the shop and use them for personal consumption.
When this happens, it is important that the financial statements of the sole trader
should provide a faithful representation of the financial performance of the
business. In order to achieve this objective:

Drawings by the business owner in the form of inventory should be

accounted for as drawings (withdrawals of capital).

The cost of sales should exclude the items taken by the owner as drawings.

Drawings of inventory might be common in small sole trader businesses, but are
less common in bigger business entities, where stricter controls over inventory
might be considered necessary. Small businesses normally use the period-end
inventory system, and when the owner takes some inventory for personal use,
the appropriate accounting entry in the main ledger is:
Illustration: Purchases through the year
Debit
Drawings

Credit

Purchases

The inventory taken by the owner is valued at cost (not selling price).
This accounting adjustment therefore reduces the total cost of purchases, so that
the cost of sales will exclude the cost of the inventory taken.
If a perpetual inventory system is used, the appropriate accounting entry would
be:
Illustration: Purchases through the year
Debit
Drawings
Inventory

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Credit

X
X

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Introduction to accounting

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CHAPTER

Certificate in Accounting and Finance

Introduction to accounting

10

Control accounts and control account

reconciliations
Contents
1 Receivables control accounts and receivables control
account reconciliations
2 Payables control accounts and payables control
account reconciliations

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Introduction to accounting

INTRODUCTION
LO 4

Make adjustment at the end of the reporting period.

LO4.6.1

Control accounts - reconciliation and adjustments: Understand the mapping

between control accounts and subsidiary ledger for accounts receivable and
accounts payable.

LO4.6.2

Control accounts - reconciliation and adjustments: Prepare control accounts

and subsidiary ledger from well explained information provided.

LO4.6.3

Control accounts - reconciliation and adjustments: Perform control accounts

reconciliation for accounts receivable and accounts payable.

LO4.6.4

Control accounts - reconciliation and adjustments: Identify errors after

performing reconciliation

LO4.6.5

Control accounts - reconciliation and adjustments: Identify and correct errors

in control account and subsidiary ledgers.

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RECEIVABLES CONTROL ACCOUNTS AND RECEIVABLES CONTROL

ACCOUNT RECONCILIATIONS
Section overview

Receivables control accounts

Receivables control account reconciliations

1.1 Receivables control account

Chapter 5 explained that sales and purchases transactions are recorded in day
books. The totals from the day books are posted to control accounts in the
general ledger. These are supported by a separate record which is a list of
individual balances that comprise the total in the general ledger.
A control account is an account which represents a total value of a number of
separate balances.
The receivables control account
The receivables control account is an account for recording the value of
transactions in total with credit customers. The balance on the receivables control
account (debit balance) is the total amount currently owed by all customers.
The receivables control account will contain some or all of the totals to date for all
of the following postings to the account.
Illustration:
Receivables control account
Balance b/d

Cash

Sales

Discounts allowed

Dishonoured cheques

Sales returns

Bad debts

Contra

Credit notes

Balance c/d

X
Balance b/d

There must also be individual accounts for each credit customer in a separate
receivables ledger.

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1.2 Receivables control account reconciliation

Reconciliation means making sure that two figures or totals are consistent with
each other and agree with each other. The control accounts in an accounting
system can be used for control purposes, to make sure that transactions have
been recorded correctly in the accounts.
This is because if the transactions have been recorded correctly the balance on
the receivables control account in the general ledger should equal the total of the
balances on all the individual customer accounts in the receivables ledger.
A reconciliation check can be made to make sure that these totals are the same.
If they are different, the cause of the error (or errors) should be found and
corrected.
A receivables control account reconciliation involves a comparison between the
totals, looking for the reasons for any differences between them, and correcting
errors that are discovered in the checking process.
Why might there be differences?
The balance on the receivables ledger control account might differ from the total
of all the balances on the accounts in the receivables ledger for the following
reasons:
Illustration: Possible errors

Error

Correction

The total of the credit sales in the sales day

book is correctly debited to the receivables
control account but one of the individual
transactions is not posted from the sales day
book to the individual accounts in the
receivables ledger.
The total of cash received from customers,
recorded in the cash book, has been posted
correctly to the receivables ledger control
account, but a receipt from a customer is not
posted from the cash book to the individual
accounts in the receivables ledger.
The sales day book may be added up
incorrectly so that the wrong amount is
posted to the receivables ledger control but
the individual accounts in the receivables
ledger are correctly updated.
A contra entry might be recorded in the
general ledger but not in the receivables
ledger (or vice versa)

Adjust the individual

customers balance

Adjust the individual

customers balance

Adjust the receivables

ledger control account
in the general ledger.

Adjust the appropriate

record for the missing
entry

The errors described above do not result in differences in the total of debit and
credit entries in the general ledger. Consequently, the existence of an error will
not be discovered by preparing a trial balance.
However, these errors should be discovered by a control account reconciliation.

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Preparing a receivables control account reconciliation

To make a control account reconciliation, the starting point is to compare the
control account balance with the total of all the balances on the individual
customer (receivables ledger) or supplier (payables ledger) accounts.
If the totals differ, the reasons for the difference need to be discovered. When the
reasons are discovered, the errors must be corrected. A correction might involve:

changing the control account balance, or

changing one or more balances on individual customer or supplier

accounts.

The two totals should be equal after all corrections have been made. If a
difference still remains between the totals, this means that at least one error
remains undetected.
Example:
The balance on the receivables ledger control account in the general ledger of
Entity Z is Rs. 53,690.
There balances on the customer accounts in the receivables ledger are as follows:
Rs.
Customer A
Customer B
Customer C
Customer D
Customer E

12,000
8,000
6,000
11,000
15,000
52,000

An investigation is carried out into the difference between the total account
balances in the receivables ledger and the balance on the receivables control
account.
(1)

(2)

(3)

A sale on credit of Rs. 1,700 to Customer A has not been recorded in

the customers account in the receivables ledger, but is included in the
control account balance.
Customer B has supplied goods to Entity Z to the value of Rs. 400, and
these have not yet been paid for by Entity Z. It has been agreed that
this amount should be offset against the money owed to Entity Z by
Customer B. No entries have yet been made for this contra
adjustment in the general ledger or the receivables and payables
ledgers.
Sales returns of Rs. 550 by Customer C have been recorded in Cs
individual account in the receivables ledger, but the transaction was not
posted to the general ledger.

(4)

Discounts allowed of Rs. 240 to Customer D have been recorded in Ds

individual account in the receivables ledger, but the transaction was
not posted to the general ledger.

(5)

Sales returns of Rs. 800 by Customer E have not been recorded in the
customers account in the receivables ledger, but are included in the
control account balance.

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Example: Receivables control account reconciliation

Receivables control account
Rs.
Balance b/d

53,690

Rs.
(2) Contra entry

400

(3) Sales returns

550

(4) Discounts allowed

240

Balance c/d

52,500

53,690
Balance b/d

53,690

52,500

The balances on the accounts in the receivables ledger in total are

Rs.
Total balances in receivables ledger

52,000
1,700

(1) Sale (Customer A)

(2) Contra entry (Customer B)

(400)

(5) Sales returns (Customer E)

(800)
52,500

The balances on the accounts in the receivables ledger would all be corrected
and become:
Rs.
Customer A: 12,000 + 1,700

13,700

Customer B: 8,000 - 400

7,600

Customer C

6,000

Customer D

11,000

Customer E: (15,000 800)

14,200
52,500

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Practice question
The balance on Vazirs receivables ledger control account on 31
December was Rs.3,800,000 which did not agree with the net total of
the list of receivables ledger balances at that date.
The following errors were found:
a)
b)

c)
d)

e)

f)

Debit balances in the receivables ledger, amounting to Rs.103,000,

had been omitted from the list of balances.
A bad debt amounting to Rs.400,000 had been written off in the
receivables ledger but had not been posted to the bad debts expense
account or entered in the control account.
An item of goods sold to Rizwan, Rs.250,000, had been entered once
in the sales day book but posted to his account twice.
Rs.25,000 discount allowed to Etisham had been correctly recorded
and posted in the books. This sum had been subsequently disallowed,
debited to Etishams account but not entered in the general ledger.
No entry had been made in the control account in respect of the
transfer of a debit of Rs.70,000 from Qadirs account in the receivables
ledger to his account in the payables ledger.
The discount allowed column in the cash account had been undercast
by Rs.140,000.
Make the necessary adjustments in the receivables control account
and bring down the corrected balance then show the adjustments to
the net total of the original list of balances to reconcile with this
amended balance.

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PAYABLES CONTROL ACCOUNTS AND PAYABLES CONTROL ACCOUNT

RECONCILIATIONS
Section overview

The payables control account

Payables control account reconciliations

2.1 The payables control account

The payables control account is an account for recording the value of credit
purchase transactions in total. The balance on the payables control account
(credit balance) is the total amount currently owed to all suppliers.
There must also be individual accounts for each credit suppliers in a separate
payables ledger.
The payables control account is an account for recording the value of credit
transactions in total with suppliers. The balance on the payables control account
(credit balance) is the total amount currently owed to all trade suppliers.
The payables control account will contain some or all of the totals to date for all of
the following postings to the account.
Illustration:
Payables control account
Cash

Discounts received

Balance b/d

Purchases

Purchase returns
Contra

Balance c/d

X
X

X
Balance b/d

There must be individual accounts for each supplier in a separate payables

ledger.

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2.2 Payables control account reconciliation

A payables control account reconciliation involves a comparison between the
totals on the payables control account and the list of balances in the payables
ledger.
Why might there be differences?
The balance on the payables ledger control account might differ from the total of
all the balances on the accounts in the payables ledger for the following reasons:
Illustration: Possible errors
Error

Correction

The total of the credit purchases in the

purchases day book is correctly credited to
the payables control account but one of the
individual transactions is not posted from the
purchases day book to the individual
accounts in the payables ledger.

Adjust the individual

customers balance

The total of cash paid to suppliers, recorded

in the cash book, has been posted correctly to
the payables ledger control account, but a
payment to a supplier is not posted from the
cash book to the individual accounts in the
payables ledger.
The purchases day book may be added up
incorrectly so that the wrong amount is
posted to the payables ledger control but the
individual accounts in the payables ledger are
correctly updated.
A contra entry might be recorded in the
general ledger but not in the payables ledger
(or vice versa)

Adjust the individual

customers balance

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Adjust the payables

ledger control account
in the general ledger.

Adjust the appropriate

record for the missing
entry

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Introduction to accounting

Example:
The balance on the payables control account was Rs.971,860 as at the 31
December.
Balances extracted from the payables ledger on this date totalled Rs.962,380.
1

The purchases day book was undercast by Rs.60,000.

A cash account total of Rs.108,580 was posted to the control account as

Rs.90,580.
A credit balance of Rs.13,860 on the suppliers ledger had been set off
against a customers ledger debit balance but no entry had been made
in the control accounts.

A credit balance of Rs.37,620 had been omitted from the list of

balances.

Payables control account

Rs.

Rs.

(2) Cash error

18,000 Balance b/d

(3) Contra

(1) Purchase day book

13,860 undercast

Balance c/d

971,860
60,000

1,000,000
1,031,860

1,031,860
Balance b/d

1,000,000

The balances on the accounts in the receivables ledger in total are

Rs.
Total balances in receivables ledger

962,380
37,620

(4) Omission of balance

1,000,000

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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1

Solutions
Receivables control account
Rs.
Balance b/d
(d) Reversal of
discount allowed

Rs.

3,800,000 (b) Bad debt

400,000

25,000 (e) Contra entry

70,000

(f) Discount allowed

Balance c/d

3,215,000
3,825,000

3,825,000
Balance b/d

140,000

3,215,000

The balances on the accounts in the receivables ledger in total are

Rs.
Total balances in receivables ledger (balancing figure)

3,362,000

(a) Omitted balances

103,000

(c) Correction of double posting

(250,000)
3,215,000

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CHAPTER

Certificate in Accounting and Finance

Introduction to accounting

11

Bank reconciliations
Contents
1 Bank reconciliations

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INTRODUCTION
LO 4

Make adjustment at the end of the reporting period.

LO4.5.1

Bank reconciliations: Understand the need for a bank reconciliation

LO4.5.2

Bank reconciliations: Identify the main reasons for differences between the
cash book and bank statements.

LO4.5.3

Bank reconciliations: Prepare a bank reconciliation statement in the

circumstance of simple and well explained transactions.

LO4.5.4

Bank reconciliations: Correct cash book errors and post journal entries after
identifying the same in bank reconciliation statement.

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BANK RECONCILIATIONS
Section overview

The cash book (bank account in the general ledger) and bank statements

Differences and the need for a reconciliation

Possible cause of confusion

Format of a bank reconciliation statement

Bank reconciliations and overdrawn balances

1.1 The cash book (bank account in the general ledger) and bank statements
Chapter 4 explained that the cash book is a book of prime entry used to record all
receipts and payments of cash.
There are many different methods by which a business might make payment to
suppliers and receive payment from customers.
Methods include

Cash (this is quite rare in all but the smaller businesses);

Cheques

Bank transfers An amount transferred directly from a bank account

holders account to the bank account of another party on the instruction of
the first person.

Credit and debit cards People often use these to pay for goods and
services purchased from businesses. Once a sale is made the business
asks the credit (debit) card company to make the payment on behalf of the
card holder. The credit (debit) card company then recovers the cash from
the card holder.

Many modern businesses now accept online payment for sales of goods
and provision of services. Payment is often received through the use of
credit cards and debit cards in the usual way or thorough the action of a
third party (for example Pay pal).

Standing order An instruction a bank account holder (the payer) gives to

their bank to pay a set amount at regular intervals to another party's (the
payee's) account.

Direct debit A method of payment in which, a person (payee) instructs

their bank to collect funds from another party's (payers) bank account. The
payer must have instructed their bank to allow this before it can happen.

Both standing orders and direct debits are very common methods of making
monthly payments. A standing order allows for payment of the same amount on
each payment date as the payer instructs the bank to pay this amount. A direct
debit allows for different payments at each payment date as the payer instructs
the bank to pay the amount the payee asks for.
Posting
Periodically, totals are posted from the cash book to the general ledger accounts.
One of these accounts is the cash account. For the purposes of this section we
will describe this more specifically as the cash at bank account. (A business
usually also has a cash in hand account to record cash amounts physically held
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but the majority of cash receipts and payments are usually through the cash at
bank account).
The cash at bank account in the general ledger is used to record receipts and
payments of cash through the bank account. The balance on this account is the
amount that the business believes that it has in its bank account (debit balance)
or the size of its bank overdraft (credit balance).
The bank sends regular bank statements to a business entity. A bank statement
lists all the transactions that the bank has recorded in the account for the entity
since the previous statement and the current balance on the account.
Many businesses now have on-line access to their bank statements so can
access a bank statement at any time.
Reconciliation
The term reconciliation refers to a process that compares two sets of records
(usually the balances of two accounts, in this case the balance on the cash at
bank account and the balance on the bank statement) and explains the reason
for any difference between them.
A bank reconciliation compares the balance on the general ledger cash at bank
account to the balance on the bank statement at a given point in time. This
should be done at regular intervals (say at the end of each month).
Often the balance on the cash at bank account is referred to as the balance
on the cash book. This can be confusing but remember that the reconciliation
always agrees the balance on the cash at bank account to the balance on the
bank statement.
Bank reconciliations are a useful check on the accuracy of accounting records for
cash. In principle, the balance in the cash at bank account or cash book in the
general ledger and the balance shown in the bank statement should be the same
but there are often differences and some of these might relate to transactions
which the business has not yet accounted for or errors which must be corrected.

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1.2 Differences and the need for a reconciliation

The balance on the general ledger cash at bank account and that shown for the
business in its bank statement, at a point in time, will rarely be the same.
Differences between might be caused by any of the following:

Items recorded in the cash at bank account are not (yet) shown in the bank
statement.

Items in the bank statement that have not been recorded in the cash at
bank account.

Errors by the bank (these are quite rare but do happen).

Errors in the cash book.

Each of these will be considered in turn.

Items recorded in the cash at bank account that have not (yet) shown in the bank
statement
Some transactions might have been recorded in the cash at bank account in the
general ledger, but have not yet been recorded by the bank.
Cheques received from customers, recorded in the cash book and paid into the
bank and may not have been processed yet by the bank. Processing payments
through the banking system might take two or three days, perhaps even longer.
These are known as outstanding lodgements.
Cheques paid to suppliers are recorded as payments in accounting system of the
business but they may not yet have been presented to the bank for payment (i.e.
paid into the bank by the businesss supplier). These are known as unpresented
cheques.
Even if the cheques have been presented for payment by our supplier the bank
may not have processed the deduction form the businesss account yet.
These are timing differences. The transactions will eventually be processed by
the bank. There are no errors or omissions in the cash book, and no further
action is needed.
Items in the bank statement that have not been recorded in the cash at bank
account.
A business might not know about some items until they receive a bank
statement.
Examples include:

bank charges;

bank interest on an overdrawn balance;

a payment from a customer that has been rejected by the bank (for
example, the customers cheque has been dishonoured).

a bank transfer where a payment has been made directly into the
businesss account;

a bank might make a mistake either crediting or debiting an incorrect

amount into an account (these are rare but they do happen).

The general ledger cash at bank account should be amended to include these
transactions.

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When a cheque is dishonoured the business must reverse the entries that were
made originally when the business thought that an amount had been received.
Illustration: Double entry for dishonoured cheque
Write back of receivable

Debit

Credit

General ledger:
Receivables

Cash at bank

Receivables ledger:
Individual customer accounts

The business should also consider whether the receivable should be written off
as a bad debt or whether an allowance should be recognised for a doubtful debt
(see chapter 7)
Errors by the bank
The bank might sometimes make an error. If so, it should be notified and asked
to correct its mistake. No further action is then needed.
Errors in the cash book
Possibly, an error has been made in the cash book. This should be identified
during the reconciliation of the bank statement with the cash at bank account
balance. Any such errors must be corrected when discovered.

1.3 Possible cause of confusion.

The bank statement presents information as recorded in the accounting system
of the bank. It always shows the banks view of things.
When a business has a positive cash balance that is an asset and as far as the
business is concerned it is a debit balance. From the banks point of view they
owe the business money. Therefore they show the business as having a credit
balance on the bank statement.
Similarly a bank account is overdrawn, the business owes money to the bank and
shows this as a liability (a credit balance) in its financial statements. However,
from the banks point of view they have an asset and show this as a debit
balance on the bank statements.

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1.4 Format of a bank reconciliation statement

The purpose of a bank reconciliation is to show that the cash at bank account
balance in the general ledger agrees with the bank statement balance after
taking account of timing differences and making adjustments for any omissions or
errors.
There is no single correct format for a bank reconciliation.
A useful approach is to correct the cash at bank balance for any omissions or
errors and then adjust the balance per the bank statements for uncredited
lodgements and unpresented cheques. The resultant balances should be the
same.
Illustration: Bank reconciliation
The following assumes that the cash balance is positive (i.e. the business has a
debit cash balance).
Balance per general ledger cash at bank account:
Items in bank statement not in cash book:

Bank charges

(X)

Dishonoured cheques

(X)

Interest received

X
(X)

Error (made by business)

X/(X)

Corrected cash at bank figure

X1

Balance per bank statement

Items in general ledger not in bank statement

Add: Outstanding lodgements

Deduct: Unpresented cheques

(X)

Corrected balance per bank statement

X1

The balances (X1) should now agree

Alternative presentations are possible.

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Example: Bank reconciliation

The cash at bank account of a business shows a debit balance of Rs. 4,500.
Cheques for Rs. 2,000 from customers that were recently paid into the bank have
not yet been processed.
Payments totalling Rs. 6,200 made by the business to its suppliers and others
have not yet been presented to the bank for payment.
The bank has charged Rs. 700 in bank charges.
A cheque for Rs. 300 from a customer, customer X, has been dishonoured.
The balance in the account according to the bank statement is Rs. 7,700.
A bank reconciliation statement could be prepared as follows:
Balance per general ledger cash at bank account:
Items in bank statement not in cash book

4,500

Bank charges

(700)

Dishonoured cheques

(300)
(1,000)

Corrected cash at bank figure

3,5001

Balance per bank statement

7,700

Items in general ledger not in bank statement

Add: Outstanding lodgements

2,000

Deduct: Unpresented cheques

(6,200)

Corrected balance per bank statement

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Alternative format
This approach corrects the general ledger cash at bank account and then shows
the differences between that figure and the balance as per the bank statement.
Illustration: Bank reconciliation
The following assumes that the cash balance is positive (i.e. the business has a
debit cash balance).
Balance per general ledger cash at bank account:

Items in bank statement not in cash book:

Bank charges

(X)

Dishonoured cheques

(X)

Interest received

X
(X)

Error (made by business)

X/(X)

Corrected cash at bank figure

X1

Items in general ledger not in bank statement

Deduct: Outstanding lodgements

(X)

Add: Unpresented cheques

Balance per bank statement

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Example: Bank reconciliation

The cash at bank account of a business shows a debit balance of Rs. 4,500.
Cheques for Rs. 2,000 from customers that were recently paid into the bank have
not yet been processed.
Payments totalling Rs. 6,200 made by the business to its suppliers and others
have not yet been presented to the bank for payment.
The bank has charged Rs. 700 in bank charges.
A cheque for Rs. 300 from a customer, customer X, has been dishonoured.
The balance in the account according to the bank statement is Rs. 7,700.
A bank reconciliation statement could be prepared as follows:
Balance per general ledger cash at bank account:

4,500

Items in bank statement not in cash book

Bank charges

(700)

Dishonoured cheques

(300)
(1,000)

Corrected cash at bank figure

3,5001

Items in general ledger not in bank statement

Deduct: Outstanding lodgements
Add: Unpresented cheques
Balance per bank statement

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7,700

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1.5 Bank reconciliations and overdrawn balances

For a company with a bank account, money in the bank is an asset and the cash
balance in the cash book is a debit balance. If there is a bank overdraft, the cash
book has a credit balance, indicating that money is owed to the bank.
For the bank, the situation is the opposite way round.

Money held by the bank in a bank account for a customer is money that
belongs to the customer. For the bank, deposits are therefore liabilities and
an account is said to be in credit when there is money in it.

If a bank allows an overdraft to a customer, the customer owes the bank.

The amount of the overdraft is a form of receivable for the bank, and is an
asset. To the bank, an overdraft balance on a customers account is
therefore a debit balance (= asset).

A bank statement might therefore indicate that a customers account has a debit
balance, such as Rs. 5,250 Dr. This debit balance means overdraft and for the
customer it is a liability and credit balance item in their financial records.
Preparing a bank reconciliation with an overdraft balance
If you are given a question in which there is an overdraft balance in the bank
statement, it is useful to make the negative balance clear by putting brackets
around the balance.
Illustration: Bank reconciliation
The following assumes that the cash balance is negative (i.e, the business has a
credit cash balance).
Balance per general ledger cash at bank account:

(X)

Items in bank statement not in cash book:

Bank charges

(X)

Dishonoured cheques

(X)

Interest received

X
(X)

Error (made by business)

X/(X)

Corrected cash at bank figure

(X1)

Balance per bank statement

(X)

Items in general ledger not in bank statement

Add: Outstanding lodgements

Deduct: Unpresented cheques

(X)

Corrected balance per bank statement

(X1)

The balances (X1 should now agree)

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Example: Bank reconciliation

A company receives a bank statement showing an overdraft balance of Rs. 20,000.
The balance recorded in the companys cash book is a credit balance of Rs.
12,100.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Lodgements not yet cleared by the bank (i.e. payments into the account but
not recorded in the bank statement) Rs. 24,300
Cheques not yet presented (i.e. payments from the account recorded in the
cash book but not yet processed through the bank) Rs. 18,900
Bank charges of Rs. 1,300
A dishonoured cheque from a customer Rs. 1,200.

Items (3), (4) and (5) have not yet been recorded in the cash book.
A bank reconciliation statement could be prepared as follows:
Balance per general ledger cash at bank account:

(12,100)

Items in bank statement not in cash book

Bank charges

(1,300)

Dishonoured cheques

(1,200)
(2,500)

Corrected cash at bank figure

(14,600)

Balance per bank statement

(20,000)

Items in general ledger not in bank statement

Add: Outstanding lodgements

24,300

Deduct: Unpresented cheques

(18,900)

Corrected balance per bank statement

(14,600)

Example: Bank reconciliation

Alternatively, the bank reconciliation statement could be prepared as follows:
Balance per general ledger cash at bank account:

(12,100)

Items in bank statement not in cash book

Bank charges

(1,300)

Dishonoured cheques

(1,200)
(2,500)

Corrected cash at bank figure

(14,600)

Items in general ledger not in bank statement

Deduct: Outstanding lodgements
Add: Unpresented cheques
Balance per bank statement

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(24,300)
18,900
(20,000)

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Practice question
On 30 June the cash account of Sohrabs business showed a balance at
bank of Rs. 1,500,000.
The bank statements showed that cheques for Rs. 70,000, Rs.90,000
and Rs.100,000 had not been presented for payment and that
lodgements totalling Rs.210,000 had not been cleared.
The balance on the bank statement at 30 June was Rs. 1,550,000.
Prepare a bank reconciliation.

Practice question
The balance in Jabbars cash account at 30 June showed an asset of
Rs.1,660,000.
His bank statement showed an overdraft of Rs.450,000.
On reconciling the cash account he discovers the following.
a)

The debit side of the cash account had been undercast by Rs.200,000.

b)
c)

A total on the receipts side of the cash account of Rs.2,475,000 had

been brought forward as Rs.4,275,000.
A cheque received by Jovanovich for Rs.220,000 had bounced.

d)

Bank charges of Rs.184,000 had been omitted from the cash account.

e)

Unpresented cheques totalled Rs.520,000 and uncleared lodgements

Rs.626,000.
Prepare a bank reconciliation.

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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1

Solutions
Balance per general ledger cash at bank account:

1,500,000

Balance per bank statement

1,550,000

Items in general ledger not in bank statement

Add: Outstanding lodgements

210,000

Deduct: Unpresented cheques

(260,000)

Corrected balance per bank statement

1,500,000

Alternative presentation:
Balance per general ledger cash at bank account:

1,500,000

Corrected cash at bank figure

Items in general ledger not in bank statement
Deduct: Outstanding lodgements
Add: Unpresented cheques

260,000

Balance per bank statement

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(210,000)
1,550,000

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Solutions
Balance per general ledger cash at bank account:

1,660,000

Items in bank statement not in cash book

(a) Correction of undercast

200,000

(b) Correction of mistake

(2,475,000 4,275,000)

(1,800,000)

(c) Dishonoured cheque

(220,000)

(d) Bank charges

(184,000)
(2,004,000)

Corrected cash at bank figure

(344,000)

Balance per bank statement

(450,000)

Items in general ledger not in bank statement

Add: Outstanding lodgements

626,000

Deduct: Unpresented cheques

(520,000)

Corrected balance per bank statement

(344,000)

Alternative presentation:
Balance per general ledger cash at bank account:

1,660,000

Items in bank statement not in cash book

(a) Correction of undercast

200,000

(b) Correction of mistake

(2,475,000 4,275,000)

(1,800,000)

(c) Dishonoured cheque

(220,000)

(d) Bank charges

(184,000)
(2,004,000)

Corrected cash at bank figure

(344,000)

Items in general ledger not in bank statement

Deduct: Outstanding lodgements
Add: Unpresented cheques
Balance per bank statement

Emile Woolf International

(626,000)
520,000
(450,000)

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Introduction to accounting

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CHAPTER

Certificate in Accounting and Finance

Introduction to accounting

12

Correction of errors
Contents
1 Trial balance
2 Correcting errors
3 Suspense accounts

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INTRODUCTION
Learning outcomes
To enable candidates to equip themselves with the fundamental concepts of accounts
needed as a foundation for higher studies of accounting.
LO 4

Make adjustment at the end of the reporting period.

LO4.7.1

Correction of errors: Identify the types of error which may occur in a record
keeping system

LO4.7.2

Correction of errors: Calculate and understand the impact of errors on the

financial statements within a reporting period

LO4.7.3

Correction of errors: Prepare journal entries to correct errors that have

occurred within a reporting period

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Chapter 12: Correction of errors

TRIAL BALANCE
Section overview

The purpose of a trial balance

Errors in the double entry accounting system

Errors highlighted by the extraction of a trial balance

Errors not highlighted by the extraction of a trial balance

1.1 The purpose of a trial balance

A trial balance is a list of all the debit balances and all the credit balances on the
accounts in the general ledger. A trial balance can be extracted from the general
ledger simply by listing the balances on every account. The normal method of
presentation is to present the balances in two columns, one for debit balances
and one for credit balances.

Accounts with debit balances will be asset accounts and expense accounts

Accounts with credit balances will be liability accounts, capital account (or
share capital and reserve accounts in the case of a company) and income
accounts.

Since the accounting system uses double entry principles, the total of debit
balances and the total of credit balances should be equal, because for every
debit entry in the general ledger there should be a matching credit entry.
A trial balance has two main purposes.
It is a starting point for producing a statement of comprehensive income
and a statement of financial position at the end of an accounting period. A trial
balance is extracted from the general ledger, and various year-end adjustments
are then made to the accounts (which are recorded as journal entries before
being entered in the general ledger). Year-end adjustments include adjustments
for opening and closing inventory, depreciation charges, accruals and
prepayments, writing off bad debts and adjusting the allowance for irrecoverable
debts.
When the year-end adjustments have been made, a statement of comprehensive
income and then a statement of financial position can be prepared, using the
balances in the general ledger accounts.
A second purpose of a trial balance is to check for errors in the accounting
system. Errors must have occurred if the total of debit balances and total of
credit balances on the general ledger accounts are not equal. Having identified
that an error (or more than one error) must exist, the task of the bookkeeper is to
find the cause of the error and correct it.

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1.2 Errors in the double entry accounting system

Errors can occur in a book-keeping system, because individuals make mistakes.
The types of error that will appear in the accounting records can be classified into
four broad categories:

Errors of transposition

Errors of omission

Errors of commission

Errors of principle

Errors of transposition (transposition errors)

This involves getting the digits in a number the wrong way round, for example
recording Rs. 9,700 as Rs. 7,900.
Sometimes the error will be made in both the debit and the credit entries in the
ledger. For example a purchase invoice might be recorded as Rs. 1,650 instead
of Rs. 1,560 in both the purchases account and the payables ledger control
account. The trial balance will not reveal this sort of error.
Sometimes the error of transposition will be made in one account but not the
other. For example, a payment of Rs. 1,980 from a customer might be recorded
correctly in the cash book but posted incorrectly as Rs. 1,890 in the receivables
ledger control account.
Errors of omission.
This is where a transaction or entry is missed out. Sometimes a transaction is
missed out of the ledger entirely because the bookkeeper forgets about it or is
not informed about it.
A transaction may be omitted from one location only.
Errors of commission.
This means putting an entry in the wrong account, for example recording a
telephone expense in the electricity expenses account. Similarly, discounts
received might be recorded incorrectly in the discounts allowed account.
Errors of principle.
This is where an entry is recorded in the wrong type of account, e.g. recording
capital expenditure as revenue expenditure.
For example the purchase of a machine might be entered in the machinery
repairs and maintenance account. Unless corrected, this error will result in an
incorrect computation of depreciation charges, running costs and profit for the
period.

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1.3 Errors highlighted by the extraction of a trial balance

As stated earlier, one way of finding some errors in the accounting records is to
extract a trial balance from the general ledger. If the total of the debit balances
does not equal the total of the credit balances on the general ledger accounts
then an error or several errors have been made.
If the trial balance does not balance then this will be due to an error where the
debits and credits are not the same, so that the error results in the debit entry in
one account in the general ledger not being equal to the matching credit entry in
another account.
Types of error which affect the balancing of the trial balance are as follows:

A transaction might be recorded with a debit entry in one account, but the
corresponding credit entry is omitted. Similarly, a transaction might be
recorded with a credit entry in one account, but the corresponding debit
entry is omitted. For example a payment might be recorded as a credit
entry in the cash book but omitted from the payables ledger control
account.

There could be a transposition error in one account. For example, the debit
entry might be Rs. 1,234 and the corresponding credit entry might be Rs.
1,324. One of the entries must be incorrect.

A transaction might be recorded as a debit entry in two accounts, instead of

as a debit entry in one account and a credit entry in the other account. For
example, rental income might be recorded as a debit entry in the cash book
and, in error, as a debit entry in the rental expense account.

Similarly, a transaction might be recorded as a credit entry in two accounts,

instead of being a debit entry in one account and a credit entry in the other.
For example, discounts allowed might be recorded as a credit entry in the
receivables ledger control account and, in error, as a credit entry in the
discounts received account.

There might be a mistake in casting one or another side of an account. This

would lead to the extraction of an incorrect balance.

You need to be able to:

identify errors in a double entry accounting system, and

know how to correct them.

Corrections to errors in an accounting system are recorded as journal entries and

then posted from the journal to the relevant accounts in the general ledger.

1.4 Errors not highlighted by the extraction of a trial balance

A trial balance is only useful in helping to identify errors where the debit and
credit entries in the general ledger accounts do not match. It does not help with
the identification of errors where there has not been a mismatch between debit
and credit entries.
There are some types of error that do not result in a difference between total
debit and total credit entries and therefore do not affect the balancing of the trial
balance. For example:

A transaction might have been omitted entirely from the general ledger,
with no debit entry and no credit entry.

The wrong figure might be double entered.

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Transactions might be recorded in the wrong account. For example, the

cost of repairing a machine might be recorded incorrectly as a debit in the
machinery at cost account instead of recording it as a debit in the machine
repairs account. The amount of the debit entry is correct; the error is to post
the transaction to the wrong account.

There might be compensating errors. For example one error might result in
debits exceeding credits by Rs. 2,000 but anther error might result in
credits exceeding debits by Rs. 2,000. If this happens, the errors will
cancel each other out and will not be apparent from a check on the trial
balance totals for debits and credits.

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CORRECTING ERRORS
Section overview

An approach to correcting errors

The effect of errors on profit

2.1 An approach to correcting errors

Errors should be corrected when they are found.

Transactions that have been omitted from the general ledger entirely
should be recorded in the accounts. The omitted item can be recorded in
the journal, and posted from the journal to the relevant accounts in the
general ledger and, if required, the receivables or payables ledger.

Entries that have been made incorrectly in the accounts must be corrected
by means of suitable debit and credit entries in the accounts. The
correction of an error should be recorded in the journal and then posted
from the journal to the relevant accounts.

In order to correct errors properly, you need to be able to:

identify an error;

recognise what the correct entry in the accounts should have been; and

work out how to make the correction by means of double entry

adjustments.

One approach to correcting errors is to compare the entry that has been
processed to the entry that should have been processed. This allows you to see
what adjustment is needed. Memorandum T accounts can be used to do this.
For each account affected by an error, you can prepare two sets of memorandum
T accounts for:
(1)

What accounting entries have been made in the accounts, and

(2)

What the accounting entries should have been.

By comparing what has been recorded in the accounts with what should have
been recorded, you can then work out the double entry adjustments that are
needed to get from where we are to where we want to be.
Some examples will help to illustrate the approach.

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Example:
The total from a sales day book was Rs. 1,800.
This has been posted incorrectly as Rs. 1,080.
If you cannot see immediately what double entry adjustments are needed to
correct the error, you could prepare the following memorandum accounts.
(1) What has been recorded

(2) What should have been recorded

Receivables

Receivables

1,080

1,800

Sales

Sales
1,800

1,080

The receivables control account has a debit entry of Rs. 1,080 for the transaction
but it should have been Rs. 1,800.
To remove this error and increase the account balance to Rs.1,800 for the
transaction, we need to debit the receivables control account with Rs. 920.
The sales account has a credit entry of Rs. 1,080 for the transaction but it should
have been Rs. 1,800.
To remove this error and increase the account balance to Rs.1,800 for the
transaction, we need to credit the sales account with Rs. 920.
Therefore the correcting entry is:
Dr
Receivables

Cr

920

Sales

920

Or using ledger accounts:

Receivables control account
Before adjustment
Sales account

Rs.
1,080
920

Rs.

Sales account
Rs.
920 Before adjustment
Receivables

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1,080
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Chapter 12: Correction of errors

Example:
A business has recorded a repair cost of Rs. 15,000 to a machine as a debit in the
machinery at cost account.
If you cannot see immediately what double entry adjustments are needed to
correct the error, you could prepare the following memorandum accounts.
(2) What should have been recorded

(1) What has been recorded

Machinery (at cost) account

Machine (at cost) account

15,000

Machine repairs account

Machine repairs account

15,000

The machinery (at cost) account has a debit entry of Rs. 15,000 when there should
be nothing in the account for the transaction.
To remove this error and reduce the account balance to Rs. 0 for the transaction,
we need to credit the machine (at cost) account with Rs. 15,000.
The machine repairs account has nothing recorded for the transaction, but there
should be a debit balance of Rs. 15,000.
To correct his account, we need to debit the account with Rs. 15,000.
Therefore the correcting entry is:
Dr
Machine repairs

15,000

Machinery cost

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Cr
15,000

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Example:
A business has recorded rental income of Rs. 21,800 as a credit in the rental
expense account.
(2) What should have been recorded

(1) What has been recorded

Rental expense

Rental expense
0

21,800

Rental income

Rental income
21,800

The rental expense account has a credit of Rs. 21,800 when there should be
nothing in the account for the transaction.
To remove this error and reduce the account balance to Rs. 0 for the transaction,
we need to debit the rental expense account with Rs. 21,800.
The rental income account has nothing recorded for the transaction, but there
should be a credit balance of Rs. 21,800.
To correct his account, we need to credit the account with Rs. 21,800.
Therefore the correcting entry is:
Dr
Rental expense

21,800

Rental income

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Cr
21,800

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Chapter 12: Correction of errors

Example:
A business has recorded discounts allowed of Rs. 20,600 as a debit in the
discounts received account.
If you cannot see immediately what double entry adjustments are needed to
correct the error, you could prepare the following memorandum accounts.
(2) What should have been recorded

(1) What has been recorded

Discounts allowed account

Discounts allowed account

0

20,600

Discounts received account

Discounts received account

20,600

The discounts allowed account has nothing recorded for the transaction, but there
should be a debit balance of Rs. 20,600. To correct this account, we need to debit
the account with Rs. 20,600.
The discounts received account has a debit entry of Rs. 20,600 when there should
be nothing in the account for the transaction. To remove this error and reduce the
account balance to Rs. 0 for the transaction, we need to credit the discounts
received account with Rs. 20,600.
To correct the error, the required double entry is:
Dr
Discounts allowed

20,600

Discounts received

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Cr
20,600

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2.2 The effect of errors on profit

Unless they are corrected, accounting errors will have an effect on the reported
profit for the period.
A question might ask you to quantify this effect for a given error. In a typical
question of this sort, the error might involve recording a capital expenditure item
as a revenue expenditure item, or a revenue expenditure item as capital
expenditure.
Alternatively, a capital expenditure item might be recorded at an incorrect
amount.
Example:
A bookkeeper in error recorded the purchase cost of a new item of equipment as
Rs. 36,000 when it should have been Rs. 360,000.
A draft profit of Rs. 2,560,000 for the period was calculated before the discovery of
the error. This included a depreciation charge of 10% (Rs. 3,600) for the
equipment.
What is the correct figure for profit?
Rs.
Draft profit
Add back: Depreciation incorrectly charged

2,560,000
3,600
2,563,600

Deduct: Correct depreciation charge (10% Rs. 360,000)

Adjusted figure for profit

(36,000)
2,527,600

Example:
A bookkeeper in error recorded the Rs. 60,000 purchase cost of a new machine as
repairs and maintenance costs
A draft profit of Rs. 300,000 for the period was calculated before the discovery of
the error.
Depreciation on machinery is charged at 20% on cost, with a full years charge in
the year of acquisition.
What is the correct figure for profit?
Rs.
300,000

Draft profit
Add back: Repair costs incorrectly charged

60,000

Deduct: Depreciation charge (20% Rs. 60,000)

360,000
(12,000)

Adjusted figure for profit

348,000

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Chapter 12: Correction of errors

SUSPENSE ACCOUNTS
Section overview

Trial balance: differences in total debits and total credits

Opening a suspense account

Correcting errors where a suspense account is opened

Unknown entry

3.1 Trial balance: differences in total debits and total credits

The examples of correcting errors in the previous section involve errors where
the amount of the debit entry and the amount of the credit entry were the same.
These errors would not be identified by extracting a trial balance.
When errors are made where the amount of the debit entry differs from the
amount of the credit entry, total debit balances and total credit balances in the
general ledger accounts will differ. A trial balance will demonstrate the existence
of such errors.
These errors must be discovered and corrected. Until they are discovered, the
first step should be to open a suspense account.

When errors have resulted in total debit entries and total credit entries
being different, the errors are corrected using a suspense account.

A suspense account is a short-term account that is required only until the

errors have been identified and corrected.

3.2 Opening a suspense account

A suspense account is opened with either a debit balance or a credit balance.
The balance entered into the suspense account should be an amount that makes
the total debit balances equal to total credit balances on all the general ledger
accounts (including the balance on the suspense account).

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Example:
A business has prepared a trial balance of the general ledger account balances.
This shows total debit balances of Rs. 456,000 and total credit balances of Rs.
488,000.
A suspense account must be opened.
The balance on the account to make total debit and total credit balance equal is
a debit balance of Rs. 32,000 (Rs. 488,000 credits less Rs. 456,000 debits).
Suspense account
Opening balance

Rs.
32,000

Rs.

Opening the suspense account in effect completes the missing and incorrect
double entries but to the wrong place (the suspense account). The errors should
be investigated and corrected. This usually involves a double entry to the
suspense account.
Once the errors have been fully corrected the balance on the suspense account
will be reduced to zero.

3.3 Correcting errors where a suspense account is opened

When it is clear that an error has occurred, it is often helpful to decide the answer
to two questions:

Has the error resulted in different total amounts for debit and credit entries?

If the answer is yes, making the correction will involve the suspense
account.

If the answer is no, the correction should be made, but will not involve
the suspense account.

If the error has resulted in different total amounts for debit and credit
entries, think about the general ledger account or accounts containing the
error, and decide what needs to be done to correct the balance on that
account.

The same approach used in the previous section for correcting errors can be
used. For each account affected by an error, you can prepare two sets of
memorandum T accounts for:
(1)

What accounting entries have been made in the accounts, and

(2)

What the accounting entries should have been.

By comparing what has been recorded in the accounts with what should have
been recorded, you can then work out the double entry adjustments that are
needed to get from where we are to where we want to be.
However, when the error involves different total amounts of debits and credits, a
debit or credit entry in the suspense account is needed as a balancing figure to
make the total debits and credits equal.

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Example:
A debit entry in the rent expense account has been entered as Rs. 5,000 when it
should have been Rs. 5,500, but the entry in the cash book (bank account) for the
payment was entered correctly as Rs. 5,500.
The debit entry in the rent account is Rs. 500 too low, resulting in a difference
between total debits and total credits. The first step is to open a suspense account
and enter a balance to make total debits and total credits equal.
Suspense account
Rs.
500

Opening balance

Rs.

Note that this completes the entry by recognising the missing debit of 500 in the
suspense account
We can now look at where we are and where we want to be
(2) What should have been recorded

(1) What has been recorded

Rent expense account
5,000

Rent expense account

5,500

Suspense account
500

Suspense account
0

The correcting double entry is:

Dr
Rent account

Cr

20,600

Suspense account

20,600

Or using ledger accounts:

Suspense account
Rs.
500 Rent account

Opening balance

Rs.
500

Rent expense account

Opening balance

Rs.
5,000

Suspense account

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Rs.

500

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Example:
The total from a sales day book was Rs. 1,800.
This has been posted correctly to the sales account but Rs. 1,080 has been posted
in error to the receivables control account.
If you cannot see immediately what double entry adjustments are needed to
correct the error, you could prepare the following memorandum accounts.
(2) What should have been recorded

(1) What has been recorded

Receivables

Receivables

1,080

1,800

Sales

Sales
1,800

1,800
Suspense

Suspense

920

The sales account has the correct entry but the receivables control account has a
debit entry of Rs. 1,080, which should be Rs. 1,800.
To remove this error and increase the account balance to Rs. 1,800 for the
transaction, we need to debit receivables control account with Rs. 920.
Therefore the correcting entry is:
Dr
Receivables

Cr

920

Suspense

920

Or using ledger accounts:

Receivables control account
Before adjustment
Suspense account

Rs.
1,080
920

Rs.

Suspense account
Rs.
920 Rent account

Before adjustment

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Rs.
920

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Chapter 12: Correction of errors

Example:
A discount allowed of Rs. 4,000 (expense) has been recorded as a credit entry in
the discount received account (an income account) by mistake.
(1) What has been recorded

(2) What should have been recorded

Discounts allowed account

0

Discounts allowed account

4,000

Discounts received account

4,000

Discounts received account

0

Suspense

Suspense
0

8,000

As a result of this error, total credits are Rs. 4,000 higher than they should be, and
total debits are Rs. 4,000 lower than they should be resulting an the total credits
balances in the trial balance being 8,000 bigger than the total debits.
A suspense account with a debit balance of 8,000 would be opened.
Both the discounts allowed account and the discount received account must be
corrected.
This error is corrected as follows, with an entry in the suspense account to match
total debits with total credits:
Dr
Discounts received

4,000

Discounts allowed

4,000

Suspense

Cr

8,000

Or using ledger accounts:

Before adjustment

Suspense account
Rs.
8,000 Discounts
allowed/received

Rs.
8,000

Discounts received account

Rs.
Suspense account

Rs.

4,000
Discounts allowed account

Suspense account

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Rs.

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Introduction to accounting

Example:
A payment to a supplier of Rs. 23,500 has been recorded in the cash book/bank
account in the general ledger, but has not been recorded in the trade payables
account.
As a result, total credits exceed total debits in the trial balance by Rs. 23,500 and a
suspense account must be opened with a debit balance of Rs. 23,500.
(2) What should have been recorded

(1) What has been recorded

Trade payables account

Trade payables account

23,500

Suspense account

Suspense account

23,500

This error would be corrected as follows.

Dr
Trade payables

Cr

23,500

Suspense

23,500

Practice question
A trial balance has been prepared, and total debits are Rs. 459,100 and
total credits are Rs. 459,700.
On investigation, the following errors are found:
1

Sales returns of Rs. 800 were recorded correctly in the receivables

account in the general ledger, but they have been recorded incorrectly
as a credit entry in the purchases returns account.

In the sales day book, the column for total sales has been added up
incorrectly. The total should be Rs. 26,420, but the total was undercast
by Rs. 1,000. (The total was added up as Rs. 25,420).
The correct total amount receivable was entered in the receivables
account in the general ledger.
Open a suspense account and record the book-keeping entries
required to correct the errors.

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3.4 Unknown entry

A suspense account is opened in order to make a trial balance have equal debits
and credits until the errors have been discovered.
In some instances however a suspense account will be opened deliberately by
the bookkeeper if the bookkeeper is uncertain of where to post one side of the
double entry.
Example:
A bookkeeper has received a cheque for Rs. 1,000 but does not know who the
cheque is from or what it relates to.
Rather than putting the cheque to one side until it is known what it is for the
bookkeeper may decide to record the debit entry in the cash book/bank account
and then, not knowing where the credit entry should go, to credit the suspense
account instead.
This can then be cleared at a later date.

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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1

Solutions
The opening balance on the suspense account is a debit balance, since total
credits are higher than total debits by Rs.600.
Error 1
(1) What has been recorded

(2) What should have been recorded

Purchase returns

Purchase returns
800

Sales returns

Sales returns

800
Error 2
(1) What has been recorded

(2) What should have been recorded

Sales

Sales
25,420

26,420

The correcting double entries are:

Dr

Cr

Error 1
Sales returns

800

Suspense account

800

Purchases returns

800

Suspense account

800

Error 2
Suspense account

1,000

Sales

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CHAPTER

Certificate in Accounting and Finance

Introduction to accounting

13

Preparing financial statements

Contents
1 Financial statements
2 Preparing financial statements
3 Receipt and payment accounts

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Introduction to accounting

INTRODUCTION
To enable candidates to equip themselves with the fundamental concepts of accounts
needed as a foundation for higher studies of accounting.
LO 5

Prepare basic financial statements.

LO5.1.1

Statement of financial position: Understand the purpose of the statement of

financial position

LO5.1.2

Statement of financial position: Prepare simple statements of financial position

from information provided.

LO5.2.1

Statement of comprehensive income: Understand the purpose of the

statement of comprehensive income

LO5.2.2

Statement of comprehensive income: Prepare simple statements of

comprehensive income from information provided

LO5.3.1

Receipt and payment accounts: Understand the purpose of a receipts and

payments account.

LO5.3.2

Receipt and payment accounts: Prepare a simple receipts and payments

account from information provided.

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FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
Section overview

Purpose of financial statements

Statement of financial position

Statement of comprehensive income

1.1 Purpose of financial statements

This section is a brief revision of topics covered in more detail in chapter 1.
Financial statements are prepared to provide information that is useful for
decision making. The information is useful in different ways to different user
groups.
User

Possible area of interest

Owners

How the business has performed in the period.

How much can be extracted from the business as
drawings (or dividends for a company).
How management has performed if the owners have
appointed others to run the business for them.

Government

How much tax may be charged.

Analysis of performance of all businesses in a region gives
an indication of the health of the economy in that region.

Employees

Whether a pay rise can be supported.

Safety of employment

Lenders

The safety of the loan.

The ability of the business to meet future payments.

Customers

The level of profit relative to prices charged.

The ability of the business to continue to supply the
customer in the future

Suppliers

Safety of the amounts owed to them leading to the level of

credit that they are willing to give the business.
Whether there may be scope to increase share of the
businesses purchases.

This is not an exhaustive list.

Components of financial statements
A full set of financial statements would include the following:

A statement of comprehensive income or a statement of profit or loss

followed by a statement of comprehensive income;

A statement of financial position; and

Statements of changes in equity and cash flows and notes to the financial
statements (not in this syllabus).

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1.2 Statement of financial position

The statement of financial position is a structured presentation of the assets and
liabilities of the business. The difference between assets and liabilities is capital
(equity).
Assets are resources controlled by the business and liabilities are amounts owed
by the business.
In a statement of financial position, non-current assets are shown separately from
current assets, and non-current liabilities are shown separately from current
liabilities.
As a general rule, assets are current if they will be consumed or converted into
cash within the next 12 months. Cash and cash equivalents are also current
assets. (Cash equivalents are assets that can be converted into cash very
quickly, such as money on deposit in a bank deposit account). There are some
exceptions to this general rule but it is a very useful simplification.
Prepayments and accrued income are current assets.
Liabilities are current if they are payable within the next 12 months. It is therefore
necessary to check the repayment dates on any bank loans or loan notes. Loans
repayable within 12 months become current liabilities.
Illustration:
If a company obtains a five-year bank loan, where none of the loan principal is
repayable until the end of the loan period, the loan will be a non-current liability for
the first four years and will then become a current liability in fifth year when it is
repayable within 12 months.
Accrued expenses (and deferred income) are current liabilities.

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Illustration: Statement of financial position

Peshawar Trading Company: Statement of financial position as at 31
December 2013
Rs. m Rs. m Chapter
Assets
6

Non-current assets
Land and buildings

56.2

Plant and machinery

28.0
84.2

Current assets
Inventories

16.4

Trade and other receivables

17.0

4 and 7

Prepayments and accrued income

2.0

Cash

1.2
36.6

Total assets

120.8

Equity and liabilities

67.8

Capital
Non-current liabilities
Long-term loans

30.0

Current liabilities
18.0

Accruals (and prepaid income)

1.5

Short-term borrowings (bank overdraft)

3.5

Trade and other payables

23.0
Total equity and liabilities

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1.3 Statement of comprehensive income

This statement provides information about the performance of an entity in a
period. It consists of two parts:

a statement of profit or loss a list of income and expenses which result in

a profit or loss for the period; and

a statement of other comprehensive income a list of other gains and

losses that have arisen in the period.

Note that the statement of other comprehensive income is not in your syllabus.
The statement of comprehensive income shows the performance of the business
in terms of its main activities. It is a structured presentation of all revenue, other
income earned in a period and the costs of earning those.
Illustration: Statement of comprehensive income
Peshawar Trading Company: Statement of comprehensive income for
the year ended 31 December 2013
Rs.m
Rs.m Chapter
120.0

Revenue
Cost of sales
Opening inventory

8.0

Purchases

80.0
88.0

Closing inventory

(10.0)
(78.0)
42.0

Gross profit
Other income:
Rental income
Expenses:
Wages and salaries

8.0

Depreciation

6.0

Rental costs

4.0

Telephone charges

3.0

Advertising costs

5.0

Interest charges

1.0

Bad debts

3.0
(30.0)
12.0

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PREPARING FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

Section overview

Financial statements of a sole trader, partnership and company

Year-end

Preparation of financial statements: Approach 1

Preparation of financial statements: Approach 2

2.1 Financial statements of a sole trader, partnership and company

The same basic accounting approach is used in recording the transactions of a
sole trader, a partnership or a company. The preparation of the financial
statements of all three proceeds along the same lines.
There are some differences.
The capital of each type of entity is different in structure.

The capital of a sole trader represents his interest in the business.

A partnership has more than one owner and this must be reflected in the
capital where each has their own capital account or accounts (this is
explained in detail in the next chapter.

For companies, equity capital is represented by share capital and reserves,

not simply by capital.

Sole traders have no reason to comply fully with the requirements of international
accounting standards. The financial statements of a sole trader are therefore
usually limited to a statement of comprehensive income and a statement of
financial position.

2.2 Year-end
Earlier chapters have explained how transactions are first entered into books of
prime entry and how totals from these are transferred into ledger accounts in the
general ledger.
At the year end a trial balance is extracted and various year-end adjustments are
then made to the accounts after which a statement of comprehensive income and
then a statement of financial position can be prepared, using these adjusted
balances.
All such adjustments must also be recorded in the general ledger accounts so
that these agree with balances on the financial statements.
At the end of the period there is another exercise performed in order to prepare
the general ledger for use in the next accounting period. This involves
transferring all income and expense items into a single account (perhaps via
intermediate accounts like cost of sales and statement of comprehensive income)
in order to produce a single figure as profit or loss for the period which is then
transferred to capital.
Earlier chapters have covered the year-end adjustments. They explained how
each type of adjustment is measured and then explained the double entry
necessary to account for these amounts. The double entry explanation used T
accounts in order to explain the full workings of the double entry system.

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In this exam you will be expected to prepare a statement of financial position and
statement of comprehensive income from a trial balance. These questions are
usually quite time pressured so you need to develop a good technique in order to
execute such tasks in an effective way.
The rest of this chapter use the following example to illustrate how such
questions might be approached. You will need to choose an approach and
practice it.
Example:
ABC Trial balance as at 31 December 2013
Rs.
Sales
Purchases

Rs.
428,000

304,400

Wages and salaries

64,000

Rent

14,000

Heating and lighting

5,000

Inventory as at 1 January 2013

15,000

Drawings

22,000

Allowance for doubtful debts

4,000

Non-current assets

146,000

Accumulated depreciation:

32,000

Trade receivables

51,000

Trade payables

42,000

Cash

6,200

Capital as at 1 January 2013

121,600
627,600

627,600

Further information:.
a)

Rs. 400 is owed for heating and lighting expenses.

b)

Rs. 700 has been prepaid for rent.

c)

d)

It is decided that a bad debt of Rs. 1,200 should be written off, and
that the allowance for doubtful debts should be increased to Rs.
4,500.
Depreciation is to be provided for the year at 10% on cost

e)

Inventory at 31st December 2013 was valued at Rs. 16,500.

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The journals
The business needs to process the following double entries to take account of
the further information given above.
Example: Closing journals
a)

Debit

Accrual
Heating an lighting expense
Accrual

Credit
400
400

Being: Accrual for heating and lighting expense

b)

Rent prepayment
Prepayment

700

Rent expense

700

Being: Adjustment to account for rent prepayment

c)

Bad and doubtful debt

Bad and doubtful debt expense

1,200

Receivables

1,200

Being: Write off of bad debt

Bad and doubtful debt expense

500

Allowance for doubtful debts

500

Being: Increase in the allowance for doubtful debts

d)

Depreciation
Depreciation expense

14,600

Accumulated depreciation

14,600

Being: Depreciation for the year (10% of 146,000)

e)

Closing inventory
Inventory (asset)

16,500

Inventory (cost of sales)

16,500

Being: Recognition of inventory at the year-end

These journals are only given to explain the double entry required. You should
never write something like this in a preparation of financial statements question. It
uses up too much time. You want to do double entry rather than write journals.
The chapter continues to show two possible approaches that you might follow.
You do not have to do either. If you decide on a way that suits you then use it.
If you attend courses your lecture will show you how to do this. They are very
experienced. Do as they advise.

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2.3 Preparation of financial statements: Approach 1

Step 1: Perform double entry on the face of the question and open up new
accounts as you need them in any space that you have.
(DO NOT COPY OUT THE TRIAL BALANCE).
After this your question paper should look something like the following (with the
double entries are shown in bold italics):
Example: ABC Trial balance as at 31 December 2013
Rs.
Sales
Purchases

Rs.
428,000

304,400

Wages and salaries

64,000

Rent

14,000

Heating and lighting

Inventory as at 1 January 2013
Drawings

700b

5,000 + 400a
15,000
22,000
4,000+ 500c

Allowance for doubtful debts

Non-current assets

146,000

Accumulated depreciation:

32,000 +
14,600d

Trade receivables

51,000

Trade payables

1,200c
42,000

Cash
Capital as at 1 January 2013

6,200
121,600
627,600

627,600
400a

Accruals
700b

Prepayments
Bad and doubtful debt expense

1200c + 500c

Depreciation expense

14,600d

Closing inventory (asset)

16,500e

Closing inventory (cost of sales)

16,500e

Step 2: Draft pro-forma financial statements including all of the accounts that you
have identified. (A pro-forma is a skeleton document into which you can copy
numbers later)
Step 3: Copy the numbers from the trial balance into the pro-forma statements.
Note that if a number copied onto the financial statements is made up of a
number provided in the original trial balance that has been adjusted, you must
show the marker what you have done. This may involve adding in an additional
explanation below the main answer or may be shown on the face of the
statements.

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Step 4: Calculate profit for the year.

Step 5: Complete statement of financial position by adding profit to the opening
capital, deducting drawings to find the closing capital.
The final answer might look like this:
Example: ABC Statement of financial position
Rs. m

Rs. m

Assets
Non-current assets
Cost

146,000

Accumulated depreciation (32,000 + 14,600)

(46,600)
99,400

Current assets
Inventories

16,500

Trade receivables (51,000 1,200)

49,800

Allowance for doubtful debts (4,000 + 500)

(4,500)
45,300

Prepayments

700

Cash

6,200
68,700

Total assets

168,100

Equity and liabilities

Capital
At start of year

121,600

Profit for the year

26,100

Drawings

(22,000)
125,700

Current liabilities
Trade payables

42,000

Accruals (and prepaid income)

400
42,400

Total equity and liabilities

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168,100

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Example: ABC Statement of comprehensive income

Rs.m
Revenue

Rs.m
428,000

Cost of sales
Opening inventory

15,000

Purchases

304,400
319,400

Closing inventory

(16,500)
(302,900)

Gross profit

125,100

Expenses:
Wages and salaries

64,000

Depreciation (W1)

14,600

Rent (14,000 700)

13,300

Heating an lighting (5,000 + 400)

5,400

Bad and doubtful debts (1,200 + 500)

1,700
(99,000)
26,100

Workings
W1 Depreciation: 10% of 146,000 = 14,600

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2.4 Preparation of financial statements: Approach 2

Step 1: Draft pro-forma financial statements including all of the accounts that you
have identified from reading the question. Leave spaces in case you have missed
an account that you might need to insert later.
Step 2: Copy the numbers from the trial balance into the pro-forma statements. If
you know that a number is not to be adjusted then you can copy it straight to its
destination. Otherwise set up bracketed workings next to the narrative in the proforma.
After step 2 your answer might look like this:
Example: ABC Statement of financial position
Rs. m

Rs. m

Assets
Non-current assets
Cost

146,000

Accumulated depreciation (32,000

Current assets
Inventories
Trade receivables (51,000
Allowance for doubtful debts (4,000
Prepayments
Cash

6,200

Total assets
Equity and liabilities
Capital
At start of year

121,600

Profit for the year

Drawings

(22,000)

Current liabilities
Trade payables

42,000

Accruals (and prepaid income)

Total equity and liabilities

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Example: ABC Statement of comprehensive income

Rs.m
Revenue

Rs.m
428,000

Cost of sales
Opening inventory

15,000

Purchases

304,400
319,400

Closing inventory
Gross profit
Expenses:
Wages and salaries

64,000

Depreciation
Rent (14,000
Heating an lighting (5,000
Bad and doubtful debts

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Step 3: Perform double entry on the face of your answer.

Step 4: Complete the bracketed workings and copy totals into their final
destinations.
Step 5: Calculate profit for the year.
Step 6: Complete statement of financial position by adding profit to the opening
capital, deducting drawings to find the closing capital.
The final answer might look like this:
Example: ABC Statement of financial position
Rs. m

Rs. m

Assets
Non-current assets
Cost

146,000

Accumulated depreciation (32,000 + 14,600)

(46,600)
99,400

Current assets
Inventories

16,500

Trade receivables (51,000 1,200)

49,800

Allowance for doubtful debts (4,000 + 500)

(4,500)
45,300

Prepayments

700

Cash

6,200
68,700

Total assets

168,100

Equity and liabilities

Capital
At start of year

121,600

Profit for the year

26,100

Drawings

(22,000)
125,700

Current liabilities
Trade payables

42,000

Accruals (and prepaid income)

400
42,400

Total equity and liabilities

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Example: ABC Statement of comprehensive income

Rs.m
Revenue

Rs.m
428,000

Cost of sales
Opening inventory

15,000

Purchases

304,400
319,400

Closing inventory

(16,500)
(302,900)

Gross profit

125,100

Expenses:
Wages and salaries

64,000

Depreciation (W1)

14,600

Rent (14,000 700)

13,300

Heating an lighting (5,000 + 400)

5,400

Bad and doubtful debts (1,200 + 500)

1,700
(99,000)
26,100

Workings
W1 Depreciation: 10% of 146,000 = 14,600

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RECEIPT AND PAYMENT ACCOUNTS

Section overview

Introduction

Features of a receipt and payment account

Subscriptions calculation

3.1 Introduction
Some organisations may not be required to prepare accruals based financial
information. These may prepare a receipt and payments account instead.
Organisations that do this might include clubs, societies and perhaps some
charities.
A receipt and payment account is a summary of cash receipts and payments
during the accounting period. The accruals concept is not applied so a receipt
and payment account includes all cash receipts and payments in a period
including capital and revenue amounts and whether they relate to that period or
not.
All cash receipts are recorded on debit side (receipts side) and all cash payments
are recorded on credit side (payments side) of receipts and payments account.

3.2 Features of a receipt and payment account

Feature

Comment

Summary of cash
transactions

All cash receipts and payments made by the concern

during the accounting period are recorded in this book.
Therefore, the receipts and payments account is a
summary of cash transactions.

Cash and bank

items in one
column.

All receipts either cash or bank are recorded in receipts

column of receipts side where all cash and bank payments
are recorded in one column of payment column of receipts
and payments account.
The cash and bank transactions are merged to avoid
contra entries of cash and bank transactions.

No distinction
between capital
and revenue.

All cash receipts and cash payments irrespective of capital

and revenue nature are recorded in receipts and payments
account.
No distinction is made for capital receipts, revenue
receipts, capital expenditures and revenue expenditures.

Opening and
closing balance of
cash

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A receipts and payments account shows the opening and

closing balances of cash and bank.
All cash and cheque receipts are recorded on debit side
whereas all cash and cheque payments are recorded on
credit side of receipts and payments account.

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Illustration
Receipt and payment account
Balance b/d

Donation

Subscriptions

Repairs

Functions

X
X

Telephone

Sale of land

Extension of club house

Bank interest

Furniture

Bequest

Heat and light

Sundry income

Salary and wages

Sundry expenses

Balance c/d

Balance b/d
A receipt and payment account gives far less information than a set of financial
statements based on the accruals concept.
For all practical purposes this is a cash account just like those that you have
come across in other chapters.

3.3 Subscriptions account

The main source of cash for a club will be membership fees. It may be necessary
to calculate the cash received from members during the year. This can be
complicated by the fact that at each year end there will usually be some
members who have paid their subscriptions in advance and some who are in
arrears.

Members who pay their fees in advance are creditors of the club (the club
owes them a period of membership).

Members who are in arrears are debtors of the club.

The amount of cash received in the year can be calculated using a subscriptions
T account.

Opening and closing balances for members who have paid in advance and
those who are in arrears are recognised.

The total membership fees that should have been collected (number of
members annual fee) are debited to the account.

The cash received is a balancing figure on the credit side of the account.

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Illustration: Subscription account

Subscription account
Rs.
Balance b/d (members
in arrears)
Income and expenditure
Balance c/d (members
who have prepaid)

Rs.
Balance b/d (members
who have prepaid)

Cash

Balance c/d (members in

arrears)

Balance b/d (members

who have prepaid)

X
X
X

Balance b/d (members

in arrears)

Example: Subscription account

A club has 500 members.
Annual membership fees are Rs. 1,000.
Therefore membership fees for the year should be Rs. 500,000.
The clubs subscription records for the year ended 31 December 2013 show the
following:
At 31 December At 31 December
2012
2012
Subscriptions received in advance

10,000

6,000

Subscriptions in arrears

18,000

22,000

Cash received is calculated as follows:

Subscriptions
Rs.
Balance b/d:
Members in arrears
Membership fees for the
year
Balance c/d:
Advance payments
Balance b/d:

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Rs.

Balance b/d:
18,000 Advance payments

10,000

500,000 Cash (balancing figure)

492,000

Balance c/d:
6,000 Members in arrears
524,000

22,000
524,000

22,000 Balance b/d:

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CHAPTER

Certificate in Accounting and Finance

Introduction to accounting

14

Partnership accounts
Contents
1 Features of partnerships
2 Sharing the profits between the partners
3 Changes in partnerships
4 Amalgamation and dissolution of partnerships

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INTRODUCTION
Learning outcomes
To enable candidates to equip themselves with the fundamental concepts of accounts
needed as a foundation for higher studies of accounting.
LO 6

Prepare partnership accounts and account for transactions of

admission, retirement etc.

LO6.1.1

Preparation of partnership accounts: Define a partnership and state its

essential elements

LO6.1.2

Preparation of partnership accounts: Understand goodwill

LO6.1.3

Preparation of partnership accounts: Prepare capital accounts and current

accounts

LO6.1.4

Preparation of partnership accounts: Prepare a profit and loss account and a

statement of financial position of a partnership.

LO6.2.1

Admission and amalgamation: Process the necessary adjustments on the

admission of a new partner (namely revaluation of assets and liabilities of the
firm, treatment of goodwill and application of new profit sharing ratio).

LO6.2.2

Admission and amalgamation: Prepare the nominal accounts, profit and loss
account and statement of financial position upon amalgamation of two
partnerships.

LO6.3.1

Retirement, death, dissolution, liquidation: Make journal entries in the case of

the dissolution of a partnership (to record transfer and sale of assets and
liabilities to third parties and partners, payment of realization expenses,
closing of the realization account and settlement of partners capital account).

LO6.3.2

Retirement, death, dissolution, liquidation: Process the necessary adjustments

on the death or retirement of a partner (including adjustments relating to
goodwill, accumulated reserves and undistributed profits, revaluation account,
adjustment and treatment of partners capital and application of new profit
sharing ratio).

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Chapter 14: Partnership accounts

FEATURES OF PARTNERSHIPS
Section overview

Partnerships

Partnership accounts

Partners capital

1.1 Partnerships
A partnership is a type of business structure.
Definition: Partnership
The relationship between persons who have agreed to share the profits of a
business carried on by all or any of them, acting for all.
They are carrying on a business in common with a view to making a profit.
Partnerships in Pakistan are subject to rules set out in The Partnership Act 1932.
Persons who have entered into partnership with one another are called
individually partners and collectively a firm and the name under which their
business is carried on is called the firm name.
Features of a partnership
There must be an association of two or more persons to carry on a business.
There must be an agreement entered into by all the persons concerned.
The agreement must be to share the profits of a business.
The business must be carried on by all or any of the persons concerned acting
for all.
Change in partners
The composition of a partnership might change on occasion with new partners
being admitted or an existing partner leaving or through two separate
partnerships amalgamating into a single new partnership.
Sometimes a partnership might dissolve (known as dissolution of the partnership)
Later sections explain the accounting treatment to reflect these events.

1.2 Partnership accounts

Partnership accounts are the financial accounts of a partnership business.
The financial statements of partnerships are the same as those of a sole
proprietor with the exception of capital. The major difference between a
partnership and a sole proprietor business is that a partnership has several joint
owners.
Ownership is reflected in the capital of a business so whereas there is a single
capital account in the statement of financial position of a sole proprietor the
capital section of the statement of financial position of a partnership must reflect
the fact that there is more than one owner.

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The accounts of the partnership must record the capital and profits that are
attributable to each individual partner.
The profit of a sole proprietor is simply added to the capital balance brought
forward. In the case of a partnership the profit belongs to the partners so there
must be a mechanism by which this is shared. Partners shares are then added
to their personal capital accounts.

1.3 Partners capital

Each partner contributes capital to the business and shares in the profit (or loss)
of the business. The capital of each partner must be identified separately.
The capital of each partner is usually contained in two accounts.

Capital account

Current account

Capital account
The partnership agreement usually specifies that each partner must contribute a
minimum amount of fixed capital and that partners cannot draw out any of their
fixed capital.
In addition, each partner might retain some of his or her share of accumulated
profits in the business. The partnership agreement should allow partners to draw
out their share of accumulated profits, if they wish to do so.
The capital account records the fixed capital or long-term capital of the partner
that the partner must retain in the business and cannot take out in drawings.
The balance on this account does not change very often.
Current account
A current account is used to record the accumulated profits of the partner and the
partners drawings.

The profits of the business are shared between the partners. The share of
each partner is credited to (added to) his or her current account.

Each partner may take drawings out of the business. Drawings are a
withdrawal of profit. These are recorded by debiting the current account of
the partner (and crediting the Bank account).

Illustration: Partner X: current account

Rs.

Partner X: current account

Opening balance

Partners share of profit for the year

Drawings by the partner during the year

Closing balance

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SHARING THE PROFITS BETWEEN THE PARTNERS

Section overview

Profit-sharing ratio

Notional salaries for partners

Notional interest on long-term capital

Guaranteed minimum profit share

Changes in the partnership agreement on profit-sharing

Profits, drawings and the partners current accounts

2.1 Profit-sharing ratio

The profit or loss for the financial period is calculated according to the normal
rules (as described already for a sole trader). This total profit or loss figure is then
divided between the partners and credited to their current account.
The partners are free to decide on how the profit (or loss) of the partnership is
shared between the partners. The profit sharing arrangements are set out in the
partnership agreement.

The profit for the period might be shared in agreed profit sharing ratio. This
is sometimes abbreviated as PSR. (The term profit sharing ratio covers the
sharing of both profit and loss).

Alternatively, there might be other means of allocating a first share of profit

with the residual profit being shared in the agree profit sharing ratio.
Methods of allocating a first share of profit include:

Notional salaries;

Notional interest on long term capital.

The first example shows the use of a profit sharing ratio without any other
method of allocating a first share of profit.
Example:
The WXY Partnership has three partners, W, X and Y, who share profits and losses
in an agreed ratio of 3:5:8. (Profit is divided into 16 parts {3 + 5 +8} and W, X and
Y receives 3 parts, 5 parts and 8 parts respectively).
Profits for the year were Rs. 1,920,000.
The total profits are divided between the partners as follows:
Partner

Rs.

W
X

Rs. 1,920,000 3/16

Rs. 1,920,000 5/16

360,000
600,000

Rs. 1,920,000 8/16

960,000
1,920,000

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This might be recorded using an appropriation account.

The profit would first be transferred into the appropriation account:
Illustration:
Debit
Statement of comprehensive
income account
Appropriation account

Credit

1,920,000
1,920,000

The profit would then be transferred from the appropriation account to the
partners current accounts:
Illustration:
Debit
Appropriation account

Credit

1,920,000

Partner Ws current account

360,000

Partner Xs current account

600,000

Partner Ys current account

960,000

2.2 Notional salaries for partners

A partnership agreement might recognise the different amount of work done by
partners by awarding one or more of the partners with a notional salary.
A notional salary is an agreed amount awarded to the individual partner from the
partnership profits.
Note that a notional salary is not a business expense in the same way that salary
to employees is. It is a share of the partnership profits.
Also note that notional salary may not be paid to a partner in the same way that
salary is paid to employees. A partner takes cash out of the business through
drawings.
The salary is awarded to each partner from the profits, and the residual profit
after deduction of notional salaries is then divided between the partners in the
agreed profit-sharing ratio.

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Example:
The PQR Partnership has three partners, P, Q and R.
The partnership agreement provides for the residual profit (or loss) to be shared
between them in the ratio 4:3:2, after allowing a notional salary of Rs. 30,000 to
R.
The profit for the year is Rs. 345,000.
Residual profits = Rs. 345,000 Rs. 30,000 = Rs. 315,000.
Profits are shared as follows:
P

Profit share
Q

Rs.
30,000

Rs.

Rs.

Rs. 315,000 4/9

140,000

140,000

Q share
Rs. 315,000 3/9

105,000

Total
Notional salary

R
Rs.
30,000

Residual profit:
P share

105,000

R share
Rs. 315,000 2/9

70,000

70,000

315,000
Profit share

345,000

140,000

105,000

100,000

The profit share of each partner is added to the balance on their individual
current accounts.

Practice question
A, B and C are in partnership sharing profits and losses in the ratio of 2: 2:
1.
B is allowed a salary of Rs. 10,000 per annum and C is allowed a salary of
Rs. 15,000 per annum.
The net profit for year was Rs. 100,000.
Show how profit should be shared between the partners.

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2.3 Notional interest on long-term capital

The partnership agreement might provide for the partners to obtain notional
interest on the long-term capital they have invested in the business. This is
interest on the balance in their capital account.
Notional interest on long-term capital is not interest expense, because the capital
in the partners capital account is equity, not a liability of the business.
The notional interest is a share of the partnership profits. Like notional salaries,
the notional interest is awarded to each partner in accordance with the
partnership agreement.
The residual profit shared between the partners in the profit-sharing ratio is the
profit after notional salaries and notional interest on capital are deducted.
Example:
Partnership DEF has three partners, D, E and F.
Partner D has contributed Rs. 100,000 of fixed capital, Partner E Rs. 120,000
and Partner F Rs. 60,000.
They have agreed to share profits in the following way.
1. Partner D to receive a salary of Rs. 4,000 and Partner F a salary of Rs. 7,000.
2. All three partners receive interest at 5% on the fixed capital contributed.
3. Residual profit or loss to be shared between D, E and F in the ratio 3:5:2.
The profit of the partnership for the year is Rs. 95,000.
The partnership profits would be shared between the partners as follows:
Total

Profit share
D
E

Rs.
4,000

Rs.

Notional salary

Rs.
11,000

Rs.
7,000

Notional interest at 5%

14,000

5,000

6,000

3,000

21,000

Residual profit (balance):

D share

Rs. 70,000 3/10

21,000

E share

Rs. 70,000 5/10

35,000

F share

Rs. 70,000

14,000

2/10

35,000
14,000

70,000
Profit share

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30,000

41,000

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Practice question
G, H and I are in partnership.
The profit of the partnership for the year is Rs. 1,146,000.
Partner G has contributed Rs. 500,000 of fixed capital, Partner H Rs.
400,000 and Partner I Rs. 300,000.
The partners have agreed to share profits in the following way.
1 Partner H should receive a salary of Rs. 50,000 and Partner I a salary
of Rs. 100,000.
2 All three partners should receive interest at 8% on the fixed capital
contributed.
3 Residual profit (or losses) should be shared between G, H and I in the
ratio 3: 2: 1.
Show how the partnership profits should be shared between the
partners

2.4 Guaranteed minimum profit share

A partnership agreement might guarantee a minimum profit share for one (or
more) of the partners.
In these cases:

The partnership profits are shared according to the partnership agreement,

ignoring the minimum profit agreement.

If the normal sharing mechanism does not result in a partner receiving the
minimum guaranteed profit the other partners must make up the shortfall
out of their profit share, in their profit-sharing ratio.

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Example:
The XYZ Partnership has three partners, X, Y and Z.
The partnership agreement provides for Partner X to receive a notional salary of
Rs. 20,000 and residual profits or losses are shared between X, Y and Z in the
ratio 2:4:6.
In addition, the agreement guarantees a minimum profit share of Rs. 32,000 to
Partner Y.
The partnership profit for the current year is Rs. 80,000.
The partnership profits would be shared between the partners as follows:

Notional salary

Total

Rs.
20,000

Rs.
20,000
10,000

Profit share
Y

Rs.

Rs.

Residual profit (balance)

X share

Rs. 60,000 2/12

10,000

Y share

Rs. 60,000 4/12

20,000

Z share

Rs. 60,000 6/12

30,000

20,000
30,000

60,000
80,000

30,000

20,000

(3,000)

3,000

30,000

Transfer to meet shortfall:

X share

Rs. 12,000 2/8

Z share

Rs. 12,000 6/8

9,000

(9,000)

12,000
Profit share

80,000

27,000

32,000

21,000

2.5 Changes in the partnership agreement on profit-sharing

The agreement on how the partners should share the profits of the business may
be changed during a financial year. When this happens, the total profits for the
year should be apportioned, on a time basis, between:

profits of the business during the time of the old profit-sharing

arrangements, and

profits of the business during the time of the new profit-sharing

arrangements.

The profits for each time period are then shared between the partners in
accordance with the agreement for that period.

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Example:
The DEF Partnership has three partners, D, E and F.
In the first half of year 1, to 30 June Year 1, Partner D and Partner F each
received an annual salary of Rs. 30,000.
Residual profits or losses are shared between D, E and F in the ratio 3:5:2. (There
is no interest on capital.)
In the second half of the year, from 1 July to 31 December, Partner Ds salary was
increased to Rs. 40,000, and the partners altered the profit-sharing ratio to 1:3:1
for D:E:F). The salary of Partner F was unchanged at Rs. 30,000 per year.
The profit for the year was Rs. 220,000 (arising evenly throughout the year).
The annual profit would be shared as follows:
First six months
Notional salary (6 months)

Total

Rs.
30,000

Rs.
15,000

Rs.

Rs.
15,000

24,000

Residual profit (balance)

D share

Rs. 80,000 3/10

24,000

E share

Rs. 80,000 5/10

40,000

F share

Rs. 80,000 2/10

16,000

40,000
16,000

80,000
Second six months
Notional salary (6 months)

110,000

39,000

35,000

20,000

15,000

40,000

31,000
15,000

Residual profit (balance)

D share

Rs. 75,000 1/5

15,000

E share

Rs. 75,000 3/5

45,000

F share

Rs. 75,000 1/5

15,000

45,000
15,000

75,000

Total for the year

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110,000

35,000

45,000

30,000

220,000

74,000

85,000

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Introduction to accounting

2.6 Profits, drawings and the partners current accounts

For each partner, the share of the annual profit is added to the partners current
account. Any drawings during the year are deducted.
Example:
There are three partners in the ABC Partnership, A, B and C. The capital and
current accounts of the partners at the beginning of the year were as follows:
Partner
A

Capital account (Rs.)

100,000

Current account (Rs.)

6,000

200,000

3,000

160,000

8,000

The profit for the year was Rs. 103,000.

Profit sharing agreement:
Partner A is given a salary of Rs. 17,000 and Partner C has a salary of Rs. 15,000
The partners pay themselves interest on capital at 5% per year
The residual profit or loss is shared between A, B and C in the ratio 1:3:2.
During the year, drawings by each partner were:
A
Rs. 20,000
B
Rs. 25,000
C

Rs. 40,000

The profit share is as follows:

Total
Rs.

A
Rs.

Notional salary

32,000

17,000

Notional interest at 5%

23,000

5,000

8,000

B
Rs.

C
Rs.
15,000

10,000

8,000

Residual profit (balance)

A share

Rs. 48,000 x 1/6

8,000

B share
C share

Rs. 48,000 x 3/6

Rs. 48,000 x 2/6

24,000
16,000

24,000
16,000

48,000
Profit share

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34,000

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Chapter 14: Partnership accounts

Example (continued):
The partners capital accounts are the same at the end of the year as at the
beginning of the year.
The current accounts are as follows (all amounts in Rs. 000):
Current accounts
A

Balance b/d

40 Profit share

30

34

39

36

37

47

16

12

Drawings

20

25

Balance c/d

16

12

36

37

47
Balance b/d

The current accounts can also be set out in columnar form as follows:
Current accounts

Partner A
Rs.

Partner B
Rs.

Partner C
Rs.

6,000
30,000

3,000
34,000

8,000
39,000

36,000

37,000

47,000

(20,000)

(25,000)

(40,000)

16,000

12,000

7,000

Beginning of the year

Add share of profit
Deduct drawings
End of the year

Practice question
X, Y and Z are in partnership.
Partner

Capital account at
the start of the year
Rs.
1.000,000

Current account at
the start of the year
Rs.
20,000

Drawings
during the year
Rs.
780,000

Y
Z

800,000
600,000

50,000
10,000

580,000
350,000

The profit for the year was Rs. 1,944,000.

Profits are shared as follows:
1

The partners pay themselves interest on capital at 6% per year.

The residual profit or loss is shared between X, Y and Z in the ratio 4: 3:

2.
Show how the profits should be shared between the partners, and
show their capital and current accounts as at the end of the year.

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Introduction to accounting

CHANGES IN PARTNERSHIPS
Section overview

Introduction

Goodwill

Accounting for a change in partnership

Admitting a new partner

Retirement or death of a partner

3.1 Introduction
A partnership may change due to one of the following:

Admission of a new partner to the firm.

Death or retirement of a partner

Amalgamation of a partnership with another business (maybe a sole

proprietor or another partnership.

The accounting problems are similar in each case (though amalgamation does
have an extra dimension which will be discussed later).
In each case the old partnership comes to an end and a new partnership is
formed. Usually the records of the old partnership continue as those of the new
partnership with adjustments to reflect the change of ownership.
The main objective of these adjustments is to establish the capital of each
partner in the old partnership. This is important in each of the above cases.
Case
Admission of a
new partner

The existing partners will want the new partner to

introduce a share of capital.
The size of the amount of capital the new partner must
introduce depends on the existing capital of the business.

Retirement (or
death) of an
existing partner

The retiring partner will want to withdraw his capital so this

must be measured at the date of retirement.

Amalgamation

It is important to establish the capital worth of each partner

in the new business; to show what each partner is bringing
to the new business

A deceased partners capital must be paid to his estate so

that his family or other beneficiaries may benefit.

This may sound straightforward as capital and current accounts already exist.
However, the balance on the accounts is the partners share of the net assets of
the firm as recorded in the statement of financial position. The statement of
financial position is a list of assets and liabilities, not a statement of value.
The assets of the business will be stated at cost. This may be very different to
their value at the date of the change in partnership.

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Illustration:
A, B and C were in partnership sharing profits or losses equally.
The firm bought a plot of land in 2001 for Rs. 2,500,000.
A left the partnership on 30 June 2013.
The land was worth Rs. 4,000,000 at that date. (This is known as its fair value).
The land has risen in value by Rs. 1,500,000 but this is not reflected in the
financial statements. This means that As capital does not include his share of the
gain but clearly Rs. 500,000 of the gain belongs to him.
Somehow the extra amount must be accounted for so that A can benefit from this.
The firms net assets are not the same as the value of the firm and each partner
will be more concerned with this latter figure.
Illustration:
A, B and C were in partnership sharing profits or losses equally.
A left the partnership on 30 June 2013.
At this date the net assets of the firm were Rs. 6,000,000. The value of the firm
was estimated at Rs. 9,000,000. (The difference of Rs. 3,000,000 is called
goodwill and this will be explained shortly).
As share of the net assets might be 2,000,000 but his share of the value of the
firm is Rs. 3,000,000.
Somehow the extra amount must be accounted for so that A can benefit from this.
The solution to the above problems is as follows:

The net assets must be revalued so that the partners share in any
adjustment;

The difference between the value of the firm and the net assets of the firm
(goodwill) must be recognised.

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3.2 Goodwill
Goodwill is the amount by which the value of a business exceeds the value of all
its net assets (its assets less liabilities).
Goodwill is an intangible asset of a business, but normally it is not recognised as
an asset in the financial statements.
The value of a business is usually more than the net assets of the business
because it reflects the trading potential that the business, i.e. its ability to
generate profits in the future. All successful businesses have goodwill, which
means that buyers will be prepared to pay more to acquire the business than the
value of its net assets.
Illustration: Goodwill
Value of the firm (what another party would pay for it)

Assets less liabilities of the firm (net assets)

(X)

Goodwill

Strictly speaking the assets and liabilities of the firm should be restated to their
fair value in order to measure goodwill. Fair value is a very important concept in
financial reporting but that is beyond the scope of this syllabus. For the purposes
of this chapter it is sufficient to think of it as the market value of an asset, i.e. how
much it is worth.
Example:
A firm has net assets of Rs. 1,000,000.
One of the assets held by the firm is a property at cost less accumulated
depreciation of Rs.400,000. This property has a market value of Rs.600,000 (Rs.
200,000 above its book value.
The firm is valued at Rs. 1,800,000.
Goodwill calculation:

Value of the firm

Without
revaluing the
asset
1,800,000

Assets less liabilities as per the accounts

(1,000,000)

Assets less liabilities (at fair value)

With
revaluation
of the asset
1,800,000
(1,200,000)

1,000,000 + 200)
Goodwill

800,000

600,000

800,000

600,000

200,000

800,000

800,000

Amount shared by the partners:

Goodwill
Revaluation gain
Amount shared by the partners in the
profit sharing ratio:

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In the above example the figure of Rs. 600,000 for goodwill is the value that most
closely fits the guidance given in IFRS. However, for the purpose of measuring
adjustments to partners capital at a time of change the example demonstrates
that whether the net assets are revalued or not might be is irrelevant as the
overall gain to each partner is not affected.
The above example implies that there may be no point in revaluing assets in
questions involving change. This is not true because questions on this topic
usually provide the goodwill figure and revaluation rather than the value of the
firm.
Valuing goodwill
The method of arriving at total value of the firm might be based on a formula set
out in the partnership agreement.
Example:
The XYZ Partnership values has an agreed method to value the firm for purposes
of change in partnership as 10 the average annual profit for the last three years
for which financial statements are available.
Profit for the last three years has been as follows:
Year 3
Year 2
Year 1

Rs. 100,000
Rs. 90,000
Rs. 80,000

The average annual profit is:

100,000 + 90,000 + 80,000/3

= Rs. 90,000

The valuation of the firm is: 10 Rs. 90,000 = Rs. 900,000

Alternatively, a partnership agreement might specify a method for valuing
goodwill directly. One such method is measuring goodwill as a multiple of
average annual profits or a multiple of its average annual excess profits.
Example:
The XYZ Partnership values its goodwill as two times the average of the annual
profits in excess of Rs. 60,000 each year for the last three years.
Profit for the last three years has been as follows:
Year 3
Year 2
Year 1

Rs. 100,000
Rs. 90,000
Rs. 80,000

The profits in excess of Rs. 60,000 have been:

Rs. 40,000 + Rs. 30,000 + Rs. 20,000 = Rs. 90,000
The average annual excess profit is: Rs. 90,000/3 = Rs. 30,000
The valuation of goodwill is: 2 Rs. 30,000 = Rs. 60,000
It is very unlikely that you will have to calculate goodwill in this exam but you will
have to account for it.

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3.3 Accounting for a change in partnership

As previously stated, the old partnership comes to an end and a new partnership
begins but the records of the old partnership continue as those of the new
partnership with adjustments to reflect the change of ownership.
The adjustments aim to establish each partners share of the worth of the firm in
the old partnership. This is done by recognising goodwill and any revaluation
gains (or losses).
Illustration: Journal to recognise goodwill of old partnership
Debit
Goodwill
Partners capital (in old partnership profit
sharing ratio)

Credit

X
X

Being: Recognition of goodwill prior to a change in partnership

The goodwill figure is not usually retained in the accounts after the change in the
partnership. It is removed as follows:
Illustration: Journals to remove goodwill from books of the new partnership
Debit
Partners capital (in new partnership profit
sharing ratio)
Goodwill

Credit

X
X

Being: Removal of goodwill after a change in partnership

Similar entries to those necessary to record goodwill might also be required to
recognise revaluation of a specific asset.
Other entries will involve the recognition of capital introduced by a new partner or
the removal of capital by a retiring partner or taken on behalf of a deceased
partner.

3.4 Admitting a new partner

When a new partner is admitted to a partnership the following steps are required
when accounting for this admission:
Steps

Detail

Measure goodwill of the old partnership (this figure will usually be

given to you)

Recognise goodwill sharing the credit entry to the partners of the

old partnership in the old profit sharing ratio.

Remove the goodwill in the books of the new partnership sharing

the debit entry to the partners of the new partnership in the new
profit sharing ratio.

Account for capital introduced by the new partner

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Example:
R and S are in partnership sharing profits or losses equally.
R has Rs. 80,000 of capital and S has contributed Rs. 60,000 of capital.
T is to be admitted to the partnership and will introduce capital of Rs. 50,000.
Profits or losses are to be shared in the new partnership in the ratio of 2: 2: 1.
Step 1: The goodwill of the partnership at the date of admission is agreed to be
Rs. 30,000.
Step 2: Recognise goodwill
Debit
30,000

Goodwill

Credit

Capital Partner R (1/2 of 30,000)

Capital Partner S

(1/2

15,000

of 30,000)

15,000

Goodwill account (Rs.000)

Capital accounts

30
Capital accounts (Rs.000)
R

R
80
15

Balance b/d
Goodwill

S
60
15

Step 3: Remove the goodwill

Capital Partner R

(2/5

of 30,000)

Debit
12,000

Capital Partner S

(2/5

of 30,000)

12,000

Capital Partner T

( 1/5

of 30,000)

12,000

Credit

Goodwill

30,000
Goodwill account (Rs.000)

Capital accounts

30

Capital accounts

30

Capital accounts (Rs.000)

R
Goodwill

12

S
12

T
6

Balance b/d

R
80

S
60

Goodwill

15

15

Step 4: Recognise new partners capital introduced

Debit
50,000

Cash
Capital Partner T

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Example (continued)
The capital accounts now look like this:
Capital accounts (Rs.000)
R
Goodwill
Balance c/d

12

S
12

T
6

83

63

44

95

75

50

Balance b/d

80

60

Goodwill
Cash

15

15

Balance b/d

50
95

75

50

83

63

44

Note that the balance on partner Ts capital account is only Rs. 44,000 even
though he has introduced Rs. 50,000. This is because he has paid for his
share of the goodwill of the business.

Practice question
P and Q are in partnership sharing profits or losses in the ratio of 2:1. P has
contributed Rs. 600,000 of capital and Q has contributed Rs. 500,000 of
capital.
They are about to admit a new partner, M, to the partnership and M has
agreed to pay the partnership Rs. 400,000 of capital.
After the admission of M profits or losses will be shared between P, Q and
M in the ratio of 2:2:1.
The goodwill of the partnership at the date of admission is estimated to be
Rs. 150,000.
Write up the capital accounts of the partners to show the admission of M to
the partnership.

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3.5 Retirement or death of a partner

When a partner leaves a partnership the following steps are required when
accounting for his leaving:
Steps

Detail

Measure goodwill of the old partnership (this figure will usually be

given to you)

Recognise goodwill sharing the credit entry to the partners of the

old partnership in the old profit sharing ratio.

Remove the goodwill in the books of the new partnership sharing

the debit entry to the partners of the new partnership in the new
profit sharing ratio.

Account for capital taken

Example:
P, Q and R are in partnership sharing profits or losses equally.
P has Rs. 80,000 of capital and Q has Rs. 60,000 of capital and R has Rs. 75,000
of capital.
R is to retire. He will be paid cash in the amount of Rs.50,000 and he will leave
the rest as a loan to the company.
Profits or losses are to be shared equally in the new partnership.
Step 1: The goodwill of the partnership at the date of retirement is agreed to be
Rs. 60,000.
Step 2: Recognise goodwill
Debit
60,000

Goodwill

Credit

Capital Partner P (1/3 of 60,000)

20,000

Capital Partner Q (1/3 of 60,000)

20,000

Capital Partner R (1/3 of 60,000)

20,000

Goodwill account (Rs.000)

Capital accounts

60
Capital accounts (Rs.000)
P

R
Balance b/d
Goodwill

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P
80
20

Q
60
20

R
75
20

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Introduction to accounting

Example (continued)
Step 3: Remove the goodwill

Capital Partner P

(1/2

of 60,000)

Debit
30,000

Capital Partner Q

(1/2

of 60,000)

30,000

Credit

Goodwill

60,000
Goodwill account (Rs.000)

Capital accounts

60

Capital accounts

60

Capital accounts (Rs.000)

P
Goodwill

30

R
Balance b/d
Goodwill

30

P
80

Q
60

20

20

R
75
20

Step 4: Recognise amount paid to retiring partner and any other arrangement
Debit
50,000

Cash

Credit

Capital Partner T

50,000

The capital accounts now look like this:

Capital accounts (Rs.000)
P

R
Balance b/d

Goodwill
Cash

30

R
75

100

80

95

70

50

20

45
70

50

100

80

95
Balance b/d

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60
20

50

Loan
Balance c/d

Goodwill

30

P
80
20

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Chapter 14: Partnership accounts

Practice question
J, K and L are partners sharing profits or losses and losses equally.
Capital account balances at 31 December 2013 are Rs.320,000,
Rs.210,000 and Rs.120,000.
K is to retire, leaving the amounts due to her as a loan to the partnership.
The land and buildings were revalued by Rs. 1,800,000 and goodwill was
valued at Rs. 900,000.
After the change the profit share is revised to 3:1 and goodwill is not to be
recorded in the books.
Show how the retirement of K should be shown in the capital accounts.

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Introduction to accounting

AMALGAMATION AND DISSOLUTION OF PARTNERSHIPS

Section overview

Amalgamation

Dissolution

4.1 Amalgamation
An amalgamation is where two or more partnerships combine together to form a
new partnership, or where a sole trader and a partnership combine together.
There are strong similarities to the changes already covered with revaluations
made in the old books and the reversals made in the new books.
You may have to construct the statement of financial position immediately after
the amalgamation. The added dimension to this sort of question is that this
involves merging the statements of financial position of the two businesses that
are amalgamating.
(Current accounts are excluded from the following example in order to allow you
to focus on the amalgamation process).
Example: Amalgamation
A and B are partners sharing profits or losses equally.
C and D are partners in another firm. They also share profits equally.
The two firms are to amalgamate with A, B, C and D sharing profits or losses in
the ratio of 3; 3: 2 and 2.
The statements of financial position of each business immediately prior to the
amalgamation and before any of the necessary amalgamation adjustments Were
as follows:
Non-current assets

AB &Co
200,000

CD &Co
175,000

Current assets

100,000

80,000

300,000

255,000

Capital
A

120,000

120,000

100,000

100,000

Liabilities

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60,000

55,000

300,000

255,000

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Chapter 14: Partnership accounts

Example (continued): Amalgamation

Step 1: Identify goodwill to be recognised and revaluations.
The goodwill of AB & Co was agreed to be Rs. 100,000.
AB & Co had non-current assets which were to be revalued by Rs. 50,000.
The goodwill of CD & Co was agreed at 80,000.
CD & Co also had non-current assets which were to be revalued by Rs. 50,000.
Step 2: Recognise the adjustments in the books of each firm.
The capital accounts of each firm (this time in columnar form) would be as
follows after accounting for the above:
Books of AB & Co
Capital
Balance b/d

A
120,000

B
120,000

Goodwill (100,000 shared equally)

50,000

50,000

Revaluation (50,000 shared equally)

25,000

25,000

195,000

195,000

Balance b/d

C
100,000

D
100,000

Goodwill (80,000 shared equally)

40,000

40,000

Revaluation (50,000 shared equally)

25,000

25,000

165,000

165,000

Books of CD & Co
Capital

After this the statements of financial position of each firm would look as
follows and can be amalgamated by adding each line together.
Goodwill

AB &Co
100,000

CD &Co
80,000

New firm
180,000

Non-current assets

250,000

225,000

475,000

Current assets

100,000

80,000

180,000

450,000

385,000

835,000

Capital
A

195,000

195,000

195,000

195,000

165,000

165,000

165,000

165,000

60,000

55,000

115,000

450,000

385,000

835,000

Liabilities

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Example (continued): Amalgamation

Step 3: The partners in the new firm have decided that the assets ledger will be
carried forward at their revalued amounts in the general ledger of the new firm
but goodwill is to be eliminated. The total goodwill before elimination is Rs.
180,000.
The necessary double entry is:
Capital Partner A (3/10 of 180,000)
Capital Partner B

(3/10

54,000

of 180,000)

54,000

Capital Partner C (2/10 of 180,000)

36,000

Capital Partner D (2/10 of 180,000)

36,000

Goodwill

60,000

The capital accounts of the new firm would be as follows after accounting
for the above:
Books of new firm
Balance b/d

A
195,000

B
195,000

C
165,000

D
165,000

Write off of goodwill

(54,000)

(54,000)

(36,000)

(36,000)

Balance c/d

141,000

141,000

129,000

129,000

Step 4: Prepare the final statement of financial position as at the start of

the new firm.
Non-current assets

New firm
475,000

Current assets

180,000
655,000

Capital
A

141,000

141,000

129,000

129,000

Liabilities

115,000
655,000

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Chapter 14: Partnership accounts

4.2 Dissolution of a partnership

A partnership might cease trading. When this happens the partners are said to
dissolve their partnership and liquidate the firm.
The following might then happen:

Some assets of the firm are sold at a profit or loss which must be shared
between the partners in their profit sharing ratio.

Other assets might be taken by the partners in part settlement of their

capital.

Liabilities are paid (though some might be accepted by a partner thus

increasing his capital balance).

Finally, the balance on the capital owed to the partners is paid off using the
remaining assets of the business. Alternatively a partner might have to pay
cash into the business if there is a debit balance on his capital account.

Realisation account
A realisation account is used to calculate the profit /loss on disposal of assets.
All assets to be sold and those taken over by partners at agreed values are
transferred into the account at their carrying amounts (as debit balances). Note
that for non-current assets this will be cost less accumulated depreciation.
The account is credited with proceeds of sale and value of assets taken over by
partners. Any profit (loss) on the account is then transferred to partners capital in
the profit sharing ratio.
Illustration: Realisation account
Realisation account
Rs.
Non-current assets at
carrying amount

Current assets:
Inventory

Receivables

Costs of the dissolution

Profit to partners capital in

the profit sharing ratio

X
X

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Rs.
Proceeds from selling assets
Assets taken by partners (at
an agreed value)

X
X

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

Introduction to accounting

Detailed accounting entries to close off partnership books

Steps

Detail

Close each partners current account by transferring the balances

to their capital account. This is to establish a single capital figure for
each partner.

Transfer all assets (except cash) into the realisation account. Note
that for non-current assets this involves transferring in the cost of
the assets and the accumulated depreciation.

Perform double entry to reflect the sale of any asset.

Perform double entry to reflect the transfer of any asset to a

partners ownership at the agreed value.

Strike a balance on the realisation account and transfer profit or

loss to the partners in the agreed profit sharing ratio.

Pay off any liabilities (if there is insufficient cash the partners will
have to pay more into the business first).

Use the remaining assets to pay the partners their capital.

Example: Dissolution
A and B are partners sharing profits or losses equally.
They decide to dissolve their partnership.
The statement of financial position of at this date is as:
AB &Co
Rs.

Non-current assets:
Land and buildings

200,000

Plant and equipment

100,000

Current assets
Inventory

95,000

Receivables

80,000

Cash

120,000
595,000

Partners capital accounts

A

150,000

150,000

Partners current accounts:

A

110,000

75,000

Liabilities

110,000
595,000

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Example (continued): Dissolution

Step 1: Current and capital accounts are combined.
Debit
110,000

Capital Partner A
Current Partner A

Credit
110,000

Capital Partner B

75,000

Current Partner B

75,000

Step 2: Transfer assets to be sold (and realised) to the realisation account

Debit
200,000

Realisation account
Land and buildings

Credit
200,000

Realisation account

100,000

Plant and equipment

100,000

Realisation account

95,000

Inventory

95,000

Realisation account

80,000

Receivables

80,000

The realisation account now looks as follows:

Realisation account
Land and buildings

200,000

Plant and equipment

Inventory

100,000
95,000

Receivables

80,000

At this stage the statement of financial position is as follows:

AB
Realisation account
(200,000 + 100,000 + 95,000 + 80,000)

475,000

Cash

120,000
595,000

Capital
A

260,000

225,000

Liabilities

110,000
595,000

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Example (continued): Dissolution

Further information:
1

The land and buildings are sold for Rs. 300,000

The plant and equipment includes a car at a carrying amount of Rs.

30,000. B is to take over this car at an agreed value of Rs. 35,000.
The rest of the plant and equipment was sold for Rs. 90,000

3
4
5
6

The inventory was sold at a reduced price of Rs. 93,000 to ensure a quick
sale.
All of the receivables were collected except for an amount of Rs. 5,000
owed by a person who had become bankrupt.
Dissolution costs of Rs. 8,000 were paid

Step 3: Sale of assets (and payment of expenses)

Cash (sale of land and buildings)

Debit
300,000

Realisation account

Credit
300,000

Cash (sale of plant and equipment)

90,000

Realisation account

90,000

Cash (sale of inventory)

93,000

Realisation account

93,000

Cash (collection of receivables)

75,000

Realisation account

75,000

Realisation account

8,000

Cash (dissolution expenses)

8,000

Step 4: Transfer of assets

Capital account B

35,000

Realisation account

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Chapter 14: Partnership accounts

Example (continued): Dissolution

Step 5: Strike the balance on the realisation account and share the profit
between the partners:
Realisation account
Land and buildings

200,000

Proceeds of sale

Plant and equipment

Inventory

100,000
95,000

Land and buildings

Plant and equipment

300,000
90,000

Receivables

80,000

Inventory

93,000

Collection of receivables

75,000

Transfer of asset

35,000

Dissolution expenses

8,000

Partner A
Partner B

55,000
55,000

Profit on dissolution

110,000
593,000

593,000

At this stage the statement of financial position is as follows:

AB
Cash
(120,000 + 300,000 + 90,000 + 93,000 +
75,000 8,000)

670,000
670,000

Capital
A (260,000 + 55,000)

315,000

B (225,000 + 55,000 35,000)

245,000

Liabilities

110,000
670,000

Step 6: Pay the liabilities

Liabilities

110,000

Cash

110,000

Step 7: Distribute cash to the partners

Capital account A

315,000

Capital account B

245,000

Cash

560,000

All balances are now cleared (the books have been closed off).

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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1

Solutions
Profit share
Total
Rs.
Notional salary

A
Rs.

100,000
150,000

B
Rs.

C
Rs.

100,000
150,000

Residual profit:
P share
Rs. 75,000 2/5

300,000

Q share
Rs. 75,000 2/5

300,000

R share
Rs. 75,000 1/5

150,000

300,000
300,000
150,000

750,000
Profit share

1,000,000

300,000

400,000

300,000

Solutions
Profit share
Total

Rs.

Rs.
50,000

Rs.
100,000

500,000

400,000

300,000

96,000

40,000

32,000

24,000

G share
Rs. 900,000 3/6

450,000

450,000

H share
Rs. 900,000 2/6

300,000

Notional salary

Rs.
150,000

Notional interest
Fixed capital
Interest @ (8%)
Residual profit:

300,000

I share
Rs. 900,000 1/6

150,000

150,000

900,000
Profit share

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490,000

382,000

274,000

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Chapter 14: Partnership accounts

Solutions
The profit share is as follows:
Total

Rs. (000)

Rs.

Rs.

Rs.

1,000,000

800,000

600,000

144,000

60,000

48,000

36,000

800,000

Notional interest
Fixed capital
Interest @ (6%)
Residual profit (balance)
X share

Rs. 1.8m x 4/9

800,000

Y share
Z share

Rs. 1.8m x 3/9

Rs. 1.8m x 2/9

600,000
400,000

600,000
400,000

1,800,000
Profit share

1,944,000

860,000

648,000

436,000

Current accounts (Rs. 000)

X

Balance b/d

20

50

10

350 Profit share

860

648

436

880

698

446

100

118

96

Drawings

780

580

Balance c/d

100

118

96

880

698

446
Balance b/d

The current accounts can also be set out in coumnar form as follows:
Current accounts

Partner X

Partner Y

Partner Z

Beginning of the year

Rs.
20,000

Rs.
50,000

Rs.
10,000

Add share of profit

860,000

648,000

436,000

Deduct drawings

880,000
(780,000)

698,000
(580,000)

446,000
(350,000)

End of the year

100,000

118,000

96,000

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Solutions
Capital accounts (Rs. 000)
P

Remove
goodwill
(2:2:1)

60

60

Balance b/d

600

500

Recognise
goodwill
(2:1)

100

50

30
Cash

Balance c/d

640

490

370

700

550

400

400

Balance b/d

700

550

400

640

490

370

The capital accounts can also be set out in coumnar form as follows:
Capital accounts

Partner P
Rs.

Partner Q
Rs.

Partner R
Rs.

Beginning of the year

Recognise goodwill (2:1)

600,000
100,000

500,000
50,000

Removal of goodwill (2:2:1)

Capital introduced

(60,000)

(60,000)

(30,000)
400,000

End of the year

640,000

490,000

370,000

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Solutions
Capital accounts (Rs. 000)
J

Remove
goodwill
(3:1)
Transfer to
loan
Balance c/d

Balance b/d

320

210

120

Revaluation
(1:1:1)

600

600

600

300

300

300

1,220

1,110

1,020

545

795

Recognise
goodwill
225 (1:1:1)

675

1,110

545

795

1,220

1,110

1,020
Balance b/d

The capital accounts can also be set out in coumnar form as follows:
Capital accounts
Partner J
Partner K
Partner L
Beginning of the year

Rs.
320,000

Rs.
210,000

Rs.
120,000

Revaluation (1:1:1)
Recognise goodwill (1:1:1)

600,000
300,000

600,000
300,000

600,000
300,000

Removal of goodwill (3:1)

(675,000)

(225,000)

Transfer to loan

545,000

(1,110,000)

End of the year

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Certificate in Accounting and Finance

Introduction to accounting

I
Index
Balance sheet
Bank reconciliation statement: format
Bank reconciliations
Bank statements
Bookkeeping
Book-keeping system
Books
Books of prime entry
Business entity concept
Business entity concept
Business structure
Business transactions

a
Accounting standards
Account balances
Accounting
equation
overview
Accounting for depreciation
Accounting systems
Accounts
Accruals (accrued expenses)
Accruals basis
Accruals concept
Accrued expense
Accrued income and unearned income
Admitting a new partner
Aged receivables analysis
Amalgamation of partnerships
Assets

10
67
39
56
133
8
36
167
26
165
27
184
292
160
298
33

c
Capital account
278
Capital and revenue expenditure
130
Capital expenditure
21
Capital receipts
22
Capitalisation
21
Carrying amount
132
Cash account
59
Cash book
95, 118, 221
recording payments
120
Cash receipts
118
Changes in the partnership agreement on
profit-sharing
284
Chart of accounts
79
Closing off an account
67

b
Bad and doubtful debts: summary of the
rules
160
Bad debt recovered
149
Bad debts
147
writing off
148

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225
221
221
55
8
9
95
9
39
3
19

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Company - limited liability company

6
Companys financial statements
257
Completeness
29
Consistency
28
Contra entries
116
Control account
209
Control account reconciliation
211
Correcting errors
241
Cost
36
Cost formulas for inventory
202
Credit note
100, 110
Current account
278
Current assets
11
Current liabilities
12

End-of-year adjustments
127
End-of-year adjustments for inventory 193
Equity
12, 34
Errors
239
Errors of commission
238
Errors of omission
238
Errors of principle
238
Errors of transposition
238
Expenses
14, 35

f
Faithful representation
29
Financial accounting
8
Financial reporting by companies
10
Financial reporting by sole traders and
partnerships
9
Financial statements
8, 11
Financial transactions: effect on the
accounting equation
40

d
Debit and credit entries
57
Depreciable amount
132
Depreciation
131, 132
Depreciation as a percentage
of cost
138
Depreciation by number of
units produced
141
Depreciation:
methods
137
purpose
136
Discount allowed
104
Discounts received
114
Dishonoured cheques
105
Dissolution of a partnership
301
Dividends
44
Double entry accounting system
238
Double entry book-keeping
57
Doubtful debts
106, 147, 150
double entry
150
measuring the allowance
151
recovered
158
Drawings
44
Dual nature of transactions
55

g
GAAP
General journal
General ledger
Going concern basis
Goodwill
Gross profit
Guaranteed minimum profit share

h
Historical cost

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e
Elements of financial statements

10
76
55, 79
31
290
15
283

Imprest system
Income

121
14, 34

33

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Index

International Accounting Standards

Board (IASB)
Inventory
Inventory and drawings
Investors

10
12
205
17

Partners: sharing the profits

279
Partners capital
278
Partners current accounts
286
Partnership
5
Partnership accounts
277
Partnerships
277
Payables control account
115, 214
Payables control account reconciliation 215
Payables ledger
113
Periodic inventory method
193
Perpetual inventory method
198
Petty cash
121
definition
121
Posting transactions
96
Prepaid expenses
167, 177
Preparing financial statements
261
Prepayment
27
Prepayments (prepaid expenses)
177
Profit-sharing ratio
279
Prudence
31
Purchases day book
95, 108
Purchases of inventory
62
Purchases returns day book
95, 110
Purpose of financial statements
257

j
Journal
Journal entries

95
76

l
Lenders
Liabilities
Liabilities

9, 17
12
34

m
Main ledger
Materiality

55
30

Net
36
Net profit
15
Net realisable value (NRV)
201
Nominal ledger
55
Non-current asset
11, 21, 129
Non-current liabilities
12
Notional interest on long-term capital 282
Notional salaries for partners
280

Receipt and payment

271
Receivables control account 98, 105, 209
reconciliation
210
Receivables ledger
98, 102
Recognition
36
Reconciliation
210, 211, 215, 222, 223
Recording sales
98
Reducing balance method
138
Residual value
132
Retained earnings
44
Revenue expenditure
21
Revenue income
22

o
Outstanding lodgements
Overdraft balances
Owners capital

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229
11

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True and fair view

(faithful representation)
Types of business entity

s
Sales day book
95, 98
Sales on credit
98, 100, 116, 147
Sales returns day book
95, 100
Settlement discounts
103
Sole proprietor
4
Sole trader
4
Statement of comprehensive
income
14, 36, 260
Statement of comprehensive income and
the statement of financial position: links
45
Statement of financial position 11, 13, 258
simple representation
39
Straight-line method
137
Subscriptions account
272
Substance over form
32
Sum-of-the-digits method
140
Suspense account
247
Suspense accounts
247

u
Unknown entry
Unpresented cheques
Useful life
Users

253
223
132
257

v
Value of goodwill

291

w
Weighted average cost

t
T accounts
Timing differences
Trade discount
Transposition errors
Trial balance

29
3

202

y
57
223
103
238
72, 237, 247

Year-end adjustments
Year-end exercise

73, 127
80

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