Enviromental and Safety Regulations
1) Technical Regulations
Motor vehicles must comply with the Technical Regulations applicable in the country they are offered for sale.
The Type Approval is the process performed by the manufacturer who must either test the car in front of the
Governments Authority or perform the tests in a Government Laboratory. The aim of these tests to verify that all
regulations are satisfied.
The OEMs have the responsibility and the freedom to select proper technologies in order to meet the requirements
of the regulations.
The main goals of the Technical Regulations are :
1) guarantee engine and vehicle performances, and in particular the fuel consumption declared by the
manufacturer;
2) set limitations on the emission of pollutants and greenhouse gases through the exhaust;
3) set limitations to the external noise;
4) verify the efficiency of the systems needed to provide safe driving (brakes, steering, etc.);
5) protect car occupants and pedestrians in case of accidents;
6) protect electronic devices against external radiofrequencies;
7) verify the efficiency of some key components usually delivered by the suppliers network (tires, lighting
devices, towing hook, etc.);
8) provide for recycling the car body and related materials at the end of the vehicles life.
The Technical Regulations cover also the administrative, control and inspection procedures such as
1. field of application, i.e. definition of vehicle types to which regulations address;
2. application dates;
3. procedures and administrative documentation needed to register and introduce new vehicles on the market
for sale;
4. requirements to satisfy the Conformity of Production (COP);
5. manufacturer responsibility and penalties in case of non conformity;
6. periodic inspections to verify the vehicle roadworthiness*.
* the ability of a vehicle to meet acceptable standards for safe driving and transport of people.
The definition of reliable testing and measurement procedures required a large and long-lasting study that started in
the 1960s under the responsibility of technical organizations operating, at that time, in the traditional industrialized
areas: USA, Europe and Japan.
The Technical Regulations are defined at different levels
Supra-national : The technical Regulation is defined by an institutional organization which represents many
Countries.
It means that individual Countries grant to this organization the ability to define the Regulations, like in the case of
the European Union (EU). Within this regulatory frame, the single Countrys Authority is entitled to witness and
validate the Type Approval process: the Countries belonging to the Union accept the Type Approval so obtained
with a reciprocal acceptance of the test results.
International: countries, even if located in different geographical areas, decide to recognize and to accept the
validity of a certain number of Technical Regulations.
It is the case of many Mercosur ((Mercado Comn del Sur) Its full members are Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay,
Uruguay and Venezuela. )
countries accepting the USA regulations or many Asian countries accepting the European ones.
National : a national Authority is forced to define and apply a specific Regulation to solve and cover a special need
in that Country.
The National Highway Traffic Safety Agency (NHTSA) of the USA defined Regulations to limit the crash
consequences
Some European Countries took actions to promote the use of alternative fuels, e.g. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG).
The first legislative action was the definition of vehicle. This Directive defines the vehicle categories or, saying
legally, the field of application of each Directive. This classification is based on the vehicle mass and its capability
to carry passengers or goods.
M: Motor vehicles having at least 4 wheels and used for transport of passengers
M1: up to 9 seats, including driver;
M2: more than 9 seats, including driver, and maximum loaded weight 5 t;
M3: more than 9 seats, including driver, and maximum loaded weight > 5 t.
For urban buses a further categorization, within M2 and M3, keeps count of passenger seated and standing.
N: Motor vehicles having at least 4 wheels and used for carriage of goods
N1: maximum loaded weight 3,5 t;
N2: maximum loaded weight within 3,5 and 12 t;
N3: maximum loaded weight above 12 t.
For USA the field of application, for light duty area, includes two main categories:
Light Duty Vehicles: passenger cars and their derivates up to 12 passengers;
Light Duty Trucks: vehicles intended for good transportation or for passenger (more than 12) and having a
maximum loaded weight 8500 lbs (3856 kg).
When defining vehicle's categories for legislative purposes, the following weight classification is always
considered:
Curb (Kerb) weight or Standard A: weight in running order it means with the driver and the fluid fill-up
necessary for its proper functioning (fuel, engine oil, engine coolant and additional ones as necessary);
Payload: useful load the vehicle is capable to transport;
Maximum loaded weight: curb weight + payload (GVW Gross Vehicle Weight - MTT massa totale a terra).
Example of an European Vehicle Type Approval
2) Environmental Protection
Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, the combustion of coal containing high sulphur quantities
determined the "smog" formation, initially in the UK regions, in which high level of fog is present during a
significant part of the year. This term was defined in 1911 and identifies the simultaneous presence of SMoke and
fOG. The natural fog became very rich of sulphur released from coal combustion with consequent human health
risk.
The same term is now also used to identify the pollution determined by Ozone. In this case the mechanism is
different: the Ozone formation takes place in different geographical regions when high solar radiation is present. In
the early 1950's, the bio-geochemist Haagen-Smith, working in California, suggested that the formation of urban
ozone, Los Angeles smog, was determined by the action of sunlight on reactive hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides
released by oil refineries and automobiles.
Later on, during the eighties, it became evident the "ozone depletion" process which describes two distinct but
related phenomena:
1) steady decline of about four per cent per decade in the total volume of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (the ozone
layer);
2) larger decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth's polar regions; this latter phenomenon is referred to as the
"ozone hole".
The Cloro Fluoro Carbons (CFCs)
The most important process determining the depletion is the catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens
released into the stratosphere by the man-made halocarbon refrigerants (CFCs, freons, halons) mainly used in air
conditioning car systems.
The observed and projected decreases in ozone have generated a worldwide concern leading to adoption of the
Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs, halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon
tetrachloride and trichloroethane.
Above mentioned decisions affected car industry solutions focused to replace the noxious components with a new
ones.
Atmospheric pollution is due to four main sources: industrial processes, plants for energy generation based on oil
combustion, households such as heating, air conditioning, lighting and traffic.
Much attention started to be devoted to fuel consumption reduction since the 70s.
The results of these efforts are impressive: present day cars produce less than 5% of pollutants for spark-ignition
engines (gasoline engine) and 10% for compression-ignition engines (diesel engine) of the pollutants produced by
the car of the end of the 1960s.
At the same time, the fuel consumption is reduced by 50% as an average.
Greenhouse effect
This effect is a consequence of the warming potential due to the increasing carbon dioxide (CO ) concentration in
2
the atmosphere. CO release is the direct consequence of fossil fuel burning since, unavoidably, the carbon
2
contained in the fuel is transformed in CO during the combustion processes.
2
To reduce the overall greenhouse effect also the amount of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) must always be
monitored.
Actually, even if their concentrations are extremely low, their greenhouse potential are much larger than that of
carbon dioxide.
Regulated and Unregulated Pollutants
1) Regulated pollutants
Are the ones measured at vehicle exhaust :
Carbon monoxide CO
Unburnt hydrocarbons HC (THC, VOC, NMHC)
Oxyde of Nitrogen NOx
Particulate Matter PM
Carbon Monoxide : is a gas that can enter the blood circulation, combining with hemoglobin thus slowing down
the release of oxygen to blood and to other human tissues and organs. Prolonged exposition to high CO
concentrations is lethal.
Unburnt hydrocarbons : Hydrocarbons are present both in exhaust gases and vapors emitted by evaporation from
fuel tanks (Volatile Organic Compounds, VOC). The HC family includes also more dangerous species like
benzene. When exposed to ultraviolet radiation contained in sun light, hydrocarbons react with NOx acting as
ozone promoter in the low atmospheric layer. Ozone can damage human tissues and specific cells. The European
emission limits Euro 5 and 6, applicable since the 2010s, introduce a distinction between Total HC (THC,
equivalent to the traditional HC content) and Non Methane HC (NMHC) to recognize that Methane is not a
pollutant.
Nevertheless , as already mentioned, the quantity af methane is always measured considering its greenhouse
potential. Regarding gasoline, the following relation applies:
NMHC = 0.9 THC.
Oxyde of Nitrogen NOx : In the common language, the term oxides of nitrogen indicates the sum of NO and
NO . The current scientific evidence links short-term NO exposures to adverse respiratory effects. Nitrogen
2
2
oxides NOx, in combination with HCs, contribute to Ozone formation and with sulfate compounds contribute to
rain acidification with negative effect mainly on water supply and vegetables, trees and crops.
In combination with other atmospheric pollutants, NOx contributes to the formation of particulate, known as
secondary particulate.
Particulate Matter PM : Particulates are fine particles present in exhaust gases, mainly in those from diesel
engines. The scientific community is concerned that, during metabolic transformation, some health risk can take
place because particulate is characterized by carcinogenic risks.
Particulate matter can be classified by their aerodynamic diameter
fine particles (PM 2.5), with a diameter below 2.5 m. They can enter into the upper respiratory system;
ultra-fine particles (PM 0.1), with a diameter below 0.1 m. They can enter into the primary bronchi;
nanoparticles, with a diameter below 0.05 m. They can enter into the bronchioles and alveoli.
The smaller the diameter, the higher are the health risks.
2) Unregulated pollutants
All the remaining ones determined by air conditioning system or linked to fuel quality: Lead, Sulphur, Benzene,
Polinuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons PAH, Aldehyds, etc.)
Lead
It was formerly present in the gasoline as tetraethyl lead and used as knock-resistant. In the EU, at the end of
eighties, the Lead content was progressively cut from 0.15 to 0.013 g/liter to allow introducing the three-way
catalysts in order to meet Euro 1 standard; in 2000 a further reduction to 0.005 g/liter took place to improve catalyst
durability as it will be explained in the proper section. This one is now the maximum Lead content for the gasoline
types distributed in the EU: 91, 95 and 98 RON (Research Octane Number).
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
It is due to the Sulphur content present in every type of fuel. Starting from the nineties, with subsequent Directives,
the Sulphur content has been gradually reduced to reach the same level both in gasoline and in the diesel fuel.
Reduction of Sulphur content has been the following: 500, 350, 150, 50 and 10 ppm; this latest level allows to
st
qualify the fuel as "sulphur free" being mandatory from 1 January 2009
Benzene (C6H6)
It is the simplest of the ring-shaped aromatic hydrocarbons. It shows the best behavior against detonation thus
allowing the octane number to raise. Unfortunately, it is recognized as being carcinogenic and thus new anti-knock
hydrocarbons and components have been introduced to partially compensate for the benzene properties, since
starting from year 2000 the benzene percentage in gasoline was lowered from 5% to 1%. As a consequence, the
average RON in Europe was reduced from the previous 98 to the present-day 95 RON.
Emissions regulations
Starting from the 1970s Europe, USA and Japan reduced emission
standards in order to achieve in perspective a level close to zero.
With Directive Euro (91/441), enforced in January 1993, the EU
reached the goal to reduce by 90 per cent the vehicle emissions
with respect to 1970.
Euro 2 and 3 were introduced in 1997 and in 2001.
Euro 4 standards, enforced in January 2006, are a further step
toward the zero equivalent emission level.
Subsequent standards, Euro 5 and Euro 6, are so strict that are
measured in mg/km (instead of g/km) and, in fact, are considered as
almost zero equivalent.
3) Exhaust Emission Testing
Exhaust emissions are measured in laboratories allowing testing in which the vehicle is driven following a cycle
whose profile simulates city driving conditions. The climate control system must be able to maintain a constant
level of temperature and humidity within the pre-determined levels: 2030 C and 3070% of relative humidity.
The key features of the measuring system are the following :
1. Using a Constant Volume Sampling (CVS) device which provides a correct dilution and mixing of the exhaust
gases with ambient air, thus reproducing the diffusion conditions taking place in the atmosphere. The dilution
prevents the condensation of water contained in the exhaust gases.
2. Simulating the resistance to motion experienced by the car both at constant speed and in transient conditions.
Similarly to what is done for gasoline engines, CO, NOx and CO2 emitted by diesel engines are analyzed in the
sampling bags, while specific devices are needed for:
- Hydrocarbons : Diesel fuel features a higher content of Carbon and its exhaust gases are emitted at a lower
temperature, when compared with gasoline. This causes a further tendency to condensation along the walls of the
sampling lines. To overcome this risk, the sampling lines are heated up to 190 C.
-Particulate Matter Since particulate emissions are not a gas, a homogeneous mixture with the dilution air must
be achieved before performing their sampling. To achieve this result a dilution tunnel is added between the point at
which the exhaust gases are mixed with dilution air and the sampling point; its diameter ranges between 200 and
300 mm and its length is, at least, ten times its diameter.
PM tunnel configuration
The heated sampling lines reach, respectively, the analyzers and the filter used to collect the PM sample. The filter
is weighed before and after the cycle.
To determine the particle number, as requested by Euro 6, it is necessary to add an additional device capable to
measure the number of dry particles avoiding to consider the aggregates of aerosols and water molecules. This
quite complex system must be capable to measure particle number concentration in the size range of 0.023 2.5
m
Advantages to use DPF ( Diesel Particulate Filter)
A diesel particulate filter (or DPF) is a device designed to remove diesel particulate matter or soot from the exhaust
gas of a diesel engine. Using this device in the PM1 region (particle with diameter lower than 1 m) the PM
decreases from 50 billions/km down to 10 millions/km close or even lower than background value . Even during
the regenerating cycle of the DPF (some filter are single-use , other can clean theirself eith a cycle at high
temperature in with thei destroy the PM ) the value of the PM is slightly lower than the value without DPF.
NEDC: New European Driving Cycle
The driving cycle is a sequence of idle periods, accelerations, constant speed running and decelerations, that
simulates congested traffic conditions specific to the area in which the emission regulation is applied. For this
reasons, different cycles are still used in Europe, USA and Japan.
The European cycle is known as the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC), has an average speed of 33.5 km/h, a
total length of 11,007 km.
Evaporative emissions
Gasoline contains many light and, as a consequence, volatile hydrocarbons which are usually identified as Volatile
Organic Compounds (VOC).
The air in the free fuel tank volume could be is saturated with gasoline vapors and the fuel tank must be vented to
the atmosphere to avoid abnormal pressure increases or decreases.
The vapors must be vented to the atmosphere through a suitable bleed, and it is therefore necessary to control this
fuel tank bleed, connecting it to a filter containing active carbon to control the evaporative emissions. The active
carbon absorbs the light saturated vapors avoiding their release into ambient air.
The Sealed Housing for Evaporative Determination (SHED) is used for this type of test. The SHED monitors two
different conditions during which the gasoline vapor losses take place: Hot Soak and Diurnal Losses.
The test sequence includes the following steps
1. Saturation of the carbon canister with fuel vapors or with butane up to the point in which two grams of gasoline
vapors escape from the filter thus reaching the breakthrough condition;
2. Vehicle preconditioning, and NEDC run to stabilize the vehicle and engine in running conditions;
3. Introduce and leave the car into the SHED for one hour, hot soak phase; at the end, the HC concentration is
measured. This first phase simulates the car in parking conditions with hot engine, which takes place after a driving
period;
4. Introduce again the car into the SHED and start the diurnal loss phase which lasts 24 hours. During this phase the
temperature is varied according to a predefined sequence. It means that, starting from 20C, the car is heated up to
35C within 8 h and then cooled again to 20C during the remaining 16h. At the end, the HC concentration is
measured. This second phase simulates the natural day-night temperature variation with the car in normal parking
conditions.
5. Having measured the HC concentrations at the end of the two phases and the SHED interior volume, it is
possible to determine the g/test of hot soak and diurnal losses phases. Their sum determines the final HC value to
be compared with Euro 5 and 6 standard (2 g/test).
4) Fuel consumption
Fuel consumption/CO2 reduction
The oil crisis of the early 1970s raised, for the first time, much concern about the dependence of road transportation
on fossil fuels, a non- renewable source, unevenly distributed in the word. Starting from that time, fuel economy
became an issue and the need for significantly improving it was recognized.
Approaching the year 2000, increasing recognition of the greenhouse effect gave new strength to the drive toward
reducing fossil fuel combustion. Among the other green-house gases, CO , released from fossil fuel combustion,
2
was considered as the most important.
The European Union (2007) decided to introduce a mandatory goal with fiscal penalties to reduce the new car fuel
consumption in order to reach the CO weighted average of above 130 g/km, to be achieved in 2015 (95 g/km in
2
2020). This means a fuel consumption of around 5.6 litres per 100 km (l/100 km) of petrol or 4.9 l/100 km of
diesel.
This goal is applied to the average vehicle mass of the European car fleet (Mo = 1372 kg). It means that, when the
Manufacturers average mass (M) is above this value, the related standard is higher and the opposite takes place
when the average mass is lower
mass (CO ) = 130 + a (MMo)
2
5) Exterior noise
Noise reduction situation
Recent studies estimate that the traffic noise determines the main part, average 80 per cent, of acoustic energy in
urban areas.
In Europe is enforced the Directive 92/97, with a noise level down to 74 dB(A).
Being a logarithmic scale , three dB(A) reduction, from 77 to 74 dB(A), means a 50% reduction of acoustic
energy .
The technical solutions applied in order to cut the dBs, unfortunately, is not directly linked to the effective noise
reduction experienced in the daily traffic. This is due to traffic increase and to the limited degree of correlation
between testing procedure and real traffic noise production. In fact the above mentioned noise limitation has
determined a reduction of noise released by the engine and mechanical components leaving, in practice, unchanged
the noise determined by the contact of the tires on the road surface, which represents an important source.
A modification of Directive 92/97 is in progress with the aim to:
divide vehicles in categories in order to ask for noise reductions achievable with technical solutions more
focused to specific vehicle categories (e.g. passenger car, SUV, light duty truck, etc.)
implement new test procedures to evaluate the tire contribution (for example, specific tests at constant
speed 7090 kph).
6) Vehicle end of life
Car recycling strategy
As average, 75% of the car mass are metallic components, which since many years, are recycled. The remaining
25% are non metallic parts usually sent to the waste collection system. It is now necessary to avoid, for these, the
simple scrapping providing their re-utilization.
From 2015, re-utilization of 95% in mass of the car: 85% minimum with mechanical recycling and 10 per cent
maximum with energetic use.
The first step is to disassemble and demolish the car thanks a net of operators capable to disassemble from cars, the
components which can be recycled by other Companies specialized in well identified materials (i.e. glasses) and
interested in their transformation.
As next step, cars are sent to special mills or grinders to separate and collect metals. Then, organic residue (plastics,
elastomers, adhesives, noise absorber, etc.), up to now not collected, is burnt, using proper combustion processes,
with energy recovery, thanks to the high calorific value of this kind of materials.
The final car recycle determines the lifetime cycle of the product managed with a systematic process which starts
from the initial vehicle design, already meeting some specifications in view of the final recycle process.
Material re-utilization allows to properly conclude the lifetime period and it allows to open a new one, producing
new components having lower mechanical properties but suitable for a new car.
Primary material consumption is therefore minimized and also environmental problems are more easily solved.
7) Car safety
In 1965 the American lawyer Ralph Nader publishes the book Unsafe at any speed, starting with a sequence of
strong legal actions in order to promote safety.
It is a book accusing car manufacturers of resistance to the
introduction of safety features, like seat belts, and their
general reluctance to spend money on improving safety.
For example in the book Nader also demonstrates that
aggressive styling like that of the 1957 Chevrolet Bel Air was
hazardous to pedestrians (Exterior safety).
Statistics show that:
The human factor (driver) is responsible for most (85 90%)
accidents;
road configuration (the infrastructure) is in second place with
a share of 7 10% and mechanical deficiencies, mechanical
wear or poor maintenance, are responsible for the remaining
3 5%.
Active Safety :
The active safety includes all those design specifications, equipments and systems installed with the goal to avoid
conditions which can favor an accident. Can be further sub-divided in driving safety and preventive safety
Driving safety
A proper contribution to this goal is obtained with a suitable vehicle body engineering: body
stiffness, suspension geometry, steering and brakes. Further devices are today capable to improve
road-holding capabilities - power-steering, power-brake, Anti-lock Braking System (ABS),
Electronic Stability Control (ESC, ESP), proximity radar detection systems, etc. - and to assist
driving - navigator and communication systems.
Many items are intended to help the driver and are capable to keep the vehicle in a proper state of
maintenance and reliability. This category includes: window design, visibility angles, avoidance of
improper reflections, defrosting capability, headlamps, turn signal devices, indicator lights and a
proper presentation of the owner's manual
Preventing safety
Items considered in this category are the ones capable to reduce the circumstances in which an
accident can occur including the lack of attention or a not sufficient car knowledge. This category
includes the following devices:
Warning lamps to alert if safety belts are not locked.
External mirrors and devices suitable to improve visibility during maneuvers.
Items capable to improve driver's comfort and driving concentration; within this category the air
conditioning is one of the key feature.
Passive Safety
The passive safety includes all those design specifications, equipment's and systems installed with the goal to
reduce accident consequences after the accident took place.
Can be further sub-divided into exterior safety and interior safety.
Interior safety
The aim of the interior safety is to provide to driver and passengers an adequate protection and
surviving space after the accident took place with the proper structural behavior of car body
offering a non deformable structure surrounded by external components provided with controlled
deformation like anti-intrusion bars.
It is also necessary to limit the geometrical intrusion toward occupants of parts crashed after the
collision like rigid engine parts or engine hood through the windscreen. Typically it is necessary to
design the steering column and the pedal support structure with a controlled deformation and a
limited intrusion and also to install minor components in a position not dangerous for occupants
like levers and electrical actuators. As alternative and often in addition, it is possible to foresee they
collapse above a certain load (e.g. inner rear view mirror).
Finally it is necessary to protect occupants with suitable shields against high temperature parts, to
properly protect electric conductors and gasoline pipes which can determine fires following a
collision.
Having achieved the above controlled geometry is than necessary to fit the proper retention
devices: safety belts and related pre-tensioners, air bags, head restrain, hinges with improved
resistance, effective seat fixing locks and devices to retain luggage in the trunk
Exterior safety
The exterior safety is referred to the car exterior shape which design should not be aggressive in
order to limit the consequences against the vehicle which collides. Special provisions are now
requested to limit the offences against the pedestrian.
The European Directives, dealing with passive safety, include two types of tests : Frontal impact and Lateral
Impact
Frontal impact against a deformable fixed barrier, with a
40% offset, at a speed of 56 km/h. The amount of offset is
defined to expose to the crash only a part of the vehicle
structure obtaining, in this way, a more severe test. The
goal is to make the test itself more representative of the
real accidents
Lateral Impact of a deformable barrier against a nonmoving vehicle which represents a typical impact in a
downtown city intersection
As we can see , this test is appliable only to the vehicle that have the point R at an height from the ground lower
than 700 mm .
Dummy configuration
crash tests started being evaluated by using
dummies and bio- mechanical criteria. Dummies
are measuring devices having a human shape
and containing sophisticated electronic
instrumentation able to record the type and
severity of impacts suffered by the simulated
human body.
Dummies reproduce different kinds of human
bodies: adults, man and woman, and children.
Bio-mechanical criteria
Based on bio-mechanical criteria, a vehicle
complies with the Directive if the impact
severity recorded by instruments does not exceed
the bio- mechanical limits applicable to different human segments (head, thorax, pelvis, legs). As an example, for a
frontal impact, some bio-mechanical criteria, at 0 ms, are:
Head acceleration < 80 g
Neck traction stress < 3,3 kN
Neck share stress < 3,1 kN
Neck bending moment < 57 Nm
Chest compression criterion < 50 mm
Femur compression stress < 9,07 kN
Tibia compression stress < 8 kN
Movement of sliding knee joints < 15 mm
Not regulated impacts
In addition to the above mentioned legal crash tests every manufacturer is paying much attention to achieving
additional improvements, beyond legal requirements
Various crash types and their related probability
The impact duration, starting from the moment from which it takes place, lasts, in average, 100 ms.
The driver's seat reaches an acceleration peak close to -40 g while, in the same conditions, the front section of the
vehicle body records typically -120 g.
The body deformation, measured at the end of the test, is 600 mm.
During the collision the vehicle absorbs a certain quantity of the initial kinetic energy. The remaining energy is
dissipated against the obstacle and as elastic return of crashed parts.
The kinetic energy must be absorbed, in sequence, as deformation energy of the bumper, the vehicle front part, and,
only in severe cases, the forward section of the passenger compartment. The deformable elements, with their higher
deformations, provide the crash absorption capability and
are therefore referred to as sacrifice elements.
On the contrary, elements showing lower deformation offer
the survival space within the passenger compartment,
which, by definition, must undergo limited deformation. To
sum up, a vehicle subjected to a frontal crash can be
modeled, schematically, as a two mass system and two
deformable elements of inelastic type in which the active
force is constant and independent from the deformation.
EURO-NCAP program
Euro NCAP provides consumers with an independent
assessment of the safety level of the most popular cars sold
in Europe.
Frontal impact speed 64 kph
Pedestrian protection
Safety regulations dealing with pedestrian impacts are the most recent. Design of the exterior parts of car body and
accessories (side mirrors, handles, etc.) must avoid sharp angles and protruding parts (so common in the bumper
designs of the 1950s) specific mechanical components simulate the body segments with special regard to injuries
likely to take place to the legs and the head according to the pedestrian average size (adult or child)
