SNF FLOERGER

ZAC de Milieux
42163 Andrzieux Cedex - FRANCE
Tel: + 33 (0)4 77 36 86 00
Fax: + 33 (0)4 77 36 86 96
floerger@snf.fr

The information in this brochure is provided in good faith. To our knowledge it reflects the truth.

G U T E N B E R G O N L I N E R E G I O N S - Tl. 04 77 42 35 00 / 01 - 2003

COAGULATION
FLOCCULATION

INDEX
1

Overview of coagulation and flocculation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.1.

1.2.

2 Physico-chemical water treatment processes: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.1.
2.2.

There are many wastewater treatment processes in

2.3.

operation around the world. The most commonly used

is the physico-chemical process that employs coagulants
and flocculants.

General diagram of a physico-chemical process: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Water treatment equipment: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1.
Coagulation and flocculation tanks: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.2. Settling tanks: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.3.
Flotation units: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.4.
Filters: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Parameters influencing the product selection: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.1.
The effluent characteristics: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.2.
The working conditions: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.3.
The results to be achieved: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Laboratory tests: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.

3.2.
3.3.
3.4.

Sampling: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.1.
Sampling of the water to be treated: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.2.
Sampling of the polymers: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Laboratory equipment: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Test procedures: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Parameters to follow and interpretation of results : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4 Industrial trials: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.1.
4.2.

Setting up a trial: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Parameters to follow and interpretation of results: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

5 Troubleshooting: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.1.
5.2.

In the lab: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
In the field: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

i n d e x

Coagulation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.1.
Basic principle of coagulation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.2.
Colloidal particles: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.3.
Coagulation mechanism: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.4.
Coagulants: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Flocculation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1.
Basic principle of flocculation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2.
Destabilized particles: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3.
Flocculation mechanism: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.4.
Flocculants: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

C O A G U L A T I O N

F L O C C U L A T I O N

Overview of coagulation and

flocculation
Coagulation and flocculation are two very distinctive parts of the physico-chemical treatment
of wastewater.

1.1.2. Colloidal particles:

Colloids are insoluble particles suspended in water. Their small size (less than 1 micron)
makes the particles extremely stable. They can have different origins :
Mineral: silt, clays, silica, hydroxydes and metallic salts...
Organic: humic and fulvic acids, color, surfactants
Note :
Micro-organisms such as bacteria, plankton, algae, viruses are also considered as colloids.

1.1.3. Coagulation mechanism:

Coagulation is the step where colloidal particles (similar to spheres of a diameter of less
than 1 micrometer) are destabilized.

1.1.1. Basic principle of coagulation:

Coagulation comes from the latin word coagulare which means to agglomerate .
In water treatment, coagulation is the result of the addition of chemical reagents to water
suspensions where the dispersed colloidal particles are assembled in larger aggregates called
flocs or microflocs.

COAGULATION DIAGRAM
Stable colloids

The stability and consequently the instability of suspended particles is a factor of different
attraction and repulsion forces :

Van der Waals forces

Electrostatic forces
Universal attraction
Brownian notion

Coagulation is both a physical and a chemical process. The reactions between particles and
coagulant will allow the formation of aggregates and their subsequent sedimentation.
Cationic coagulants neutralize the negative charge of colloids and form a spongy mass
called microflocs.
The coagulation mechanism can be summarised in two steps :
1- Charge neutralization : this corresponds to the lowering of the electrical charges that
have a repulsion effect on the colloids.

Destabilized colloids

2- Agregation of the particles.

1.1.4. Coagulants:
Microfloc formation

There are two major coagulant types in use today:

a - Mineral coagulants:
These are mainly based on Iron salts (FeCl3, Fe(SO4)2, ) or Aluminium salts (PAC, Alum, ).
Coagulation is an intermediary step, but it is essential to the physico-chemical treatment
process of water and wastewater. This is the first step in the elimination of colloidal particles
and its main function is to destabilize the particles. This destabilization is essentially the
neutralization of the electrical charge present on the surface of the particle thus facilitating
the agglomeration of the colloids.

They are the most frequently used coagulants.

The cationic charge is brought by the metallic ions, Fe3+ or Al3+ that will form Iron hydroxydes
Fe(OH)3 or Aluminium hydroxydes Al(OH)3. on contact with water.
The main advantages of such coagulants are their universal range of application and low price.

o v e r v i e w

o v e r v i e w

1.1. Coagulation:

C O A G U L A T I O N

F L O C C U L A T I O N

b - Organic coagulants:

1.2. Flocculation:

The cationic charge is brought by a quartenary ammonium function fixed on a long polymer chain.
Flocculation is the step where destabilized colloidal particles (or the particles formed during
the coagulation step) are assembled into aggregates.

POLYDADMAC

CH3
I CIN+
CH2
I
CH3

CH2
CH2
CH
I
OH

CH
I
CH2

CH
I
CH2

1.2.1. Basic principle of flocculation:

CH2

The flocculation step can only operate on a water/wastewater where the particles are
already destabilized. It is the logical step following coagulation.

N+ CI-

n
CH3

CH3

DIAGRAM OF FLOCCULATION
Destabilized colloids

Four main organic coagulant families are present on the market today :
Polyamines (FLOQUAT FL 17, FLOQUAT FL 28 P2, ....)
Polydadmac (FLOQUAT FL 45 C, FLOQUAT FL 45 CLV, ...)
Dicyandiamide resins (FLOQUAT DEC 50,...)
Melamine-formaldehyde resins (FLOQUAT FL 42, FLOQUAT FL 61)
The main advantages are a lower dosage and a lower volume of sludge produced (no hydroxydes).
Also these coagulants do not affect the pH or the Titration for Hardness (TH).

Bridging

c - Blends of mineral and organic coagulants:

These blends bring, in a single commercial product, the advantages of both organic and
mineral coagulants. The most frequent mineral coagulant used in these blends is PAC.

Floc formation

o v e r v i e w

o v e r v i e w

POLYAMINES

C O A G U L A T I O N

F L O C C U L A T I O N

1.2.2. Destabilized particles:

The origin of destabilized particles is various and depends mainly on the origin of the water
to be treated. They can come from an initial coagulation step.
The charge (+ or -) brought by the flocculant will be selected according to the nature of
destabilized particles in the water. In general the selection follows the pattern below :
Anionic flocculant (-) for mineral particles
Cationic flocculant (+) for organic particles

2 - Cationic flocculants that bring positive (+) charges to the media.

CATIONIC POLYACRYLAMIDES
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer

1.2.3. Flocculation mechanism:

Flocculants, with their very high molecular weights (long monomer chain ) and their charge
content, fix the destabilized particles and aggregates along the polymer chain. There follows, during the flocculation step, an increase in the size of the particles present in the
water phase resulting in the formation of flocs.
The type of bonds between the destabilized particles and the flocculant are mainly ionic
bonds and hydrogen bonds.

1.2.4. Flocculants:

R
I
n CH2 = CH + m CH2 = C
CH2
I
I
C=O
C=O
I
I
NH2
O
CH3
I
I +
CH2 CH2 N CH3 ,CI I
CH3

CH
I
C=O
I
NH2 n

R
I
CH2 C
I
C=O
I
O
CH3
I
I +
CH2 CH2 N CH3 ,CI I
CH3
m
cationic charge(+)

Amongst the 800 different flocculants of the FLOPAM Range, two main categories of
flocculants can be distinguished:

1 - Anionic and Non-Ionic flocculants that bring negative (-) charges to

the media.

ANIONIC AND NON-IONIC POLYACRYLAMIDES

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid
n CH2 = CH + m CH2 = CH + NaOH
I
I
C=O
C=O
I
I
NH2
OH

CH2

Acrylamide

Anionic polyacrylamide

Acrylic Acid

Caustic

Note : if m = 0, the polyacrylamide is non-ionic

CH
I
C=O
I
NH2 n

CH2

CH
I
C=O
I
O - Na+ m
anionic charge (-)

Acrylamide
Note : if R = H
if R = CH3

Chloro-methylated monomer
ADAM ( dimethylaminoethyle acrylate )
MADAM ( dimethylaminoethyle methacrylate )

Different commercial forms exist :

Solid form : FLOPAM FO 4000 Series
Emulsion form : FLOPAM EM 4 Series

Cationic polyacrylamide

o v e r v i e w

o v e r v i e w

Different commercial forms are available :

Solid form : FLOPAM AN 900 Series
Emulsion form : FLOPAM EM 3 Series

10

11

F L O C C U L A T I O N

Physico-chemical water treatment

processes

These processes are characterized by:

The use of chemical reagents to destabilize and increase the size of the particles that
form the pollution.
Followed by a physical separation of the solids from the liquid phase. This separation is
usually achieved by decantation, flotation or filtration.

2.2.1. Coagulation and flocculation tanks:

This step in the process, where colloids and/or destabilized particles react with the reagents,
takes place in basins or tanks of many shapes and sizes. They are sometimes included in the
settling tank.
Certain rules must be followed:
The volume of the basin is function of the input flow.
The injection points of each reagent are determined in relation to the reagents characteristics. For example, a coagulant will always be injected before a flocculant.
The stirring devices (size and speed) will be selected according to the reagents used.
Stirring must be high during the coagulation step (flash mixing with a recommended speed
gradient around 1000s-1) and lower for flocculation (speed gradient around 100s-1).

2.2.2. Settling tanks:

R
A
W
W
A
T
E
R

ORGANIC COAGULANT
(polyamine, polyDADMAC)
MINERAL COAGULANT
(AI3+, Fe3+)

FLOCCULANT
Decantation

Flottation
Coagulation
tank
(flash mixing)

Flocculation
tank
(slow mixing)

T
R
E
A
T
E
D

There are different types of settling tanks. They must allow the seperation of the solids
from the water phase by settling. Their design is based on a settling speed of the particles.
The most common are:
Scraped settling tank: The inflow is in the centre and the overflow of the treated water
is all around the peripheral chute. A scraping system prevents the accumulation of the sludge
on the slopes of the tank and pushes it towards the underflow extraction.

W
A
T
E
R

4
3

6
8

Filtration

1
The common reagents are : mineral and/or organic coagulants, flocculation additives (activated
silica, talcum, activated carbon,), anionic or cationic flocculants and pH control reagents
such as acids or bases.

Inflow ( wastewater )

Underflow ( sludge )

Settling zone

Certain heavy metal chelating agents can also be added during the coagulation step.

Effluent distribution

5
6
7
8

Scraped settling
tank

Sludge pit
Clarified water chute
Rotating bridge
Sludge scraper

p r o c e s s e s

p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l

2.1. General diagram of a physico-chemical process:

2.2. Water treatment equipment:

p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l

p r o c e s s e s

C O A G U L A T I O N

12

13

Conical cylinder settling tank (vertical flow): In

such settling tank, there are no scraping systems
and it is the slope of the cone that guides the sludge
towards the extraction point. The inflow is in the
centre and the overflow of the treated water is all
around the peripheral chute.

F L O C C U L A T I O N

Conical cylinder settling tank

2.2.3. Flotation units:

Contrary to setlling tanks, the solid/liquid separation is done by floating solids to the surface.
The flotation can be natural (when the density of the particles is lower than 1) or assisted
(by fixing micro-bubbles to the particles). The sludge extraction will be done at the surface
of the unit.

Inflow

Clarified
water

Dissloved Air Flotation unit (D.A.F.)

Sludge

Lamellae settling tank

1
2

Clarified water

Micro bubbles
that fix on
the particles

Water recirculation

60

Air
Pressure
vessel

Air/Water mix

Sludge extraction

In order to assist flotation, the creation of micro-bubbles is done by pressurizing the water
to be treated (Direct Flotation) , or by injecting auxiliary water that has been previously
saturated under a few bars pressure (Indirect Flotation).

6
7

1
2
3
4

Raw water inflow

Clarified water outflow
Flocculation

5
6
7

Lamellar settling zone

Sludge concentration
Sludge extraction

Lamellae settling tank: These are composed of

piled elementary settling tank whose individual
horizontal surfaces are added up. Slanted slats allow
the sludge to be gravity fed to the bottom of the
settling tank.

Flocculated water distribution zone

Horizontal flow settling tank: Also called longitudinal settling tank, they are characterized
by the horizontal flow of the water to be treated.

2.2.4. Filters:
Filtration is the process of flowing a solid-liquid blend through a porous media in order
to retain the solids and let the liquid through.
Filtering is a technology that is well adapted to low concentration effluents or as a finishing step.
The most common filters are :
Sand filters.
Belt filters or sock filters.
Rolling paper filters.
Suction filters (Disk or Plate)
Ultrafiltration/Membranes.

Sand filter
7
4
1

Inflow
5

Horizontal flow
settling tank

3
2

Clarified
water

1
2
3
4

Sand
Concrete floor
Filter nozzle
Inflow

5
6
7

Back blower
Backwash water input and filtered water evacuation
Sludge evacuation

p r o c e s s e s

p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l

Expansion

Flocculated effluent

p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l

p r o c e s s e s

C O A G U L A T I O N

14

2.3. Parameters influencing the product selection:

Several parameters must be taken into account when pre-selecting the coagulants and the
flocculants in the laboratory as well as in the final industrial selection.

2.3.1. The effluent characteristics:

Select the best adapted product(s) to be tested industrially.

Provide an estimate of the performance achieved : Suspended Solids, COD, Turbidity
Give an estimation of the dosages required.
Optimise the industrial operating conditions : Injection Points, Stirring
Note : Laboratory tests are not exact enough to extrapolate accurate industrial performance.

Flash mixing capability

Injection points
Mixing conditions
Contact time
Settling time

3.1. Sampling:
3.1.1. Sampling of the water to be treated:

2.3.3. The results to be achieved:

INFLUENCE OF THE MOLECULAR WEIGHT
ON THE SETTLING SPEED AND THE CLARIFICATION

Clarification

Settling speed

High

Low

Low
Low

Molecular weight of the flocculant

High

Before any laboratory test, a representative sample of the effluent must be taken. In order
to complete the appropriate tests a good knowledge of the process involved is necessary:
Water quality (pH, SS, DS, Color, Turbidity, COD,)
Average and peak flows
Quality variations
Equipment used
Future investments in process and/or equipment.

3.1.2. Sampling of the polymers:

It is not necessary to test all the available products, a primary screening will do.
For coagulants, a sample from each family can be tested: polyamines (FLOQUAT FL 17),
polydadmac (FLOQUAT FL 45 C), dicyandiamide resin (FLOQUAT DEC 50), metallic salt
(PAC).
For flocculants, select the ionic charge by testing a range of products with the same
molecular weight: FLOPAM AN 900 SH Series for the anionic powders and FLOPAM
FO 4000 SH for cationic powders.

t e s t s

p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l

2.3.2. The working conditions:

As well as
the settling
speed required :

Laboratory tests

Laboratory testing is essential. Considering the very wide range of products available (more
than 800), laboratory tests are designed to:

pH
Dry matter content (g/l)
Ionic demand
Mineral/organic ratio

Suspended solids
Turbidity
Color
COD
High

F L O C C U L A T I O N

l a b o r a t o r y

p r o c e s s e s

C O A G U L A T I O N

15

16

17

C O A G U L A T I O N

F L O C C U L A T I O N

The most common apparatus used to test physico-chemical processes is the jar-test. It
allows a strict control on the stirring of several beakers at the same time (generally 6) and
permits the comparison of the efficiency of several products or of the different dosages for
the same product.
The small equipment necessary is: syringes, pipettes, and a stop watch to measure the
mixing times.
Flocs Settling : Once the flocs are
formed, the settling phase starts with
an average time of 20 mn for coagulants
and 10 mn for flocculants.

Automatic jar-test

Manual jar-test

Note : See the brochure Preparation of Organic Polymers for the methods of coagulant
and flocculant dissolution.

3.3. Test procedures:

The aim of this section is not to impose a testing procedure but to describe the key elements that are essential and common to all the existing procedures. Any laboratory testing
procedure has the purpose of representing the industrial conditions encountered and catering
for the wishes of the operations manager. Follows these criteria, each test will be specific.

3.4. Parameters to follow and

interpretation of results:
The main parameters to control during lab tests are :
Reaction time
Size of flocs
Settling time
Clarification
Mixing
Floc strength
These parameters can be controlled visually or with equipment such as the 6-probe turbidimeter developed by SNF to measure continuously the turbidity of a jar-test trial.
Probe 1
NTU
500

The injection of reagents:

after preparing the different
solutions of reagents to be
compared, their injection must
be simultaneous and at predetermined dosages.

400
300
200
100
0
00:00:00 00:01:00 00:02:00 00:03:00 00:04:00 00:05:00 00:06:00 00:07:00 00:08:00 00:09:00 00:10:00
TIME (mn)

All these data are plotted

in order to analyse the results.

1 : Coagulant injection and flash mixing

2 : Slow mixing ( Floc size growth )
3 : Settling

t e s t s

l a b o r a t o r y

t e s t s

3.2. Laboratory equipment:

l a b o r a t o r y

The mixing of the reagent in the effluent:

after injection, a mixing phase is necessary
to distribute the reagent throughout the
effluent. These mixing phases may vary in
time and in speed. For example :
For a coagulant : 250 rpm for 2 mn then 40
rpm for 15 mn.
For a flocculant : 250 rpm for 10 s then 40
rpm for 5 mn.

18

i n d u s t r i a l

t r i a l s

F L O C C U L A T I O N

Industrial trials

Industrial trials should be able to confirm the lab results obtained.

4.1. Setting up a trial:

During the trial period, the quality and flow of the effluent must be as close to average as
possible. The making up of the reagents must be thorough. The concentration of the reagents,
the injection points, must be selected based on the lab results.

4.2. Parameters to follow and

interpretation of results:
The main parameters to follow depend on the results targeted. Nevertheless the most
frequents are:

Reagent flow (l/h, kg/h, )

Effluent flow (m3/h)
Concentration of the effluent (g/l)
Injection point
Clarification
Thickening

To analyse these results, it is useful to compile all the data in a spreadsheet in order to
calculate the reagent consumption rates per volume treated and by dry matter weight.

Troubleshooting

5.1. In the lab:

Unexpected results in the lab may be due to:

A bad blending of the reagent: the high viscosity of organic flocculants may make it
difficult to mix them in.
An overdosing: At certain dosages, the ionic charges (+) or (-) that are induced in the
effluent are too high and will have a repulsion effect on the particles.

5.2. In the field:

When a reagent dosage problem occurs, it is very important to check each and everyone of
the points.

WATER TREATMENT DOSAGE

Does the dosing pump
work ?
YES

NO

Check the motor, the valves,

the injection pipe, ...

Is the effluent quality

the same ?
YES

NO

Check the pH and the temperature

Adjust the dosage to the new
conditions after lab testing.

Is the polymer prepared

correctly ?
YES

NO

Check the storage conditions, the

make-up equipment, the polymer
concentration, pH, post-dilution ...

Is the polymer used

properly ?
YES

NO

Check the effluent/polymer

blend, mixing conditions,
injection points , ...

Is the polymer adapted to

the effluent ?

NO

Lab test a complete range of

polymers.

t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g

C O A G U L A T I O N

19