ENG
448
Languages
of
South
Asia
Languages
of
the
Andamans
History
The
recent
genetic
and
anthropological
data
place
the
human
habitation
of
the
Andamans
around
70,000
years
before
the
present.
Currently,
the
Andamanese
tribes
and
their
languages
are
highly
endangered.
The
earliest
study
of
the
Islands
dates
back
to
1790,
but
it
was
from
1869
onwards
that
serious
study
of
the
ethnography
of
the
islanders
began.
The
population
of
the
Andamans
was
314,239
in
2001.
Locals:
Bengali,
Hindi,
Kharia,
Kurux,
Karen,
Malayali,
Mundari,
Tamilian,
and
Telugu.
Andamanese
Tribals:
Great
Andamanese,
Jarawa,
Onge
and
Sentinelese.
Migrants
or
Settlers:
from
the
mainland
migrated
in
the
last
15
years.
The
entire
area
of
the
Andaman
islands
is
divided
into
five
island
clusters.
Apart
from
Ritchie
Archipelago,
North
Sentinel,
and
Little
Andaman,
the
large
main
islands
are
collectively
called
the
Great
Andamans.
The
close
proximity
of
these
islands
gives
a
picture
of
practically
one
island.
The
Number
of
Tribes
Various
studies
in
the
past,
both
linguistic
and
genetic,
suggest
that
the
Andamanese
languages
might
be
the
last
representative
of
pre-Neolithic
Southeast
Asia.
Analysis
of
their
mitochondrial
DNA
have
led
scientists
to
conclude
that
Andamanese
have
closer
affinities
to
Asian
than
to
African
populations
and
that
they
are
descendants
of
early
Palaeolithic
(old-stone
age)
colonizers
of
Southeast
Asia.
Geographical
isolation
probably
aided
the
survival
of
ancient
human
lineages
in
the
Andamanese.
Living
Andamanese
tribes
can
be
grouped
into
four
major
groups,
i.e.
the
Great
Andamanese,
the
Jarawa,
the
Onge
and
the
Sentinelese.
Barring
the
Sentinelese,
the
other
tribes
have
been
exposed
to
the
Mainlanders.
All
attempts
to
establish
contact
with
Sentinelese
have
failed
so
far.
The
Jarawa
came
to
be
known
to
the
mainlanders
very
recently;
the
first
contact,
as
is
generally
believed,
was
established
in
1997.
The
demographic
scale
of
these
Islanders
is
inversely
related
to
the
period
of
contact
with
the
mainlanders.
The
longer
and
deeper
the
contact,
the
smaller
the
population.
An
estimated
population
of
3000
to
3500
Great
Andamanese
9in
the
early
part
of
the
nineteenth
century
was
reported
to
have
reduced
to
625
by
the
twentieth
century
(Census
1901).
Since
then,
the
population
has
declined
drastically
to
37.
The
main
reasons
for
such
a
decline
has
been
a
disturbance
in
the
ecological
balance,
a
high
rate
of
diseases
brought
in
by
the
contact
with
non-tribals
and
high
rate
of
infant
mortality.
It
was
as
late
as
1968
that
the
Andaman
Government,
on
the
recommendation
of
the
anthropologists
made
a
policy
decision
of
resettling
the
surviving
tribes
in
an
island
called
Strait
Island,
about
68
nautical
miles
from
Port
Blair.
They
have
been
totally
dependent
on
the
authorities
for
food,
clothing
and
shelter
ever
since.
While
the
Great
Andamanese
diminished
in
number
due
to
ailments
and
diseases
brought
in
by
contact,
the
other
important
tribe,
i.e.
the
Jarawa
declined
by
what
could
be
termed
as
genocide
by
the
colonial
rule.
The
Indian
government
decided
to
build
a
Grand
Trunk
road
cutting
through
the
thick
forests
of
the
Jarawa,
thus
wiping
out
all
the
survival
modes
of
the
tribes.
In
retaliation,
the
tribes
fought
with
arrows
and
bows
but
could
not
withstand
the
modern
guns.
The
common
story
that
researchers
have
heard
at
various
government
offices
was
that
these
tribes
were
electrocuted
as
and
when
they
came
near
the
construction
sites
demarcated
by
electric
wiring.
The
very
name
JARAWA
meaning
stranger
was
given
by
Aka
Bae,
one
of
the
ten
tribes
of
the
Great
Andamanese.
The
Jarawas
refer
to
themselves
by
the
term
ang
[i:ng]
meaning
we
people.
The
two
tribes,
Jarawa
and
Great
Andamanese
have
had
a
long
history
of
animosity
and
fights
among
them.
This
was
especially
true
of
the
times
when
the
Great
Andamanese
occupied
the
north
and
the
middle
of
the
island
[19th
century]
and
the
Jarawa
were
settled
in
the
southern
part
of
the
island.
The
third
important
tribe,
only
94
in
number
as
of
2002,
is
the
Onge,
settled
in
the
island
called
the
Little
Andaman
south
of
the
Great
Andaman.
There
are
two
settlements
of
Onge
in
the
island
since
1976.
Onges
are
far
away
from
any
feeling
of
personal
possession
and
thus
any
catch
of
turtle
or
dugong
[sea
cow
or
water
pig,
an
endangered
species]
is
distributed
to
all,
old
people,
women
and
children
alike.
Their
knowledge
of
the
various
medicinal
qualities
of
the
different
parts
of
the
meat
guides
them
in
deciding
which
part
to
offer
to
whom.
No
child
below
fifteen
speaks
the
native
language.
This
is
the
only
tribe
where
the
younger
generation
is
even
losing
a
passive
knowledge
of
their
mother
tongue.
Among
the
southern
dwellers
of
the
island
is
the
Sentinelese.
A
rough
estimate
by
the
Government
of
India
lists
them
as
a
population
of
100.
However,
no
one
has
done
a
head
count
yet
and
the
tribe
is
hostile
to
foreign
intervention
even
today.
Fear
of
extinction
as
a
community
and
availability
of
marriageable
boys
within
the
community
is
forcing
women
to
marry
outside
the
Great
Andamanese
tribe.
Many
women
do
not
mind
having
children
from
the
locals.
The
Great
Andamanese
are
being
wiped
out
as
a
viable
tribe.
The
Great
Andamanese
Language
As
of
today,
the
Great
Andamanese
speak
a
mixed
version
of
10
language
varieties
of
the
same
language
family.
No
two
speakers
speak
the
same
language
variety
as
each
one
of
them
has
descended
from
mixed
marriages
of
different
tribes
within
the
same
langauge
family.
Mutual
intelligibility
between
these
languages
helps
the
communication
media
going.
The
domination
of
one
linguistic
group
over
the
other
is
entirely
missing.
Todays
Great
Andamanese
speech
is
a
kind
of
levelling
of
different
linguistic
systems.
The
linguistic
system
of
Great
Andamanese
appears
to
be
close
to
Koineization.
Koineization
refers
to
the
linguistic
processes
that
occur
when
different
dialects
or
closely
related
subsystems
come
into
contact.
(Siegel
1993:6)
Lico,
Female,
age
44,
[Jero+Puchikar,
Khora]
Naw
Junior,
male,
age
55,
[Bo+
Sare,
claims
to
speak
Jero]
Peje,
male,
age
53,
[Jero+Khora]
Jo,
male,
age
25
[Jero+Sare]
Bo,female,
age
29,
[Bo+Jero]
Golat,
male,
age
45
[Khora+Jero]
The
statistical
predominance
of
Jero
speakers
has
helped
Jero
features
to
penetrate
into
other
varieties
of
Great
Andamanese.
Though
the
languages
of
the
Andamanese
family
had
been
away
from
the
Indian
areal
pressures,
yet
we
find,
surprisingly,
an
abundance
of
aspirated
and
retroflex
consonants.
Great
Andamanese
offers
a
four
way
phonemic
contrast
with
nasals,
while
aspiration
contrast
is
limited
to
voiceless
sounds
only.
The
discovery
of
the
occurrence
of
voiced
and
voiceless
bilabial
fricatives
[]
and
[]
as
well
as
sporadic
occurrence
of
labialised
laretal
[lw]
are
interesting
as
these
sounds
are
not
known
to
exist
in
any
other
language
of
the
Andaman
nor
in
any
other
Indian
language.
The
following
sounds
pairs
are
in
free
variation
at
the
intra-community
level.
[~p~f]
[~l~w~lw]
[kh~x]
[s~]
The
sounds
in
free
variation
vary
from
speaker
to
speaker
thus
confirming
the
hypothesis
that
speakers
of
the
language
family
are
not
descendents
of
the
speakers
of
the
same
language.
Great
Andamanese
has
a
seven-vowel
system
of
[i,
e,
,
a,
u,
o,
],
and
offers
a
very
large
combination
of
diphthongs.
Morphophonemics
1.
The
final
consonant
of
genitive
morpheme
of
CVC
nature
drops
if
the
following
morpheme
begins
with
a
consonant.
hr-boi
>
h-boi
my
husband
hr-ut-julu
>
h-tu-juluin
front
of
me
2.
Two
identical
vowels
are
not
allowed
adjacent
to
each
other.
bi-ikko
>
bekku
burnt
3.
Degemination
of
consonant
results
in
compensatory
length
of
the
previous
vowel.
bekku
>
be:ku
burnt
4.
The
language
offers
a
strong
tendency
of
vowel
harmony.
/uosem/
>
/uosom/
listen
to
me
carefully
Pronouns
First
person
plural
has
the
distinction
of
exclusive/inclusive,
--/ma/
or
/mo/
and
/meam/
A
four-way
distinction
in
third
person
pronouns
in
terms
of
proximate,
distant
[visible],
remote
[invisible],
and
a
reference
to
something/someone
in
intermediate
position
between
proximate
and
very
proximate
are
maintained.
Pronouns
Singular
Plural
1st
person
[exclusive]
hu
ma
1st
person
[inclusive]
me
2nd
person
[exclusive]
ni
~
a
ole
2nd
person
[honorific]
eli
2nd
person
[inclusive]
ale
3rd
person
[distant,
visible]
una
3rd
person
[distant,
invisible]
u
~
o
niyo
3rd
person
[proximate,
intermediate]
khudi
____
3rd
person
[proximate,
very
close]
khidi
_____
The
Jarawa
Language
The
absence
of
bilabial
aspirated
sound
leaves
a
gap
in
the
symmetrical
distribution
of
plosives.
Jarawa
provides
a
nine
vowel
system.
Front
open
vowel
[]
and
mid
[e]
vary
freely.
Morphophonemics
1.
The
voicing
rule
cj
/V+---V
ni-wa-caa
>
ni-wa-jaa
your
house
2.
The
final
vowel
of
the
personal
prefix
is
dropped
if
the
word
it
attaches
to
begins
with
a
vowel
n+ejale>[n-ejale]
forehead
n+obaa
>
[n-obaa]
palm
But
n+pahuga
>
beard
The
Jarawa
Language-Morphophonemics
3.
The
Vowel
Harmony
Rule
applies
to
personal
prefix
[-round]
[round]/---+
(C)V
Thus
[on-o]
finger
[n-ila]
waist
[on-u]
leg
The
Onge
Language
The
current
speech
of
Onge
does
not
attest
voiceless
bilabial
unaspirated
[p]
and
voiceless
aspirated
retroflex
[h].
Fricative
[s]
was
also
missing.
The
inventory
of
vowels
in
Onge
matches
with
that
of
Jarawa.
Morphophonemics
1.
Epenthetic
semivowel
[y]
is
inserted
intevocalically.
/ia/
bow
is
rendered
as
[iya].
2.
The
following
vowel
coalescence
rule
applies
when
personal
pronouns
are
prefixed
to
any
lexical
item.
mi
+
a
>
ma
mine,
to
me
gi+
ejeka
>
gejeka
from
him
BODY
DIVISION
CLASSES-Great
Andamanese
The
BODY
DIVISION
CLASSES
indicate
seven
divisions
of
the
human
body.
They
not
only
classify
body
part
terms
but
also
individuate
noun
reference
and
event
semantics.
These
classes
have
realizations
in
bound
morphemes
and
are
termed
BODY
CLASS
markers
in
the
Great
Andamanese
grammar.
The
seven
divisions
of
the
human
body
There
are
seven
distinct
divisions
or
areas
that
are
recognized
within
the
human
body
and
each
is
symbolized
by
a
monosyllabic
or
disyllabic
body
class
marker
They
serve
as
a
possessive
class
marker,
which
is
preceded
by
the
appropriate
term
for
the
body
part
i.e.,
the
head
noun.
The
typical
structure
of
a
noun
phrase
with
body
part
terminology
is:
Rclass
n=D
Here
R
is
a
possessor
D
is
the
dependent
noun
Seven
basic
zones
in
the
partonomy
of
the
body
Body
division
classes
Partonomy
of
human
body
BODY
CLASS
MARKERS
Mouth
and
its
semantic
extension
a-
Major
external
body
parts
and
face-related
r-
Extreme
ends
of
the
body
like
toes
and
fingernails
o-
Bodily
products
and
part-whole
relationship
ut-
Organs
inside
the
body
e-
Parts
designating
round
shape/
sexual
organs
ara-
Parts
for
legs
and
related
terms
o-
~
-
h=a=
pho
1sg=cl1.poss=
cavity
my
mouth
cavity
h=
r=
co
1sg=cl2.poss=
head
my
head
nao
ut=hi
Nao
cl4.poss=breath
Naos
breath
=e=
teu
2sg=cl5.poss
pancreas
your
pancreas
Of
these
seven
classes,
five
are
used
to
classify
various
kinship
relations.
these
are:
a-,
r-,
ut-,
ara-,
and
o-.
lico
ut=
thire
licho
cl4.poss=child
lichos
child
lico
r=boi
licho
cl2.poss=spouse
lichos
husband
The
inherency
and
inalienability
factors
The
conceptualization
by
the
Great
Andamanese
is
anthropocentric.
They
use
human
categorization
to
describe
and
understand
non-human
concepts.
The
human
body
provides
the
most
important
model
for
expressing
concepts
not
only
of
spatial
orientation,
but
also
of
relational
nouns,
attributive
categories,
inherently
related
objects
of
actions
and
events,
or
any
two
objects
or
two
events
which
are
conceptually
dependent
upon
each
other.
The
semantics
of
conceptual
dependency
engulfs
the
concept
of
inalienability
and
inherency.
Between
varying
degrees
of
inalienability
lie
various
kinds
of
inherent
relations.
1.
Separated
body
parts
the
separated
parts
of
the
body
of
an
animal
are
obligatorily
attached
with
a
body
class
marker,
indicating
its
inanimate
nature.
hence
all
such
terms
are
preceded
by
t-
a.ra
r=co
Pigs
head
b.ra
tr=co
Pigs
head
[cut]
c.khee
ra=uli
Cats
tail
d.khee
tara=uli
Cats
tail
[cut]
2.
Part-to-whole
relationship
The
same
strategy
is
applied
to
describe
the
part-to-whole-relationship.
a.
bun
tr=phir
The
sharp
edge
of
a
shell
b.
fc
ta=pho
Mouth
of
a
vessel
c.
khidr
tr=
Branch
of
a
coconut
The
fact
that
separated
body
parts
and
parts
of
an
object
are
expressed
similarly
indicated
the
inherent
relationship
between
a
whole
and
its
parts.
3.
Other
nouns
a.Associatives
such
as
language,
words,
names,
clan,
community,
e.g.
r=liu
his
name.
b.Ailments
both
physical
and
mental,
e.g.
er=ee
measles.
c.Spatial
terms,
e.g.
e=julue
in
front
of
d.Seascape
and
lanscape
terms,
e.g.
buruin
ter=tekh-il
in
the
middle
of
the
mountain
Modifiers
The
body
part
semantics
individuate
attribution
of
an
object
(adjective)
or
of
an
action
(adverb).
Inherently
relational
elements
are
conceptually
dependent
and
thus
also
define
attributes.
the
inherent
attribute
may
include
inherent
personal
attributes
such
as
propensity,
nature,
weight,
height,
size,
shape,
state
of
health,
temperature,
blood
pressure,
energy,
bodily
function,
consciousness,
courage,
fear,
name,
and
others.
Classificatory
functions
of
body
division
classes
in
adjectives
class
number
body
class
markers
semantics
examples
a-
mouth-related
attribute
a=
mu
dumb
a=
tutlup
greedy
r-~
er-
external
attribute
r=
achil
surprised
r=
buoi
beautiful
o-
~
on-
attributes
related
to
limbs
on=
toplo
alone
o=
karacay
lame
ut-
~
ot-
negative
attribute
ot=
lile
decay
ot=
lkho
nude
e-
~
i-
~
-
inherent
attribute
e=
sare
salty
=
bn
soft
ara-
belly
related
attribute
ara=kaa
stout/drawf
ara=
kaa
big
bellied
o-
~
-
attribute
of
shape
and
texture
o=
balo
round
o-phelaa slippery
Verbs
The
body
part
semantics
shift
into
event
type
semantic
categories
of
various
kinds.
the
body
class
markers
combine
with
transitive
and
intransitive
verbal
roots.
Hence,
verbs
with
body
class
marker
4,
for
emission
ot-,
would
refer
to
an
action
of
motion
away
from
the
speaker
such
as
go,
exit.
Thus,
h=ut=cone-bom
I
am
going
or,
where
something
is
being
(not
necessarily
tangibly)
generated
an
in
experiential
verbs.
thire
ut=
hee-bom
the
child
is
hungry.
Elements
of
experience
are
an
inherent
part
of
the
experience
(hence
inalienable)
and
emerge
involuntarily
in
a
person.
Verbs
like
shake
and
kiss
have
the
class
marker
2,
i.e.
er-
for
major
external
body
parts
and
face
related
concepts.
Verbs
like
pound
or
beat
to
a
pulp
uses
class
marker
5,
i.e.,
e-
for
internalized
objects.
Locations
Various
body
class
markers
can
attach
to
the
same
nominal
modifying
it
further
to
indicate
various
locations
of
the
object
noun.
a.ot=cala
scar
left
by
arrow-head
b.er=cala
scar
on
the
head
c.o=cala
scar
on
the
limbs
Spatial
References
Various
spatial
references
are
individuated
by
body
division
classes.
The
basic
division
is
between
up/down;
in/out,
and
periphery
/centre.
Class
3
for
extremities
does
not
refer
to
any
spatial
concept.
The
role
of
extremities
to
indicate
spatial
concepts
in
other
languages
have
been
observed
as
virtually
insignificant
(Heine
1997).
Body
division
classes
designating
spatial
relation
class
No.
BODY
CLASS
MARKER
body
division
spatial
relations
a-
mouth
cavity
surface
r-
face
anterior,
exterior
ut-
body
products
posterior,
superior
e-
internal
parts
interior,
centre
ara-
sides
periphery
lower
parts
inferior
