RAJALAKSHMI ENGINEERING

COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE
ENGINEERING

NOTES OF LESSON

FOR

111301 MECHANICS OF MACHINES

111301 MECHANICS OF MACHINES

SYLLABUS
OBJECTIVE
To expose the students the different mechanisms, their method of working, Forces involved and
consequent vibration during working

UNIT I MECHANISMS
Machine Structure Kinematic link, pair and chain Grueblers criteria Constrained motion
Degrees of freedom - Slider crank and crank rocker mechanisms Inversions Applications
Kinematic analysis of simple mechanisms Determination of velocity and acceleration.

UNIT II FRICTION
Friction in screw and nut Pivot and collar Thrust bearing Plate and disc clutches Belt (flat
and V) and rope drives. Ratio of tensions Effect of centrifugal and initial tension Condition
for maximum power transmission Open and crossed belt drive.
UNIT III GEARING AND CAMS
Gear profile and geometry Nomenclature of spur and helical gears Gear trains: Simple,
compound gear trains and epicylic gear trains - Determination of speed and torque- Cams Types
of cams Design of profiles Knife edged, flat faced and roller ended followers with and
without offsets for various types of follower motions

UNIT IV BALANCING
Static and dynamic balancing Single and several masses in different planes Balancing of
reciprocating masses- primary balancing and concepts of secondary balancing Single and multi
cylinder engines (Inline) Balancing of radial V engine direct and reverse crank method.

UNIT V VIBRATION
Free, forced and damped vibrations of single degree of freedom systems Force transmitted to
supports Vibration isolation Vibration absorption Torsional vibration of shaft Single and
multi rotor systems Geared shafts Critical speed of shaft.

TEXT BOOKS
1. Rattan.S.S, Theory of Machines, Tata McGrawHill Publishing Co., New Delhi,
2004.
2. Ballaney.P.L, Theory of Machines, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 2002.
3.
REFERENCES

1. Rao,J.S and Dukkipati, R.V, Mechanism and Machine Theory, Second Edition,
Wiley Eastern Ltd., 1992.
2. Malhotra, D.R and Gupta, H.C., The Theory of Machines, Satya Prakasam, Tech.
India Publications, 1989.
3. Gosh, A. and Mallick, A.K., Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Affiliated East
West Press, 1989.
4. Shigley, J.E. and Uicker, J.J., Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, McGraw-Hill,
1980.

UNIT-I
MECHANISMS
Mechanics: It is that branch of scientific analysis which deals with motion, time and
force.
Kinematics is the study of motion, without considering the forces which produce that
motion. Kinematics of machines deals with the study of the relative motion of machine
parts. It involves the study of position, displacement, velocity and acceleration of
machine parts.
Dynamics of machines involves the study of forces acting on the machine parts and the
motions resulting from these forces.
Link or element: It is the name given to any body which has motion relative to another.
All materials have some elasticity. A rigid link is one, whose deformations are so small
that they can be neglected in determining the motion parameters of the link.

Fig.1
Binary link: Link which is connected to other links at two points. (Fig.1. a)
Ternary link: Link which is connected to other links at three points. (Fig.1.b)
Quaternary link: Link which is connected to other links at four points. (Fig1. c)
 Fig.2 Kinematic pair Fig.3

Pairing elements: the geometrical forms by which two members of a mechanism are
joined together, so that the relative motion between these two is consistent are known as
pairing elements and the pair so formed is called kinematic pair. Each individual link of a
mechanism forms a pairing element.
Degrees of freedom (DOF): It is the number of independent coordinates required to
describe the position of a body in space. A free body in space (fig 3) can have six degrees
of freedom. I.e., linear positions along x, y and z axes and rotational/angular positions
with respect to x, y and z axes.
In a kinematic pair, depending on the constraints imposed on the motion, the links may
loose some of the six degrees of freedom.
Types of kinematic pairs:
(i) Based on nature of contact between elements:
(a) Lower pair. If the joint by which two members are connected has surface contact,
the pair is known as lower pair. Eg. pin joints, shaft rotating in bush, slider in slider
crank mechanism.

Fig- Lower pairs

(b) Higher pair. If the contact between the pairing elements takes place at a point or
along a line, such as in a ball bearing or between two gear teeth in contact, it is
known as a higher pair.
 Fig - Higher pairs
(ii) Based on relative motion between pairing elements:
(a) Siding pair. Sliding pair is constituted by two elements so connected that one is
constrained to have a sliding motion relative to the other. DOF = 1
(b) Turning pair (revolute pair). When connections of the two elements are such that
only a constrained motion of rotation of one element with respect to the other is
possible, the pair constitutes a turning pair. DOF = 1
(c) Cylindrical pair. If the relative motion between the pairing elements is the
combination of turning and sliding, then it is called as cylindrical pair. DOF = 2

Fig.- Sliding pair Fig- Turning pair

Fig- Cylindrical pair

(d) Rolling pair. When the pairing elements have rolling contact, the pair formed is
called rolling pair. Eg. Bearings, Belt and pulley. DOF = 1
 Fig - Ball bearing Fig - Belt and pulley

(e) Spherical pair. A spherical pair will have surface contact and three degrees of
freedom. Eg. Ball and socket joint. DOF = 3
(f) Helical pair or screw pair. When the nature of contact between the elements of a
pair is such that one element can turn about the other by screw threads, it is known
as screw pair. Eg. Nut and bolt. DOF = 1

Fig - Ball and socket joint Fig - Screw pair

(iii) Based on the nature of mechanical constraint.

(a) Closed pair. Elements of pairs held together mechanically due to their geometry
constitute a closed pair. They are also called form-closed or self-closed pair.
(b) Unclosed or force closed pair. Elements of pairs held together by the action of
external forces constitute unclosed or force closed pair .Eg. Cam and follower.
 Closed pair Force closed pair (cam & follower)

Constrained motion: In a kinematic pair, if one element has got only one definite
motion relative to the other, then the motion is called constrained motion.
(a) Completely constrained motion. If the constrained motion is achieved by the pairing
elements themselves, then it is called completely constrained motion.

completely constrained motion

(b) Successfully constrained motion. If constrained motion is not achieved by the
pairing elements themselves, but by some other means, then, it is called successfully
constrained motion. Eg. Foot step bearing, where shaft is constrained from moving
upwards, by its self weight.
(c) Incompletely constrained motion. When relative motion between pairing elements
takes place in more than one direction, it is called incompletely constrained motion. Eg.
Shaft in a circular hole.
 Foot strep bearing Incompletely constrained motion

Kinematic chain: A kinematic chain is a group of links either joined together or arranged
in a manner that permits them to move relative to one another. If the links are connected
in such a way that no motion is possible, it results in a locked chain or structure.

Locked chain or structure

Mechanism: A mechanism is a constrained kinematic chain. This means that the motion
of any one link in the kinematic chain will give a definite and predictable motion relative
to each of the others. Usually one of the links of the kinematic chain is fixed in a
mechanism.

Slider crank and four bar mechanisms.

If, for a particular position of a link of the chain, the positions of each of the other links
of the chain can not be predicted, then it is called as unconstrained kinematic chain and it
is not mechanism.

Machine: A machine is a mechanism or collection of mechanisms, which transmit force

from the source of power to the resistance to be overcome. Though all machines are
mechanisms, all mechanisms are not machines. Many instruments are mechanisms but
are not machines, because they do no useful work nor do they transform energy. Eg.
Mechanical clock, drafter.

Drafter
Planar mechanisms: When all the links of a mechanism have plane motion, it is called
as a planar mechanism. All the links in a planar mechanism move in planes parallel to the
reference plane.
Degrees of freedom/mobility of a mechanism: It is the number of inputs (number of
independent coordinates) required to describe the configuration or position of all the links
of the mechanism, with respect to the fixed link at any given instant.
Grublers equation: Number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism is given by
F = 3(n-1)-2l-h. Where,
F = Degrees of freedom
n = Number of links = n2 + n3 ++nj, where, n2 = number of binary links, n3 = number
of ternary linksetc.
l = Number of lower pairs, which is obtained by counting the number of joints. If more
than two links are joined together at any point, then, one additional lower pair is to be
considered for every additional link.
h = Number of higher pairs
Examples of determination of degrees of freedom of planar mechanisms:
(i)

F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
Here, n2 = 4, n = 4, l = 4 and h = 0.
F = 3(4-1)-2(4) = 1
I.e., one input to any one link will result in
definite motion of all the links.

(ii)
 F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
Here, n2 = 5, n = 5, l = 5 and h = 0.
F = 3(5-1)-2(5) = 2
I.e., two inputs to any two links are
required to yield definite motions in all the
links.

Inversions of mechanism: A mechanism is one in which one of the links of a kinematic

chain is fixed. Different mechanisms can be obtained by fixing different links of the same
kinematic chain. These are called as inversions of the mechanism. By changing the fixed
link, the number of mechanisms which can be obtained is equal to the number of links.
Excepting the original mechanism, all other mechanisms will be known as inversions of
original mechanism. The inversion of a mechanism does not change the motion of its
links relative to each other.
Four bar chain:

Four bar chain

One of the most useful and most common mechanisms is the four-bar linkage. In this
mechanism, the link which can make complete rotation is known as crank (link 2). The
link which oscillates is known as rocker or lever (link 4). And the link connecting these
two is known as coupler (link 3). Link 1 is the frame.
Inversions of four bar chain:
Crank-rocker mechanism: In this mechanism, either link 1 or link 3 is fixed. Link 2
(crank) rotates completely and link 4 (rocker) oscillates.

Drag link mechanism. Here link 2 is fixed and both links 1 and 4 make complete
rotation but with different velocities.
Double crank mechanism. This is one type of drag link mechanism, where, links 1& 3
are equal and parallel and links 2 & 4 are equal and parallel.
Double rocker mechanism. In this mechanism, link 4 is fixed. Link 2 makes complete
rotation, whereas links 3 & 4 oscillate
Slider crank chain: This is a kinematic chain having four links. It has one sliding pair
and three turning pairs. Link 2 has rotary motion and is called crank. Link 3 has got
combined rotary and reciprocating motion and is called connecting rod. Link 4 has
reciprocating motion and is called slider. Link 1 is frame (fixed). This mechanism is used
to convert rotary motion to reciprocating and vice versa.

Inversions of slider crank chain: Inversions of slider crank mechanism is obtained by

fixing links 2, 3 and 4.
Rotary engine I inversion of slider crank mechanism. (crank fixed)

Whitworth quick return motion mechanismI inversion of slider crank mechanism.

Crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism II inversion of slider
crank mechanism (connecting rod fixed).
Oscillating cylinder engineII inversion of slider crank mechanism (connecting rod
fixed).

Double slider crank chain: It is a kinematic chain consisting of two turning pairs and
two sliding pairs.
Scotch Yoke mechanism.
Turning pairs 1&2, 2&3; Sliding pairs 3&4, 4&1.
Inversions of double slider crank mechanism:
Elliptical trammel. This is a device which is used for generating an elliptical profile.

Fig.4
In fig.4, if AC = p and BC = q, then, x = q.cos and y = p.sin.
2 2
x y
Rearranging, cos 2 sin 2 1 . This is the equation of an ellipse. The path
q p
traced by point C is an ellipse, with major axis and minor axis equal to 2p and 2q
respectively.
Oldham coupling. This is an inversion of double slider crank mechanism, which is used
to connect two parallel shafts, whose axes are offset by a small amount.
Displacement: All particles of a body move in parallel planes and travel by same distance
is known, linear displacement and is denoted by x.
A body rotating about a fired point in such a way that all particular move in
circular path angular displacement and is denoted by .

Velocity: Rate of change of displacement is velocity. Velocity can be linear velocity

of angular velocity.
dx
Linear velocity is Rate of change of linear displacement= V =
dt
d
Angular velocity is Rate of change of angular displacement = =
dt

Relation between linear velocity and angular velocity.

x = r
dx d
= r
dt dt
V = r
d
=
dt
Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity
dv d2x
f= Linear Acceleration (Rate of change of linear velocity)
dt dt 2
d d 2
Thirdly = Angular Acceleration (Rate of change of angular velocity)
dt dt 2

UNIT-II
 FRICTION
Introduction
Friction you all know is nothing but just a force When a body moves or tends to move on
another body, the force, which appears between the surfaces in contact and resists the
motion or tendency towards motion, of one body relative to the other is defined as
friction or frictional force or force of friction.

Types of Friction
Static Friction
It is the friction, experienced by a body when at rest.
Dynamic Friction
It is the friction experienced by a body, when in motion. The dynamic friction is also
called kinetic friction and is less than the static friction.
a. Sliding friction
b. Rolling friction
c. Pivot friction

Screw Friction
The screws bolts, studs, nuts etc are widely used in various machines and structures for
temporary fastenings have screw threads, which are made by cutting a continuous helical
groove on a cylindrical surface.

lead of screw
tan =------------------------------
Circumference of screw
= p/d

= n.p/d

Where
p = Pitch of the screw,
d= mean diameter of the screw and
n= Number of threads in one lead.

Pivots & Collars

In ships, steam and water turbines etc. by the very nature of mechanism of forces
developed in them, their shafts are subjected to axial force, which is known as axial
thrust. This naturally, produces axial motion of the shafts. In order to prevent it and
preserve the shaft in correct axial position, they are provided with one or more bearing
surfaces at right angle to the axis of shaft. A bearing surface provided at the end of a shaft
is known as a pivot and that provided at any place along with the length of the shaft with
bearing surface of the revolution is known as collar. Pivots are of two forms: flat and
conical. The bearing surface provided at the foot of a vertical shaft is called footstep
bearing.

Due to the axial thrust conveyed to the bearings by the rotating shaft, rubbing takes place
between the contacting surfaces. This produces friction as well as wearing of the bearing.
Thus work is lost in overcoming the friction, which is ultimately to be determined under
this article. Obviously the rate of wearing depends upon the intensity of thrust and
relative velocity of rotation.

\rate of wear p x r

Now there could be two assumptions on which we can proceed further:

Firstly, the intensity of pressure is uniform over the bearing surface. This assumption only
holds good with newly fitted bearings where fit between the two contacting surface is
assumed to be perfect. As the shaft has run for sometime the pressure distribution will not
remain in uniform due to varying wear at different radii.

Secondly, the rate of wear is uniform. The rate of wear is proportional to p x r as we have
already discussed which means that the pressure will go on increasing radially inward
and at the center where r=0, the pressure must be infinite which is not true. Hence this
assumption too, has fallacies and anomalies. However, the assumption of wear gives
better practical results. The various types of bearings mentioned above will be dealt
which separately for each assumption.

Clutch

It is a mechanical device, which is widely used in automobiles for the purpose of

engaging and disengaging the driving and the driven shafts instantaneously, at the will of
the driver or the operator. The driving shaft is the engine crankshaft and the driven shaft
is the gearbox-driving shaft. This means that the clutch is situated between the engine
crankshaft or flywheel mounted on it, and the gearbox.

In automobile, gears are required to be changed for obtaining different speeds, and it is
possible only if the driving shaft of the gearbox is also required to be stopped for a while
without stopping the engine. These two objects are achieved with the help of a clutch.

Broadly speaking, a clutch consists of two members; one fixed securely, to the crankshaft
or the flywheel of the engine so as to rotate with it an the other mounted on a splined
shaft means to drive the gear box so that this could be slided and engaged or disengaged
as the case may be with the member fixed with engine crankshaft.
 UNIT III
GEARING AND CAMS
Gears:
Introduction: The slip and creep in the belt or rope drives is a common phenomenon, in the
transmission of motion or power between two shafts. The effect of slip is to reduce the
velocity ratio of the drive. In precision machine, in which a definite velocity ratio is
importance (as in watch mechanism, special purpose machines..etc), the only positive drive
is by means of gears or toothed wheels.

Terminology:

Addendum: The radial distance between the Pitch Circle and the top of the teeth.

Arc of Action: Is the arc of the Pitch Circle between the beginning and the end of the
engagement of a given pair of teeth.

Arc of Approach: Is the arc of the Pitch Circle between the first point of contact of the gear
teeth and the Pitch Point.

Arc of Recession: That arc of the Pitch Circle between the Pitch Point and the last point of
contact of the gear teeth.
Backlash: Play between mating teeth.

Base Circle: The circle from which is generated the involute curve upon which the tooth
profile is based.

Center Distance: The distance between centers of two gears.

Chordal Addendum: The distance between a chord, passing through the points where the
Pitch Circle crosses the tooth profile, and the tooth top.

Chordal Thickness: The thickness of the tooth measured along a chord passing through the
points where the Pitch Circle crosses the tooth profile.

Circular Pitch: Millimeter of Pitch Circle circumference per tooth.

Circular Thickness: The thickness of the tooth measured along an arc following the Pitch
Circle

Clearance: The distance between the top of a tooth and the bottom of the space into which it
fits on the meshing gear.

Contact Ratio: The ratio of the length of the Arc of Action to the Circular Pitch.

Dedendum: The radial distance between the bottom of the tooth to pitch circle.

Diametral Pitch: Teeth per mm of diameter.

Face: The working surface of a gear tooth, located between the pitch diameter and the top of
the tooth.

Face Width: The width of the tooth measured parallel to the gear axis.

Flank: The working surface of a gear tooth, located between the pitch diameter and the
bottom of the teeth

Wheel:Larger of the two meshing gears is called wheel..

Pinion: The smaller of the two meshing gears is called pinion.

Land: The top surface of the tooth.

Line of Action: That line along which the point of contact between gear teeth travels,
between the first point of contact and the last.

Module: Ratio of Pitch Diameter to the number of teeth..

Pitch Circle: The circle, the radius of which is equal to the distance from the center of the
gear to the pitch point.

Diametral pitch: Ratio of the number of teeth to the of pitch circle diameter.

Pitch Point: The point of tangency of the pitch circles of two meshing gears, where the Line
of Centers crosses the pitch circles.

Pressure Angle: Angle between the Line of Action and a line perpendicular to the Line of
Centers.

Profile Shift: An increase in the Outer Diameter and Root Diameter of a gear, introduced to
lower the practical tooth number or acheive a non-standard Center Distance.

Ratio: Ratio of the numbers of teeth on mating gears.

Root Circle: The circle that passes through the bottom of the tooth spaces.

Root Diameter: The diameter of the Root Circle.

Working Depth: The depth to which a tooth extends into the space between teeth on the
mating gear.

Gear-Tooth Action

Fundamental Law of Gear-Tooth

Action

Figure 5 shows two mating gear teeth, in

which

Tooth profile 1 drives tooth profile 2

by acting at the instantaneous contact point
K.

N1N2 is the common normal of the two

profiles.

N1 is the foot of the perpendicular from

O1 to N1N2
N2 is the foot of the perpendicular from
O2 to N1N2.

Although the two profiles have different

velocities V1 and V2 at point K, their velocities
along N1N2 are equal in both magnitude and
direction. Otherwise the two tooth profiles would separate from each other. Therefore, we
have

O1N1 1 O2 N 2 2 1
or

1 O2 N2
2
2 O1N1
Figure 5 Two gearing tooth
We notice that the intersection of the tangency N1N2 profiles
and the line of center O1O2 is point P, and from the similar triangles,

O1N1 P O2 N 2 P 3
Thus, the relationship between the angular velocities of the driving gear to the driven gear, or
velocity ratio, of a pair of mating teeth is

1 O2P
4
2 O1P

If the velocity ratio is to be constant, then P must be a fixed point. That is the the tangent
drawn at the pitch point must intersect the line of centres at a fixed point.

Point P is very important to the velocity ratio, and it is called the pitch point. Pitch point
divides the line between the line of centers and its position decides the velocity ratio of the
two teeth. The above expression is the fundamental law of gear-tooth action. ]

Path of contact:

O2

RA
Wheel Base Circle

R
N
Pitch
L Circle
K P Addendum
Circles
M
r Pitch
Circle
ra
Base Circle
O1 Pinion
Consider a pinion driving wheel as shown in figure. When the pinion rotates in clockwise,
the contact between a pair of involute teeth begins at K (on the near the base circle of pinion
or the outer end of the tooth face on the wheel) and ends at L (outer end of the tooth face on
the pinion or on the flank near the base circle of wheel).

MN is the common normal at the point of contacts and the common tangent to the base
circles. The point K is the intersection of the addendum circle of wheel and the common
tangent. The point L is the intersection of the addendum circle of pinion and common
tangent.

The length of path of contact is the length of common normal cut-off by the addendum
circles of the wheel and the pinion. Thus the length of part of contact is KL which is the sum
of the parts of path of contacts KP and PL. Contact length KP is called as path of approach
and contact length PL is called as path of recess.

ra = O1L = Radius of addendum circle of pinion,

and

R A = O2K = Radius of addendum circle of wheel

r = O1P = Radius of pitch circle of pinion,

and

R = O2P = Radius of pitch circle of wheel.

Radius of the base circle of pinion = O1M = O1P cos = r cos

and

radius of the base circle of wheel = O2N = O2P cos = R cos

From right angle triangle O2KN

KN O2 K 2 O2 N 2
R A 2 R 2 cos 2
PN O2 P sin R sin

Path of approach: KP
KP KN PN
RA 2 R 2 cos 2 R sin
Similarly from right angle triangle O1ML

ML O1 L 2 O1M 2
ra 2 r 2 cos 2
MP O1 P sin r sin

Path of recess: PL

PL ML MP
ra 2 r 2 cos 2 r sin
Length of path of contact = KL

KL KP PL
RA 2 R 2 cos 2 ra 2 r 2 cos 2 R r sin

Arc of contact: Arc of contact is the path traced by a point on the pitch circle from the
beginning to the end of engagement of a given pair of teeth. In Figure, the arc of contact is
EPF or GPH.

O2

RA
Wheel

R
N
L Pitch
E F Circle
Gear
Profile P Addendum
G H
K Circles
M
r Pitch
Circle
ra
Base Circle
O1 Pinion
Considering the arc of contact GPH.

The arc GP is known as arc of approach and the arc PH is called arc of recess. The angles
subtended by these arcs at O1 are called angle of approach and angle of recess respectively.
Lenght of path of approach KP
Length of arc of approach = arc GP cos

cos

Lenght of path of recess PL

Length of arc of recess = arc PH cos

cos
 Length of arc contact = arc GPH = arc GP + arc PH
KP PL KL Length of path of contact

cos cos cos cos

Contact Ratio (or Number of Pairs of Teeth in Contact)

The contact ratio or the number of pairs of teeth in contact is defined as the ratio of the
length of the arc of contact to the circular pitch.
Length of the arc of contact
Mathematically, Contat ratio
PC
Where: PC Circular pitch m and m = Module.

Gears Trains
A gear train is two or more gear working together by meshing their teeth and turning each other in a
system to generate power and speed. It reduces speed and increases torque. To create large gear ratio,
gears are connected together to form gear trains. They often consist of multiple gears in the train.

The most common of the gear train is the gear pair connecting parallel shafts. The teeth of this type
can be spur, helical or herringbone. The angular velocity is simply the reverse of the tooth ratio.

Any combination of gear wheels employed to transmit motion from one

shaft to the other is called a gear train. The meshing of two gears may be
idealized as two smooth discs with their edges touching and no slip
between them. This ideal diameter is called the Pitch Circle Diameter
(PCD) of the gear.

Simple Gear Trains

The typical spur gears as shown in diagram. The direction of rotation is reversed from one gear to
another. It has no affect on the gear ratio. The teeth on the gears must all be the same size so if gear A
advances one tooth, so does B and C.

v
v

A B C

GEAR 'A' GEAR 'B' GEAR 'C'

(Idler gear)
Compound Gear train

Compound gears are simply a chain of simple gear trains with the input of the second being the
output of the first. A chain of two pairs is shown below. Gear B is the output of the first pair and
gear C is the input of the second pair. Compound Gear train

Gears B and C are locked to the same shaft and revolve at the same speed.
For large velocities ratios, compound gear train arrangement is preferred.

Input

B
D

A Output
C

Compound Gears
GEAR 'B'

GEAR 'A'
GEAR 'D'

GEAR 'C'

Reverted Gear train

Is a compound gear train in which the driver and driven gears are coaxial.. These are used in speed
reducers, clocks and machine tools.
N t t
GR A B D
ND t A tC

Epicyclic gear train:

Epicyclic means one gear revolving upon and around another. The design involves planet and
sun gears as one orbits the other like a planet around the sun. Here is a picture of a typical gear
box.

This design can produce large gear ratios in a small space and are used on a wide range of
applications from marine gearboxes to electric screwdrivers.

Basic Theory

The diagram shows a gear B on the end of an arm. Gear Planet wheel
B meshes with gear C and revolves around it when the B B
arm is rotated. B is called the planet gear and C the sun.
Arm
Arm 'A'
First consider what happens when the planet gear orbits
the sun gear.
C
C
Sun wheel

Observe point p and you will see that gear B also revolves once on its own axis. Any object orbiting
around a center must rotate once. Now consider that B is free to rotate on its shaft and meshes with C.
Suppose the arm is held stationary and gear C is rotated once. B spins about its own center and the
tC
number of revolutions it makes is the ratio . B will rotate by this number for every complete
tB
revolution of C.
tC
Now consider that C is unable to rotate and the arm A is revolved once. Gear B will revolve 1
tB
because of the orbit. It is this extra rotation that causes confusion. One way to get round this is to
imagine that the whole system is revolved once. Then identify the gear that is fixed and revolve it
back one revolution. Work out the revolutions of the other gears and add them up. The following
tabular method makes it easy.

Suppose gear C is fixed and the arm A makes one revolution. Determine how many revolutions the
planet gear B makes.
Step 1 is to revolve everything once about the center.
Step 2 identify that C should be fixed and rotate it backwards one revolution keeping the arm fixed as
it should only do one revolution in total. Work out the revolutions of B.
Step 3 is simply add them up and we find the total revs of C is zero and for the arm is 1.

Step Action A B C
1 Revolve all once 1 1 1
Revolve C by 1 revolution, t
2 0 C -1
keeping the arm fixed tB
t
3 Add 1 1 C 0
tB

tC
The number of revolutions made by B is 1 Note that if C revolves -1, then the direction of B
t B

tC
is opposite so .
tB
Cam

A cam may be defined as a rotating machine part designed to impart reciprocating and oscillating
motion to another machine part, called a follower.

A cam & follower have, usually, a line contact between them and as such they constitute a higher
pair. The contact between them is maintained by an external force, which is generally provided
by a spring or sometimes by the weight of the follower itself, when it is sufficient.

Classification of Cams

Broadly cams may be classified in two types:

a. Radial disc cams
b. Cylindrical cams
in radial or disc cams the shape of working surface is such that the followers reciprocate in a
plane at right angles to the axis of the cam

Classification of Followers
Followers may be classified in three different ways:

a. Depending upon the type of motion i.e. reciprocating or oscillating

b. Depending upon the axis of the motion i.e. radial or offset
c. Depending upon the shape of their contacting end with the cam.

Followers depending upon the shape of contacting end. Under this classification followers may
be divided into three types.
a. Knife edge follower fig.
b. Roller follower fig.
c. Flat or mushroom follower

The follower during its travel may have one of the following motions.
a. Uniform motion
b. Simple harmonic motion
c. Uniform acceleration
d. Cycloidal motion

Drawing A Cam Profile General Procedure

The following procedure may be adopted for drawing the cam profile for any type of the
following motion.

1. Make the displacement diagram for the given follower motion.

2. Draw the base circle.

3. Considering the cam stationary and follower moving around it, in the direction
opposite to that of the cam, with reference to a vertical line from the center of the
circle make angles q1,q2, q3 and q4 corresponding to out stroke, dwell, in stroke and
dwell angles.

4. Divide q1 and q2 into number of divisions as per divisions on the displacement

diagram.

5. From the points of intersection of the base circle and division radial lines locate
corresponding to displacements on the radial lines from the displacement diagram and join all
those points by a smooth curve which will give the profile of the cam.
 UNIT IV
BALANCING
Balancing of Rotating Masses

Balancing A Single Rotating Masses

If a mass of M kg is fastened to a shaft rotating at w rad/s at radius r meter, the

centrifugal force, producing out of balance effect acting radially outwards on the shaft
will be equal Mw2rNewton. This out of balance in any one of the following two ways:
a. By introducing single revolving mass in the same transverse. Introduce a second mass
B kg, called the balance mass, diametrically opposite to M at radius R rotating with same
angular speed of w rad/s fig

For complete balance, the centrifugal force of the two masses must be equal an opposite
in the plane of rotation.
Mw2r = Bw2R
Mr = BR
Or hence for such balance the product of mass and its radius must be equal to the product
of balance mass and its radius. The product BR or Mr is very often called the mass
moment.

b. By introducing two masses one in each in two parallel transverse planes.

Sometimes it is not possible to introduce balance mass in the same transverse plane in
which disturbing mass M is placed .in that case two masses can be placed one each in two
parallel transverse planes to affect a complete balance. it may be remembered that one
revolving mass in one plane cannot be balanced by another mass revolving in another
parallel plane, as, no doubt balancing mass can be adjusted such that centrifugal forces
may be equal and opposite indirection but at the same time will give rise to a couple
which will remain unbalanced.
So let M be the distributing mass and B1, B2 be the balance masses placed at radius of r,
b1 and b2 respectively from the axis of rotating , let the distances of planes of revolution
ofB1 and B2 from that of M be a and c respectively and between B1 and B2d.
Balancing of Several Coplanar Rotating Masses
If several masses are connected to s shaft at different radii in one plane perpendicular to
the shaft and the shaft is made to rotate, each mass will set up out of balance centrifugal
force on the shaft. In such a case complete balance can be obtained by placing only one
balance mass in the same plane whose magnitude and relative angular position can be
determined by means of a force diagram. Since all the masses are connected tothe shaft,
all will have the same angular velocity w, we need not calculate the actual magnitude of
centrifugal force of any, but deal only with mass moments.

If the three masses (M1, M2 and M3 are fastened to shaft at radiir1, r2 and r3 resp.
In order to determine the magnitude of balance mass B to be placed at radius b we
proceed as follows.

1. Find out mass moment of each weight i.e. M1r1, M2r2 etc.
2. Draw vector diagram for these mass moments at a suitable scale. Commencing
at p draw pq to represent M1r1 from q to draw qr to represent M 2r2. and from r draw rs
to represent M3r3
3. The closing side sp (from s to p and not from p to s represents the magnitude
and direction of balancing mass moment Bb.
4. Measure sp on the scale considered and divided by b, the quotient will be the
magnitude of balance mass B.

Balancing of Several Masses in Different Parallel Planes

The technique of tackling this problem is to transfer the centrifugal force acting in each
plane to a single parallel plane which is usually termed as reference plane and thereafter
the procedure for balancing is almost the same as for different forces acting in the same
plane.

Balancing of Reciprocating Masses

Acceleration and force of reciprocating parts. To find accelerationof reciprocating parts

such as crosshead or piston, consider asimple crank and connecting rod arrangement In
which P is the piston or crosshead whose acceleration is to be determined.

Let r = length of crank ;

L = length of connecting rod;
x = movement of piston or cross head at any instant from its outermost position
when revolves radian from its inner dead center position.
 UNIT V
VIBRATION
Types of Vibrations

There are three types of vibrations:

1. Free or normal vibrations
2. Damped vibrations
3. Forced vibrations

When a body which is held in position by elastic constraints is displaced from its
equilibrium position by the application of an external force and then released, the body
commences to vibrate assuming that there are no external or internal resistances to
prevent the motion and the material of constraints is perfectly elastic, the body will
continue vibrating indefinitely. In that case at the extreme positions of oscillations; the
energy imparted to the body by the external force is entirely stored in the elastic
constraint as internal or elastic or strain energy. When the body falls back to its original
equilibrium position, whole strain energy is converted into the kinetic energy which
further takes the body to the other extreme position, when again the energy is stored in
the elastic constraint; at the expense of which the body again moves towards its initial
equilibrium position; and this cycle continues repeating indefinitely. This is how the body
oscillates between two extreme positions. A vibration of this kind in which, after initial
displacement, no external forces act and the motion is maintained by the internal elastic
forces are termed as natural vibrations.

Free Vibrations

Consider a bar of length l, diameter d, the upper end of which is held by the elastic
constraints and at the lower end, it carries a heavy disc of mass m.
The system may have one of the three simple modes of free vibrations given below:
a. Longitudinal vibrations
b. Transverse vibrations
c. Torsional vibrations
 a. Longitudinal Vibrations

When the particles of the shaft or disc move parallel to the axis of the shaft as shown in
fig. Than the vibrations are known as longitudinal vibrations.

b. Transverse Vibrations

When the particles of the shaft or disc move approximately perpendicular to the axis of
the shaft shown in fig. Then the vibrations are known as transverse vibrations.

c. Torsional Vibrations
When the particles of the shaft or disc move in a circle about the axis of the shaft, then
the vibrations are known as torsional vibrations. Before studying frequencies of general
vibrations we must understand degree of freedom.

Natural Frequency of Free LongitudinalVibrations

The natural frequency of the free longitudinal vibrations may be determined by the
following three methods.

1. Equilibrium Method
2. Energy Method
3. Rayleighs Method

Damping Factor or Damping Ratio

The ratio of damping coefficient C to the critical damping coefficient Cc is known as

damping factor or damping ratio. Mathematically,

Damping factor = C/ Cc = C/2mwn (Cc =2mwn)

The damping factor is the measure of the relative amount of damping in the existing
system with that necessary for the critical damped systems.

TRANSVERSE & TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS

Generally when the particles of the shaft or disc move in a circle about the axis of the
shaft as already discussed in previous chapter, then the vibrations are known as torsional
vibrations. In this case, the shaft is twisted and alternately and the torsional shear stresses
are induced in the shaft.

When the particles of the shaft or disc move in a circle about the axis of the shaft as
shown in fig as already explained in previous chapter , then the vibrations are known as
known as transverse vibrations.

Natural Frequency of Free Transverse Vibrations Due to Point Load Acting Over a
Simple Supported Shaft
Natural Frequency of Free Transverse Vibrations of A Shaft Fixed at Both Ends Carrying
a Uniformly Distributed Load

Natural Frequency of Free Transverse Vibrations for a Shaft Subjected to a Number of

Point Loads

Critical or Whirling Speed of a Shaft

In general, a rotating shaft carries different mountings and accessories in the form of
gears, pulleys, etc. When the gears or pulleys are out on the shaft, the centre of gravity of
the pulley of gear does not coincide with the centre of the bearings or with the axis of the
shaft, when the shaft is stationary, This means that the centre of gravity of the pulley of
gear is at a certain distance from the axis of rotation and due to this, the shaft is subjected
to centrifugal force. This force will bend the shaft, which will further increase the
distance of centre of gravity of the pulley or gear from the axis of rotation. This
correspondingly increases the value of centrifugal force, which further increases the
distance of centre of gravity from the axis rotation. This effect is cumulative and
ultimately the shaft fails. The bending of shaft not only depends upon the value of
eccentricity (distance between centre of gravity of the pulley and the axis of rotation)But
also depends upon the speed at which the shaft rotates. The speed, at which the shaft runs
so that the additional deflection of the shaft from the axis of rotation becomes infinite, is
known as critical or whirling speed.