Chapter 5, Section I

Airplane Basic
Flight Maneuvers
Using Analog Instrumentation
Introduction
Instrument flying techniques differ according to aircraft
type, class, performance capability, and instrumentation.
Therefore, the procedures and techniques that follow need
to be modified to suit individual aircraft. Recommended
procedures, performance data, operating limitations, and
flight characteristics of a particular aircraft are available in the
Pilots Operating Handbook/Airplane Flight Manual (POH/
AFM) for study before practicing the flight maneuvers.

The flight maneuvers discussed here in Chapter 5-I assume

the use of a single-engine, propeller-driven small airplane
with retractable gear and flaps and a panel with instruments
representative of those discussed earlier in Chapter 3, Flight
Instruments. With the exception of the instrument takeoff, all
of the maneuvers can be performed on partial panel, with the
attitude gyro and heading indicator covered or inoperative.

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Figure 5-1. Pitch Attitude and Airspeed in Level Flight, Slow Figure 5-2. Pitch Attitude and Airspeed in Level Flight, Fast Cruise
Cruise Speed. Speed.

Straight-and-Level Flight
Pitch Control
The pitch attitude of an airplane is the angle between the
longitudinal axis of the airplane and the actual horizon. In
level flight, the pitch attitude varies with airspeed and load.
For training purposes, the latter factor can normally be
disregarded in small airplanes. At a constant airspeed, there is
only one specific pitch attitude for level flight. At slow cruise
speeds, the level flight attitude is nose high with indications
as in Figure 5-1; at fast cruise speeds, the level-flight attitude
is nose low. [Figure 5-2] Figure 5-3 shows the indications
for the attitude at normal cruise speeds. The instruments used
to determine the pitch attitude of the aircraft are the attitude
indicator, the altimeter, the vertical speed indicator (VSI),
and the airspeed indicator (ASI).

Attitude Indicator
The attitude indicator gives the direct indication of pitch
attitude. The desired pitch attitude is gained by using the
elevator control to raise or lower the miniature aircraft in
relation to the horizon bar. This corresponds to the way pitch
attitude is adjusted in visual flight by raising or lowering
the nose of the airplane in relation to the natural horizon.
However, unless the airspeed is constant, and until the
level flight attitude for that airspeed has been identified and Figure 5-3. Pitch Attitude and Airspeed in Level Flight, Normal
established, there is no way to know whether level flight as Cruise Speed.

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indicated on the attitude indicator is resulting in level flight
as shown on the altimeter, VSI, and ASI. If the miniature
aircraft of the attitude indicator is properly adjusted on the
ground before takeoff, it shows approximately level flight at
normal cruise speed when the pilot completes the level off
from a climb. If further adjustment of the miniature aircraft
is necessary, the other pitch instruments must be used to
maintain level flight while the adjustment is made.

To practice pitch control for level flight using only the

attitude indicator, use the following exercise. Restrict the
displacement of the horizon bar to a one-half bar width, a
bar width up or down, then a one-and-one-half bar width.
One-half, one, and one-and-one-half bar width nose-high
attitudes are shown in Figures 5-4, 5-5, and 5-6.

Figure 5-4. Pitch Correction for Level Flight, One-Half Bar

An instructor pilot can demonstrate these normal pitch
Width.
corrections and compare the indications on the attitude
indicator with the airplanes position to the natural horizon.

Pitch attitude changes for corrections to level flight by reference

to instruments are much smaller than those commonly used
for visual flight. With the airplane correctly trimmed for level
flight, the elevator displacement and the control pressures
necessary to effect these standard pitch changes are usually
very slight. The following are a few helpful hints to help
determine how much elevator control pressure is required.

First, a tight grip on the controls makes it difficult to feel

control pressure changes. Relaxing and learning to control
the aircraft usually takes considerable conscious effort during
the early stages of instrument training.

Second, make smooth and small pitch changes with positive

Figure 5-5. Pitch Correction for Level Flight, One Bar Width.
pressure. With practice, a pilot can make these small pitch
corrections up or down, freezing (holding constant) the
one-half, full, and one-and-one-half bar widths on the
attitude indicator.

Third, with the airplane properly trimmed for level flight,

momentarily release all pressure on the elevator control
when becoming aware of tenseness. This is a reminder that
the airplane is stable; except under turbulent conditions, it
will maintain level flight if left alone. Even when no control
change is called for, it will be difficult to resist the impulse
to move the controls. This may be one of the most difficult
initial training problems in instrument flight.

Altimeter
At constant power, any deviation from level flight (except
in turbulent air) is the result of a pitch change. Therefore,
the altimeter gives an indirect indication of the pitch attitude Figure 5-6. Pitch Correction for Level Flight, One-and-One-Half
Bar Width.
in level flight, assuming constant power. Since the altitude

5-3
should remain constant when the airplane is in level flight, An instructor pilot can demonstrate an excessive nose-down
any deviation from the desired altitude signals the need for a deviation (indicated by rapid movement of the altimeter
pitch change. If the aircraft is gaining altitude, the nose must needle) and then, as an example, show the result of improper
be lowered. [Figures 5-7 and 5-8] corrective technique. The normal impulse is to make a
large pitch correction in a hurry, but this inevitably leads
to overcontrolling. The needle slows down, then reverses
direction, and finally indicates an excessive nose-high
deviation. The result is tension on the controls, erratic control
response, and increasingly extreme control movements. The
correct technique, which is slower and smoother, will return
the airplane to the desired attitude more quickly, with positive
control and no confusion.

When a pitch error is detected, corrective action should be

taken promptly, but with light control pressures and two
Figure 5-7. Using the Altimeter for Pitch Interpretation, a High distinct changes of attitude: (1) a change of attitude to stop
Altitude Means a Nose-High Pitch Attitude. the needle movement and (2) a change of attitude to return
to the desired altitude.

When the altimeter indicates an altitude deviation, apply

just enough elevator pressure to decrease the rate of needle
movement. If it slows down abruptly, ease off some of the
pressure until the needle continues to move, but ease off
slowly. Slow needle movement means the airplane attitude
is close to level flight. Add slightly more corrective pressure
to stop the direction of needle movement. At this point level
flight is achieved; a reversal of needle movement means
Figure 5-8. Pitch Correction Following Altitude IncreaseLower the aircraft has passed through it. Relax control pressures
Nose to Correct Altitude Error. carefully, continuing to cross-check since changing airspeed
will cause changes in the effectiveness of a given control
The rate of movement of the altimeter needle is as important pressure. Next, adjust the pitch attitude with elevator pressure
as its direction of movement in maintaining level flight for the rate of change of altimeter needle movement that is
without the use of the attitude indicator. An excessive pitch correlated with normal pitch corrections, and return to the
deviation from level flight results in a relatively rapid change desired altitude.
of altitude; a slight pitch deviation causes a slow change.
Thus, if the altimeter needle moves rapidly clockwise, assume As a rule of thumb, for errors of less than 100 feet, use a half
a considerable nose-high deviation from level flight attitude. bar width correction. [Figures 5-9 and 5-10] For errors in
Conversely, if the needle moves slowly counterclockwise to excess of 100 feet, use an initial full bar width correction.
indicate a slightly nose-low attitude, assume that the pitch [Figures 5-11 and 5-12] Practice predetermined altitude
correction necessary to regain the desired altitude is small. changes using the altimeter alone, then in combination with
As the altimeter is added to the attitude indicator in a cross- the attitude indicator.
check, a pilot will learn to recognize the rate of movement
of the altimeter needle for a given pitch change as shown on Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
the attitude indicator. The VSI, like the altimeter, gives an indirect indication of
pitch attitude and is both a trend and a rate instrument. As
To practice precision control of pitch in an airplane without a trend instrument, it shows immediately the initial vertical
an attitude indicator, make small pitch changes by visual movement of the airplane, which disregarding turbulence
reference to the natural horizon, and note the rate of can be considered a reflection of pitch change. To maintain
movement of the altimeter. Note what amount of pitch change level flight, use the VSI in conjunction with the altimeter and
gives the slowest steady rate of change on the altimeter. Then attitude indicator. Note any positive or negative trend of the
practice small pitch corrections by accurately interpreting needle from zero and apply a very light corrective elevator
and controlling the rate of needle movement.

5-4
 pressure. As the needle returns to zero, relax the corrective
pressure. If control pressures have been smooth and light, the
needle reacts immediately and slowly, and the altimeter shows
little or no change of altitude. As a rate instrument, the VSI
requires consideration of lag characteristics.

Lag refers to the delay involved before the needle attains a

stable indication following a pitch change. Lag is directly
proportional to the speed and magnitude of a pitch change.
If a slow, smooth pitch change is initiated, the needle moves
with minimum lag to a point of deflection corresponding
Figure 5-9. Altitude Error, Less Than 100 Feet.
to the extent of the pitch change, and then stabilizes as the
aerodynamic forces are balanced in the climb or descent.
A large and abrupt pitch change produces erratic needle
movement, a reverse indication, and introduces greater time
delay (lag) before the needle stabilizes. Pilots are cautioned
not to chase the needle when flight through turbulent
conditions produces erratic needle movements. The apparent
lag in airspeed indications with pitch changes varies greatly
among different airplanes and is due to the time required for
the airplane to accelerate or decelerate when the pitch attitude
is changed. There is no appreciable lag due to the construction
or operation of the instrument. Small pitch changes, smoothly
Figure 5-10. Pitch Correction, Less Than 100 FeetOne-Half Bar executed, result in an immediate change of airspeed.
Low to Correct Altitude Error.
When using the VSI as a rate instrument and combining it
with the altimeter and attitude indicator to maintain level
flight, a pilot should know that the amount the altimeter
needle moves from the desired altitude governs the rate which
should be used to return to that altitude. A rule of thumb is
to make an attitude change that will result in a vertical-speed
rate approximately double the error in altitude. For example,
if altitude is off by 100 feet, the rate of return to the desired
altitude should be approximately 200 feet per minute (fpm).
If it is off by more than 100 feet, the correction should
be correspondingly greater, but should never exceed the
Figure 5-11. Altitude Error, Greater Than 100 Feet. optimum rate of climb or descent for the airplane at a given
airspeed and configuration.

A deviation of more than 200 fpm from the desired rate

of return is considered overcontrolling. For example, if
attempting to change altitude by 200 feet, a rate in excess of
400 fpm indicates overcontrolling.

When returning to an altitude, the VSI is the primary pitch

instrument. Occasionally, the VSI is slightly out of calibration
and may indicate a climb or descent when the airplane is in
level flight. If the instrument cannot be adjusted, take the
Figure 5-12. Pitch Correction, Greater Than 100 FeetOne Bar error into consideration when using it for pitch control. For
Correction Initially.

5-5
example, if the needle indicates a descent of 200 fpm while Pitch control in level flight is a question of cross-check and
in level flight, use this indication as the zero position. interpretation of the instrument panel for the instrument
information that enables a pilot to visualize and control pitch
Airspeed Indicator (ASI) attitude. Regardless of individual differences in cross-check
The ASI presents an indirect indication of the pitch attitude. technique, all pilots should use the instruments that give the
In non-turbulent conditions with a constant power setting and best information for controlling the airplane in any given
pitch attitude, airspeed remains constant. [Figure 5-13] As the maneuver. Pilots should also check the other instruments
pitch attitude lowers, airspeed increases, and the nose should to aid in maintaining the primary instruments at the desired
be raised. [Figure 5-14] As the pitch attitude rises, airspeed indication.
decreases, and the nose should be lowered. [Figure 5-15] A
rapid change in airspeed indicates a large pitch change, and As noted previously, the primary instrument is the one
a slow change of airspeed indicates a small pitch change. that gives the most pertinent information for a particular
maneuver. It is usually the one that should be held at a
Constant Airspeed Constant Pitch constant indication. Which instrument is primary for pitch
control in level flight, for example? This question should
be considered in the context of specific airplane, weather
conditions, pilot experience, operational conditions, and other
factors. Attitude changes must be detected and interpreted
instantly for immediate control action in high-performance
airplanes. On the other hand, a reasonably proficient
instrument pilot in a slower airplane may rely more on the
altimeter for primary pitch information, especially if it is
determined that too much reliance on the attitude indicator
fails to provide the necessary precise attitude information.
Figure 5-13. Constant Power Plus Constant Pitch Equals Constant Whether the pilot decides to regard the altimeter or the
Speed. attitude indicator as primary depends on which approach will
best help control the attitude. In this handbook, the altimeter
Increased Airspeed Decreased Pitch
is normally considered as the primary pitch instrument during
level flight.

Bank Control
The bank attitude of an airplane is the angle between the
airplanes wings and the natural horizon. To maintain a
straight-and-level flight path, the wings of the airplane are
kept level with the horizon (assuming the airplane is in
coordinated flight). The instruments used for bank control
are the attitude indicator, the heading indicator, and the
turn coordinator. Figure 5-16 illustrates coordinated flight.
Figure 5-14. Constant Power Plus Decreased Pitch Equals The aircraft is banked left with the attitude indicator and
Increased Airspeed. turn coordinator indicating the bank. The heading indicator
Decreased Airspeed Increased Pitch indicates a left turn by apparent clockwise rotation of the
compass card behind the airplane silhouette.

Attitude Indicator
The attitude indicator shows any change in bank attitude
directly and instantly and is, therefore, a direct indicator. On
the standard attitude indicator, the angle of bank is shown
pictorially by the relationship of the miniature aircraft to the
artificial horizon bar, and by the alignment of the pointer with
the banking scale at the top of the instrument. On the face of
the standard three-inch instrument, small angles of bank can
Figure 5-15. Constant Power Plus Increased Pitch Equals be difficult to detect by reference to the miniature aircraft,
Decreased Airspeed. especially if leaning to one side or changing a seating position

5-6
 and predictable, but the obvious advantage of the attitude
indicator is an immediate indication of both pitch attitude
and bank attitude in a single glance. Even with the precession
errors associated with many attitude indicators, the quick
attitude presentation requires less visual effort and time for
positive control than other flight instruments.

Heading Indicator
The bank attitude of an aircraft in coordinated flight is shown
indirectly on the heading indicator, since banking results in
a turn and change in heading. Assuming the same airspeed
in both instances, a rapid movement of the heading indicator
(azimuth card in a directional gyro) indicates a large angle
of bank, whereas slow movement reflects a small angle of
bank. Note the rate of movement of the heading indicator
and compare it to the attitude indicators degrees of bank.
The attitude indicators precession error makes a precise
check of heading information necessary in order to maintain
straight flight.

When deviations from straight flight are noted on the heading

indicator, correct to the desired heading using a bank angle no
greater than the number of degrees to be turned. In any case,
limit bank corrections to a bank angle no greater than that
required for a standard rate turn. Use of larger bank angles
Figure 5-16. Instruments Used for Bank Control. requires a very high level of proficiency, and normally results
in overcontrolling and erratic bank control.
slightly. The position of the scale pointer is a good check
against the apparent miniature aircraft position. Disregarding Turn Coordinator
precession error, small deviations from straight coordinated The miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator gives an indirect
flight can be readily detected on the scale pointer. The indication of the bank attitude of the airplane. When the
banking index may be graduated as shown in Figure 5-17, miniature aircraft is level, the airplane is in straight flight.
or it may be graduated in 30 increments. When the miniature airplane is aligned with one of the
alignment marks and the aircraft is rolling to the left or right
The instrument depicted in Figure 5-17 has a scale pointer the indication represents the roll rate, with the alignment
that moves in the same direction of bank shown by the marks indicating a roll of 3 per second in the direction of
miniature aircraft. In this case, the aircraft is in a left 15 the miniature aircraft. This can be seen in level flight when
bank. Precession errors in this instrument are common a bank is introduced either to the left or the right. The turn
coordinators indicator will indicate the rolling motion
although there is no turn being made. Conversely, a pedal
input to the right or left causes the aircraft to turn momentarily
about its vertical axis (with no rolling motion) with an
indication of turn on the turn coordinator. After the turn
becomes stabilized and the aircraft is no longer rolling, the
turn coordinator displays the rate of turn with the alignment
marks equaling a turn of 3 per second. The turn coordinator
is able to display both roll and turn parameters because its
electrically powered gyroscope is canted at an angle. As a
result, the turn-and-slip indicator provides both roll and turn
indications. Autopilots in general aviation today use this
instrument in determining both roll and turn information.
After the completion of a turn, return to straight flight is
Figure 5-17. Bank Interpretation with the Attitude Indicator. accomplished by coordinated aileron and rudder pressure to

5-7
level the miniature aircraft. Include the miniature aircraft in rudder, right ball/right rudder), use aileron as necessary for
the cross-check and correct for even the smallest deviations bank control, and retrim.
from the desired position. When this instrument is used to
maintain straight flight, control pressures must be applied To trim the airplane using only the turn coordinator, use
very lightly and smoothly. aileron pressure to level the miniature aircraft and rudder
pressure to center the ball. Hold these indications with control
The ball of the turn coordinator is actually a separate pressures, gradually releasing them while applying rudder
instrument, conveniently located under the miniature aircraft trim sufficient to relieve all rudder pressure. Apply aileron
because the two instruments are used together. The ball trim, if available, to relieve aileron pressure. With a full
instrument indicates the quality of the turn. If the ball is off instrument panel, maintain a wings level attitude by reference
center, the airplane is slipping or skidding. That is, if the to all available instruments while trimming the airplane.
coordinators miniature airplane is tilted right and the ball is
displaced to the right, the aircraft is in a skid. [Figure 5-18] If Turn-and-Slip Indicator (Needle and Ball)
however, the miniature airplane is tilted to the right with the Unlike the turn coordinator that provides three indications
ball off-center to the left, the aircraft is in a slip. [Figure 5-19] (roll, turn, and trim), the turn-and-slip indicator provides
If the wings are level and the airplane is properly trimmed, two: turn-rate and trim. Although the turn-and-slip indicator
the ball will remain in the center, and the airplane will be needle provides an indication of turn only, it provides an
in straight flight. If the ball is not centered, the airplane is indirect indication of aircraft attitude when used with roll
improperly trimmed. indicators such as a heading indicator or magnetic compass.
As with the turn coordinator (after stabilizing from a roll),
when the turn-and-slip indicators needle is aligned with the
alignment marks the aircraft is in a standard turn of 3 per
second or 360 in 2 minutes.

The ball of the turn-and-bank indicator provides important

trim in the same manner that the ball in the turn coordinator
does. Figures 5-18 and 5-19 provide a comparison of the
two instruments.

Power Control
Figure 5-18. Skid Indication.
Power produces thrust which, with the appropriate angle of
attack of the wing, overcomes the forces of gravity, drag,
and inertia to determine airplane performance.

Power control must be related to its effect on altitude and

airspeed, since any change in power setting results in a change
in the airspeed or the altitude of the airplane. At any given
airspeed, the power setting determines whether the airplane
is in level flight, in a climb, or in a descent. If the power is
increased in straight-and-level flight and the airspeed held
constant, the airplane climbs. If power is decreased while
Figure 5-19. Slip Indication. the airspeed is held constant, the airplane descends. On the
other hand, if altitude is held constant, the power applied will
To maintain straight-and-level flight with proper trim, note determine the airspeed.
the direction of ball displacement. If the ball is to the left of
center and the left wing is low, apply left rudder pressure The relationship between altitude and airspeed determines the
to center the ball and correct the slip. At the same time need for a change in pitch or power. If the airspeed is not the
apply right aileron pressure as necessary to level the wings, desired value, always check the altimeter before deciding that
cross-checking the heading indicator and attitude indicator a power change is necessary. Think of altitude and airspeed
while centering the ball. If the wings are level and the ball is as interchangeable; altitude can be traded for airspeed by
displaced from the center, the airplane is skidding. Note the lowering the nose, or convert airspeed to altitude by raising
direction of ball displacement, and use the same corrective the nose. If altitude is higher than desired and airspeed is
technique as for an indicated slip. Center the ball (left ball/left

5-8
Figure 5-20. Airspeed Low and Altitude HighLower Pitch.

low, or vice versa, a change in pitch alone may return the (For small speed changes, or in airplanes that decelerate or
airplane to the desired altitude and airspeed. [Figure 5-20] If accelerate rapidly, overpowering or underpowering is not
both airspeed and altitude are high or if both are low, then a necessary.)
change in both pitch and power is necessary in order to return
to the desired airspeed and altitude. [Figure 5-21] Consider the example of an airplane that requires 23"
mercury (Hg) of manifold pressure to maintain a normal
For changes in airspeed in straight-and-level flight, pitch, cruising airspeed of 120 knots, and 18" Hg of manifold
bank, and power must be coordinated in order to maintain pressure to maintain an airspeed of 100 knots. The reduction
constant altitude and heading. When power is changed to in airspeed from 120 knots to 100 knots while maintaining
vary airspeed in straight-and-level flight, a single-engine, straight-and-level flight is discussed below and illustrated in
propeller-driven airplane tends to change attitude around all Figures 5-22, 5-23, and 5-24.
axes of movement. Therefore, to maintain constant altitude
and heading, apply various control pressures in proportion Instrument indications, prior to the power reduction, are
to the change in power. When power is added to increase shown in Figure 5-22. The basic attitude is established and
airspeed, the pitch instruments indicate a climb unless maintained on the attitude indicator. The specific pitch,
forward elevator control pressure is applied as the airspeed bank, and power control requirements are detected on these
changes. With an increase in power, the airplane tends to primary instruments:
yaw and roll to the left unless counteracting aileron and
rudder pressures are applied. Keeping ahead of these changes AltimeterPrimary Pitch
requires increasing cross-check speed, which varies with the Heading IndicatorPrimary Bank
type of airplane and its torque characteristics, the extent of Airspeed IndicatorPrimary Power
power and speed change involved.
Supporting pitch-and-bank instruments are shown in
Power Settings Figure 5-23. Note that the supporting power instrument is
Power control and airspeed changes are much easier when the manifold pressure gauge (or tachometer if the propeller
approximate power settings necessary to maintain various is fixed pitch). However, when a smooth power reduction to
airspeeds in straight-and-level flight are known in advance. approximately 15" Hg (underpower) is made, the manifold
However, to change airspeed by any appreciable amount, the pressure gauge becomes the primary power instrument.
common procedure is to underpower or overpower on initial [Figure 5-23] With practice, power setting can be changed
power changes to accelerate the rate of airspeed change. with only a brief glance at the power instrument, by sensing

Figure 5-21. Airspeed and Altitude HighLower Pitch and Reduce Power.

5-9
Figure 5-22. Straight-and-Level Flight (Normal Cruising Speed).

Figure 5-23. Straight-and-Level Flight (Airspeed Decreasing).

5-10
the movement of the throttle, the change in sound, and the errors to be expected during training in straight-and-level flight.
changes in the feel of control pressures. Having learned to control the airplane in a clean configuration
(minimum drag conditions), increase proficiency in cross-
As thrust decreases, increase the speed of the cross-check check and control by practicing speed changes while extending
and be ready to apply left rudder, back-elevator, and aileron or retracting the flaps and landing gear. While practicing, be
control pressure the instant the pitch-and-bank instruments sure to comply with the airspeed limitations specified in the
show a deviation from altitude and heading. As proficiency POH/AFM for gear and flap operation.
is obtained, a pilot learns to cross-check, interpret, and
control the changes with no deviation of heading and altitude. Sudden and exaggerated attitude changes may be necessary
Assuming smooth air and ideal control technique, as airspeed in order to maintain straight-and-level flight as the landing
decreases, a proportionate increase in airplane pitch attitude gear is extended and the flaps are lowered in some airplanes.
is required to maintain altitude. Similarly, effective torque The nose tends to pitch down with gear extension, and when
control means counteracting yaw with rudder pressure. flaps are lowered, lift increases momentarily (at partial flap
settings) followed by a marked increase in drag as the flaps
As the power is reduced, the altimeter is primary for pitch, near maximum extension.
the heading indicator is primary for bank, and the manifold
pressure gauge is momentarily primary for power (at 15" Control technique varies according to the lift and drag
Hg in this example). Control pressures should be trimmed characteristics of each airplane. Accordingly, knowledge of
off as the airplane decelerates. As the airspeed approaches the power settings and trim changes associated with different
the desired airspeed of 100 knots, the manifold pressure combinations of airspeed, gear and flap configurations will
is adjusted to approximately 18" Hg and becomes the reduce instrument cross-check and interpretation problems.
supporting power instrument. The ASI again becomes
primary for power. [Figure 5-24] For example, assume that in straight-and-level flight
instruments indicate 120 knots with power at 23" Hg/2,300
Airspeed Changes in Straight-and-Level Flight revolutions per minute (rpm), gear and flaps up. After
Practice of airspeed changes in straight-and-level flight provides reduction in airspeed, with gear and flaps fully extended,
an excellent means of developing increased proficiency in all straight-and-level flight at the same altitude requires 25"Hg
three basic instrument skills, and brings out some common manifold pressure/2,500 rpm. Maximum gear extension
speed is 115 knots; maximum flap extension speed is 105

Figure 5-24. Straight-and-Level Flight (Reduced Airspeed Stabilized).

5-11
knots. Airspeed reduction to 95 knots, gear and flaps down, Changes in attitude, power, or configuration will require a
can be made in the following manner: trim adjustment in most cases. Using trim alone to establish
a change in aircraft attitude invariably leads to erratic aircraft
1. Maintain rpm at 2,500, since a high power setting will
control. Smooth and precise attitude changes are best attained
be used in full drag configuration.
by a combination of control pressures and trim adjustments.
2. Reduce manifold pressure to 10" Hg. As the airspeed Therefore, when used correctly, trim adjustment is an aid to
decreases, increase cross-check speed. smooth aircraft control.
3. Make trim adjustments for an increased angle of attack
and decrease in torque. Common Errors in Straight-and-Level Flight
4. Lower the gear at 115 knots. The nose may tend to
Pitch
pitch down and the rate of deceleration increases. Pitch errors usually result from the following faults:
Increase pitch attitude to maintain constant altitude, 1. Improper adjustment of the attitude indicators
and trim off some of the back-elevator pressures. miniature aircraft to the wings level attitude.
If full flaps are lowered at 105 knots, cross-check, Following the initial level off from a climb, check the
interpretation, and control must be very rapid. A attitude indicator and make any necessary adjustment
simpler technique is to stabilize attitude with gear in the miniature aircraft for level flight indication at
down before lowering the flaps. normal cruise airspeed.
5. Since 18" Hg manifold pressure will hold level 2. Insufficient cross-check and interpretation of pitch
flight at 100 knots with the gear down, increase instruments. For example, the airspeed indication is
power smoothly to that setting until the ASI shows low. The pilot, believing a nose-high attitude exists,
approximately 105 knots, and retrim. The attitude applies forward pressure without noting that a low
indicator now shows approximately two-and-a-half power setting is the cause of the airspeed discrepancy.
bar width nose-high in straight-and-level flight. Increase cross-check speed to include all relevant
6. Actuate the flap control and simultaneously increase instrument indications before making a control input.
power to the predetermined setting (25" Hg) for the 3. Uncaging the attitude indicator (if caging feature is
desired airspeed, and trim off the pressures necessary present) when the airplane is not in level flight. The
to hold constant altitude and heading. The attitude altimeter and heading indicator must be stabilized with
indicator now shows a bar width nose-low in straight- airspeed indication at normal cruise before pulling
and-level flight at 95 knots. out the caging knob, to obtain correct indications in
straight-and-level flight at normal cruise airspeed.
Proficiency in straight-and-level flight is attained when a
4. Failure to interpret the attitude indicator in terms of
pilot can consistently maintain constant altitude and heading
the existing airspeed.
with smooth pitch, bank, power, and trim control during the
pronounced changes in aircraft attitude. 5. Late pitch corrections. Pilots commonly like to leave
well enough alone. When the altimeter indicates a 20
Trim Technique foot error, there is a reluctance to correct it, perhaps
Proper trim technique is essential for smooth and precise because of fear of overcontrolling. If overcontrolling
aircraft control during all phases of flight. By relieving all is the anticipated error, practice small corrections and
control pressures, it is much easier to hold a given attitude find the cause of overcontrolling. If any deviation is
constant, and devote more attention to other flight deck tolerated, errors will increase.
duties. 6. Chasing the vertical speed indications. This tendency
can be corrected by proper cross-check of other
An aircraft is trimmed by applying control pressures to pitch instruments, as well as by increasing overall
establish a desired attitude, then adjusting the trim so the understanding of instrument characteristics.
aircraft will maintain that attitude when the flight controls are
7. Using excessive pitch corrections for the altimeter
released. Trim the aircraft for coordinated flight by centering
evaluation. Rushing a pitch correction by making a
the ball of the turn-and-slip indicator, by using rudder trim in
large pitch change usually aggravates the existing
the direction the ball is displaced from the center. Differential
error, saving neither time nor effort.
power control on multiengine aircraft is an additional factor
affecting coordinated flight. Use balanced power or thrust,
when possible, to aid in maintaining coordinated flight.

5-12
 8. Failure to maintain established pitch corrections, a Power
common error associated with cross-check and trim Power errors usually result from the following faults:
errors. For example, having established a pitch change
to correct an altitude error, there is a tendency to 1. Failure to know the power settings and pitch attitudes
slow down the cross-check, waiting for the airplane appropriate to various airspeeds and airplane
to stabilize in the new pitch attitude. To maintain configurations.
the attitude, continue to cross-check and trim off the 2. Abrupt use of throttle.
pressures. 3. Failure to lead the airspeed when making power
9. Fixations during cross-check. After initiating a changes. For example, during airspeed reduction in
heading correction, for example, there is a tendency level flight, especially with gear and flaps extended,
to become preoccupied with bank control and miss adjust the throttle to maintain the slower speed before
errors in pitch attitude. Likewise, during an airspeed the airspeed actually reaches the desired speed.
change, unnecessary gazing at the power instrument Otherwise, the airplane will decelerate to a speed
is common. A small error in power setting is of less lower than that desired, resulting in additional power
consequence than large altitude and heading errors. adjustments. The amount of lead depends upon how
The airplane will not decelerate any faster by staring fast the airplane responds to power changes.
at the manifold pressure gauge. 4. Fixation on airspeed or manifold pressure instruments
during airspeed changes, resulting in erratic control
Heading of both airspeed and power.
Heading errors usually result from the following faults:
1. Failure to cross-check the heading indicator, especially Trim
during changes in power or pitch attitude. Trim errors usually result from the following faults:
2. Misinterpretation of changes in heading, with resulting 1. Improper adjustment of seat or rudder pedals for
corrections in the wrong direction. comfortable position of legs and feet. Tension in the
3. Failure to note and remember a preselected heading. ankles makes it difficult to relax rudder pressures.

4. Failure to observe the rate of heading change and its 2. Confusion about the operation of trim devices, which
relation to bank attitude. differ among various airplane types. Some trim wheels
are aligned appropriately with the airplanes axes;
5. Overcontrolling in response to heading changes, others are not. Some rotate in a direction contrary to
especially during changes in power settings. what is expected.
6. Anticipating heading changes with premature 3. Faulty sequence in trim technique. Trim should be
application of rudder control. used not as a substitute for control with the wheel
7. Failure to correct small heading deviations. Unless (stick) and rudders, but to relieve pressures already
zero error in heading is the goal, a pilot will tolerate held to stabilize attitude. As proficiency is gained,
larger and larger deviations. Correction of a 1 error little conscious effort will be required to trim off the
takes a lot less time and concentration than correction pressures as they occur.
of a 20 error. 4. Excessive trim control. This induces control pressures
8. Correcting with improper bank attitude. If correcting that must be held until the airplane is trimmed
a 10 heading error with 20 of bank, the airplane properly. Use trim frequently and in small amounts.
will roll past the desired heading before the bank 5. Failure to understand the cause of trim changes. Lack
is established, requiring another correction in the of understanding the basic aerodynamics related to
opposite direction. Do not multiply existing errors basic instrument skills will cause a pilot to continually
with errors in corrective technique. lag behind the airplane.
9. Failure to note the cause of a previous heading error
and thus repeating the same error. For example, the
airplane is out of trim, with a left wing low tendency.
Repeated corrections for a slight left turn are made,
yet trim is ignored.
10. Failure to set the heading indicator properly or failure
to uncage it.

5-13
Straight Climbs and Descents Once the airplane stabilizes at a constant airspeed and attitude,
the ASI is primary for pitch and the heading indicator remains
Climbs
primary for bank. [Figure 5-26] Monitor the tachometer or
For a given power setting and load condition, there is only
manifold pressure gauge as the primary power instrument to
one attitude that will give the most efficient rate of climb.
ensure the proper climb power setting is being maintained. If
The airspeed and climb power setting that will determine this
the climb attitude is correct for the power setting selected, the
climb attitude are given in the performance data found in the
airspeed will stabilize at the desired speed. If the airspeed is
POH/AFM. Details of the technique for entering a climb vary
low or high, make an appropriately small pitch correction.
according to airspeed on entry and the type of climb (constant
airspeed or constant rate) desired. (Heading and trim control
To enter a constant airspeed climb, first complete the airspeed
are maintained as discussed in Straight-and-Level Flight.)
reduction from cruise airspeed to climb speed in straight-
and-level flight. The climb entry is then identical to entry
Entry
from cruising airspeed, except that power must be increased
To enter a constant-airspeed climb from cruising airspeed, simultaneously to the climb setting as the pitch attitude is
raise the miniature aircraft to the approximate nose-high increased. Climb entries on partial panel are more easily
indication for the predetermined climb speed. The attitude and accurately controlled if entering the maneuver from
will vary according to the type of airplane. Apply light back- climbing speed.
elevator pressure to initiate and maintain the climb attitude.
The pressures will vary as the airplane decelerates. Power The technique for entering a constant rate climb is very
may be advanced to the climb power setting simultaneously similar to that used for entry to a constant-airspeed climb
with the pitch change, or after the pitch change is established from climb airspeed. As the power is increased to the
and the airspeed approaches climb speed. If the transition approximate setting for the desired rate, simultaneously
from level flight to climb is smooth, the VSI will show an raise the miniature aircraft to the climbing attitude for the
immediate trend upward, continue to move slowly, and desired airspeed and rate of climb. As the power is increased,
then stop at a rate appropriate to the stabilized airspeed and the ASI is primary for pitch control until the vertical speed
attitude. (Primary and supporting instruments for the climb approaches the desired value. As the vertical speed needle
entry are shown in Figure 5-25.) stabilizes, it becomes primary for pitch control and the ASI
becomes primary for power control. [Figure 5-27]

Figure 5-25. Climb Entry for Constant Airspeed Climb.

5-14
Figure 5-26. Stabilized Climb at Constant Airspeed.

Figure 5-27. Stabilized Climb at Constant Rate.

5-15
Pitch and power corrections must be promptly and closely indicator, and VSI show level flight, constant changes in
coordinated. For example, if the vertical speed is correct, but pitch and torque control will have to be made as the airspeed
the airspeed is low, add power. As the power is increased, increases. As the airspeed approaches cruising speed, reduce
the miniature aircraft must be lowered slightly to maintain power to the cruise setting. The amount of lead depends upon
constant vertical speed. If the vertical speed is high and the the rate of acceleration of the airplane.
airspeed is low, lower the miniature aircraft slightly and note
the increase in airspeed to determine whether or not a power To level off at climbing airspeed, lower the nose to the pitch
change is also necessary. [Figure 5-28] Familiarity with the attitude appropriate to that airspeed in level flight. Power
approximate power settings helps to keep pitch and power is simultaneously reduced to the setting for that airspeed
corrections at a minimum. as the pitch attitude is lowered. If power reduction is at a
rate proportionate to the pitch change, airspeed will remain
Leveling Off constant.
To level off from a climb and maintain an altitude, it is
Descents
necessary to start the level off before reaching the desired
altitude. The amount of lead varies with rate of climb and A descent can be made at a variety of airspeeds and attitudes
pilot technique. If the airplane is climbing at 1,000 fpm, it will by reducing power, adding drag, and lowering the nose
continue to climb at a decreasing rate throughout the transition to a predetermined attitude. The airspeed will eventually
to level flight. An effective practice is to lead the altitude by stabilize at a constant value. Meanwhile, the only flight
10 percent of the vertical speed shown (500 fpm/ 50-foot lead, instrument providing a positive attitude reference, is the
1,000 fpm/100-foot lead). attitude indicator. Without the attitude indicator (such as
during a partial panel descent), the ASI, the altimeter, and
To level off at cruising airspeed, apply smooth, steady the VSI will show varying rates of change until the airplane
forward-elevator pressure toward level flight attitude for the decelerates to a constant airspeed at a constant attitude.
speed desired. As the attitude indicator shows the pitch change, During the transition, changes in control pressure and trim,
the vertical speed needle will move slowly toward zero, the as well as cross-check and interpretation, must be accurate
altimeter needle will move more slowly, and the airspeed will to maintain positive control.
show acceleration. [Figure 5-29] When the altimeter, attitude

Figure 5-28. Airspeed Low and Vertical Speed HighReduce Pitch.

5-16
Figure 5-29. Level Off at Cruising Speed.

Entry the descending rate until approximately 50 feet above the

The following method for entering descents is effective altitude, and then smoothly adjust the pitch attitude to the
with or without an attitude indicator. First, reduce airspeed level flight attitude for the airspeed selected.
to a selected descent airspeed while maintaining straight-
and-level flight, then make a further reduction in power To level off from a descent at descent airspeed, lead the desired
(to a predetermined setting). As the power is adjusted, altitude by approximately 50 feet, simultaneously adjusting
simultaneously lower the nose to maintain constant airspeed, the pitch attitude to level flight and adding power to a setting
and trim off control pressures. that will hold the airspeed constant. [Figure 5-32] Trim off
the control pressures and continue with the normal straight-
During a constant airspeed descent, any deviation from the and-level flight cross-check.
desired airspeed calls for a pitch adjustment. For a constant
rate descent, the entry is the same, but the VSI is primary for Common Errors in Straight Climbs and Descents
pitch control (after it stabilizes near the desired rate), and the Common errors result from the following faults:
ASI is primary for power control. Pitch and power must be 1. Overcontrolling pitch on climb entry. Until the pitch
closely coordinated when corrections are made, as they are attitudes related to specific power settings used in
in climbs. [Figure 5-30] climbs and descents are known, larger than necessary
pitch adjustments are made. One of the most difficult
Leveling Off habits to acquire during instrument training is to
The level off from a descent must be started before reaching restrain the impulse to disturb a flight attitude until
the desired altitude. The amount of lead depends upon the the result is known. Overcome the inclination to
rate of descent and control technique. With too little lead, the make a large control movement for a pitch change,
airplane will tend to overshoot the selected altitude unless and learn to apply small control pressures smoothly,
technique is rapid. Assuming a 500 fpm rate of descent, lead cross-checking rapidly for the results of the change,
the altitude by 100150 feet for a level off at an airspeed and continuing with the pressures as instruments show
higher than descending speed. At the lead point, add power to the desired results. Small pitch changes can be easily
the appropriate level flight cruise setting. [Figure 5-31] Since controlled, stopped, and corrected; large changes are
the nose will tend to rise as the airspeed increases, hold more difficult to control.
forward elevator pressure to maintain the vertical speed at

5-17
Figure 5-30. Constant Airspeed Descent, Airspeed HighReduce Power.

Figure 5-31. Level Off Airspeed Higher Than Descent Airspeed.

5-18
Figure 5-32. Level Off at Descent Airspeed.

2. Failure to vary the rate of cross-check during speed, 10. Ballooning (allowing the nose to pitch up) on level
power, or attitude changes or climb or descent offs from descents, resulting from failure to maintain
entries. descending attitude with forward-elevator pressure as
3. Failure to maintain a new pitch attitude. For example, power is increased to the level flight cruise setting.
raising the nose to the correct climb attitude, and as 11. Failure to recognize the approaching straight-and-level
the airspeed decreases, either overcontrol and further flight indications as level off is completed. Maintain
increase the pitch attitude, or allow the nose to lower. As an accelerated cross-check until positively established
control pressures change with airspeed changes, cross- in straight-and-level flight.
check must be increased and pressures readjusted.
4. Failure to trim off pressures. Unless the airplane is Turns
trimmed, there will be difficulty in determining whether Standard Rate Turns
control pressure changes are induced by aerodynamic A standard rate turn is one in which the pilot will do a
changes or by the pilots own movements. complete 360 circle in two minutes, or 3 per second. A
5. Failure to learn and use proper power settings. standard rate turn, although always 3 per second, will
require higher angles of bank as airspeed increases. To enter a
6. Failure to cross-check both airspeed and vertical speed
standard rate level turn, apply coordinated aileron and rudder
before making pitch or power adjustments.
pressures in the desired direction of turn. Pilots commonly
7. Improper pitch and power coordination on slow-speed roll into turns at a much too rapid rate. During initial training
level offs, due to slow cross-check of airspeed and in turns, base control pressures on the rate of cross-check
altimeter indications. and interpretation. Maneuvering an airplane faster than
8. Failure to cross-check the VSI against the other pitch the capability to keep up with the changes in instrument
control instruments, resulting in chasing the vertical indications only creates the need to make corrections.
speed.
A rule of thumb to determine the approximate angle of bank
9. Failure to note the rate of climb or descent to determine
required for a standard rate turn is to use 15 percent of the
the lead for level offs, resulting in overshooting or
true airspeed. A simple way to determine this amount is to
undershooting the desired altitude.

5-19
divide the airspeed by 10 and add one-half the result. For partial panel maneuvers. Upon initiation of the turn recovery,
example, at 100 knots, approximately 15 of bank is required the attitude indicator becomes the primary bank instrument.
(100 10 = 10 + 5 = 15); at 120 knots, approximately 18 When the airplane is approximately level, the heading
of bank is needed for a standard rate turn. indicator is the primary bank instrument as in straight-and-
level flight. Pitch, power, and trim adjustments are made as
On the roll-in, use the attitude indicator to establish changes in vertical lift component and airspeed occur. The
the approximate angle of bank, and then check the turn ball should be checked throughout the turn, especially if
coordinators miniature aircraft for a standard rate turn control pressures are held rather than trimmed off.
indication or the aircrafts turn-and-bank indicator. Maintain
the bank for this rate of turn, using the turn coordinators Some airplanes are very stable during turns, requiring only
miniature aircraft as the primary bank reference and the slight trim adjustments that permit hands-off flight while the
attitude indicator as the supporting bank instrument. airplane remains in the established attitude. Other airplanes
[Figure 5-33] Note the exact angle of bank shown on require constant, rapid cross-check and control during turns to
the banking scale of the attitude indicator when the turn correct overbanking tendencies. Due to the interrelationship
coordinator indicates a standard rate turn. of pitch, bank, and airspeed deviations during turns, cross-
check must be fast in order to prevent an accumulation of
During the roll-in, check the altimeter, VSI, and attitude errors.
indicator for the necessary pitch adjustments as the vertical
lift component decreases with an increase in bank. If constant Turns to Predetermined Headings
airspeed is to be maintained, the ASI becomes primary for As long as an airplane is in a coordinated bank, it continues
power, and the throttle must be adjusted as drag increases. As to turn. Thus, the roll-out to a desired heading must be started
the bank is established, trim off the pressures applied during before the heading is reached. The amount of lead varies with
pitch and power changes. the relationship between the rate of turn, angle of bank, and
rate of recovery. For small heading changes, use a bank angle
To recover to straight-and-level flight, apply coordinated that does not exceed the number of degrees to be turned.
aileron and rudder pressures opposite to the direction of the Lead the desired heading by one-half the number of degrees
turn. Strive for the same rate of roll-out used to roll into the of bank used. For example, if a 10 bank is used during a
turn; fewer problems will be encountered in estimating the change in heading, start the roll-out 5 before reaching the
lead necessary for roll-out on exact headings, especially on desired heading. For larger changes in heading, the amount

Figure 5-33. Standard Rate Turn, Constant Airspeed.

5-20
of lead varies since the angle of bank for a standard rate turn The same cross-check and control technique is used in making
varies with the true airspeed. a timed turn that is used to execute turns to predetermined
headings, except the clock is substituted for the heading
Practice with a lead of one-half the angle of bank until the indicator. The miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator is
precise lead a given technique requires is determined. If primary for bank control, the altimeter is primary for pitch
rates of roll-in and roll-out are consistent, the precise amount control, and the ASI is primary for power control. Start the
of lead suitable to a particular roll-out technique can be roll-in when the clocks second hand passes a cardinal point,
determined. hold the turn at the calibrated standard rate indication (or
half-standard rate for small heading changes), and begin the
Timed Turns roll-out when the computed number of seconds has elapsed.
A timed turn is a turn in which the clock and the turn If the rates of roll-in and roll-out are the same, the time taken
coordinator are used to change heading by a specific number during entry and recovery does not need to be considered in
of degrees in a given time. For example, in a standard rate turn the time computation.
(3 per second), an airplane turns 45 in 15 seconds; in a half
standard rate turn, the airplane turns 45 in 30 seconds. Practice timed turns with a full instrument panel and check
the heading indicator for the accuracy of turns. If the turns are
Prior to performing timed turns, the turn coordinator should executed without the gyro heading indicator, use the magnetic
be calibrated to determine the accuracy of its indications. compass at the completion of the turn to check turn accuracy,
[Figure 5-34] Establish a standard rate turn as indicated by taking compass deviation errors into consideration.
the turn coordinator, and as the sweep-second hand of the
clock passes a cardinal point (12, 3, 6, 9), check the heading Compass Turns
on the heading indicator. While holding the indicated rate In most small airplanes, the magnetic compass is the only
of turn constant, note the indicated heading changes at 10 direction-indicating instrument independent of other airplane
second intervals. If the airplane turns more than or less than instruments and power sources. Because of its operating
30 in that interval, a respectively larger or smaller deflection characteristics, called compass errors, pilots are prone to
of the miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator is necessary use it only as a reference for setting the heading indicator,
to produce a standard rate turn. After calibrating the turn but knowledge of magnetic compass characteristics permits
coordinator during turns in each direction, note the corrected full use of the instrument to turn the airplane to correct and
deflections, if any, and apply them during all timed turns. maintain headings.

Figure 5-34. Turn Coordinator Calibration.

5-21
Remember the following points when making turns to
magnetic compass headings or when using the magnetic
compass as a reference for setting the heading indicator:
1. If on a north heading and a turn is started to the east
or west, the compass indication lags, or indicates a
turn in the opposite direction.
2. If on a south heading and a turn is started toward the
east or west, the compass indication precedes the turn,
indicating a greater amount of turn than is actually
occurring.
3. When on an east or west heading, the compass
indicates correctly when starting a turn in either
direction.
4. If on an east or west heading, acceleration results in
a north turn indication; deceleration results in a south
turn indication.
5. When maintaining a north or south heading, no error
results from diving, climbing, or changing airspeed.

With an angle of bank between 15 and 18, the amount of

lead or lag to be used when turning to northerly or southerly
Figure 5-35. North and South Turn Error.
headings varies with, and is approximately equal to, the
latitude of the locality over which the turn is being made. of the instrument very difficult. Proficiency in compass turns
When turning to a heading of north, the lead for roll-out must depends on knowledge of compass characteristics, smooth
include the number of degrees of change of latitude, plus the control technique, and accurate bank-and-pitch control.
lead normally used in recovery from turns. During a turn to
a south heading, maintain the turn until the compass passes Steep Turns
south the number of degrees of latitude, minus normal roll- For purposes of instrument flight training in conventional
out lead. [Figure 5-35] airplanes, any turn greater than a standard rate is considered
steep. [Figure 5-36] The exact angle of bank at which a
For example, when turning from an easterly direction to normal turn becomes steep is unimportant. What is important
north, where the latitude is 30, start the roll-out when the is learning to control the airplane with bank attitudes in
compass reads 37 (30 plus one-half the 15 angle of bank, excess of those normally used on instruments. Practicing
or whatever amount is appropriate for the rate of roll-out). steep turns will not only increase proficiency in the basic
When turning from an easterly direction to south, start the instrument flying skills, but also enable smooth, quick, and
roll-out when the magnetic compass reads 203 (180 plus confident reactions to unexpected abnormal flight attitudes
30 minus one-half the angle of bank). When making similar under instrument flight conditions.
turns from a westerly direction, the appropriate points at
which to begin the roll-out would be 323 for a turn to north, Pronounced changes occur in the effects of aerodynamic
and 157 for a turn to south. forces on aircraft control at progressively greater bank
attitudes. Skill in cross-check, interpretation, and control is
When turning to a heading of east or west from a northerly increasingly necessary in proportion to the amount of these
direction, start the roll-out approximately 10 to 12 before changes, though the techniques for entering, maintaining, and
the east or west indication is reached. When turning to an recovering from the turn are the same in principle for steep
east or west heading from a southerly direction, start the turns as for shallower turns.
rollout approximately 5 before the east or west indication
is reached. When turning to other headings, the lead or lag Enter a steep turn in the same way as a shallower turn, but
must be interpolated. prepare to cross-check rapidly as the turn steepens. Because
of the greatly reduced vertical lift component, pitch control
Abrupt changes in attitude or airspeed and the resulting erratic is usually the most difficult aspect of this maneuver. Unless
movements of the compass card make accurate interpretations

5-22
immediately noted and corrected with a pitch increase, the for pitch changes, smooth, steady back elevator pressure
loss of vertical lift results in rapid movement of the altimeter, will maintain constant altitude. However, overbanking
vertical speed, and airspeed needles. The faster the rate of to excessively steep angles without adjusting pitch as the
bank change, the more suddenly the lift changes occur. If bank changes occur, requires increasingly stronger elevator
a cross-check is fast enough to note the immediate need pressure. The loss of vertical lift and increase in wing loading
finally reach a point at which further application of back-
elevator pressure tightens the turn without raising the nose.

How does a pilot recognize overbanking and low pitch

attitude? What should a pilot do to correct them? If a rapid
downward movement of the altimeter needle or vertical speed
needle, together with an increase in airspeed, is observed
despite application of back elevator pressure, the airplane is in
a diving spiral. [Figure 5-37] Immediately shallow the bank
with smooth and coordinated aileron and rudder pressures,
hold or slightly relax elevator pressure, and increase the cross-
check of the attitude indicator, altimeter, and VSI. Reduce
power if the airspeed increase is rapid. When the vertical
speed trends upward, the altimeter needle will move slower
as the vertical lift increases. When the elevator is effective in
raising the nose, hold the bank attitude shown on the attitude
indicator and adjust elevator control pressures smoothly for
the nose-high attitude appropriate to the bank maintained.
If pitch control is consistently late on entries to steep turns,
rollout immediately to straight-and-level flight and analyze
possible errors. Practice shallower turns initially and learn the
attitude changes and control responses required, then increase
the banks as a quicker and more accurate cross-check and
control techniques are developed.

The power necessary to maintain constant airspeed increases

Figure 5-36. Steep Left Turn. as the bank and drag increase. With practice, the power

29.8
29.9
30.0

Figure 5-37. Diving Spiral.

5-23
settings appropriate to specific bank attitudes are learned, and control. Proficiency in the maneuver will also contribute
adjustments can be made without undue attention to airspeed to confidence in the instruments during attitude and power
and power instruments. During training in steep turns, as in changes involved in more complex maneuvers. Pitch and
any other maneuver, attend to the most important tasks first. power control techniques are the same as those used during
Keep the pitch attitude relatively constant, and more time can changes in airspeed in straight-and-level flight.
be devoted to cross-check and instrument interpretation.
The angle of bank necessary for a given rate of turn is
During recovery from steep turns to straight-and-level proportional to the true airspeed. Since the turns are executed
flight, elevator and power control must be coordinated with at a standard rate, the angle of bank must be varied in direct
bank control in proportion to the changes in aerodynamic proportion to the airspeed change in order to maintain a
forces. Back elevator pressures must be released and power constant rate of turn. During a reduction of airspeed, decrease
decreased. The common errors associated with steep turns are the angle of bank and increase the pitch attitude to maintain
the same as those discussed later in this section. Remember, altitude and a standard rate turn.
errors are more exaggerated, more difficult to correct, and
more difficult to analyze unless rates of entry and recovery The altimeter and turn coordinator indications should remain
are consistent with the level of proficiency in the three basic constant throughout the turn. The altimeter is primary for
instrument flying skills. pitch control and the miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator
is primary for bank control. The manifold pressure gauge (or
Climbing and Descending Turns tachometer) is primary for power control while the airspeed
To execute climbing and descending turns, combine the is changing. As the airspeed approaches the new indication,
technique used in straight climbs and descents with the various the ASI becomes primary for power control.
turn techniques. The aerodynamic factors affecting lift and
power control must be considered in determining power Two methods of changing airspeed in turns may be used. In the
settings, and the rate of cross-check and interpretation must be first method, airspeed is changed after the turn is established.
increased to enable control of bank as well as pitch changes. [Figure 5-38] In the second method, the airspeed change is
initiated simultaneously with the turn entry. The first method
Change of Airspeed During Turns is easier, but regardless of the method used, the rate of cross-
Changing airspeed during turns is an effective maneuver check must be increased as power is reduced. As the airplane
for increasing proficiency in all three basic instrument decelerates, check the altimeter and VSI for necessary pitch
skills. Since the maneuver involves simultaneous changes changes and the bank instruments for required bank changes.
in all components of control, proper execution requires If the miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator indicates a
rapid cross-check and interpretation as well as smooth deviation from the desired deflection, adjust the bank. Adjust

Figure 5-38. Change of Airspeed During Turn.

5-24
pitch attitude to maintain altitude. When approaching the Bank
desired airspeed, pitch attitude becomes primary for power Bank and heading errors result from the following faults:
control and the manifold pressure gauge (or tachometer) is
1. Overcontrolling, resulting in overbanking upon turn
adjusted to maintain the desired airspeed. Trim is important
entry, overshooting and undershooting headings, as
throughout the maneuver to relieve control pressures.
well as aggravated pitch, airspeed, and trim errors.
Until control technique is very smooth, frequent cross-check 2. Fixation on a single bank instrument. On a 90 change
of the attitude indicator is essential to prevent overcontrolling of heading, for example, leave the heading indicator
and to provide approximate bank angles appropriate to the out of the cross-check for approximately 20 seconds
changing airspeeds. after establishing a standard rate turn, since at 3
per second the turn will not approach the lead point
Common Errors in Turns until that time has elapsed. Make the cross-check
Pitch selective, checking only what needs to be checked at
Pitch errors result from the following faults: the appropriate time.

1. Preoccupation with bank control during turn entry 3. Failure to check for precession of the horizon bar
and recovery. If 5 seconds are required to roll into a following recovery from a turn. If the heading
turn, check the pitch instruments as bank pressures indicator shows a change in heading when the attitude
are initiated. If bank control pressure and rate of bank indicator shows level flight, the airplane is turning. If
change are consistent, a sense of the time required the ball is centered, the attitude gyro has precessed;
for an attitude change will be developed. During the if the ball is not centered, the airplane may be in a
interval, check pitch, power, and trimas well as slipping or skidding turn. Center the ball with rudder
bankcontrolling the total attitude instead of one pressure, check the attitude indicator and heading
factor at a time. indicator, stop the heading change if it continues, and
retrim.
2. Failure to understand or remember the need for
changing the pitch attitude as the vertical lift 4. Failure to use the proper degree of bank for the amount
component changes, resulting in consistent loss of of heading change desired. Rolling into a 20 bank
altitude during entries. for a heading change of 10 will normally overshoot
the heading. Use the bank attitude appropriate to the
3. Changing the pitch attitude before it is necessary. This amount of heading change desired.
fault is very likely if a cross-check is slow and rate
of entry too rapid. The error occurs during the turn 5. Failure to remember the heading to which the aircraft
entry due to a mechanical and premature application is being turned. This fault is likely when rushing the
of back-elevator control pressure. maneuver.

4. Overcontrolling the pitch changes. This fault 6. Turning in the wrong direction, due to misreading or
commonly occurs with the previous error. misinterpreting the heading indicator, or to confusion
regarding the location of points on the compass. Turn
5. Failure to properly adjust the pitch attitude as the in the shortest direction to reach a given heading,
vertical lift component increases during the roll-out, unless there is a specific reason to turn the long way
resulting in consistent gain in altitude on recovery to around. Study the compass rose and visualize at least
headings. the positions of the eight major points around the
6. Failure to trim during turn entry and following turn azimuth. A number of methods can be used to make
recovery (if turn is prolonged). quick computations for heading changes. For example,
to turn from a heading of 305 to a heading of 110,
7. Failure to maintain straight-and-level cross-check
would a pilot turn right or left for the shortest way
after roll-out. This error commonly follows a perfectly
around? Subtracting 200 from 305 and adding 20,
executed turn.
gives 125 as the reciprocal of 305; therefore, execute
8. Erratic rates of bank change on entry and recovery, the turn to the right. Likewise, to figure the reciprocal
resulting from failure to cross-check the pitch of a heading less than 180, add 200 and subtract 20.
instruments with a consistent technique appropriate Computations are done more quickly using multiples
to the changes in lift. of 100s and 10s than by adding or subtracting 180
from the actual heading; therefore, the method
suggested above may save time and confusion.

5-25
 7. Failure to check the ball of the turn coordinator when Approach to Stall
interpreting the instrument for bank information. If the
Practicing approach to stall recoveries in various airplane
roll rate is reduced to zero, the miniature aircraft of
configurations should build confidence in a pilots ability to
the turn coordinator indicates only direction and rate
control the airplane in unexpected situations. Approach to
of turn. Unless the ball is centered, do not assume the
stall should be practiced from straight flight and from shallow
turn is resulting from a banked attitude.
banks. The objective is to practice recognition and recovery
from the approach to a stall.
Power
Power and airspeed errors result from the following faults: Prior to stall recovery practice, select a safe altitude above
1. Failure to cross-check the ASI as pitch changes are the terrain, an area free of conflicting air traffic, appropriate
made. weather, and the availability of radar traffic advisory
service.
2. Erratic use of power control. This may be due to
improper throttle friction control, inaccurate throttle
Approaches to stalls are accomplished in the following
settings, chasing the airspeed readings, abrupt or
configurations:
overcontrolled pitch-and-bank changes, or failure
to recheck the airspeed to note the effect of a power 1. Takeoff configurationshould begin from level flight
adjustment. near liftoff speed. Power should be applied while
simultaneously increasing the angle of attack to induce
3. Poor coordination of throttle control with pitch-and-
an indication of a stall.
bank changes, associated with slow cross-check or
failure to understand the aerodynamic factors related 2. Clean configurationshould begin from a reduced
to turns. airspeed, such as pattern airspeed, in level flight.
Power should be applied while simultaneously
Trim increasing the angle of attack to induce an indication
Trim errors result from the following faults: of a stall.

1. Failure to recognize the need for a trim change due 3. Approach or landing configurationshould be
to slow cross-check and interpretation. For example, initiated at the appropriate approach or landing
a turn entry at a rate too rapid for a cross-check leads airspeed. The angle of attack should be smoothly
to confusion in cross-check and interpretation, with increased to induce an indication of a stall.
resulting tension on the controls.
Recoveries should be prompt in response to a stall warning
2. Failure to understand the relationship between trim device or an aerodynamic indication by smoothly reducing
and attitude/power changes. the angle of attack and applying maximum power, or as
3. Chasing the vertical speed needle. Overcontrolling recommended by the POH/AFM. The recovery should be
leads to tension and prevents sensing the pressures to completed without an excessive loss of altitude, and on a
be trimmed off. predetermined heading, altitude, and airspeed.
4. Failure to trim following power changes.
Unusual Attitudes and Recoveries
Errors During Compass Turns An unusual attitude is an airplane attitude not normally
In addition to the faults discussed above, the following errors required for instrument flight. Unusual attitudes may
connected with compass turns should be noted: result from a number of conditions, such as turbulence,
disorientation, instrument failure, confusion, preoccupation
1. Faulty understanding or computation of lead and with flight deck duties, carelessness in cross-checking,
lag. errors in instrument interpretation, or lack of proficiency in
2. Fixation on the compass during the roll-out. Until aircraft control. Since unusual attitudes are not intentional
the airplane is in straight-and-level unaccelerated maneuvers during instrument flight, except in training, they
flight, it is unnecessary to read the indicated heading. are often unexpected, and the reaction of an inexperienced
Accordingly, after the roll-out, cross-check for or inadequately trained pilot to an unexpected abnormal
straight-and-level flight before checking the accuracy flight attitude is usually instinctive rather than intelligent
of the turn.

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and deliberate. This individual reacts with abrupt muscular Recovery from Unusual Attitudes
effort, which is purposeless and even hazardous in turbulent In moderate unusual attitudes, the pilot can normally
conditions, at excessive speeds, or at low altitudes. However, reorient by establishing a level flight indication on the
with practice, the techniques for rapid and safe recovery from attitude indicator. However, the pilot should not depend on
unusual attitudes can be mastered. this instrument if the attitude indicator is the spillable type,
because its upset limits may have been exceeded or it may
When an unusual attitude is noted during the cross-check, have become inoperative due to mechanical malfunction.
the immediate problem is not how the airplane got there, but If it is the nonspillable-type instrument and is operating
what it is doing and how to get it back to straight-and-level properly, errors up to 5 of pitch-and-bank may result and its
flight as quickly as possible. indications are very difficult to interpret in extreme attitudes.
As soon as the unusual attitude is detected, the recommended
Recognizing Unusual Attitudes recovery procedures stated in the POH/AFM should be
As a general rule, any time an instrument rate of movement initiated. If there are no recommended procedures stated in
or indication other than those associated with the basic the POH/AFM, the recovery should be initiated by reference
instrument flight maneuvers is noted, assume an unusual to the ASI, altimeter, VSI, and turn coordinator.
attitude and increase the speed of cross-check to confirm the
attitude, instrument error, or instrument malfunction. Nose-High Attitudes
If the airspeed is decreasing, or below the desired airspeed,
Nose-high attitudes are shown by the rate and direction of increase power (as necessary in proportion to the observed
movement of the altimeter needle, vertical speed needle, and deceleration), apply forward elevator pressure to lower the
airspeed needle, as well as the immediately recognizable nose and prevent a stall, and correct the bank by applying
indication of the attitude indicator (except in extreme coordinated aileron and rudder pressure to level the
attitudes). [Figure 5-39] Nose-low attitudes are shown miniature aircraft and center the ball of the turn coordinator.
by the same instruments, but in the opposite direction. The corrective control applications are made almost
[Figure 5-40] simultaneously, but in the sequence given above. A level
pitch attitude is indicated by the reversal and stabilization

Figure 5-39. Unusual AttitudeNose-High.

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Figure 5-40. Unusual AttitudeNose-Low.

of the ASI and altimeter needles. Straight coordinated flight The attitude indicator and turn coordinator should be checked
is indicated by the level miniature aircraft and centered ball to determine bank attitude and then corrective aileron
of the turn coordinator. and rudder pressures should be applied. The ball should
be centered. If it is not, skidding and slipping sensations
Nose-Low Attitudes can easily aggravate disorientation and retard recovery. If
If the airspeed is increasing, or is above the desired airspeed, entering the unusual attitude from an assigned altitude (either
reduce power to prevent excessive airspeed and loss of by an instructor or by air traffic control (ATC) if operating
altitude. Correct the bank attitude with coordinated aileron under instrument flight rules (IFR)), return to the original
and rudder pressure to straight flight by referring to the turn altitude after stabilizing in straight-and-level flight.
coordinator. Raise the nose to level flight attitude by applying
smooth back elevator pressure. All components of control Common Errors in Unusual Attitudes
should be changed simultaneously for a smooth, proficient Common errors associated with unusual attitudes include
recovery. However, during initial training a positive, the following faults:
confident recovery should be made by the numbers, in the 1. Failure to keep the airplane properly trimmed. A flight
sequence given above. A very important point to remember deck interruption when holding pressures can easily
is that the instinctive reaction to a nose-down attitude is to lead to inadvertent entry into unusual attitudes.
pull back on the elevator control.
2 Disorganized flight deck. Hunting for charts, logs,
After initial control has been applied, continue with a computers, etc., can seriously distract attention from
fast cross-check for possible overcontrolling, since the the instruments.
necessary initial control pressures may be large. As the rate 3. Slow cross-check and fixations. The impulse is to
of movement of altimeter and ASI needles decreases, the stop and stare when noting an instrument discrepancy
attitude is approaching level flight. When the needles stop unless a pilot has trained enough to develop the skill
and reverse direction, the aircraft is passing through level required for immediate recognition.
flight. As the indications of the ASI, altimeter, and turn
coordinator stabilize, incorporate the attitude indicator into
the cross-check.

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 4. Attempting to recover by sensory sensations other than Continue with a rapid cross-check of heading indicator and
sight. The discussion of disorientation in Chapter 1, attitude indicator as the airplane leaves the ground. Do not
Human Factors, indicates the importance of trusting pull it off; let it fly off while holding the selected attitude
the instruments. constant. Maintain pitch-and-bank control by referencing
5. Failure to practice basic instrument skills. All of the the attitude indicator, and make coordinated corrections in
errors noted in connection with basic instrument skills heading when indicated on the heading indicator. Cross-
are aggravated during unusual attitude recoveries until check the altimeter and VSI for a positive rate of climb
the elementary skills have been mastered. (steady clockwise rotation of the altimeter needle, and the VSI
showing a stable rate of climb appropriate to the airplane).
Instrument Takeoff
When the altimeter shows a safe altitude (approximately 100
Competency in instrument takeoffs will provide the feet), raise the landing gear and flaps, maintaining attitude by
proficiency and confidence necessary for use of flight referencing the attitude indicator. Because of control pressure
instruments during departures under conditions of low changes during gear and flap operation, overcontrolling is
visibility, rain, low ceilings, or disorientation at night. A likely unless the pilot notes pitch indications accurately and
sudden rapid transition from visual to instrument flight quickly. Trim off control pressures necessary to hold the
can result in serious disorientation and control problems. stable climb attitude. Check the altimeter, VSI, and airspeed
for a smooth acceleration to the predetermined climb speed
Instrument takeoff techniques vary with different types of (altimeter and airspeed increasing, vertical speed stable). At
airplanes, but the method described below is applicable climb speed, reduce power to climb setting (unless full power
whether the airplane is single- or multiengine; tricycle gear is recommended for climb by the POH/AFM and trim).
or conventional gear.
Throughout the instrument takeoff, cross-check and
Align the airplane with the centerline of the runway with interpretation must be rapid, and control positive and smooth.
the nosewheel or tailwheel straight. Lock the tailwheel, if so During liftoff, gear and flap retraction, power reduction, and
equipped, and hold the brakes firmly to avoid creeping while the changing control reactions demand rapid cross-check,
preparing for takeoff. Set the heading indicator with the nose adjustment of control pressures, and accurate trim changes.
index on the 5 mark nearest the published runway heading
to allow instant detection of slight changes in heading during Common Errors in Instrument Takeoffs
the takeoff. Make certain that the instrument is uncaged (if it Common errors during the instrument takeoff include the
has a caging feature) by rotating the knob after uncaging and following:
checking for constant heading indication. If using an electric
heading indicator with a rotatable needle, rotate the needle 1. Failure to perform an adequate flight deck check
so that it points to the nose position, under the top index. before the takeoff. Pilots have attempted instrument
Advance the throttle to an rpm that will provide partial rudder takeoffs with inoperative airspeed indicators (pitot
control. Release the brakes, advancing the power smoothly tube obstructed), gyros caged, controls locked,
to takeoff setting. and numerous other oversights due to haste or
carelessness.
During the takeoff roll, hold the heading constant on the 2. Improper alignment on the runway. This may result
heading indicator by using the rudder. In multiengine, from improper brake application, allowing the airplane
propeller-driven airplanes, also use differential throttle to to creep after alignment, or from alignment with the
maintain direction. The use of brakes should be avoided, nosewheel or tailwheel cocked. In any case, the result
except as a last resort, as it usually results in overcontrolling is a built-in directional control problem as the takeoff
and extending the takeoff roll. Once the brakes are released, starts.
any deviation in heading must be corrected instantly.
3. Improper application of power. Abrupt application
of power complicates directional control. Add power
As the airplane accelerates, cross-check both heading
with a smooth, uninterrupted motion.
indicator and ASI rapidly. The attitude indicator may precess
to a slight nose-up attitude. As flying speed is approached 4. Improper use of brakes. Incorrect seat or rudder pedal
(approximately 1525 knots below takeoff speed), smoothly adjustment, with feet in an uncomfortable position,
apply elevator control for the desired takeoff attitude on the frequently cause inadvertent application of brakes and
attitude indicator. This is approximately a two bar width excessive heading changes.
climb indication for most small airplanes.

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 5. Overcontrolling rudder pedals. This fault may be
caused by late recognition of heading changes, tension
on the controls, misinterpretation of the heading
indicator (and correcting in the wrong direction),
failure to appreciate changing effectiveness of rudder
control as the aircraft accelerates, and other factors. If
heading changes are observed and corrected instantly
with small movement of the rudder pedals, swerving
tendencies can be reduced.
6. Failure to maintain attitude after becoming airborne.
If the pilot reacts to seat-of-the-pants sensations when
the airplane lifts off, pitch control is guesswork.
The pilot may either allow excessive pitch or apply
excessive forward elevator pressure, depending on the
reaction to trim changes. Figure 5-41. Racetrack Pattern (Entire Pattern in Level Flight).

7. Inadequate cross-check. Fixations are likely during trim NOTE: This pattern is an exercise combining use of the clock
changes, attitude changes, gear and flap retractions, with basic maneuvers.
and power changes. Once an instrument or a control
input is applied, continue the cross-check and note the Procedure Turn
effect during the next cross-check sequence.
A procedure turn is a maneuver that facilitates:
8. Inadequate interpretation of instruments. Failure to
A reversal in flight direction.
understand instrument indications immediately indicates
that further study of the maneuver is necessary. A descent from an initial approach fix or assigned
altitude to a permissible altitude (usually the procedure
Basic Instrument Flight Patterns turn altitude).
Flight patterns are basic maneuvers, flown by sole reference An interception of the inbound course at a sufficient
to the instruments rather than outside visual clues, for the distance allowing the aircraft to become aligned with
purpose of practicing basic attitude flying. The patterns the final approach.
simulate maneuvers encountered on instrument flights
such as holding patterns, procedure turns, and approaches. Procedure turn types include the 45 turn, the 80/260 turn, and
After attaining a reasonable degree of proficiency in basic the teardrop turn. All of these turns are normally conducted no
maneuvers, apply these skills to the various combinations of more than 10 nautical miles (NM) from the primary airport.
individual maneuvers. The following practice flight patterns The procedure turn altitude generally provides a minimum
are directly applicable to operational instrument flying. of 1,000' obstacle clearance in the procedure turn area (not
necessarily within the 10 NM arc around the primary airport).
Racetrack Pattern Turns may have to be increased or decreased but should not
exceed 30 of a bank angle.
1. Time 3 minutes straight-and-level flight from A to B.
[Figure 5-41] During this interval, reduce airspeed to
Standard 45 Procedure Turn
the holding speed appropriate for the aircraft.
1. Start timing at point A (usually identified on approach
2. Start a 180 standard rate turn to the right at B. Roll-out
procedures by a fix). For example, fly outbound on a
at C on the reciprocal of the heading originally used
heading of 360 for a given time (2 minutes, in this
at A.
example). [Figure 5-42]
3. Time a 1 minute straight-and-level flight from C to D.
2. After flying outbound for 2 minutes (point B), turn left
4. Start a 180 standard rate turn to the right at D, rolling- 45 to a heading of 315 using a standard rate turn.
out on the original heading. After roll-out and stabilizing, fly this new heading
5. Fly 1 minute on the original heading, adjusting of 315 for 40 seconds and the aircraft will be at the
the outbound leg so that the inbound segment is 1 approximate position of C.
minute.

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 2. At B, enter a left standard rate turn of 80 to a heading
of 280.
3. At the completion of the 80 turn to 280 (Point C),
immediately turn right 260, rolling-out on a heading
of 180 (Point D) and also the reciprocal of the entry
heading.

Teardrop Patterns
There are three typical teardrop procedure turns. A 30, 20,
and a 10 teardrop pattern. The below steps indicate actions
for all three starting on a heading of 360. [Figure 5-44]

1. At point B (after stabilizing on the outbound course)

turn left:
30 to a heading of 330 and time for 1 minute
Figure 5-42. Standard Procedure Turn (Entire Pattern in Level 20 to a heading of 340 and time for 2 minutes
Flight).
10 to a heading of 350 and time for 3 minutes

3. At point C, turn 225 right (using a standard rate turn) 2. After the appropriate time above (Point C), make a
which will provide a heading of 180. The timing is standard rate turn to the right for:
such that in a no wind environment, the pilot will be 30 teardrop210 to the final course heading
aligned with the final approach course of 180 at D. of 180 (Point D)
Wind conditions, however must be considered during
20 teardrop200 to the final course heading
the execution of the procedure turn. Compensating
of 180 (Point D)
for wind may result in changes to outbound time,
procedure turn heading and/or time and minor changes 10 teardrop190 to the final course heading
in the inbound turn. of 180 (Point D)

80/260 Procedure Turn By using the different teardrop patterns, a pilot is afforded the
ability to manage time more efficiently. For instance, a 10
1. Start timing at point A (usually identified on approach
pattern for 3 minutes provides about three times the distance
procedures by a fix). For example, fly outbound on a
heading of 360 for 2 minutes. [Figure 5-43]

Figure 5-43. 80/260 Procedure Turn (Entire Pattern in Level

Flight). Figure 5-44. Teardrop Pattern (Entire Pattern in Level Flight).

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(and time) than a 30 pattern. Pattern selection should be Pattern II
based upon an individual assessment of the procedure turn Steps:
requirements to include wind, complexity, the individual
1. At A, start timing for 2 minutes from A to B; reduce
preparedness, etc.
airspeed to approach speed. [Figure 5-46]
Circling Approach Patterns 2. At B, make a standard rate turn to the left for 45.
Pattern I 3. At the completion of the turn, time for 1 minute to
1. At A, start timing for 2 minutes from A to B; reduce C.
airspeed to approach speed. [Figure 5-45] 4. At C, turn right for 180 to D; fly for 1-1/2 minutes
2. At B, make a standard rate turn to the left for 45. to E, lowering the landing gear and flaps.

3. At the completion of the turn, time for 45 seconds to 5. At E, turn right for 180, rolling-out at F.
C. 6. At F, enter a 500 fpm rate descent. At the end of a 500
4. At C, turn to the original heading; fly 1 minute to D, foot descent, enter a straight constant-airspeed climb,
lowering the landing gear and flaps. retracting gear and flaps.

5. At D, turn right 180, rolling-out at E on the reciprocal

of the entry heading.
6. At E, enter a 500 fpm rate descent. At the end of a 500
foot descent, enter a straight constant-airspeed climb,
retracting gear and flaps.

Figure 5-46. Circling Approach Pattern II (Imaginary Runway).

Figure 5-45. Circling Approach Pattern I (Imaginary Runway).

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