Social desirability bias is a social science research term that describes the tendency Words he introduced through his

is theories are now used by everyday people, such as anal

of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed (personality), libido, denial, repression, cathartic, Freudian slip, and neurotic.
favorably by others. It can take the form of over-reporting "good behavior" or
under-reporting "bad", or undesirable behavior.

A sociocultural system is a "human population viewed (1) in its ecological context

and (2) as one of the many subsystems of a larger ecological system"

Conceptual Model of a Sociocultural System.

The term "sociocultural system" embraces three concepts: society, culture, and
system. A society is a number of interdependent organisms of the same species. A
culture is the learned behaviors that are shared by the members of a society,
together with the material products of such behaviors. The words "society" and
"culture" are fused together to form the word "sociocultural". A system is "a
collection of parts which interact with each other to function as a whole".[The term
sociocultural system is most likely to be found in the writings of anthropologists who
specialize in ecological anthropology.

In 1979, Marvin Harris outlined a universal structure of sociocultural systems. He

mentioned infrastructure (production and population), structure (which is
behavioral, like corporations, political organizations, hierarchies, castes), and a
superstructure (which is mental, like beliefs, values, norms).[

Ethnicity - An ethnic group or ethnicity is a population group whose members

identify with each other on the basis of common nationality or shared cultural
traditions. Ethnicity connotes shared cultural traits and a shared group history.
Some ethnic groups also share linguistic or religious traits, while others share a
common group history but not a common language or religion.

Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud explored the human mind more thoroughly than any other who
became before him.

His contributions to psychology are vast. Freud was one of the most influential
people of the twentieth century and his enduring legacy has influenced not only
psychology, but art, literature and even the way people

bring up their children.

Freuds lexicon has become embedded within the vocabulary of western society.
Freud believed that when we explain our own behaviour to ourselves or others surface manifestations of deeply repressed conflicts. However Freud was not just
(conscious mental activity) we rarely give a true account of our motivation. This is advancing an explanation of a particular illness. Implicitly he was proposing a
not because we are deliberately lying. Whilst human beings are great deceivers of revolutionary new theory of the human psyche itself.
others they are even more adept at self-deception. Our rationalisations of our
conduct are therefore disguising the real reasons. Freuds life work was dominated This theory emerged bit by bit as a result of Freuds clinical investigations and it led him
by his attempts to find ways of penetrating this often subtle and elaborate to propose that there were at least three levels to the mind.
camouflage that obscures the hidden structure and processes of personality.
The Unconscious Mind
The Case of Anna O

The case of Anna O (real name Bertha Pappenheim) marked a turning point in the Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of the mind, whereby he described
career of a young Viennese neuropathologist by the name of Sigmund Freud. It even the features of minds structure and function. Freud used the analogy of an iceberg to
went on to influence the future direction of psychology as a whole. describe the three levels of the mind.

Anna suffered from hysteria, a condition in which the patient exhibits physical On the surface is consciousness, which consists of those thoughts that are the focus of
symptoms (e.g. paralysis, convulsions, hallucinations, loss of speech) without an our attention now, and this is seen as the tip of the iceberg. The preconscious consists of
apparent physical cause. Her doctor Josef Breuer succeeded in treating Anna by all which can be retrieved from memory. The third and most significant region is the
helping her to recall forgotten memories of traumatic events. Breuer discussed the unconscious. Here lie the processes that are the real cause of most behaviour. Like an
case with his friend Freud. Out of these discussions came the germ of an idea that iceberg, the most important part of the mind is the part you cannot see.
Freud was to pursue for the rest of his life.

In Studies in Hysteria (1895) Freud proposed that physical symptoms are often the
1
The unconscious mind acts as a repository, a cauldron of primitive wishes and
impulse kept at bay and mediated by the preconscious area. For example, Freud Eros, or life instinct, helps the individual to survive; it directs life-sustaining activities such
(1915) found that some events and desires were often too frightening or painful for as respiration, eating and sex (Freud, 1925). The energy created by the life instincts is
his patients to acknowledge, and believed such information was locked away in the known as libido.
unconscious mind. This happens through the process of repression.
In contrast, Thanatos or death instinct is viewed as a set of destructive forces present in
Sigmund Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind, and a primary all human beings (Freud, 1920). When this energy is directed outward onto others, it is
assumption of Freudian theory is that the unconscious mind governs behavior to a expressed as aggression and violence. Freud believed that Eros is stronger than Thanatos,
greater degree than people suspect. Indeed, the goal of psychoanalysis is to make thus enabling people to survive rather than self-destruct.
the unconscious conscious.

The Psyche
The ego develops from the id during infancy. The egos goal is to satisfy the demands of
Freud (1923) later developed a more structural model of the mind comprising the the id in a safe a socially acceptable way. In contrast to the id the ego follows the reality
entities id, ego and superego (what Freud called the psychic apparatus). These are principle as it operates in both the conscious and unconscious mind.
not physical areas within the brain, but rather hypothetical conceptualizations of
important mental functions. The superego develops during early childhood (when the child identifies with the same
sex parent) and is responsible for ensuring moral standards are followed. The superego
Freud assumed the id operated at an unconscious level according to the pleasure operates on the morality principle and motivates us to behave in a socially responsible
principle (grafification from satisfying basic instincts). The id comprises two kinds of and acceptable manner.
biological instincts (or drives) which Freud called Eros and Thanatos.
Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and founder of the school of analytical the extrovert are the main components of personality according to Jung. The introvert is
psychology. He proposed and developed the concepts of the extroverted and quiet, withdrawn and interested in ideas rather than people. While the extrovert is
introverted personality, archetypes, and the collective unconscious. The issues that outgoing and socially oriented. For Jung a person that had a healthy personality can
he dealt with arose from his personal experiences. For many years Jung felt as if he realize these opposite tendencies within himself/herself and can express each. Dreams
had two separate personalities. One introverted and other extroverted. This serve to compensate for any neglected parts of the personality.
interplay resulted in his study of integration and wholeness. His work has been
influential not only in psychology, but in religion and literature as well. Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist whose research on the physiology of digestion led
to the development of the first experimental model of learning, Classical Conditioning.
Jung believed that symbol creation was a key in understanding human nature. Most of his research was gathered studying salivating dogs.
Symbol, as defined by Jung, is the best possible expression for something essentially
unknown. He wanted to investigate the similarity of symbols that are located in Pavlov concluded that he was able to pair a neutral stimulus with an excitatory one and
different religious, mythological, and magical systems which occur in many cultures have the neutral stimulus eventually elicit the response that was associated with the
and time periods. To account for these similar symbols occurring across different original, unlearned reflex. In Classical Conditioning terminology, an unconditioned
cultures and time periods he suggested the existence of two layers of the stimulus (US) is an event that causes a response to occur, which is referred to as the
unconscious psyche. The first of the two layers was the personal unconscious. It unconditioned response (UR). And, in Pavlov's study with dogs, the food within the dog's
contains what the individual has acquired in his or her life, but has been forgotten or mouth is the US, and the salivation that results is the UR. Pavlov took a step further and
repressed. The second layer is the collective unconscious which contains the added an element known as the no excitatory, conditioned stimulus (CS), which is paired
memory traces common to all humankind. These experiences form archetypes. with the US.
These are innate predispositions to experience and symbolize certain situations in a
distinct way. There are many archetypes such as having parents, finding a mate, Pavlov used a metronome as the CS which he rang first, then fed the dogs. This pairing
having children, and confronting death. Very complex archetypes are found in all would eventually establish the dog's conditioned response of salivating to
mythological and religious systems. Near the end of his life Jung added that the
deepest layers of the unconscious function independently of the laws of space, time
2
and causality. This is what gives rise to paranormal phenomena. The introvert and
the sound of the metronome. After repeating this procedure several times, Pavlov Wilhelm Wundt Is Best Known For:
was able to remove the US (food) and by only ringing the bell the dogs would
salivate (CR). Since the bell alone now produced the unconditioned response The establishment of the first psychology lab
(salivation), the association had been established (Conditioned). Pavlov continued to
present the CS with any pairing with the US until the CR no longer occurred. This His influence on the school of thought known as structuralism
elimination of the CR is known as extinction. However, waiting a few days and then Introspection
reintroducing ticking metronome resulted in the dogs once again salivating to the
CS. Pavlov termed this, spontaneous recovery. Wundt was associated with the theoretical perspective known as structuralism, which
involves describing the structures that compose the mind. He believed that psychology
Pavlov continued of the conditioned response. He replaced the metronome with was the science of conscious experience and that trained observers could accurately
other stimuli for use as the CS. He conditioned the dogs using a buzzer, the flash of a describe thoughts, feelings, and emotions through a process known as introspection.
light, a touch on the dog's harness, and the use of different pitches of a whistle in
which the dogs had to differentiate between to determine which pitch resulted in However, Wundt made a clear distinction between introspection, which he believed was
access to food. inaccurate, and internal perception. According to Wundt, internal perception involved a
properly trained observer who was aware when a stimulus of interest was introduced.
Pavlov's experimental research gained much respect throughout Russia as well as Wundt's process required the observer to be keenly aware and attentive of their
America and the rest of the nations. Although he began his investigations late in life thoughts and reactions to the stimulus and involved multiple presentations of the
he managed to develop the major constructs of a fully realized field of learning. He stimulus.
summarized his discoveries in his remarkable book, Conditioned Reflexes.
Wilhelm Wundt is best known for establishing the first psychology lab in Liepzig,
Germany, generally considered the official beginning of psychology as a field of originally defined as the lowest level of a stimulus light, sound, touch, etc.that an
science separate from philosophy and physiology. In addition to this organism could detect.
accomplishment, Wundt also established the psychology journal Philosophical
Studies. Reaction formation the tendency of a repressed wish or feeling to be expressed at a
conscious level in a contrasting form.
Operant conditioning (also, instrumental conditioning) is a learning process in
which behavior is sensitive to, or controlled by its consequences. For example, a Difference threshold the smallest amount by which two sensory stimuli can differ in
child may learn to open a box to get the candy inside, or learn to avoid touching a order for an individual to perceive them as different.
hot stove.
Extinction is the disappearance of a previously learned behavior when the behavior is not
Habituation is a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations. reinforced.
For example, a novel sound in your environment, such as a new ring tone, may
initially draw your attention or even become distracting. After you become Discrimination is a term that is used in both classical and operant conditioning. In
accustomed to this sound, you pay less attention to the noise and your response to classical conditioning, it refers to an ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus
the sound will diminish. This diminished response is habituation. (CS) and other, similar stimuli that don't signal an unconditioned stimulus (US). For
example, if Pavlov's dog had developed discrimination, it would have salivated to the
Sensation seeking is a personality trait defined by the search for experiences and tone that had been paired with the delivery of the meat powder, and not a similar tone
feelings, that are "varied, novel, complex and intense", and by the readiness to "take with a slightly different pitch. In operant conditioning, the definition is essentially the
physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experiences." same, but here the organism discriminates between a learned, voluntary response and
an irrelevant, non-learned response. For example, a dog that has learned to sit when a
Sensory deprivation a process by which someone is deprived of normal external person says "sit" in order to receive a treat, but the dog does not sit when a person says
stimuli such as sight and sound for an extended period of time, especially as an "bit".
experimental technique in psychology.
3
Absolute threshold In neuroscience and psychophysics, an absolute threshold was
longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (the whistle), eventually the conditioned
Acquisition response (hunger) would disappear.

Acquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and Spontaneous Recovery
gradually strengthened. For example, imagine that you are conditioning a dog to
salivate in response to the sound of a bell. You repeatedly pair the presentation of Spontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest
food with the sound of the bell. You can say the response has been acquired as soon period or period of lessened response. If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned
as the dog begins to salivate in response to the bell tone. Once the response has stimulus are no longer associated, extinction will occur very rapidly after a spontaneous
been acquired, you can gradually reinforce the salivation response to make sure the recovery.
behavior is well learned.
Stimulus Generalization
Extinction
Stimulus Generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar
Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or responses after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a child has been
disappear. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no conditioned to fear a stuffed white rabbit, the child will exhibit fear of objects similar to
longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if the smell of food (the the conditioned stimulus.
unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of a whistle (the
conditioned stimulus), it would eventually come to evoke the conditioned response Discrimination
of hunger. However, if the unconditioned stimulus (the smell of food) were no
 Behavior is the result of stimulus response (i.e. all behavior, no matter how complex,
Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and can be reduced to a simple stimulus response features).
other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For Behavior is determined by the environment (e.g. conditioning).
example, if a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve
being able to tell the difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds.
Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality argued that human behavior was
Basic Assumptions of Behaviorism the result of the interaction of three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and
superego. His structural theory placed great importance on the role of unconscious
Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied in a scientific manner. psychological conflicts in shaping behavior and personality.

Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal Basic Assumptions of Humanism
events like thinking.
Humans have free will; not all behavior is determined.

All individuals are unique and have an innate (inborn) drive to achieve their maximum
potential.

A proper understanding of human behavior can only be achieved by studying humans -

not animals.

Psychology should study the individual case (idiographic) rather than the average
performance of groups (nomothetic).

In psychology, trait theory (also called dispositional theory) is an approach to the study of
human personality. Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits,
which can be defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion.

Defense Mechanisms

Primitive Defense Mechanisms

1. Denial

Denial is the refusal to accept reality or fact, acting as if a painful event, thought or
feeling did not exist. It is considered one of the most primitive of the defense
mechanisms because it is characteristic of early childhood development. Many people
use denial in their everyday lives to avoid dealing with painful feelings or areas of their
life they dont wish to admit. For instance, a person who is a functioning alcoholic will
often simply deny they have a drinking problem, pointing to how well they function in
their job and relationships.

2. Regression
 and start exhibiting earlier childhood behaviors he has long since overcome, such as
Regression is the reversion to an earlier stage of development in the face of
unacceptable thoughts or impulses. For an example an adolescent who is 4
overwhelmed with fear, anger and growing sexual impulses might become clingy

bedwetting. An adult may regress when under a great deal of stress, refusing to Projection is the misattribution of a persons undesired thoughts, feelings or impulses
leave their bed and engage in normal, everyday activities. onto another person who does not have those thoughts, feelings or impulses. Projection
is used especially when the thoughts are considered unacceptable for the person to
3. Acting Out express, or they feel completely ill at ease with having them. For example, a spouse may
be angry at their significant other for not listening, when in fact it is the angry spouse
Acting Out is performing an extreme behavior in order to express thoughts or who does not listen. Projection is often the result of a lack of insight and
feelings the person feels incapable of otherwise expressing. Instead of saying, Im acknowledgement of ones own motivations and feelings.
angry with you, a person who acts out may instead throw a book at the person, or
punch a hole through a wall. When a person acts out, it can act as a pressure
release, and often helps the individual feel calmer and peaceful once again. For
instance, a childs temper tantrum is a form of acting out when he or she doesnt get
his or her way with a parent. Self-injury may also be a form of acting-out, expressing
in physical pain what one cannot stand to feel emotionally.

4. Dissociation

Dissociation is when a person loses track of time and/or person, and instead finds
another representation of their self in order to continue in the moment. A person
who dissociates often loses track of time or themselves and their usual thought
processes and memories. People who have a history of any kind of childhood abuse
often suffer from some form of dissociation. In extreme cases, dissociation can lead
to a person believing they have multiple selves (multiple personality disorder).

People who use dissociation often have a disconnected view of themselves in their
world. Time and their own self-image may not flow continuously, as it does for most
people. In this manner, a person who dissociates can disconnect from the real
world for a time, and live in a different world that is not cluttered with thoughts,
feelings or memories that are unbearable.

5. Compartmentalization

Compartmentalization is a lesser form of dissociation, wherein parts of oneself are

separated from awareness of other parts and behaving as if one had separate sets
of values. An example might be an honest person who cheats on their income tax
return and keeps their two value systems distinct and un-integrated while remaining
unconscious of the cognitive dissonance.

6. Projection
7. Reaction Formation and ever-changing, it is not like playing back a DVD of your life. The DVD has been filtered
and even altered by your life experiences, even by what youve read or viewed.
Reaction Formation is the converting of unwanted or dangerous thoughts, feelings
or impulses into their opposites. For instance, a woman who is very angry with her 9. Displacement
boss and would like to quit her job may instead be overly kind and generous toward
her boss and express a desire to keep working there forever. She is incapable of Displacement is the redirecting of thoughts feelings and impulses directed at one person
expressing the negative emotions of anger and unhappiness with her job, and or object, but taken out upon another person or object. People often use displacement
instead becomes overly kind to publicly demonstrate her lack of anger and when they cannot express their feelings in a safe manner to the person they are directed
unhappiness. at. The classic example is the man who gets angry at his boss, but cant express his anger
to his boss for fear of being fired. He instead comes home and kicks the dog or starts an
Less Primitive, More Mature Defense Mechanisms argument with his wife. The man is redirecting his anger from his boss to his dog or wife.
Naturally, this is a pretty ineffective defense mechanism, because while the anger finds a
Less primitive defense mechanisms are a step up from the primitive defense route for expression, its misapplication to other harmless people or objects will cause
mechanisms in the previous section. Many people employ these defenses as adults, additional problems for most people.
and while they work okay for many, they are not ideal ways of dealing with our
feelings, stress and anxiety. If you recognize yourself using a few of these, dont feel 10. Intellectualization
bad everybody does.
Intellectualization is the overemphasis on thinking when confronted with an
8. Repression unacceptable impulse, situation or behavior without employing any emotions
whatsoever to help mediate and place the thoughts into an emotional, human context.
Repression is the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts, feelings and Rather than deal with the painful associated emotions, a person might employ
impulses. The key to repression is that people do it unconsciously, so they often intellectualization to distance themselves from the impulse, event or
have very little control over it. Repressed memories are memories that have been
unconsciously blocked from access or view. But because memory is very malleable 5
behavior. For instance, a person who has just been given a terminal medical
diagnosis, instead of expressing their sadness and grief, focuses instead on the Mature Defense Mechanisms
details of all possible fruitless medical procedures.
Mature defense mechanisms are often the most constructive and helpful to most adults,
11. Rationalization but may require practice and effort to put into daily use. While primitive defense
mechanisms do little to try and resolve underlying issues or problems, mature defenses
Rationalization is putting something into a different light or offering a different are more focused on helping a person be a more constructive component of their
explanation for ones perceptions or behaviors in the face of a changing reality. For environment. People with more mature defenses tend to be more at peace with
instance, a woman who starts dating a man she really, really likes and thinks the themselves and those around them.
world of is suddenly dumped by the man for no reason. She reframes the situation
in her mind with, I suspected he was a loser all along. 13. Sublimation

12. Undoing Sublimation is simply the channeling of unacceptable impulses, thoughts and emotions
into more acceptable ones. For instance, when a person has sexual impulses they would
Undoing is the attempt to take back an unconscious behavior or thought that is like not to act upon, they may instead focus on rigorous exercise. Refocusing such
unacceptable or hurtful. For instance, after realizing you just insulted your unacceptable or harmful impulses into productive use helps a person channel energy that
significant other unintentionally, you might spend then next hour praising their otherwise would be lost or used in a manner that might cause the person more anxiety.
beauty, charm and intellect. By undoing the previous action, the person is
attempting to counteract the damage done by the original comment, hoping the Sublimation can also be done with humor or fantasy. Humor, when used as a defense
two will balance one another out.
mechanism, is the channeling of unacceptable impulses or thoughts into a light- a person look at a situation in a different way, or focus on aspects of the situation not
hearted story or joke. Humor reduces the intensity of a situation, and places a previously explored.
cushion of laughter between the person and the impulses. Fantasy, when used as a
defense mechanism, is the channeling of unacceptable or unattainable desires into 14. Compensation
imagination. For example, imagining ones ultimate career goals can be helpful
when one experiences temporary setbacks in academic achievement. Both can help Compensation is a process of psychologically counterbalancing perceived weaknesses by
emphasizing strength in other arenas. By emphasizing and focusing on ones strengths, a
person is recognizing they cannot be strong at all things and in all areas in their lives. For
instance, when a person says, I may not know how to cook, but I can sure do the
dishes!, theyre trying to compensate for their lack of cooking skills by emphasizing their
cleaning skills instead. When done appropriately and not in an attempt to over-
compensate, compensation is defense mechanism that helps reinforce a persons self-
esteem and self-image.

15. Assertiveness

Assertiveness is the emphasis of a persons needs or thoughts in a manner that is

respectful, direct and firm. Communication styles exist on a continuum, ranging from
passive to aggressive, with assertiveness falling neatly inbetween. People who are
passive and communicate in a passive manner tend to be good listeners, but rarely speak
up for themselves or their own needs in a relationship. People who are aggressive and
communicate in an aggressive manner tend to be good leaders, but often at the expense
of being able to listen empathetically to others and their ideas and needs. People who
are assertive strike a balance where they speak up for themselves, express their opinions
or needs in a respectful yet firm manner, and listen when they are being spoken to.
Becoming more assertive is one of the most desired communication skills and helpful
defense mechanisms most people want to learn, and would benefit in doing so.

Deindividuation is a concept in social psychology that is generally thought of as the loss

of self-awareness in groups, although this is a matter of contention (see below).
Sociologists also study the phenomenon of deindividuation, but the level of analysis is
somewhat different.

Conformity is the tendency to align your attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors with those
around you. It's a powerful force that can take the form of overt social pressure or subtler
unconscious influence.

Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people, in

which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or
dysfunctional decision-making outcome.

In psychology, sublimation is a mature type of defense mechanism where socially

unacceptable impulses or idealizations are unconsciously transformed into socially
6
acceptable actions or behavior, possibly resulting in a long-term conversion of the
initial impulse. A Representative Heuristic is a cognitive bias in which an individual categorizes a
situation based on a pattern of previous experiences or beliefs about the scenario. It can
Regression (German: Regression), according to psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, is a be useful when trying to make a quick decision but it can also be limiting because it leads
defense mechanism leading to the temporary or long-term reversion of the ego to to close-mindedness such as in stereotypes. There are several types of representative
an earlier stage of development rather than handling unacceptable impulses in a heuristics, including the Gambler's Fallacy, Base Rate Fallacy, Regression To The Mean,
more adult way. and Conjunction Fallacy.

Monocular cues provide depth information when viewing a scene with one eye. Just to provide one example, let's look at the Gambler's Fallacy. This is a person's belief
Motion parallax. When an observer moves, the apparent relative motion of several that the probability of an item changes based on previous attempts when in reality, the
stationary objects against a background gives hints about their relative distance. probability remains the same. If a coin was flipped 10 times, and each time it landed with
the "heads" side facing up, someone relying on gambler's fallacy would believe the odds
Depth perception arises from a variety of depth cues. These are typically classified of it being heads the 11th time would be very low. In reality, however, the probability has
into binocular cues that are based on the receipt of sensory information in three not changed. The chances of a coin being heads or tails is 50% no matter how many times
dimensions from both eyes and monocular cues that can be represented in just two the coin is flipped.
dimensions and observed with just one eye. Humans are able to see things that are
both far and near, and can actually identify where those objects are in space A base rate fallacy is committed when a person judges that an outcome will occur
(meaning, they can determine if those objects are close or far away). This sort of without considering prior knowledge of the probability that it will occur. They focus on
depth perception requires both of our eyes, which is referred to as binocular cues other information that isn't relevant instead. Imagine that I show you a bag of 250 M&Ms
(depth cues that requires both of our eyes). with equal numbers of 5 different colors. Then, I ask you what the probability is I will pick
a green one while my eyes are closed? I also tell you that green M&Ms are my favorite
LEARNING SET - a form of learning discriminatory ideals where the learner is taught and yesterday I picked out twice as many green M&Ms than red ones. If you ignored the
for example that one object contains a food reward where a different object does fact that there are 50 of each color, and instead focused on the fact that I picked out
not. twice as many green M&Ms than red yesterday, you have committed a base rate fallacy
because what I did yesterday is irrelevant information.
Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in
the way it is traditionally used. The concept of functional fixedness originated in The conjunction fallacy occurs when it is assumed that multiple specific conditions are
Gestalt Psychology, a movement in psychology that emphasizes holistic processing. more probable than a single general one.

Deductive Reasoning is a decision-making process where choices are made based Regression toward the mean is the tendency for scores to average out. In this case
upon the results of previous choices and a critical observation of the results, This extreme scores tend to happen rarely and seem to fall back toward the average (the
method is used heavily in scientific experimentation, but is also used informally in mean). For example, a golfer with a handicap of 2 averages a score of 73 (for example).
everyday life. For a simple example, if a person touches a hot stove burner and This score represents the golfer's average score. On some days he goes wild and shoots a
burns himself/herself. They will learn from this experience and, next time 63 which is awesome, but extreme. Over time the golfer will have many more scores
confronted with a hot stove, likely choose not to touch the burner knowing that around his average than far away from it as the scores tend to regress toward the mean
they will probably get burned, of 73.

Inductive reasoning is a style of reasoning in which decisions are made and A cognitive bias is a type of error in thinking that occurs when people are processing and
conclusions are reached by a process of analyzing available evidence and past interpreting information in the world around them. Cognitive biases are often a result of
experiences. For example: a child learns that if they touch something hot and get our attempt to simplify information processing. They are rules of thumb that help us
burned, they reason that touching hot things is not a good idea and learn not to do make sense of the world and reach decisions with relative
that again, or that if they do something that pleases an adult and get a reward, that
this is a behavior to repeat. 7
speed. Unfortunately, these biases sometimes trip us up, leading to poor decisions object for sexual gratification or asks their partner to wear the object during sexual
and bad judgments. encounters. Fetishism is a more common occurrence in males, and the causes are
not clearly known. Fetishism falls under the general category of paraphilias,
The Placebo Effect is the amelioration of symptoms not attributable to medication abnormal or unnatural sexual attractions.
a kind of mental magic trick that has been shown to boost immunity and alleviate
paineven if you know it's all in your head. Voyeurism is a practice in which an individual derives sexual pleasure from
observing other people.
Double-Blind Study. A type of quantitative research setup where neither the
subjects nor the researchers know who has been assigned to the experimental
group or the control (placebo) group until after the study is over.
engaging in sexual behavior that is disorder (OCD) and generalized anxiety
Sensory memory is the shortest-term atypical and extreme. 1) ANXIETY DISORDERS: All of us disorder.
element of memory. It is the ability to encounter anxiety in many forms
retain impressions of sensory Transvestism (also called throughout the course of our routine Generalized Anxiety Disorder People with
information after the original stimuli transvestitism) is the practice of activities. However, the mechanisms that Generalized Anxiety Disorder have chronic,
have ended. The part of the memory dressing and acting in a style or manner regulate anxiety may break down in a exaggerated worry about everyday routine
system which is the initial contact for traditionally associated with the other wide variety of circumstances, leading to life events and activities, with symptoms
stimuli. Sensory memory is only sex. excessive or inappropriate expressions of lasting at least six months; almost always
capable of retaining information for a anxiety. An anxiety disorder may exist if anticipating the worst even though there is
very short period of time. This type of The term "fetishism" was coined in the the anxiety experienced is little reason to expect it. People with
memory allows your eye to have a late 1800s. It originates from the disproportionate to the circumstance, is General Anxiety Disorder have co-occurring
larger field of vision by remembering Portuguese word feitico, which means difficult for the individual to control, or physical symptoms, such as fatigue,
images that your eye has already "obsessive fascination". There is a interferes with normal functioning. trembling, muscle tension, headache, or
focused on. In actuality, your eyes' field degree of fetishistic arousal in most nausea.
of vision is quite small but because of normal individuals who find particular More than 19 million American adults
sensory memory you are able to bodily features attractive. However, are affected by an anxiety disorder. Phobias- People with phobias have
remember stimulus your eye has fetishistic arousal is generally Children and adolescents also develop extreme, disabling and irrational fear of
already viewed. considered a problem when it anxiety disorders. People with anxiety something that really poses little or no
interferes with normal sexual or social disorders also have other physical or actual danger; the fear leads to avoidance
The duration of short-term memory functioning and where sexual arousal is mental disorders such as: depression, of objects or situations and can cause
(when rehearsal or active maintenance impossible without the fetish object. eating disorders, substance abuse, people to limit their lives.
is prevented) is believed to be in the cancer or heart disease as examples.
order of seconds. A commonly cited Fetishism is characterized as a disorder Panic Disorder People with panic disorder
capacity is 7 when there is a pathological Examples include: panic attacks, have experienced a panic attack. The
assignment of sexual fixation, fantasies frightening physical symptoms, disorder occurs when the person fears
2 elements. In contrast, long-term or behaviors toward an inanimate flashbacks of traumatic events, having another panic attack. Panic disorder
memory can hold an indefinite amount object -- frequently an item of clothing nightmares, obsessive thoughts or where is, therefore, characterized by panic attacks,
of information. -- such as underclothing or a high- even someone can become housebound. which are sudden feelings of terror that
heeled shoe -- or to nongenital body strike repeatedly and without warning.
A paraphilia is a condition in which a parts -- such as the foot. Only through Specific anxiety disorders include: Physical symptoms include: chest pain,
person's sexual arousal and gratification use of this object can the individual phobias, panic attacks, post-traumatic
depend on fantasizing about and obtain sexual gratification. The fetishist stress disorder, obsessive-compulsive 8
usually holds, rubs or smells the fetish
heart palpitations, shortness of breath, dizziness, abdominal discomfort, feelings of unreality, and fear of dying.
 Loss of interest or pleasure in activities once enjoyed Feelings of hopelessness, pessimism
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder People with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder have Feelings of guilt, worthlessness, helplessness
anxious impulses to repeat words or phrases or engage in repetitive, ritualistic
behavior, such as constant hand washing. Sleeping too much or too little, early morning awakening Appetite and/or weight loss or
overeating and weight gain
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder People with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder have
persistent symptoms that occur after experiencing a traumatic event such as war, Decreased energy, fatigue, feeling slowed down
rape, child abuse, natural disasters, or being taken hostage. Nightmares, flashbacks, Restlessness, irritability
numbing of emotions, depression, and feeling angry, irritable, and distracted and
being easily startled are common symptoms of PTSD. Difficulty concentrating, remembering or making decisions

2) MOOD DISORDERS: Most of us have an immediate and intuitive understanding of Persistent physical symptoms that do not respond to treatment, such as: headaches,
the notion of mood. We readily know what it means to be happy or sad. Mood digestive disorders, constipation, and chronic pain
disorders, however, are outside the bounds of normal fluctuations from sadness to Thoughts of death or suicide
elation. Mood disorders affect about 7% of Americans and rank among the top 10
causes of disability. In the workplace, major/clinical depression is a leading cause of
absenteeism and diminished productivity. Depression-related visits to physicians Differences between depression and the blues
account for a large portion of health care expenditures.
Depression: Is an illness
Mood disorders include: clinical or major depression, dysthymia and bipolar
disorder, formerly known as manic-depression. Suicide is the most dreaded
Moods, thoughts, bodily functions are all affected with depression Symptoms persist
complication of major depressive disorders. About 10 to 15% of patients formerly
hospitalized with depression commit suicide. Similar to anxiety disorders, mood
disorders affect around 19-20 million American adults. Children and adolescents are Can result in suicide
also susceptible to mood disorders as well.
Requires specific medical / psychiatric treatment and psychotherapy
Clinical Depression: Depression causes people to lose pleasure from daily life, can
complicate other medical conditions, and can even be serious enough to lead to
suicide. Depression can occur to anyone, at any age, and to people of any race or The Blues:
ethnic group. Depression is never a normal part of life, no matter what your age, A normal reaction to life circumstances
gender or health situation. Unfortunately, though treatment for depression is
almost always successful, fewer than half of those suffering from this illness seek Only moods are affected
treatment. Too many people resist treatment because they believe depression isnt
serious, that they can treat it themselves or that it is a personal weakness rather Symptoms are temporary
than a serious medical illness.
Usually no suicidal thoughts
Requires a good listener and/or time to heal or grieve

Symptoms of Depression: Bipolar Disorder: An illness involving one or more episodes of serious mania and
Persistent sad, anxious or empty mood depression. The illness causes a persons mood to swing from excessively high and/or
irritable to sad and hopeless, with periods of a normal mood in between. Other
symptoms of bipolar disorder include: sleep and eating disturbances and changes in
activity and energy levels. A person with bipolar disorder is also at risk of dying by
suicide. Severe insomnia, no apparent need for sleep
Grandiose notions, may be accompanied by delusions of grandeur

Symptoms of Manic Behavior Abnormally elevated mood, hyperactivity 9

Irritability
sensations not connected to an obvious source (hallucinations) and assigning
Increased talking, speaking unusual significance or meaning to normal events or holding fixed personal beliefs
Racing thoughts, accelerated thinking (delusions). Other symptoms include withdrawal, incoherent speech and impaired
reasoning.
Increased activity, including sexual energy
Causes of Schizophrenia; the Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia: Schizophrenia
Markedly increased energy is believed to be caused by chemical imbalances in the brain that cause a variety of

Poor judgment that leads to risk-taking behavior positive symptoms including hallucinations, delusions, withdrawal, and incoherent
Inappropriate social behavior speech and impaired reasoning.

Delusions: Delusions are false beliefs that are not based in reality. Delusions can
Dysthymic Disorder: a chronic, low grade depression that seems part of the persons cause a person to view the world from a unique or peculiar perspective. The
personality. A person with dysthymia has depressed mood and symptoms most of the
time for more than two years and has at least two of the following symptoms. 10

individual will often focus on persecution (believes he or she is God, very wealthy, a
Feels hopeless famous person, a member of the Royal Family or possesses a special talent or
beauty).
Low self-esteem
Fatigue or low energy Hallucinations: It is not unusual for some people with mental illnesses such as
schizophrenia to hear voices, or to see, smell, taste, or feels imaginary things. The
Sleep disturbance person experiences events that have no objective source, but they are nonetheless
real to him or her.
Appetite disturbance
Most Common Hallucinations: Hallucinations involve seeing or hearing or smelling
things, but can involve any of the senses. A person with hallucinations may:
Poor concentration
Indecisive
Feel bugs crawling on her/his body
Smell gas that is being used to kill her/him
3) SCHIZOPHRENIA/PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS: Schizophrenia is a serious brain disorder and
is characterized by a profound disruption in cognition and emotion, affecting the most
fundamental human attributes such as: language, thought, perception, affect and sense of Taste the poison in her/his food
self. The array of symptoms include psychotic manifestations, such as hearing internal
voices or experiencing other Hear voices telling her/him to do something

See visions of God, the dead, horrible things

 persons with schizophrenia are not perpetually incoherent or psychotic.
Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia: While delusions, hallucinations and disordered
thinking are the positive symptoms associated with schizophrenia, the negative Schizoaffective Disorder: A variant of schizophrenia
symptoms associated with schizophrenia include: Persons with schizoaffective disorder show more mood symptoms

Cant show feelings (flat affect) Cant start or maintain conversations A person with schizoaffective disorder usually has less long term impairment IF they
receive treatment.
Minimal flow of thought Lack of motivation Unable to feel pleasure
PERSONALITY DISORDERS
Minimal self-care and grooming
1. Paranoid personality disorder
NOTE: Schizophrenia is NOT split personality or multiple personality. Furthermore,
and unusual perceptual experiences. A person with schizotypal disorder often fears
Cluster A comprises paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorder. Paranoid social interaction and sees other people as ill-intentioned and potentially harmful.
personality disorder is characterised by a pervasive distrust of others, including even This may lead him or her to develop so-called
friends and partner. The person is guarded and suspicious, and constantly on the lookout
for clues or suggestions to confirm his or her fears. He or she has a strong sense of self- ideas of reference, which are fleeting impressions that objects, people, or
importance and personal rights, is overly sensitive to setbacks and rebuffs, easily feels situations have a special significance for him or her. For example, he or she may
shame and humiliation, and persistently bears grudges. As a result he or she may have a have the impression that strangers on the bus are talking about him or her, or that
tendency to withdraw from other people, and find it particularly difficult to engage in the traffic wardens signaling is an elaborate means of revealing his or her destiny.
close relationships.
Compared to the average person, people who suffer from schizotypal disorder have
2. Schizoid personality disorder a relatively high probability of converting to schizophrenia at some time in the
future; for this reason, schizotypal disorder has historically been referred to as
Coined by Bleuler in 1908, the term schizoid designates a natural tendency to direct
attention toward ones inner life and away from the external world. In schizoid personality latent schizophrenia.
disorder, the person is detached and aloof and prone to introspection and fantasy. He or
she has no desire for social or sexual relationships, is indifferent to others and to social 11
norms and conventions, and lacks emotional response; in extreme cases, he or she may
appear cold and callous. Treatment is often not provided because people with schizoid
personality disorder are generally able to function well despite their reluctance to form
close relationships, and are not unduly concerned by the fact that they may be seen to
have a mental disorder. Another view about people with schizoid personality disorder is
that they are highly sensitive and have a rich inner life; while they experience a deep
longing for intimacy, they find initiating and maintaining interpersonal relationships too
difficult or too distressing and so retreat into their inner worlds.

3. Schizotypal disorder

Schizotypal disorder is characterized by oddities of appearance, behaviour, and speech,

and anomalies of thinking similar to those seen in schizophrenia. Anomalies of thinking
may include odd beliefs, magical thinking (for example, thinking that words affect the
worldspeak of the devil and hell appear), suspiciousness, obsessional ruminations,
4. Antisocial personality disorder frequently come into contact with healthcare services. Borderline personality
disorder was so-called because it was thought to lie on the borderline between
Cluster B comprises antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorder. neurotic (anxiety) disorders and psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia and
Until Schneider broadened the concept of personality disorder to include those who bipolar affective disorder. It has been suggested that borderline personality disorder
suffer from their abnormality, personality disorder was more or less synonymous with often results from childhood sexual abuse, and that the reason why it is more
antisocial personality disorder. Antisocial personality disorder is far more common in men common in women is because women are more likely to be victims of childhood
than in women, and is characterized by a callous unconcern for the feelings of others. The sexual abuse. However, feminists have argued that borderline personality disorder
person disregards social rules and obligations, is irritable and aggressive, acts impulsively, merely appears to be more common in women, since women presenting with angry
lacks guilt, and fails to learn from experience. In many cases he has no difficulty finding and promiscuous behaviour tend to be diagnosed with borderline personality
relationships, and can even appear superficially charming (the so-called charming disorder, whereas men presenting with identical behaviour tend to be diagnosed
psychopath). However, his relationships are usually fiery, turbulent, and short-lived. with antisocial personality disorder.
People with antisocial personality disorder often have a criminal record or even a history
of being in and out of prison. 6. Histrionic personality disorder

5. Borderline personality disorder People with histrionic personality disorder lack a sense of self-worth, for which
reason they depend on the attention and approval of others. They often seem to be
In borderline personality disorder, the person essentially lacks a sense of self, and as a dramatizing or playing a part (histrionic derives from the Latin histrionicus,
result experiences feelings of emptiness and fears of abandonment. There is a pattern of pertaining to the actor) in a bid to attract and manipulate attention. They may take
intense but unstable relationships, emotional instability, outbursts of anger and violence great care of their physical appearance and behave in a manner that is overly
(especially in response to criticism), and impulsive behaviour. Suicidal threats and acts of charming or inappropriately seductive. As they crave excitement and act on impulse
self-harm are common, for which reason people with borderline personality disorder or suggestion, they may put themselves at great risk of having an accident or being
exploited. Their dealings with other people often seem insincere or superficial, which can criticised, or rejected. He or she avoids meeting people unless he or she is certain of
impact on their social and romantic relationships. This is especially distressing for them, being liked, is restrained even in his or her intimate relationships, and avoids taking
because they are especially sensitive to criticism and rejection and react badly to loss or risks. Avoidant personality disorder is strongly associated with anxiety disorders,
failure. and may also be associated with actual or perceived rejection by parents or peers
during childhood.
7. Narcissistic personality disorder
9. Dependent personality disorder
Narcissistic personality disorder takes its name from the myth of Narcissus, a beautiful
youth who fell in love with his own reflection. In narcissistic personality disorder the Dependent personality disorder is characterized by a lack of self-confidence and an
person has a grandiose sense of self-importance, a sense of entitlement, and a need to be excessive need to be taken care of. The person needs a lot of help to make everyday
admired. He or she is envious of others and expects them to be the same of him or her. decisions and needs important life decisions to be taken for him or her. He or she
He or she lacks empathy and readily exploits others to achieve his or her goals. To others greatly fears abandonment and may go to considerable lengths to secure and
he or she may seem self-absorbed, controlling, intolerant, selfish, and insensitive. If he or maintain relationships. A person with dependent personality disorder sees him-or
she feels slighted or ridiculed, he or she may be provoked into a fit of destructive anger her-self as inadequate and helpless, and so abdicates personal responsibility and
and revenge-seeking. Such narcissistic rage can have disastrous consequences for all puts his or her fate in the hands of one or more protective others; he or she
those involved. imagines being at one with these protective others whom he or she idealises as
being competent and powerful, and towards whom he or she behaves in a manner
that is ingratiating and self-effacing. People with dependent personality disorder
8. Avoidant personality disorder often assort with people with a cluster B personality disorder, who feed from the
unconditional high regard in which they are held.
Cluster C comprises avoidant, dependent, and anankastic personality disorder. In avoidant
personality disorder, the person is persistently tense because he or she believes that he or 12
she is socially inept, unappealing, or inferior, and as a result fears being embarrassed,
10. Obsessive-compulsive (anankastic) personality disorder self. In object relations theory, this term is used to refer to a fear of self-destruction,
often termed annihilation anxiety. Later, Melanie Kline viewed it as part of the death
Obsessive-compulsive or anankastic personality disorder (not to be confused with instinct, whereas psychoanalyst Donald Winnicott (1896-1971) viewed it as anxiety
obsessive-compulsive disorder or OCD) is characterized by excessive preoccupation with arising due to environmental constraints.
details, rules, lists, order, organisation, or schedules; perfectionism so extreme that it
prevents a task from being completed; and devotion to work and productivity at the Pluralism is a concept which accommodates diversity and regards diversity as
expense of leisure and relationships. A person with anankastic personality disorder is inevitable. Unlike the advocates of monism who ignore multiple, disparate
typically doubting and cautious, rigid and controlling, humorless, and miserly. His or her identities, cultures and traditions and often make deliberate efforts to ro combine
underlying high level of anxiety arises from a perceived lack of control over a universe that them into one artificial political unit, pluralism accepts plurality as a fact of life. It
escapes his or her understanding. As a natural consequence, he or she has little tolerance seeks to protect and promote such diversity in spite of the differences among them.
for grey areas and tends to simplify the universe by seeing actions and beliefs as either Assimilation is a term referring to another part of the adaptation process initially
absolutely right or absolutely wrong. His or her relationships with friends, colleagues, and proposed by Jean Piaget. Through assimilation, we take in new information or
family tend to be strained by the unreasonable and inflexible demands that he or she experiences and incorporate them into our existing ideas. The process is somewhat
makes upon them. subjective, because we tend to modify experience or information somewhat to fit in
with our preexisting beliefs.
Ethnomethodology (literally, 'the study of people's methods') is a sociological discipline
and paradigm which focuses on the way people make sense of the world and display their Social dominance theory (SDT) is a theory of intergroup relations that focuses on
understandings of it. the maintenance and stability of group-based social hierarchies. According to the
theory, group-based inequalities are maintained through three primary intergroup
Annihilation - In psychoanalytic theory, this term refers to the complete destruction of the behaviorsspecifically: institutional discrimination, aggregated individual
discrimination, and behavioral asymmetry. SDT proposes that widely shared cultural
ideologies (i.e., legitimizing myths) provide the moral and intellectual justification for For example, an individual born from farmers will come to occupy their parents' role
these intergroup behaviors. There are two functional types of legitimizing myths: (1) until death. Gemeinschaften ("communities") are broadly characterized by a
hierarchy-enhancing and (2) hierarchy-attenuating legitimizing myths. Hierarchy- moderate division of labor, strong personal relationships, strong families, and
enhancing ideologies (e.g., racism) contribute to greater levels of group-based inequality. relatively simple social institutions. In such societies, there is less of a need to
Hierarchy-attenuating ideologies (e.g., anarchism and feminism) contribute to greater enforce social control externally due to a collective sense of loyalty individuals feel
levels of group-based equality. People endorse these different forms of ideologies based for society.
in part on their psychological orientation toward dominance and their desire for unequal
group relations (i.e., their social dominance orientation; SDO). People who are higher on In contrast, Gesellschaft ("society") describes associations in which the larger
SDO tend to endorse hierarchy-enhancing ideologies, and people who are lower on SDO association never takes precedence over the individual's self interest, and these
tend to endorse hierarchy-attenuating ideologies. SDT finally proposes that the relative associations lack the same level of shared social mores. Gesellschaft is maintained
counterbalancing of hierarchy-enhancing and -attenuating social forces stabilizes group- through individuals acting on their own self-interest. A modern business is a good
based inequality. example of Gesellschaft: the workers, managers, and owners may have very little in
terms of shared orientations or beliefs, or they may not care deeply for the product
Gemeinschaft ("community") is an association in which individuals are mainly oriented to they are making, but it is in all their self interest to come to work to make money,
the will of the larger group, generally more than their own self-interest. Their activities are and, therefore, the business continues.
regulated by common mores or beliefs about the appropriate behavior and
responsibilities of members of the association. These associations are marked by what Gesellschaft society involves achieved status, or a status reached by education and
Tnnies called "unity of will. " He saw the family as the most perfect expression of professional advancement. Unlike Gemeinschaften ("communities"), Gesellschaften
Gemeinschaft; however, he also expected that Gemeinschaft could be based on shared ("societies") emphasize secondary relationships rather than familial or community
place and shared belief as well as kinship, and included globally dispersed religious
communities as possible examples of Gemeinschaft. 13
Gemeinschaft community involves ascribed status, meaning a fixed status given by birth.
ties, and there is generally less individual loyalty to the larger community. Social cohesion
in Gesellschaften typically derives from a more elaborate division of labor. Such societies
are, therefore, potentially more susceptible to class conflict, as well as racial and ethnic
conflicts.

SOCIAL INTEGRATION

1. The process where separate groups are combined to form a unified society. Integration
implies coming together as a whole. 2. The process of a person being assimilated into a
group.

Social stigma is the extreme disapproval of (or discontent with) a person or group on
socially characteristic grounds that are perceived, and serve to distinguish them, from
other members of a society. Stigma may then be affixed to such a person, by the greater
society, who differs from their cultural norms.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow wanted to understand what motivates people. He believed that people possess a
set of motivation systems unrelated to rewards or unconscious desires.

Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.

Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, etc.

Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, affection and love, - from work
group, family, friends, romantic relationships.

Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance,

prestige, managerial responsibility, etc.

Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning, etc.

Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc.

Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal

growth and peak experiences.

Transcendence needs - helping others to achieve self-actualization.