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Procedure: Instruments

The document discusses methods for collecting data in descriptive research studies, including reports, questionnaires, scales, and observation. It notes that observation schedules are often used to systematically collect data on educational settings, as they may provide more accurate information than self-reports. The document also outlines different approaches to collecting observational data, such as duration recording, frequency counting, interval sampling, and continuous sampling. Finally, it states that qualitative data is analyzed through interpretive analysis where the researcher makes judgments about the meaning of the data within a particular context or theoretical framework.

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36 views1 page

Procedure: Instruments

The document discusses methods for collecting data in descriptive research studies, including reports, questionnaires, scales, and observation. It notes that observation schedules are often used to systematically collect data on educational settings, as they may provide more accurate information than self-reports. The document also outlines different approaches to collecting observational data, such as duration recording, frequency counting, interval sampling, and continuous sampling. Finally, it states that qualitative data is analyzed through interpretive analysis where the researcher makes judgments about the meaning of the data within a particular context or theoretical framework.

Uploaded by

Di Double-Yu Ai
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Procedure

Instruments

The most commonly used instruments for descriptive research are reports, texts, questionnaires, scales and
observation schedules; however, film and video also have their place. Reports refer to all kinds of existing material
from historical data to statistics. Sometimes people complete tests as part of their research permitting the researcher
to describe performance of individuals or groups. Questionnaires may be used to collect self-report data on attitudes,
preferences or background information. Research scales are instruments developed to measure attitudes, personality,
preferences and so forth. Finally, observational schedules are often used by trained observers to observe a situation
(Croll, 1986). Some of these can be highly detailed. For example, 25 years ago, one researcher (Flanders, 1970)
developed a scale to record what a teacher did every three seconds. As with all good instruments, the researcher
should determine the reliability and validity of observation scales. In the case of Flanders interaction analysis,
trained observers the results never were shown to be related to the effectiveness of instruction, sothe scale had
questionable validity.

Data Collection

Valid data collection requires clearly developed procedures and the involvement of researchers or data
collection personnel who can follow the procedures consistently and who will not themselves influence the data
collected. Most tests, questionnaires and scales contain explicit instructions on how they are to be administered.
Observation schedules are often developed to collect systematic observation on educational settings. They are
preferred by some to self-reports which tend to reflect socially acceptable responses rather than what might actually
occur. For example, observations of classrooms suggests that many teachers talk 80 per cent of the available class
time. If those teachers were asked, they would report talking much less, perhaps only 20 per cent (see Edwards and
Westgate,1987). Observation is necessary to collect valid data on this type of phenomenon. The difficulty with
observational data is the relevance of what can be observed. Often the underlying motivations may not be revealed
through observation alone.

The question for the researcher is to determine the best data collection technique for what is being pursued.
For example, if one were studying inter-race relations, you could give students a questionnaire to report their
attitudes.Alternatively, you could observe the interactions among students of different races and have observational
data on the extent of interracial contacts. In collecting observational data, four approaches can be used; the duration
of behavior, frequency counting, interval sampling and continuous sampling. Duration recording examines the time
that something occurs. For example, the time a student spends out of his or her seat. Frequency counts refer to the
number of times the student would leave his or her seat. Interval sampling refers to what is happening to a particular
individual at predetermined intervals. For example, what a teacher is doing every fifth minute. Continuous recording
collects a narrative record of data in diary type form. It reconstructs events as completely as possible. In some
observational situations recording devices are used and the tapes are analyzed in order to have accurate measures of
who was doing what when.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative data are analyzed in interpretative ways whereby the researcher makes judgments about what
the data say. The data reported describes the situation and the researcher seeks to interpret their meaning within a
particular context. Sometimes the interpretation is bounded by the data under study, but more typically it is
interpreted in the light of theory.

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