Chapter I: European penetration into North America, from the 16th century to mid-18th century

I. First European explorations of North America

A) Spain

Spanish explorers = first Europeans to reach Puerto Rico in 1493 (2nd expedition of Columbus)
Reached the Appalachian Mountains, Mississippi River, Grand Canyon and Great Plains
1540 = Hernando De Soto explores the Southeast
Francisco Vasquez explores from Arizona to central Kansas
Small Spanish settlements = today big cities (San Antonio, TX; Tucson, AZ; Los Angeles..)

B) France

1534 to 1763 = New France

Few settlers outside Quebec and Acadia
Far-reaching trading relationship with Native Americans (Great Lakes, Midwest)
Mississippi / Illinois River villages = farming community for Gulf Coast settlement
Plantations in Louisiana, settling New Orleans, Mobile and Biloxi

C) England

1607 = first successful English settlement

Brought horses, cattle, hogs to Americas
Took back to Europe: maize, turkeys, potatoes, tobacco and beans
Lots of explorers died after being exposed to new diseases
Diseases brought by colonists (small pox, measles) devastated native Americans

D) Dutch Republic

1613 to 1674 = New Netherlands (on today NYC and Hudson River Valley)
Traded furs with the native Americans to the north
Barrier to expansion from New England
Despite being Calvinists and building reformed church = tolerant religions/cultures
1674 = under British rule
Enduring legacy on American life = secular broad-mindedness, mercantile pragmatism
Dutch descent: presidents Martin Van Buren, Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt

II. British colonization

A) The four keys waves of migration from the British Isles

1. New England - zealous, literate Puritan yeomen and artisans establish a religious community in Massachusetts.
Pious, hardworking, intoxicated with theology and order.
2. The Tidewater - settled by royalist Cavaliers led by William Berkeley and young male servants from south/west
England. Built highly stratified way of life in Virginia. Hierarchical society based on honor, fueled by chattel slavery.
3. Middle colonies - egalitarian Quakers of modest social standing from north midlands resettled in the Delaware
valley, promoted social pluralism. Quaker influence became profound in this region of Pennsylvania, Delaware and
new jersey. Most liberal-minded of the four waves. Quaker culture influential in the southwest and midland country of
Britain (belief in religious toleration helped American democracy)
4. The Backcountry - settled by immigrants from northern regions of England, Scotland, Ulster Scotch-Irish, largest
migration from Britain, society of men marked by a violent and emotional culture originated belief in individual
freedom
Backcountry = uncolonized land during colonialism, beyond western colonies
Scotch-Irish = Presbyterian and dissenters from Ulster who migrated in the 18/19th not to confuse with catholic
immigration during the mid-19th with farmers who fled potato famine

B) The emergence of British North America

Eastern seacoast settled mainly by English colonists during the 17th along w Dutch and Swedes
Colonial America defined by:
- severe labor shortage that relied on unfree labor such as slavery and indentured servitude (labor system where
people went to the New World by working for an employer for a certain number of years)
- British policy of Salutary Neglect (long term policy of avoiding enforcement of parliamentary laws meant to
keep colonies obedient to England, ended in 1763 when Britain reinforced their rules)
1607 = first successful English colony, Jamestown (James River, Virginia)
Established commercial agriculture based on tobacco
Between late 1610s and Revolution, British shipped around 50K convicts to colonies
Lots of major conflicts between Native & settlers in the following century:
- 1622 = Powhatan in Virginia
- 1675 to 1678 = King Philips War in New England
- 1715 to 1717 = Yamasee War in South Carolina

C) The religious dimension of British colonization

New England initially settled by Puritan Separatists (Pilgrims)

Mayflower Compact, self-government (will of majority)
Plymouth Colony, then Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630
First settlement south of Virginia = Georgia Colony (last of the thirteen) in 1733
Colonies characterized by religious diversity
- Congregationalists in New England
- Reformed in Middle Colonies
- Catholics in Maryland
- Presbyterians on the frontier
- Jews among early settlers New England and South
Many immigrants as religious refugees (French Protestants in New York, Virginia, Carolina)
1740 = First Great (religious) Awakening, led by preachers like Jonathan Edwards, George Whitefield
Evangelicalism stressed believers emotional involvement
Large-scale conversion of black slaves to Christianity

III. The Thirteen colonies

Original colonies were: New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, New
Jersey, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia

Divided into three groups:

1. New England (New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island)
Produced few staples necessary to England, soil/climate unsuited for agriculture.
Shipbuilding, naval trade became the basis of economy.
Triangle Trade system, sugar and molasses brought in the West Indies, converted into rum in New England, traded for
slaves in Africa, and slaves sold in the West Indies and Southern states.
Predominantly British, governed in a sort of democratic way: town meetings to act on matters like repairing roads,
building bridges.. electing representatives to colonial assembly
Inhabitants = strong sense of duty to community, linked w religious purpose that guided settlement
Emphasis on the group, development of urban civilization
2. The Southern Colonies (Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia)
Predominantly rural, economy rested on one crop (tobacco in Virginia, rice in South Carolina..)
Growth of the plantation system manned by slaves (first in Virginia)
First white indentured servants, then African slaves in 1619 who replaced them
Upper class = well-to-do planters (essential role in political and social affairs)
Middle-class = small planters, farmers, mechanics
Lower-class = yeomen farmers and poor whites
Planters produced more than they consumed = sold abroad
Dependence upon outside markets = economys main weakness
3. The Middle Colonies (New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania)
Less homogeneous, cosmopolitan society, religious diversity, varied agriculture

The thirteen colonies administrative statuses

Each had a specific governmental structure, ruled by a London governor, but three types of colonies
1. Royal colonies, ruled by a governor appointed by the monarch
2. Charter colonies, Britain established the rules under which the colony was to be governed (more or less
political liberty)
3. Proprietary colonies, created by colonial charters that the king would offer to close allies as rewards.
Facilitated private investment and self-government. Proprietor = effective ruler, although responsible to English law
and the king.
1760 = eight colonies first proprietary, then royals (Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Virginia,
North and South Carolina, Georgia)
Delaware, Maine, Maryland and Pennsylvania = proprietary
Rhode Island and Connecticut = Charter
Colonies grew rapidly, low death rates, ample supplies of land/food
Richer than most parts of Britain, attracted flow of young immigrants
Tobacco and rice plantations imported African slaves for labor (1770s = 5% population)
Chapter II: British North America from the mid-18th century to 1775

I. The French and Indian War (1754-1763)

Event in the political development of the colonies

North America Seven Years War (pitted England against France)
Indians (military allies of France) and French were main rivals of the British Crown in the colonies
1763 = influence reduced when British took over New France
Louisiana given to Spain by the French in 1762, to prevent it from becoming British
British took Acadia in 1755 and replaced it with New England Planters
French and Indian War = political background that originated political integration of Colonies
1754 = Albany Congress
Benjamin Franklins call for the colonies to Join or Die (political cartoon that shown New England as one segment
instead of four colonies, eight segments of a snake instead of 13, but only the original colonies were represented. Used
during the war to symbolize that the colonies needed to join together with Britain to defeat their opponents, later
became a symbol of colonial freedom)

II. British North America from 1763 to 1775

No question of independence since they needed British military support against FR/SP
Threat was gone in 1765
London saw the colonies as here to serve the mother country (mercantilism)
1763 = Treaty of Paris, acquisition of French territory
Royal Proclamation, organizing North American empire and protecting Natives from colonial expansion into
western lands.
Strains developed between colonists and the crown:
- 1765 = Stamp Act
- 1773 = Boston Tea Party to protest against the Tea Act by Sons of Liberty (dressed up as natives and throwing tea
into the water)
- 1774 = Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts, that concerned Massachusetts) put under army rule, which sparked
outrage and resistance in the colonies.
First Continental Congress to coordinate resistance to Coercive Acts. Called for a boycott of British trade,
petitioned the king, but no effect.
- 1775 = Second Continental Congress to organize defense of colonies against British army.
Strong sense of rights, felt the British were violating rights that stressed autonomy, fair dealing and government by
consent.
Sensitive issue of tyranny, manifested when British army came to Boston to punish them
Politically united on a concept of Republicanism, rejected aristocracy, emphasizing public duty
 Chapter III: American Revolution and the Young Republic to 1800

I. The American Revolution (1775 - 1783)

1775 = rebellion against British rule at Concord and Lexington, seize ammo & arrested the patriot leaders
1776 = second continental congress declared the independence of United States of America in the Declaration of
Independence, drafted by Thomas Jefferson. (July 4 = Independence Day)
New nation founded of Enlightenment ideals of liberalism, rights to life, liberty and pursuit of happiness
Dedicated to republican principles = people are sovereign, demand civic duty, fear corruption
1777 = British invasion in Saratoga stopped by the Americans, secured Northeast
Encouraged the French to make a military alliance w USA, they brought Spain & Netherlands
George Washington, proved excellent organizer and administrator, worked with the congress, mentoring officers,
training troops, maintaining idealist Republican Army
His biggest challenge was logistics since there wasnt enough funds to provide for all the equipment
Loyalists didnt support the war, faithful to British Crown, against Republicanism (20% population)
Persecuted during the Revolution, sometimes executed, properties confiscated
1783 = start to leave the USA, returned to Britain or sought refuse in the left British colonies

II. Early years of the republic

A) Confederation and Constitution

1781 = colonies united under Articles of Confederation, a constitutional framework that gave almost all the power to
the state and very little to the central government
Western territories became states
Confederation had no president, congress had no power to levy taxes
Economic development hindered by reluctance of foreign banks to give loans to a country that just emerged and isnt
organized
Nationalists (mostly veterans) worried that new nation as too fragile to face a war or intern revolts
They organized in every state, and convinced the congress to call a convention
May to September 1787 = Philadelphia Convention, delegates from every state wrote a new Constitution to regulate the
central government, with a strong president and power of taxation. Reflected republican ideals: individual liberty and
constraining power of gvt by separating powers
A compromise allowed the South to add 3/5 of the slaves to each states population, which increased the political power
of the south in the congress (especially concerning slavery)
1788 = United States Constitution
1791 = Bill of Rights, guaranteed individual liberties like freedom of speech, ect

B) The rise of Federalist power

1789 = George Washington 1st president of the USA, elected unanimously by the first Congress
1800 = Washington D.C national capital
Creation of a strong national government recognized by all
Assumed the debt of the states, created the Bank of USA to stabilize financial system
Set up a uniform system of tariffs (taxes on imports) to provide a financial infrastructure
Leader of Treasury secretary Alexander Hamilton created a new political party: Federalist Party
1794 = Whiskey Rebellion, the first test of the federal government
Washington called out the militia and led an army in July, and the insurgence melted away
Thomas Jefferson and James Madison formed an opposition Republican Party (Democratic-Republican)
Protested against the Jays treaty that established good relations with Britain
Voters aligned behind one party or another: First Party System
Federalists promoted business, financial and commercial interests, wanted more trade w Britain
Republicans accused them to try to establish a monarchy and go back to being a British pawn
Washington refused to serve more than two terms
He extolled benefits of federal government & importance of ethics an morality
Warned against foreign alliances and formation of political parties
John Adams, a Federalist, defeated Jefferson in the 1796 election
War loomed w France (refused to pay debts), Federalists used the opportunity to silence the Republicans with the Alien
and Sedition Acts (made it harder for an immigrant to become a citizen, allowed to president to imprison and deport
noncitizen, criminalized making false statement about the federal government)
Built an army led by Hamilton, prepared for a French invasion that never happened
Divided when Adams soothed the tensions between both countries

C) Slavery from the Revolutionary War to 1810

After Revolutionary War, dramatic changes in status of slavery, increase number of free blacks
Inspired by revolutionary ideals, northern states abolished slavery
States of the Upper South made emancipation of slaves easier, increase in number of free blacks
1810 = 13.5% of blacks in USA free
Deep south demanded more slave for cotton cultivation, this number decreased again
Slave trade = important source of wealth for internal US
 Chapter IV: Jeffersonian Republicanism, 1800 to 1828

Jeffersonian democracy = one of two dominant political movement

Used to refer to Jeffersons party created against Federalists
Deeply committed to Republicanism, which meant opposition to aristocracy/corruption, insistence on virtue and equal
rights for all white male citizen

I. The presidency of Thomas Jefferson (1801 - 1809)

Defeated Adams for the 1800 election

Major achievement = acquisition of Louisiana from Napoleon in 1803
Doubled territory of the USA, potential expansion west of the Mississippi River
Jefferson was a scientist and supported expeditions to explore/map the territory
1804 = Lewis and Clark Expedition, first to cross the western portion, to establish American presence but also study the
area, its fauna/flora and geography
Argued republicanism should be based on the independent farmer and planter
Distrusted cities, factories and banks, the federal government and judges
Tried to weaken the judiciary
John Marshall defined the Supreme Court, especially power to overturn acts of Congress or that violated the
constitution (Marbury v Madison, established principal of judicial review, under which legislative/executive actions
can be reviewed by judiciary, everything must follow the Constitution)

II. The War of 1812

1809 = James Madison, who helped drafting Constitution & Bill of rights, new president
1813 = re-elected
1812 = led USA into War of 1812, Mr Madisons War (nicknamed by Federalists)
Increasing frustration over the British violation of US ships neutral rights in order to hurt France
Seizure of 10K American Sailors needed by the Royal Navy to fight Napoleon
British support for hostile Native attacking American settlers in the Midwest
Federalists did not want to disturb trade with Britain, but war still happened
Frustrating war for both sides:
- American militia ineffective because soldiers didnt want to leave home, efforts to invade Canada repeatedly
failed
- British blockade ruined American commerce and bankrupted the Treasury
- Americans under General Harrison finally gained naval control of Lake Erie and defeated the Indians in Canada,
while Andrew Jackson ended threat in the Southeast
British invaded and occupied Maine, raided and burned Washington in 1814
Repelled in Baltimore, American success celebrated with Star-Spangled Banner
1815 = Andrew Jackson defeats a British Invasion in New Orleans, new war hero
Demise of Napoleon = causes of war evaporated, both sides agreed to peace
Americans claimed victory on the so-called Second War Of Independence
Indians = losers, never gained independence Britain promised

III. The Era of Good Feelings

National euphoria after victory in New-Orleans ruined the prestige of the Federalists
Republicans realize they shouldnt have closed the Bank of the United States by removing its charter
(the constitution did not explicitly allowed congress to incorporate a bank so they were against it)
1816 = chartered the Second Bank of the United States
Imposed tariffs to protect industries that has been created during the blockade
Adoption of Federalist principles by the Republicans
1817 to 1825 = James Monroe president, downplays partisan cleavages
Nation entered era of Good Feelings, far less partisanship, closed First Party System
1823 = Monroe Doctrine (response to American and British fears over French/Russian expansion in the Western
Hemisphere) proclaimed USAs opinion that no one should colonize/interfere with them
Defining moment in the foreign policy, no effect until late 19th century
Emergence of a new party system based on well-organized local parties
1824 electoral campaign, former Jeffersonian Party split into factions of the choice of a successor
No federalist in the presidential race, four democratic-republicans:
- Andrew Jackson, war hero of 1812
- Monroes secretary of state John Adams
- House speaker Henry Clay
- Treasury secretary William Crawford
None received majority in the popular election
House of representative had to choose
Clay supported Adams who appointed him secretary of state
Andrew Jacksons supporters charged them as corrupted
 Chapter V: Jacksonian Democracy, 1829 - 1849

Promoted the strength of the presidency and executive branch at the expense of the Congress
Seeking to broaden the peoples participation in government
Demanded elected judges and rewrote many state constitutions to reflect new values
Favored geographical expansion (Manifest Destiny)
Consensus Jacksonian/Whigs that battles over slavery should be avoided

I. Political life

During Adams presidency, Jackson gathered democrats committed to Jeffersonian concept

Central government = enemy of individual liberty
Government intervention in economy = would favor the rich
Sought to restore the independence of the individual (farmer, artisan) ended federal support of banks and
corporations
Named themselves Democratic Party
Andrew Jackson won the 1828 elections
Jacksonians definition of government, rather negative, tried to limit it
Leave individual with as much political/economic freedom as possible
Opposed reform as a movement
Reformers were eager to turn their program into legislation, asked for a more active government
Government opposed to programs like education reform, establishment of public education system
Public school restrict individual liberty by interfering w parental responsibility and undermined freedom of religion by
replacing church schools
Didnt share reformers humanitarians concerns either
No sympathy for Indians = removal of Cherokee (Trail of Tears)
1830 = Indian Removal Act, authorized president to negotiate treaties than exchanged lands in the Eastern states for
land west the Mississippi River (remove Native from the Southeast)
Whigs and religious leaders opposed the move as inhumane
Thousand of deaths resulted from relocations (Seminole Wars, refused to move west)
1832 = Jackson runs a second term, didnt renew the charter of the bank of the USA
Was convinced banking was used by the elite to take advantage on the middle-class
1834 = formation of Whig Party by Henry Clay (antagonism for Jacksons war against the bank, his contempt for
Supreme Court, the Constitution and Indian rights)
They captured the White House twice, in 1840 and 1848
1850 = fell apart over the issue of slavery
1837 = Jackson succeeded by his second vice-president, Martin Van Buren
1841 = Harrison then John Tyler
1845 = James Polk, last true Jacksonian president

II. Westward expansion and Manifest Destiny

American colonies & new nation grew rapidly

Native Americans tribes resisted but overwhelmed by settlers and the army
1830 = start being relocated to reserves in the West
Frontier Thesis = frontier shapes the national character (boldness, innovation, individualism..)
USA expanded with building farms, ranches, marking trails, digging mines, establishing laws..
1830 to 1869 = Oregon Trail used by over 300K settlers who headed to California
Manifest Destiny was the belief that settlers were destined to expand across the continent (although the term was
created by a journalist advocating war against Mexico)
Ideology rejected by modernizers, especially Whigs who wanted to build cities and factories
Democrats favored expansion and won the key election of 1844
1845 = Republic of Texas annexed (Mexico, who still considered it to be its territory, didnt approve)
1846 = Mexican-American war won by the US
1848 = Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (Mexico recognized annexation of Texas and ceded its claims)
Hispanic residents given citizenship, Mexican-Indians became American Indians
At the same time, Golden Rush in California
 Chapter VI: The sectional crisis of the 1850s and the Civil War

I. The sectional issue in the 1850s

Central issue of American politics after 1848 = slavery

Anti-slavery in the North vs pro-slavery in the South
Some abolitionists considered slave ownership as a sin (protestant theology)
Lots against expansion of slavery in the name of a doctrine that vindicated free land, labor and speech
Southern whites insisted on the fact its an economic, social and culture benefit to all
1850 = Compromise of 1850, federal enforcement, cooperation in turning over fugitives to their owner
Abolitionists attacked slavery, and anti-slavery spread in the North
1854 = Kansas-Nebraska Act undermined the prohibition of slavery in territory North
Opened both states to slavery and admission of slaves by allowing settlers to choose though popular sovereignty
whether they would allow slavery in the territory
Abolitionists and free-soilers saw this as an expansionist maneuver by the expansionist South
Led to the creation of the Republican Party
Violent confrontation between anti and pro-slavery between 1854 and 1861 (Bleeding Kansas)
1850 = republican party dominates nearly all northern states, prohibited slavery
Southern slavery-based societies became wealthy based on cotton productions
Northern cities such as Boston and New York economically tied to slavery (using these productions)
1860 = four millions of slaves in the South
Plantations highly profitable, because of European demand for cotton
Slave rebellions took place, 1831 Nat Turner and 1859 John Brown
Failed, caused fear in the white South that imposed tighter slave oversight, reduced rights of Blacks
1850 = Fugitive Slave Act (cooperation about fugitive slaves)
An escaped slave was presumed to have attained freedom thanks to 1820 Missouri Compromise
Supreme Court decided this compromise was unconstitutional
Slave = not an US citizen, property of their owner, cant deprive an owner from his property
Republicans said that decision threatened to make slavery a national institution

II. The Civil War (1861-1865)

1860 = Abraham Lincoln win the election

1861 = Southern states seceded from the union and set up the Confederate States of America
Attacked Fort Sumter, ignited the war
When Lincoln called for troops to suppress the confederacy, four more states joined
Few union slave states did not secede = border states (Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri)
North portion of Virginia joined the Union during the war = West Virginia
Lincoln called 75K troops to recapture forts, protect the capital and preserve the Union
1861 = First Battle Of Bull Run (Union Defeat)
Proved that the war would be much longer and bloodier than expected
Union had large advantages in men and resources
1865 = Confederate General Robert Lee surrenders to General Ulysse Grant
8% of white male died during the war, 6% from the North, 18% from the South
Deadliest war in American history
Ended slavery in the United States
Restored the Union, strengthened role of the federal government
 Chapter VII: Aftermath of the Civil War and the Gilded Age

I. Emancipation and Reconstruction

1863 = Emancipation Proclamation, executive order issued by president Lincoln

Freed 3 millions of black slaves, never compensated the owners
Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy by June and liberated all the designated slaves
Lots moved into camps run by Freedmens Bureau, given food and shelter, medical care..
Border states = no obligation to grant freedom to their slaves, only concerned Confederacy

Reconstruction = 12 years after 1865 when the Republicans dominated Congress

Tried to reconstruct the Union of former Confederacy with rest of the country
Major issues faced by Lincoln:
- status of ex-slaves
- loyalty and civil rights of ex-rebels
- status of 11 ex-confederate states
- powers of federal government that had to prevent a future Civil War
- whether Congress or the President would make the major decisions
Three Reconstruction Amendments passed to expand civil rights for black Americans:
- 13th that outlawed slavery
- 14th that guaranteed equal rights for all, citizenship for Blacks
- 15th prevented race from being used to disfranchise men

1867 to 1877 = Radical Reconstruction

Ex-confederates remained in control of most Southern states for two years, Republicans win the 1866 elections
1865 to 1869 = President Andrew Johnson
He tried to bring the South back to normal as fast as possible
But Radical Republicans used Congress to upgrade the rights of the Freedmen
They stripped ex-confederate leaders of the right to hold office
Republican government came to power in the South
But they lost power to a conservative-democratic coalition that gained control of the south in 1877
1867 = KKK emerged as a white-supremacist organization opposed to black rights & republicans
1870 = KKK Act to shut it down (by president Ulysse Grant)
Disbanded officially but paramilitary groups emerged (White League, Red Shirts)
Used intimidation and violence to suppress black voting, regain white political power
1876 = end of reconstruction with election between Hayes (Republican) and Tilden (Democratic)
Hayes won and the federal government took its troops back from the South
Southern democrats re-entered political scene
1890 to 1908 = southern states disfranchised black & poor white vote by making registration harder
Passed segregation laws, imposed second-class status on blacks (Jim Crow) approved by Supreme Court
Lasted until the success of Civil Rights movement in 1950

II. The Gilded Age

Term used by Mark Twain to describe dramatic expansion of American wealth and prosperity
Era of rapid economic growth, particularly in the North and West (transcontinental railroad)
American wages higher than in Europe = lots of immigration
Expansion of industrialization = wage growth of 60%
Also an era of abject poverty, million of immigrants from impoverished European nations
Resulted in wealth becoming highly concentrated
Railroad were the major industry with factory system, mining and finance
Immigration from Europe and China = growth of the West (farming, ranching, mining)
Labor unions became important in industrial areas
Two nationwide depressions, the Panic of 1873 and 1893 interrupted that growth
Caused social and political upheavals
South = devastated after the war (tobacco and cotton suffered from low prices)
Black people were stripped of political power & voting rights = economically disadvantaged
The Panic of 1893 was felt until 1896, impacting farmers, workers and businessmen
Many railroads went bankrupt
Political reaction fell on the Democratic Party who took most of the blame
Numerous labor strikes (Pullman Strike, 1894) usually shut down by federal troops
Populist Party gained ground among farmers and miners
Overtaken by Free Silver movement, which asked to use silver to enlarge money supplies
Led to inflation that silverites promised would end depression
Financial, railroad, business communities fought back (only gold can save the economy)
1896 = conservative republican William McKinley won
Prosperity returned
By 1900, strongest economy on the globe
Apart from two recessions (1907 and 1920), remained prosperous until 1929
 Chapter VIII: From 1900 to the Jazz Age

I. The Progressive Era

Middle class grew dissatisfied with corruption and inefficiency of politics

Increase of important urban and industrial problems
1890 = Progressive Movement
They called for modernization, reform of institution, elimination of corruption
Leading politicians from both parties took up the cause of progressive reform:
- Republican: Theodore Roosevelt, Charles Hughes
- Democrats: William Bryan and Woodrow Wilson
Women became involved in demands for woman suffrage, prohibition, better schools (Jane Addams)
Journalists like Upton Sinclair and Lincoln Steffens exposed corruption in business and government
Progressives implemented anti-trust laws, regulated corrupted industries
Four new progressive constitutional amendments:
- 16th, federal income tax
- 17th, direct election of senators by popular vote
- 18th, prohibition of alcohol
- 19Th, women suffrage (1920)

II. Imperialism

After 1890 = world economic and military power

1898 = Spanish-American War (Spain refused to reform its oppressive policies in Cuba)
Cuba became an independent country under American tutelage
America defeated insurrection by Filipino nationalists
Engaged in a program to modernize the country and upgrade public health facilities of Philippines
1908 = lost of interest in an empire, turned their attention to the Caribbean
1912 = Arizona becomes the final mainland state
1914 = Canal of Panama opens, increases trade with Japan

III. World War I

1914 = Wilson takes full control of foreign policy, declaring neutrality but warning Germany
Germany takes the risk of submarine warfare and cuts off supplies to Britain
1917 = US declares war, receive money, food and ammo quickly but American troops had to be trained
1918 = Allied victory, Wilson demands to Germany to accept the Fourteen Points
1919 = Wilson dominates the Paris Peace Conference, Germany treated harshly
Senate rejects the Treaty and the League of Nation because refused the power to declare war

IV. The Roaring Twenties

Decade of great economic growth, widespread prosperity

Growth of consumer goods such as automobiles and electricity
Farming and mining were stagnant
USA = richest country in the world, largest economy
Industry aligned to mass production, consumerist society
Jazz became popular, so the era was also called the Jazz Age
Three Republican presidents:
- 1921 to 1923 = Warren Harding
- 1923 to 1929 = Calvin Coolidge
- 1929 to 1933 = Herbert Hoover
They were supporters of small government, tax cuts and economic laissez-faire
1920 = manufacture, sale and import of alcohol prohibited by 18th amendment
Illegal alcohol became a big business in cities (Al Capone in Chicago)
1924 = Immigration Act to limit immigration from countries whore already 2% of US population
Asians & Indians = prohibited from immigrating
1929 = Wall Street Crash, end of the era of prosperity
 Chapter IV: From the Great Depression to World War II

I. The Depression

1929 = unemployment increased of 3% against 25% in 1933

1932 = Roosevelt promises a New Deal for American people
The desperate situation have him a lot of influence over the Congress in his First Hundred Days
Series of measures, welfare programs, regulated the banking system, stock market..
New Deal regulated much of the economy, reformed it
Relieved the unemployed with large-scale project designed to provide high-paying jobs
Built labor unions through the Wagner Act, introduced Social Security programs
Helped Roosevelt to be re-elected in 1936, 1940 and 1944
New Deal Coalition supported by union members, workers, ethnic and religious groups..
Some programs dropped when the conservation regained power through the Conservative Coalition after Roosevelt
tried to limit the powers of the Judiciary in 1937

II. World War II

Depression years:
- America focused on domestic concerns
- Many countries fell under dictatorial regimes (Nazis, Imperial Japan..)
- Britain and France tried to avert another war
1939 = Invasion of Poland by Nazis and starting of the second World War
Roosevelt positioned the US as the Arsenal of Democracy and provided for the Allies
1941 = entered the war after Pearl Harbor (attack of Japanese on the US Naval Army in December)
Main contributions: money, food, petroleum, technological innovation, military personnel
Results: export of vast quantity of supplies, end of unemployment, rise in civilian consumption
Improvement in productivity, workers moved to high-efficiency jobs, students into active labor
Durable goods like meat, clothing and gasoline tightly rationed
Housing was in short supply in industrial areas, prices and wages controlled
Allies put the focus on Germany, US tried to end Japan expansion (stopped it in 1942)
1943 = Collapse of Mussolinis fascist government, Italy joined the Allies
Wartime production led to full employment
Labor shortages encouraged industry to look for new workers (women and blacks)
Removal of Japanese descent in the West Coast because of anti-Japanese sentiment
Mainland prospered, untouched by the devastation of war
End of predominant American isolationism by investment in postwar foreign affairs
Threat of nuclear weapons inspired optimism and fear
1947 = Truman Doctrine, starting of the Cold War
 Chapter X: The Cold War, the Civil Rights Struggles, and the Counterculture

I. The Cold War

After WW2, USA = one of two dominant superpowers (with USSR)

US senate vote approved US participation in the United Nations (break with isolationism)
Primary goal was to rescue Europe from the devastation of WW2 and to contain Communism
1947 = Truman Doctrine, provided military/economic aid to Greece and Turkey
1948 = US replaced financial aid programs with Marshall Plan, $13 billion into West Europe economy
Removed trade barrier, modernized managerial practice of business & government
Soviet leader Joseph Stalin prevented his states from participating
Eastern Europe fell behind in terms of economic development
1949 = North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance & Soviets formed the Warsaw Pact of Communists
Soviets tested their first nuclear weapon, risk of warfare increased
Threat of mutually assured destruction prevented both countries from going too far
Resulted in proxy-wars in Korea and Vietnam, where they didnt directly confront each others
1957 = Sputnik, first Earth satellite and beginning of the Space Race
1969 = win of the Americans with the launch of Apollo 11
Large-scale federal support for science education & research
USA = influence in economic, political, military, cultural and technological affairs
1950 = middle-class culture obsessed with consumer goods
90% of White Americans made up the population
1960 = John F. Kennedy elected, first and only Roman Catholic president so far
Acceleration of the US role in the Space Race, Vietnam War
1961 = failed Bay of Pigs invasion
1962 = Cuban Missile crisis
1962 = assassinated in Dallas

II. The climax of liberalism

1963 = Lyndon B. Johnson president, secures congressional passage of his Great Society program
Included civil rights, end of segregation, federal aid to education, subsidies for the art..
No hint of radicalism and no intention to restructure existing institutions
Anti-communist, aimed to defend the free world, encouraged economic growth fairly distributed
Providing public resources to fund larger housing, health, educational programs
1968 = Richard Nixon elected
Despite being conservative, kept the Next Deal and Great Society programs going
Vietnam War saw growing social movements from women, minorities and young people
Feminism and environmental movements became political forces
Progress continued toward civil rights for all Americans
Counterculture Revolution divided Americans in a culture war
But also brought more liberated social views

III. The Civil Rights Movement

1950 = institutionalized racism started across the US, especially in the South
Challenged by growing Civil Rights movement
African-American leaders Rosa Parks & Martin Luther King JR led to Montgomery Bus Boycott
Struggled with violence but achieved great step toward equality with Supreme Court decisions
- Brown v. Board of Education: schools separating whites and blacks declared unconstitutional
- Loving v. Virginia: invalidated laws prohibiting interracial marriage
1964 = Voting Rights Act
1968 = Fair Housing Act
Ended the Jim Crow Laws that legalized racial segregation
1968 = Martin Luther King Jr assassinated
Black power emerged during the late 1960s and early 1970s (lots of riots)
Decade brought positive strides toward integration, especially in government service and sports
Native Americans turned to the federal court to fight for their land rights
Held protests highlighting the governments failure to honor treaties
American Indian Movement = most outspoken Native movement
1960 = Cesar Chavez organized poorly paid Mexican-American farmers in California
He created the United Farm Workers of America, led a five year long strike by grape pickers
Consciousness of inequality of American women started to grow
1963 = book published by Betty Friedan explaining how American culture trapped women into their role of wives and
how they felt unfulfilled
1966 = Friedan established the National Organization for Women
Women Liberation Movement grew in size and power, earned media attention
1972 = Equal Rights Amendment added to the constitution
1973 = Supreme Court made abortion a fundamental right
1980 = conservative coalition defeated that amendment
Many federals laws (equalizing pay, employment, education.. ) state laws (criminalizing spousal abuse, marital rape)
and supreme court decisions (14th amendment applied) established womens equal status
Social custom and consciousness began to change, accepting womens equality
 Chapter XI: The long ending of the Cold War, and the late 20th century Conservative Resurgence

I. The chaotic 1970s

1969 = Richard Nixon elected, tried to turn the war over to the South Vietnamese forces
1973 = negotiated peace treaty, secured the release of prisoners of war, withdrawal of US troops
1974 = resigned after the Watergate Scandal, succeeded by Gerald Ford

1973 = oil embargo, prices skyrocketed and American factories faced serious competition
Started to suffer from an energy crisis, slow economic growth, high unemployment
Many of the New Deal regulations were ended, judged wise by economists
1975 = Fall of Saigon, end of Vietnam War, both parts reunited
Communism victory in Cambodia and Laos = worries of US decline
1976 = Jimmy Carter elected president
1979 = Iran Hostage Crisis at the US Embassy
1980 = Reagan elected
1981 = hostages released after 444 days, when Carters term ended

II. The Reagan Era

Implemented new political and economic initiative, economic policies Reaganomics

Advocated tax rate reduction to increase economic growth, reduction in government spending
Survived an assassination, escalated the War on Drugs, fought public-sector labor
Over his two terms, reduction of inflation and annual growth of GDP
Foreign affairs dominated his second term, ending the Cold War, bombing of Libya (1986)
Escalated an arm race with USSR by calling the Soviet Union an evil empire
1989 = Bush elected, foreign policy centered (Panama, Persian Gulf)
Berlin Wall fell, USSR was dissolved, US = only world superpower

III. The end of the 20th century

1992 = Bill Clinton elected, longest period of economic expansion, digital revolution
Worked with Republican congress to pass the first balanced federal budget in 30 years
1998 = Impeached by House of Representative on charges on lying but acquitted by the Senate
Republican party extended in the South among White conservative
White Democrats lost dominance, region took on the two-party apparatus that characterized nation
Reagan = iconic status in Republican Party
2000 = election between Bush and Al Gore was one of the closest in US history
Bush was eventually elected
 Chapter XII: From 9/11 to Barack Obama: the Hardship of the 21st century

I. The Bush presidency: 9/11 and the War on Terror

2001 = Twin Towers of the World Trade Center terrorist attack (~3K deaths)
One of the planes retaken by passengers but crashed in an empty field and everyone died
Bush declared a War on Terror and invaded Afghanistan with NATO to oust the Taliban regime
Federal government established new domestic efforts to prevent future attacks
USA PATRIOT Act increased the government power to monitor communications and removed legal restrictions on
information sharing between federal law enforcement and intelligence services
Creation of Department of Homeland Security to coordinate counter-terrorism activities
Some of these efforts led to allegations of human rights violations
2003 = invasion of Iraq, collapse of the government, capture of Saddam Hussein
Wanted to spread democracy, eliminate weapons of mass destruction, liberate Iraqi people
Despite initial success, people started to question whether the invasion was worth the cost
2008 = Great Recession; housing market, automotive crisis, rising unemployment
Worst financial crisis since the Great Depression
Threatened the stability of the entire economy, banks in grave danger
Federal government led $245 billion to financial institution through an act signed by Bush

II. The Obama Presidency

2008 = election of Obama

First term addressed the global financial crisis, extension of Bush tax cuts, legislation to reform health care, major
financial reform bill, end of a major US military presence in Iraq
2009 = American Recovery and Reinvestment Act
Tried to rescue the auto industry and prevent future economic meltdown
Recession officially ended in June, economy slowly began to expand again
Major legislative achievement = Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Obamacare)
Increased quality and affordability of health insurance, reduced costs of healthcare
2010 = end of combat operation in Iraq, but 50K soldiers stayed there to assist Iraqi forces
2011 = end of war and last troop left the country, involvement in Afghanistan
2012 = second term
Executive orders to limit carbon emissions, protect illegal immigrants from deportation
Negotiated a thaw in relations with Cuba, multilateral agreement on nuclear program of Iran
Signed a major bipartisan bill that reduced the role of federal government in education
Implementation of Obamacare