ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

LONGMANS COMMERCIAL

SERIES

Edited by ALFRED NIXON, F.C.A.

SECRETARIAL WORK AND PRACTICE.

By Alfred NtxoN, F.C.A., F.S.AA., F.C.I.S.,
and George H. Richardson, A.S.A.A., F.C.I. S.
Also COMPANY LAW by THOMAS Price, LL.B.,
Solicitor. Crown 8vo, y-
COMMERCIAL LAW. By Alfred Nixon,
F.C.A., FS.A.A, F.C.I.S., and Robert W.
Holland, M.Sc, LL.B. Crown 8vo, s.
ACCOUNTING AND BANKING. By
Alfred Nixon, F.C.A., F.S.A.A., F.C.I.S., as
sisted by J. H. Stagg, A.C.A. (Honours). 8vo,
ioj. 6d.

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

LONDON, NEW YORK, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA.
ACCOUNTING AND

BANKING

BY
ALFRED NIXON, F.C.A., F.S.A.A., F.C.I.S.
w
PRINCIPAL OP THE MUNICIPAL SCHOOL OP COMMERCE, MANCHESTER
LECTURER IN ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

ASSISTED BY
J. H. STAGG, AC.A. (Honours)
LECTURER IN ACCOUNTING AND BANKING, MANCHESTER MUNICIPAL
SCHOOL OF COMMERCE

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
NEW YORK, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA
1907
All rights reserved
 ,5^

GENEHAL
 PREFACE

In the preparation of the present volume, my object has been to

provide a comprehensive and practical text-book, at a moderate
cost, to meet the requirements of the following :
1. Business men, for whom it is hoped that the volume may
serve as a clear and practical guide to the various commercial
matters in which they are closely concerned, viz. business
methods and the organization of accounts, banking, cheques
and bills, partnerships and joint stock enterprise, income tax
regulations and accounts.
2. Candidates for the valuable certificates in Accounting
and Banking, and in Advanced Bookkeeping, awarded by the
Society of Arts and the London Chamber of Commerce.
8. Candidates for the professional examinations of
(a) The Institute of Chartered Accountants ;
(b) The Society of Accountants and Auditors (Incorpo
rated) ;
(c) The Chartered Institute of Secretaries ; and
(</) The Institute of Bankers.
4. Teachers of the subjects named, who will readily appreciate
the value of the numerous examples selected from those met
with during an extensive professional practice, and of the 240
carefully graded questions on the text, mainly taken from recent
papers of the various examining bodies.
In dealing with the principal branches of commercial and
financial activity, I have endeavoured to avoid technicalities,
and have preferred to adopt a plain business-like style in
explaining the underlying principles and the essentials of the
various classes of accounts considered.
The order and method of treatment follow the plan adopted
by me with conspicuous success in lecturing during the past
twenty years to large classes of business men and accountancy

IK701 1
vi PREFACE
students. During that period I have gained an intimate know
ledge of the special difficulties and requirements of such students,
and I have not unreasonable confidence that the knowledge and
experience thus acquired will be valuable to the readers of the
present work.
I desire to express my indebtedness and thanks to the
several members of my staff who have rendered assistance, and
to Mr. H. Lysons, Chartered Accountant, of Manchester, for the
Building Society Accounts.
As in the working of so many examples I cannot hope to be
entirely free from errors, I shall deem it a favour to be informed
of any inaccuracy that may have escaped notice. I would also
invite readers who may be uncertain as to the treatment of
matters dealt with, to communicate with me for the explanation
of any difficulty they may encounter in working the exercises.

ALFRED NIXON.
Municipal School of Commerce,
Manchester.
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER I
ORGANIZATION OF ACCOUNTS
CashGoodsBillaStock BookReconciliation StatementSelf-balanc
ing Ledgers 1

CHAPTER II
DOUBLE ENTRY ACCOUNTS
Preparation for AuditTrial BalanceProfit and Loss AccountBalance
Sheet

CHAPTER III
SINGLE ENTRY ACCOUNTS
Conversion to Double EntryErrors of Commission, Omission, and
PrincipleForms of Trial BalanceArrangement of Books for Sec
tional BalancingAdjustment Account 16

CHAPTER IV
PARTNERSHIP
DefinitionPartnership AgreementsNovationWorking Rules of Partner
shipDrawings AccountsBalance SheetGoodwill, and its Treat
ment in the Accounts 30

CHAPTER V
PAR TNERSHIPcontinued
DissolutionStatement of AccountsExceptions to Partnership Liability
Insurance to provide for withdrawal of Capital Realization Account
Treatment of Deficiency of Insolvent Partner 47
viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI
JOINT STOCK COMPANIES
FACE
Classes of SharesConversion of Shares into StockMemorandum and
Articles of AssociationProspectusSection 12, Companies Act,
1900Company's opening entriesStatistical BooksProfit and Loss
Account and Balance SheetForfeited SharesProfits prior to In
corporation 62

CHAPTER VII
JOINT STOCK COMPANIESDEBENTURES
Borrowing of MoneyClasses of DebenturesDebenture StockExamples
of Debenture IssuesForms of Debenture and Stock Certificate
Forms of Books dealing with DebenturesEntries for Issue of
Debenture StockTreatment in the Accounts of Expenses of Issue
Issue at a DiscountDebentures to BankersRedemption of Deben
turesReduction of Capital with Examples 96

CHAPTER VIII
PROVISION AND RESERVE ACCOUNTS
Secret ReservesSinking FundsCalculation of Annual Instalments
Depreciation FundRenewal FundSuspense AccountInsurance
Fund Premiums on SharesReserve Capital 112

CHAPTER IX
INCOME TAX
Persons liableClassification of IncomeRegulations for calculating
ProfitsDeductionsAbatementsAllowancesForms of preparing
Accounts for the CommissionersExamplesChange in the Rate
Dividends free of Income TaxAdjustment AccountRepayment of
over-Assessment, section 133Finance Act, 1907 127

CHAPTER X
DEPARTMENTAL. AGENCY, AND BRANCH ACCOUNTS
Departmental Books and Trading AccountsDepartmentsShops Manu
facturing ConcernsForeign BranchesExamples of Consignment
and Current AccountsAgency Accounts with ExamplesAscertain
ment of Net Profits on Departments 143

CHAPTER XI
BRANCH ACCOUNTS
Foreign ExchangeForeign Account keepingFinal Entries in Head
Office Accounts 161
 CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER XII
THE ACCOUNTS OF INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIETIES
PAOB
Receipts and Payments AccountsIncome and Expenditure Accounts
Balance SheetsFees and Subscription RegistersTramways'
Revenue Account with Percentages of Charges 179

CHAPTER XIII
MANUFACTURING
Classes of AccountsWagesStoresTrading or Working Account
Depreciation : Method of Treatment in the AccountsProfit and Loss
Account and Costing 193

CHAPTER XIV
MANUFACTURINGcontinued
Terminal Cost AccountsWagesMaterialsStoresPlant issued
Incorporation of Cost with General Ledger SystemCosting outside
the General Accounts 204

CHAPTER XV
STATISTICAL RETURNS
Overdue Book DebtsCash SummariesLedger BalancesApproximate
Trading Accounts Diagrams and Curves in regard to Turnover and
ExpensesDealings in Debenture StockPrices of Cotton and Bank
Rate 218

CHAPTER XVI.
BANKING
Services of BankRelation of Banker to his CustomerSources of Profit
Bill DiscountingGuarantee of AdvancesAdvances to Bill Brokers
Opening of AccountDeposit and Current AccountsMoney at
CallThe Bank of England and its relation to the Banking World
Government and the General PublicBank RateBank Note Issues
Bank ReturnsCheck on Bank charges 226

CHAPTER XVII
BANK BOOK-KEEPING
Cash SectionBills SectionSecurities and InvestmentsCustomers'
AccountsProfit and Loss SectionBranches" On the Balance "
Rebate 244
X CONTENTS

CHAPTER XVIII
CHEQUES
PAGE
Definitions and EssentialsEndorsementsDishonouredLost Cheques
Crossed ChequesNot Negotiable ChequesClearingCircular Notes
Letters of Credit

CHAPTER XIX
BILLS OF EXCHANGE
FunctionsDefinitions and EssentialsStamp DutiesAcceptances
EndorsementsSignaturePresentationDishonoured Rights and
Liabilities of Parties to a BillAccommodation BillsCase of Need
Acceptance for HonourForeign BillsEntry in the Accounts
Exchange 271

CHAPTER XX
DOUBLE ACCOUNT SYSTEM
Capital Receipts and Expenditure AccountsGeneral Balance Sheet
Repairs and Renewal FundCompanies to which applicable
Accounts of Railway Companies and General Balance SheetSingle
Ship CompaniesTramway Companies 293

CHAPTER XXI
TABULAR LEDGERS AND ACCOUNTS
Hotel AccountsTabular Ledger of a Gas CompanySolicitor's Cash
Journal 305

CHAPTER XXII
BANKRUPTCY
Arrangement with CreditorsStatement of Affairs and Schedules
Deficiency AccountPreferential PaymentsTrustees' Accounts and
Statements in Bankruptcy 320

CHAPTER XXIII
LIQUIDATIONS, RECONSTRUCTIONS, AND AMALGAMATIONS
Statement of AffairsContributoriesExamples of Statement of Affairs
and Deficiency Accounts Statement of Realization of the Estate
Examples of Reconstruction and of Amalgamation 334

CHAPTER XXIV
INSURANCE
RegistersAgentsAdvances on PoliciesRevenue ReceiptsBooks
Schedules 3C1
 CONTENTS xi

CHAPTER XXV
COLLIERIES
PAGK
Capital ExpenditureRoyaltiesMinimum or Dead Rent, and their
Treatment in the AccountsWaggons and the Hire-Purchaee System
Cost Accounts 376

CHAPTER XXVI
BUILDING SOCIETIES
Permanent, Terminating SocietiesRights and Liabilities of Members
MortgagesAnnual StatementAuditor's ReportTermination, Dis
solution and Winding-upAccountsCash Book, Ledgers, Final
Accounts and Statement 388

CHAPTER XXVI 1
EXECUTORSHIP ACCOUNTS
Estate Duty AccountEstate DutyAccountsLegaciesDistribution
Example of Accounts Definitions 413

CHAPTER XXVIII
TRUST ACCOUNTS
ApportionmentsInvestments Life InterestsExamples of Accounts . 427

APPENDIX
Table A of the Companies Acts as Revised 1906 443
- I III II
 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

CHAPTER I

ORGANIZATION OF ACCOUNTS

CashGoodsBillsStock BookReconciliation StatementSelf-balancing

Ledgers.
To Alfred Nixon, Esq., Portland Street, Manchester.
Victoria Buildings, January 2, 19.
Manchester.
Dear Mb. Nixon,
As you are doubtless aware, I have re
signed my position with Messrs. Sharp & Co., and commenced
business on my own account at the above address.
As I am anxious that my accounts shall be kept on the right
lines, I should be glad if you would give me an early call to
arrange terms for the organization of the accounts, and the
yearly audit of the books.
I am,
Yours faithfully,
A. Reader.

At the interview with Mr. Reader on the next day, satis

factory terms were arranged, and the particulars of the character
and the probable scope of his business operations ascertained.
The following is an outline of the recommendations made to
suit his particular requirements as a trader, giving and receiving
credit, and with but a moderate turnover :

1. Goods
(a) Purchases authorized by printed and numbered order
forms, of which carbon or press copies are to be kept for
I B
2 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
reference ; these orders to be signed by responsible persons
only, and a general supervision on quantities and prices to be
maintained by the principal.
Invoices received to be checked in regard to quantities,
quality, price, extensions, and additions, and initialled by
persons dealing with these points. Passed invoices to be
fastened in Guard Book.
(b) Saks. Orders received to be filed for reference; as
goods are delivered invoices to be made out, and checked by
junior for copying in special press book, or entering into Sales
Day Book.
(c) Returns and Alloivances to be noted by debit or credit
notes, and particulars to be entered in outward or inward
Returns Book, as the case may be.
(d) Trade Discount, being a special allowance on goods,
quite apart from the payment of the account, to be deducted
from invoices of purchases, and deducted from sales in the
Sales Day Book.

2. Cash Transactions

(a) Money received. No receipts to be given on invoices or

statements, but only acknowledged by the firm's printed receipts
from counterfoil receipt books bearing printed consecutive
numbers. All cash received to be paid into the bank forthwith.
Notice to be given on business forms that cheques be made
payable to the firm, and crossed to the firm's bankers, and that
only a printed receipt will be an acknowledgment of payment.
(b) Money paid. All accounts to be paid by crossed cheques,
and vouchers for such payments to be placed in Voucher Guard
Book in the order of entry in the Cash Book. Prior to payment
all statements to be carefully checked with the ledger accounts,
and rate of discount supervised.
(c) All Cash Discounts to be entered in the Cash Book, and
full advantage taken of favourable termsremembering that
24 for three months means at the rate of 10 per cent. per
annum.
(d) Petty Cash to be kept on the Imprest system, i.e. the
amount to be advanced to the petty cash clerk, sufficient to
enable him to make small payments, and a cheque to be drawn
 ORGANIZATION OF ACCOUNTS 3
each week, or month, for the total ; thus restoring the petty cash
advance to its original amount.
(e) Salaries to be certified, and a cheque drawn each week
for the total sum, or for each monthly salary.
(/) Monies drawn out by Mr. Reader on account of profits
to be paid by cheque, and charged to a Drawings' Account.

8. Bills of Exchange
(a) Receivable to be numbered in consecutive order of receipt
and full particulars entered in Bills' Journal. If discounted,
discount to be entered in discount column of Cash Book, and
the net proceeds in bank column.
(b) Payable to be numbered consecutively and careful super
vision maintained of dates of payment ; and that in accepting
care be taken to prevent heavy engagements coming on any
particular date.

4. General
(a) Ledgers to be kept posted up to date, and proved on
self- balancing principle. Cashier and clerks dealing with cash
not to post into ledgers.
(6) Sales Ledger. Accounts-due Book to be entered up each
month, and supervision kept over accounts overdue.
(c) Purchase Ledger. Statements from creditors to be
checked on receipt, and differences inquired into and rectified.
(d) Bank Pass Book to be made up frequently, and checked
with Bank Account in Cash Book.
(e) Petty Cash and Wages Books to be overlooked by
principal, and initialled to certify that in order.
(/) Stock Book to be kept in Dr. and Cr. form, particulars
of dates, names, description of goods, prices and references to
invoices and Day Book entries. Occasional check to be made
by responsible persons of quantities in stock, as shown by
the book.
The following is the ruling of the Stock Book suitable for
this business. For each particular class of goods several pages
may be reserved, so that the quantities on hand of any descrip
tion, or special quality of merchandise may be readily ascer
tained or checked.
ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

r
5

13
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^30)9 ao
 ORGANIZATION OF ACCOUNTS 5
Reconciliation Statement.As the Bank Account should be
reconciled with the Pass Book at frequent intervals, it will be
well to give an example of a Reconciliation Statement entered
in the Cash Book, say, on January 81 :
s. d.
Balance as per Pass Book 940 0 0
Add cheques not collected
. d.
A 35 0 0
B 60 0 0
95 0 0
1035 0 0
Deduct cheques drawn but not presented
X 2 10 0
Y 125 0 0
Z 240 0 0
367 10 0
As per balance in Cash Book 667 10 0

Let us take the case where on December 81 the Cash

Book shows an overdraft at the bank, and the Pass Book the
reverse
. d.
Balance to Dr. of bank, as per Pass Book 520 0 0
Add cheque not collected (Lang and Co.) 30 0 0
Deduct cheques not presented 550 ' 0 0
. d.
Watts 422 10 0
Cooper 110 0 0
Brown 243 15 0
776 5 0
Less 550 0 0
to Cr. of bank as
Balance of . . .226 5 OFnVTZ
l per Cash Book.

Self-balancing Ledgers. Instructions were given that each

Trade Ledger should be self-balancing. To do this a Memo
randum Account of aggregate or total postings should be drawn
out each month to prove that the balances of that particular
ledger have been extracted correctly, and as a test upon the
accuracy of the postings and additions. In this way errors
are localized, and each ledger clerk made responsible for his
own blunders.
6 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Sales ok Dr. Ledger

1. To balance . . . . 4500 2425
er 3200 ,. discounts . . 75
transfers . . . . 25 ., bills receivable . 1300
., returns . . . . 120
,, bad debts . . 30
balance . . . . 3775
7725 7725

The amounts included in the above are the month's totals

from the various books, representing it may be thousands of
postings made by the clerks from the record books.
The balance is the proved amount on November 80; the
Day Books and Returns Books give the totals of the sales and
returns ; Cash Book of the total receipts and discounts ; the
Bills Receivable Book of acceptances received ; and from the
Journal are the bad debts and the transfers from other ledgers.
Purchase or Cr. Ledger

Dec. 31. To cash .... . 3101 Dec. 1. By balance . . . . 6200
discount . . . 99 31. purchases . . . 2730
,, bills payable . . 2400 transfers . . 25
,, returns . . 115
balance . . . 3240
8955 8955

In this example it will be noticed that transfers from the

other ledgers, for which usually a Transfer Journal would be
kept, may be on both sides of the account.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

1. How would you deal with inward invoices?
2. How would you enter and deal with an allowance made on goods sold ?
3. What special points should bo noted in regard to cash receipts and
payments ?
4. Distinguish between trade and cash discounts, and state the method of
entering in the record books.
5. What do you consider a good method of keeping a petty-cash book ?
fi. Describe any special points in the drawing and accepting of bills.
7. Draft a form of Stock Book, stating the particulars usually given.
8. What is a Bank Reconciliation Account? Give an example.
9. What is the object of keeping self-balancing ledgers ?
10. Give an example to show the check maintained on a debtor's ledger.
 CHAPTER II

DOUBLE ENTRY ACCOUNTS

Preparation for AuditTrial BalanceProfit and Loss Account

Balance Sheet.

Ix is the end of the year, and Mr. A. Reader is anxious to

know to what extent his trading during the past twelve months
has been profitable or otherwise, and also to have placed before
him a clear and correct statement of his financial position. At
a preliminary call the following instructions are given to the
book-keeper to facilitate the audit :
(a) Postcards to be sent to trade creditors asking for state
ments of accounts to December 31 inclusive, and thus enable
Ledger Accounts to be checked by them.
(b) Bank Pass Book to be made up and reconciled with Bank
Account in Cash Book.
(c) Stock-in-trade to be listed, priced, extensions made and
certified by responsible persons.
((/) All outstanding charges, such as rent, rates, commis
sions, etc., to be entered in the books ; or a detailed list
made out to allow of provision being made for same in the
accounts.
(e) A list of bad and doubtful debts.
(J) Unsettled accounts in the Trade Ledgers to be ruled off,
and the balances carried down to the next period.
(g) The arithmetical accuracy of the additions and extrac
tions of the balances to be proved by means of a trial balance.
All entries to be in ink.
Early in the New Year the following trial balance is
furnished :

7
8 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

TRIAL BALANCE
December 31, 19
Dr. Cr.
1 <* i . d.
3775 0 0
3240 0 0
226 5 0
15 0 0
35,403 10 0
33,425 5 0
Salaries (inoluding A. Header's salary, 300) 1300 0 0
240 0 0
60 0 0
480 0 0
160 0 0
70 0 0
60 0 0
120 0 0
3750 0 0
4240 0 0
18 0 0
1 1000 0 0
3000 0 0
45,291 10 0 45,291 0

Note.The amount of the stock on hand, December 31, 4024.

The trial balance is a list of balances of all open accounts

in the ledger, including the cash and bank balances from the
Cash Book, -which in practice is regarded as a ledger account
for cash transactions.
Inspection of the trial balance shows an equality of the
debit and credit balances, and therefore that we may rely upon
the arithmetical accuracy of the books. We have now to make
certain adjustments and bring into account the value or cost
of the stock on hand, and then proceed to the preparation
of the statements furnishing the informations desired by
Mr. Reader.
The accounts we intend to supply are
(a) Profit and Loss Account.
{b) Balance Sheet.
The Profit and Loss Account is a concise statement of the
expenses and charges of the business for the period, entered on
the debit side of the account ; and the gains and profits of the
period entered on the credit side ; the balance if to the credit
indicates profit, to the debit a loss.
 DOUBLE ENTRY ACCOUNTS 9
It is advisable that there be a separation of the account into
two parts : the first, Trading Account, showing the gross profit
the difference between the buying and selling prices ; and the
second part showing the net profitthe amount left after taking
into account all expenses of distribution, counting-house
expenses and fixed charges, such as interest on capital, depre
ciation, etc. A third division may also be made to include
profits and income received apart from the ordinary business,
as dividends from investments, profits from dealing in shares,
and the disposal of the balance, as in the transfer of an amount
to reserve and the distribution of the balance to the partners.
This will be illustrated more fully in Company Profit and Loss
Accounts.

Classes of Accounts

Prior to the preparation of the Profit and Loss Account let

us examine the items in the trial balance with the view of
understanding the accounts and making any necessary adjust
ments. It should be noted that we have to deal with two
classes of accounts, which may again be subdivided as
follows :
1. Personal.
(a) Drs.Accounts showing the indebtedness of
persons to the firm.
(b) Crs.Accounts showing the liability of the firm
to persons.
2. Impersonal.
(a) RealAccounts representing values, as cash,
fixtures, premises, stock.
(b) NominalWith either debtor or credit balances;
opened to give information concerning the profits,
expenses and losses of the business, such as
discounts, interest, commission, bad debts, etc.
A knowledge of this classification of accounts is of value
in understanding the essential difference between single and
double entry bookkeeping ; in the former, personal accounts
only are to be found; whilst in the latter, in addition to
the personal, the impersonal accounts are necessary for the
io ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
completion of the double entry. As typical illustrations note
the following
1. Bought from Brown & Co., goods 50.
In single entry Brown & Co. would be credited, and no
other ledger entry made. In double entry in addition
to the credit to Brown & Co., Purchases Account
would be debited, the item probably being included
in the total purchases of the month.
2. Bought fixtures from Smith, value 70.
A credit to Smith in single entry ; in double entry an
additional entry of a debit to Fixtures Account.
8. Brown & Co. allow a discount of 50s.
Single entry only a debit to Brown & Co., completed
in double entry by a credit to Discount Account.
4. Paid salaries, 15.
A credit to the cashier in single entry, completed in
double entry by a debit to the Nominal Account,
salaries.
The Balance Sheet and Profit and Loss Account may be
regarded as giving : the one, a statement of capital amounts,
and the other revenue items; and therefore it is well that,
in the preparation of them, we should have a clear under
standing of the important distinction between capital and
revenue.
As this will be dealt with later, it will be sufficient to indi
cate the points of difference between the two.
The capital in a business is represented by fixed and circu
lating assets, such as premises, machinery, plant, horses and
carts, cash, stock-in-trade. These may be converted one into
the other without any change in the total value, as cash into
machinery or additional premises and plant, in which cases the
transactions would be those affecting capital.
Expenditure for carrying on a business, as salaries, rents,
expenses of distribution, etc., for which outlay there is no
increase of value in the assets, are revenue items.
The account showing the gross and net profits of the con
cern is actually a Revenue Account, but as this term is a
general one, other distinctive names are adopted, as Profit and
Loss, Income and Expenditure. In regard to the capital
items, revenue charges have frequently to be made ; as losses
 DOUBLE ENTRY ACCOUNTS n
on the sale of assets, repairs to fixtures, plant, and premises,
which reduce the capital item cash, without adding to the
value of the fixtures or plant ; the allowance for depreciation
on these fixed assets is also a revenue charge.
Proceeding to the accounts in the trial balance, we find
that although certain bad debts have been written off during
the year, yet provision must fee made for certain other bad and
doubtful debtor balances, of which at present the exact amount
cannot be ascertained. So that the Profit and Loss Account of
the period may bear this loss, and the balance sheet show the
debtor balances at a true value, we think it well to make a
provision or reserve of 5 per cent. for bad and doubtful debts.
An ascertained or estimated amount for discounts on both Dr.
and Cr. balances might also be provided, but in this instance,
as the totals are very similar in amount, we may neglect this
adjustment. As a charge against profit and a reduction of the
value of fixtures and stable stock, we allow for the wear and
tear of these wasting assets a depreciation of 10 per cent. We
find that the payment made for insurance extends into the
following year, and therefore, on apportioning the amount, we
carry 20 as an asset to the next period, thus reducing the
insurance charge for the present year. As, on inquiry, we find
that there is 25 due and unpaid for interest on the loan, this
must be included in the liabilities.
Invested in a good security, Mr. Reader's capital would have
produced probably 4 per cent., it is usual, however, to charge
the business for the extra risk with 5 per cent. ; in this way
showing what may be considered the actual profit of the trading
after allowing interest on the capital invested.

Closing Entries

Although the adjustments closing the nominal accounts

may be made direct from Ledger Account to Ledger Account,
it is preferable to make closing entries through the Journal,
and so keep a record of final adjustments together in a clear
and readily accessible form.
I2 JOURNAL
December 31si, 19- Dr. Cr.
t. d. 1 S. d.
Profit and Loss A/o. Dr. 188 15 0
To Bad Debts Reserve Ay0. 188 15 0
(Being 5% Dr.
balances)
1'rofit and Loss A/o. Dr. 55 0 0
To Fixtures A/o. . . . 48 0 0
Stable Stock A/o. . . 7 o 0
(being 10% depreciation)
Prepaid Insurance A/c. Dr. 20 0 0,
To Insurance A/c. . 20 0 0
(for insurance paid in
advance)
Interest A/c. Dr. 25 0 0 [
To C. Lender .... 25 0 0
(For 6 mouths' interest at
5%)
Interest A/c. Dr. ... 150 0 0
To A. Reader, Capital A/c. 150 0 0
(12 mouths' interest at
5%)
Trading A/c. Dr. 35,403 10 0
To purchases 35,403 10 0
Sales A/c. Dr. . 33,425 5 0
To Trading A/o. 1 33,425 5 0
Now Stock A/c. Dr. 4024 0 0
To Trading A/c. 4024 0 0
Profit and Loss A/o. Dr. 1953 0 0
To salaries . 1300 0 0
rents, rates, and I 210 0 0
stable expenses 60 0 0
bad debts 1 120 0 0
insurance 40 0 0
interest . 1 193 0 0
Discount A/c. Dr. 160 0 0
To Profit and Loss A/c 160 0 0
Profit and Lobs A/c. Dr. 9 0 0
To A. Reader, Capital A/c 9 0 0
(transfer of net profit)
TRADING AND PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT
Dr. December 31st, 19 Cr.
t. ci.
Po purchases . . . 35,403 10 0 By Sales 33,425
gross profit . . 2045 15 0 Stook 4024 0
37,449 5 0 5 : 0
j37,449
To salaries .... 1300 0 0 By Qross Profit I 2045 15
rent, rates, and Discounts. 160
taxes . . . . 1 240 0 0
,, stable expenses . 1 CO 0 0
.. bad debts . . . 120 0 0
.. bad debts reserve . 1S8 15 0
.. insurance . 40 0 o
.. interest. 103 0 0
depreciation
fixtures . . . 48 0 II
stable stock . . 7 0 0
net profit to Capi
tal A/c. . . . 0
2205 15 0 2205 15 0
 DOUBLE ENTRY ACCOUNTS 13

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14 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Let us study the structure of the balance sheet more closely.
There is a difference of opinion among accountants as to the
placing of the liabilities and assets on the left- or right-hand
side, some few maintaining that the assets should be on the
left, and the liabilities on the right, just as they are in the
Ledger Accounts, the balance sheet being regarded by them as
a summarized statement of the ledger. The almost general
practice, however, is to follow the pro forma example given in
the Companies Acts (Table A.), and the Councils of the Institute
of Chartered Accountants and of the Society of Incorporated
Accountants follow this precedent, viz. liabilities on the left
and assets on the right.
The question is also raised as to the use of the terms Dr.
and Cr. ; some maintaining that as the sheet is but a summary
of assets and liabilities, it should not be made out in Dr. and
Cr. form. Again we have the authority of the two bodies of
accountants and also of the form given by the Companies
Acts. Further, there seems to be good reason for regarding the
balance sheet as a Ledger Account of the firm, debited with
its liabilities or responsibilities, and credited with the assets
which it is calculated would discharge these liabilities. As will
be seen later, the statement of affairs in bankruptcy charges
the estate with its liabilities, and shows on the right-hand side
the value of assets estimated to pay so much in the in settle
ment of the liabilities ; the shortage being the deficiency to be
explained by the debtor.
It will be noticed that there is a certain arrangement in the
order of stating the items of this account.
Floating assets and liabilities, by which we mean those which
are of a temporary or fluctuating character, such as Trading
Accounts of which settlement is expected within the next month
or so, and of bills receivable and bills payable, most of which
will mature and must be paid within three or four months;
then the stocks, often varying with the state of the market or
dependent on the season of the year.
Following these we find the fixed assets, such as fixtures,
plant, stable stock, premises which would not, except in the case
of the winding-up of the business, be regarded as being realizable
for the ordinary settlement of trade liabilities.
The account of Mr. A R. as a capitalist and investor of
 DOUBLE ENTRY ACCOUNTS 15
money in the business appears as the last of the creditors, and
the useful inner column is given to place before him at a glance
the ups and downs of his financial interest in the concern, and,
if the latter, whether the result of trade losses or of excessive
personal drawings, in other words extravagance, or of both.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

11. How are outstanding trade expenses dealt with at stock-taking?
12. State the principal instructions given to the bookkeeper in preparation for
the audit.
13. What is the object of the trial balance ?
14. Give an example of a Profit and Loss Account.
15. What is meant by gross profit and net profit?
16. Classify the different kinds of accounts in double entry.
17. Distinguish between capital and revenue items.
18. What is meant by " closing entries " ? Give examples.
19. Discuss the form of the Balance Sheet.
20. From the following trial balance prepare Profit and Loss Account and
Balance Sheet.
Trial Balance for June 30, 1902
Dr. Cr.
t
4800
1000
250
Wages 450
500
110
100
Stock, January 1, 1902 .... 900

Rent 150
8000
3000
1200
Cash 700
60
2000
14,110 14,110
The stock on June 30, 1902, was 500. Increase the reserve for bad debts
to 250, write 1000 off Lease Account, and provide for depreciation of fixtures
and fittings at the rate of 10 per cent, per annum.
 CHAPTER III

SINGLE ENTRY ACCOUNTS

Conversion to Double EntryErrors of Commission, Omission, and Principle

Forms of Trial BalanceArrangement of Books for Sectional Balancing
Adjustment Account.

WANTED an Accountant to square up firm's neglected books, for balance sheet

purposes and annual audit hereafter. Address, N. 125 at the printer's.
Such was a recent advertisement in the front page of the
Manchester Guardian, which revealed the difficulties of the
advertiser when an urgent demand was made by his bank or
his creditors for a balance sheet.
Just another instance of the many firms who suffer finan
cially and are worried personally owing to badly kept or neglected
account keeping.
Whilst not making the acquaintance of N. 125 we have had
experience of surprising accounts, from which it was difficult to
evolve order. Lest such should come before the student let us
deal with a case or two.
1. A business in which the principal acts as cashier, the
entries of receipts and payments being made in the Cash Book by
him, but the Cash Book neither balanced nor posted. Entries
are made direct to the ledger from invoices or statements
received and sent out, and cash entries made to the accounts in
a haphazard way ; accounts ruled off showing a shortage on the
cash side. Stock not taken or checked, no Profit and Loss Account,
nor statement of assets and liabilities drawn out for several
years past. Only peremptory income tax demands compelled
the preparation of accounts and our being called in to deal with
the affairs. To save expense, the preceding twelve months'
business only was dealt with. The Ledger Accounts were checked
by books, creditors' statements, Bank Pass Book and Cash Book
entries, and omissions and errors rectified in the ledger.
16
 SINGLE ENTRY ACCOUNTS 17
Omissions and errors in the Cash Book were entered and cor
rected, including items for wages and trade expenses, and the
deficiency of cash charged to the principal as drawings, causing
him to realize the importance of balancing the Cash Book
regularly. Then followed the preparation of a statement of
assets and liabilities, the balance being taken as capital.
Instructions were given for the proper keeping of record books,
and arrangements made that each month double entry postings,
and checking of the entries should be made.
2. Here the books are kept by single entry, and the last
statement, wrongly named a balance sheet, is in the following
form :

Balance SheetJ. Slows

December 31, 1905.
To creditors . By debtors
,, bills payable bills receivable
capital bank
,, cash in hand
stock
fixtures

Pbofit and Loss

Jan. 1. To capital Dec. 31. By capital ....
,. balance drawings. . . .
Profit ....

The account is merely a statement of assets and liabilities

compiled from various sources, bills from the Bill Book, bank
balance from the Pass Book, Drs. from the Sales Ledger, Crs.
from the Purchase Ledger, and fixtures at an estimated value.
There has been no check in the way of double entry upon
the transactions, and the balances of customers' accounts are
assumed to be correct. As no nominal accounts have been
kept no particulars are afforded of the various expenses, and the
profit is taken to be the increase of capital since the last state
ment, plus the principal's drawings ; so that if on January 1
the excess of assets over liabilities was 2150, and the state
ment on December 81 showed the surplus to be 2400, and
the drawings to have been 450, the profit would be stated
as 700.
0
18 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Mr. Slowe finds later that, owing to the following omissions,
he has been working at a loss, and that his capital is much
reduced by the following errors :
1. Omission of an acceptance which has been debited to the
creditor but not taken into account in the bills payable.
2. Invoices not credited for goods taken into stock.
8. Accounts received not entered in Cash Book although
posted to Drs. Accounts.
4. Rent owing, not included in liabilities.
5. Cheque paid to a Cr. debited, but, owing to the cheque not
having been presented, the bank balance entered
incorrectly.
As he is afraid there may be other errors, we are in
structed to deal with the period's transactions on the double entry
principle, and then furnish the Profit and Loss Account and
Balance Sheet on that system. If we have the initial stock, or
the period to be dealt with dates from the beginning of the
business, then our task is fairly simple, consisting in analyzing
the ledger debits and credits for the totals of purchases, sales,
returns, allowances and discounts, and checking the Cash Book
entries with the ledger postings. For the expenses and capital
receipts and payments, the Cash Book will also require analyzing.
Confirmation of the ledger balances should also be obtained
from creditors' statements and accounts rendered to debtors.
Bills receivable discounted would be checked by the Pass Book,
and those on hand with the Ledger Accounts.
We find the commencing statement and year's summary of
transactions to be :

Statement of Assets and Liabilities

January 1, 1905

. . 12,320
. . 1,400 ,, bills receivable . . . . 3,600
. . 1,100 70
outstanding rent . . 150 . 13,460
. . 21,200 ,, fixtures and fittings 540
36,170 36,170

During the year the following transactions take place :

 SINGLE ENTRY ACCOUNTS 19
L
Discounts are allowed to customers 230
Goods are bought for 16,000
Rent and rates are paid by cheque 450
J. Slowe draws out by cheque 500
Trade expenses are paid by cheque 650
Wages are paid out of cash 1,100
Customers' accounts are received in cash 19,000
Goods sold amount to 21,200
Bills are drawn on customers for 4,900
Customers' bills are paid at bank 5,400
Creditors are paid by cheque 26,320
Creditors' bills are paid in cash 1,800
Cash is paid to bank 16,150
The firm accepts bills for 2,000
Bad debts 250
Stock at December 31, 1904, is 14,000
From this we may journalize and post as follows, and then,
after making the usual adjustments for depreciation and bad
debts, proceed to the preparation of the final accounts. For
the new year instructions will be given to open the necessary
impersonal accounts for the adoption of double entry.

Journal
1905. * *
Jan. 1. Sundry trade debtors. Dr 18,500
Bills received 3,600
Cash 70
Stock 13,460
Fixtures and fittings 540
To trade creditors 12,320
bills payable 1,400
bank 1,100
rent 150
capital account 21,200

Being statement of assets and liabili

ties at this date 36,170 36,170
Dec. 31. Sundry debtors. Dr 21,200
To Sales Account 21,200
Cash. Dr 19,000
Discount. Dr 230
Bills receivable. Dr 4,900
Bad debts. Dr 250
To sundry debtors 24,380
Purchases Account. Dr 16,000
To sundry creditors 16,000
2o ACCOUNTING AND RANKING

Sundry creditors. Dr 28,320
To bills payable 2000
bank 26,320
Bills payable 1,800
To cash 1,800
Rent and rates. Dr 450
Wages. Dr 1,100
Trade expenses 650
To cash 1,100
bank 1,100
John Slowedrawings. Dr. . . . 500
To bank 500
Bank. Dr 5,400
To bills receivable 5,400
Bank. Dr 16,150
To cash 16,150
New stock. Dr 14,000
To Trading Account 14,000

After posting the above to the respective Ledger Accounts,

we find the Trading and Profit and Loss Account and Balance
Sheet to be as hereunder.

Trading Account and Profit and Loss Account

Dr. Cr.
t. i. . d.
Jan. 1. To stock . 13,460 0 0 Dec. 31. By sales . 21,200 0 0
Dec. 31. purchases . 16,000 0 0 stock . 14,000 0 0
Profit and Loss
Account . 5,740 0 0

35,200 0 0 35,200 0 0
Dec. 31. To Rents and Dec. 31. By Trading Ac
Bates Account 300 0 0 count . . . 5,740 0 0
Discount Ac
count ... 230 0 0
trade ex
penses. . . 650 0 0
Bad Debts
Account . . 250 0 0
Wages Ac
count . . . 1,100 0 0
Capital Ac
count (Profit) 3,210 0 0

5,740 0 0 5,740 0 0
 SINGLE ENTRY ACCOUNTS 21
Balance Sheet of John Slowe at December 31, 1004
Dr. Liabilities Assets C$
t
To Bank Account .... 7,470 By Cash Account .... 20
,, Bills payable 1,600 Bills receivable .... 3,100
Capital Account 21,200 Sundry debtors .... 15,320
Add profit 3,210 Stock 14,000
Fixtures and fittings . . 540
24,410
Deduct drawings 500
23.910
32,980 32,980
In many cases of faulty or neglected bookkeeping, in order
to save expense, or because no reliable data can be furnished,
our instructions may be to convert the books into double entry
from the date of being called in. This will mean the preparation
of a statement of assets and liabilities from any accounts that
have been kept, and from information obtained from the
principals ; the journalizing of such statement, and the opening
of the accounts for the items contained in the statement. Of
course, adjustments of the capital and the accounts concerned
may subsequently have to be made, as knowledge of errors in
such statement comes to hand. Instructions will be given to
open the requisite Nominal and Real Accounts, and of the
methods of posting, say, monthly totals to them.
Errors of Principle.Few errors of omission or commission,
when entered in the Record Books or posting mediums, would
escape detection in Double Entry Accounts; but errors of principle,
that is, the incorrect treatment of revenue and capital items
often occur owing to imperfect knowledge of the distinction
between the two. For instance, the trial balance may be
arithmetically correct, and yet serious errors of principle exist
in the books. We cannot do better than instance a few, and
deal with their correction.
The books of Messrs. William Jones & Co. were balanced as
on December 81, 1903, and a Profit and Loss Account and
Balance Sheet prepared. The profit for the year, as shown by
these accounts, amounted to 2481 6s. id. The following mis
takes had been made by the bookkeeper during the year :
(a) A gas engine costing 450 had been debited to " Purchases
Account " instead of to " Machinery and Plant
Account."
22 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
(b) An amount of 15 12s. 8d., received as a final dividend
in the estate of G. Smith, the balance of whose
account had, in a previous year, been written off as a
bad debt, was standing to the credit of a newly opened
account under the same name, and was included
amongst the " sundry creditors " in the balance sheet.
(r) A cheque amounting to 10 4s. 8d., which had been
returned dishonoured, was posted to the debit of
"Allowances Account" instead of to the account of
B. Brown, from whom it was received.
(tl) Goods amounting to 52 Is. 4d. had been returned by
R. Robinson, on December 80, 1908, and were taken
into stock, but the entries recording the return were not
passed through the firm's books until January 4, 1904.
What adjustments would be necessary to rectify these errors,
and how would they affect the above-mentioned profit ?
JOURNAL
Dr. Cr.
1803.
Dec. 31 Machinery and Plant A/c. Dr. 150
To Profit nud Lobs Adjust
ment A/c 450
(To adjust amount for gas
engine purchased debited to
Purchases A/c in error)

(-)| G. Smith. Dr 15 12
To Profit find Loss Adjust
ment A/c 15 12
(Amount received from estato
of G. Smith, credited to the
hitter's personal a/c in error)

(0 11. Brown. Dr. . HI 4

To Profit and Loss Adjust
ment A/c 111
(Returned cheque debited to
Allowances A/c in error)

Profit and LossAdjustment A/c.

Dr 52
To New Stock A/c . . 52
(For returns by R. Robinson
taken into stock but not entered
through books till Jan. 4, 1904)

Note.Another method of adjusting the Inst item would be to debit Profit

and Loss Adjustment Account and credit R. Robinson, but this would necessitate
the entry of the returns which was passed through the books on January 4, 1904,
being written back.
 SINGLE ENTRY ACCOUNTS 23

PROFIT AND LOSS ADJUSTMENT ACCOUNT

Dr. Cr.
. c J.
To Stock A/c . . . 52 1 4 By machinery and plant 450 0 0
Appropriation A/o . 423 16 0 (i. Smith 15 12 8
( Balance ofprofit under- B. Brown 10 4 8
credited) '1
1
I 475 17 4 1- 475 17 4

APPROPRIATION ACCOUNT

1. d.
To balance carried down 2905 By balance . 2481 6 4
Adjustment A/o 423 16 0
2905 2 4
By balance b/d. 2905 2 4

Want of Agreement in Trial Balance Totals.Very fortunate

does a bookkeeper consider himself to be should his trial balance
agree at the first extraction of the balances. In the event of dis
agreement, he is much concerned in discovering the difference
quickly and with the minimum of trouble. Should self-balancing
ledgers be adopted the difference is localized, as if the Trade
Ledgers prove, the errors are to be looked for in the Impersonal
Ledger.
Another method of checking is the preparation of the trial
balance by an analysis of the entries and postings in the
ledgers, thus :

Dr. Cr.
24 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
The totals check the opening balances of the last balance
sheet, and also the current period's sales, purchases, cash and
discount, transfers, etc.
Should these methods not be effective, and there be a
difference, we should consider how such an amount would be
likely to occur. Assuming that the self-balancing of the Trade
Ledgers proves their accuracy, then we must turn to the
Impersonal or General Ledger Accounts. Let us first check the
opening balances from the last balance sheet, then the extraction
of the trial balance items, taking care that, as often happens,
a debit balance has not been placed in the credit column and
vice versa. Check the Journal transfers, and inspect care
fully such items, as 5s. 10d., lest they be entered as 5 10s.,
and observe that badly written figures are taken correctly.
Careful inspection should be made lest any erasures or cross
ings out have been made since the checking, and also that
the correction of errors and the making of transfers have been
properly done.
Of importance in adopting self-balancing ledgers is the
arrangement of the record books to suit this system.
In a business such as Mr. Header's in Chapter L, when three
ledgers are in use, Drs., Crs., and Impersonal, the arrangement
is simple.
For the Drs. Account the Sales, Returns and Bills Book
monthly totals would be taken, and for the Crs. Account the
Purchase, Returns and Bill Book monthly totals entered. The
Cash Book, to save analysis, should contain separate columns
for the Drs. Ledger on the Dr. side and for the Crs. Ledger on
the Cr. side to furnish the monthly totals of Cash Book postings
to such ledgers.
Another modification to suit Departmental Accounts, and to
serve as a check on two or three ledgers, is as shown in the
form of Sales Book below, which will indicate the variation in
the other books.
SINGLE ENTRY ACCOUNTS
26 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Also Cash Journal analysis as in the case of a bank.
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 SINGLE ENTRY ACCOUNTS 27
Where the magnitude of the business compels the keeping
of sectional ledgers, literal or numerical ; the columnar books
would be impracticable. Therefore separate Day Books for each
ledger, an analysis of Cash Book entries, and a Transfer Book is
the plan adopted in some houses. The more general system is
for each clerk responsible for the keeping of a particular ledger
to keep a Posting Journal into which all the various items,
debits, and credits, for entry in his ledger are entered for
posting.

CHECK JOURNAL

Dr. Or. Cr. Cr.

Goods. Cash and discount. Ilills. Rotnms.

n 2
- 3
to 31
TotalB . .
Add.Transfers fromother
ledgers.
Balance in ledger December
81.
Deduct.Transfers toother
ledgers.

This balance should agree with total balance extracted from ledger itself.

Adjustment Accounts.Another method recommended in

regard to sectional balancing is to keep in each Trade Ledger
a General Ledger Adjustment Account into which the details of
the respective Drs. and Crs. made in the personal accounts are
entered, thus completing the double entry for that ledger thus

General Ledger Account

Sept. 30. To cash and discount Sept. 1. By balances . . .
returns .... 30. sales
bills receivable debited to sun-
credited to sun- dry pereons in
dry persons in detail ....
detail ....

In the General Ledger a separate account is kept for each

ledger as follows :
28 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

" A " Ledger Account

Sept. 30. To balance .... Sept. 30. By cash and discount
sales returns ....
bills received . .
In this way the ledger will include within its pages the
materials for a trial balance of its entries, and thus made self-
balancing. For example, take the sales for the month entered
in the "A" Ledger ; in that ledger the various persons are debited
with the items making up the total, and that total is credited
to the General Ledger Adjustment Account. In the General
Ledger the total will be debited to " A " Ledger Account and
credited to Sales Account ; so with bills, cash, etc.
It will be perceived, however, that the Check Journal,
previously described, takes the place of the various Adjustment
Accounts just referred to ; also that where but two or three
ledgers are proved by aggregate postings made by the principal
in the General Ledger, the Adjustment Accounts are usually
unnecessary.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

21. How does the statement of a firm's affairs in single entry book-keeping
differ from one prepared by double entry ?
22. How is the period's profit ascertained by single entry ?
23. Describe the method you would follow in preparing the final accounts
from a badly kept set of books.
24. Outline the method of converting a set of single entry accounts into
double entry form.
25. Distinguish between errors of omission, commission, and principle, and
give examples of each.
26. In case of disagreement of the trial balance totals how would you pro
ceed to discover the error or errors ?
27. Give an example of a departmental Purchase Book, showing rulings for
self-balancing ledgers.
28. Explain what is meant by Adjustment Accounts in sectional balancing.
29. The following errors are found in a trader's books. Explain how you
would remedy them, and what will be the consequence from the standpoint of
accuracy in the accounts if this is not done.
(1) 100 paid for rent is debited to a creditor's account.
(2) 3 discount allowed to a customer is posted to the Dr. of petty cash.
(3) The payment of a creditor's bill for 500 is posted to his debit.
(4) 30 received from sale of a boiler is credited to goods sold account.
30. The undermentioned errors were made by the counting-house staff in the
books of Messrs. Black and Brown during the year ended December 31, 1904.
 SINGLE ENTRY ACCOUNTS 29
(a) On June 30 a builder's charge for the erection of a small shed amounting
to 198 was analyzed in the Purchases Journal under the head of
" Repairs," and posted to that account.
(6) On July 1 a cheque for 18 2s. 4d. received from James Smith was dis
honoured, and was posted to " Allowances Account."
(c) On August 12, the total of the previous month's wages was debited to
"Manufacturing Wages Account." During the month some new
machinery had been put down, and the firm's own men had spent
time thereon amounting to 141.
(d) On December 28 goods to the value of 64 were returned by Francis
White, and were taken into stock, but the returns were not entered in
the books until January 2, 1905.
How would you adjust these errors, and how would they affect the annual
accounts for the year ended December 31, 1904?
 CHAPTER IV

PARTNERSHIP
DefinitionPartnership AgreementsNovationWorking Rules of Partnership
Drawings AccountsBalance SheetGoodwill, and its Treatment in the
Accounts.
Our next client, Mr. Serge, the buyer in a large department of
a Manchester warehouse, is anxious to negotiate a partnership
in a sound concern, introducing a good connection and a fair
amount of capital. We have investigated several openings
offered to him, finding in one case that his capital would only
have postponed bankruptcy, and in another that the character
and habits of the principals were such as to prevent his entering
into so important and responsible a relationship as partnership.
Ultimately a sound business and satisfactory principals are met
with, and terms arranged. It is wise that these terms should
be embodied, and the interest of each partner should be safe
guarded by the provisions of a Partnership Agreement or Deed.
The following are the main points to be considered for inclu
sion in the document :
(1) Names of the partners, and style of the firm.
(2) Term of partnership.
(3) Place of business, and the nature of the business to be
carried on.
(4) Signing of cheques and bills.
(5) Capital of the firm, and contributions by each partner.
(6) Rate of interest on capital.
(7) Advances by the partners, and rates of interest thereon.
(8) Limit of drawings, and rate of interest to be charged
thereon.
(9) Division of profits and withdrawal of samehalf-yearly
or yearly balances.
(10) The keeping of books of account, and employment of
accountant.
(11) Salaries or remuneration to partners for services.
30
 PARTNERSHIP 31
(12) Notice of retirement of any partner.
(13) Conditions to prevent a retiring partner from competing
with the firm.
(14) Term for repayment of capital in case of death of a
partner ; rate of interest to be allowed.
(15) Arrangements for the purchase of goodwill in the event
of dissolution.
(16) Final resort to arbitration in case of disputes between
partners.
Definition. Remember the definition that partnership is the
relation which subsists between persons carrying on business in
common with a view of profit, and that the following classes of
partners are liable to third parties :
1. The active partner is one taking the everyday working
share in the management of the business.
2. The sleeping or dormant partner is one who has money
invested in the business, but whose name does not appear, and
who takes no active part other than that of a controlling influ
ence over the other partners.
3. Nominal partners are those who, without having any
actual interest in the business or profits of a partnership, allow
their names to appear prominently in the designation of the
firm, or who hold themselves out as partners to others.
In regard to the last, it is only just that any one representing
himself to be a partner of a firm, and so inducing those who
have given credit to the firm on such reputation, should be
made liable for holding himself out to be a member of the firm.
In legal terms such a person is held liable as a partner by
estoppel, i.e. stopped by his conduct from denying himself to be
a member of the firm. This principle of " holding out " may
render a retiring partner liable if he neglects to give notice of re
tirement from the firm; such notice is usually given by advertise
ment or circulars to the creditors, notifying the change in the firm.
As a new partner is interested in the value of the assets of
the firm, he may very properly insist upon a valuation of the
assets of which he is taking a joint share, or ask that the book
debts be guaranteed, so that, in the event of losses on Dr.
balances, the result of business done prior to his becoming a
member of the firm, his capital would not be charged with
any portion of such loss. Also, if Crs. balances should be
32 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
understated, the correction should not affect the profit of the
period in which he is concerned.
In the case of " Serge and Cheviot," the interests of the
former have been safeguarded by the provision at the commence
ment of a reserve for contingencies of 2100a sum agreed to
by the partners as covering any probable loss on the assets.
As Mr. Serge replaces a retiring partner, both are concerned
in the matter of liability to the creditors of the old firm.
This is set forth as follows :
Novation.The incoming partner is not liable to creditors
for the old debts of the firm he has entered, except by novation
the technical term for the contract of substituted liability, by
which agreement between the parties concerned the creditor dis
charges the old firm from its liability and accepts the new firm
as his debtor, the new firm accepting the responsibility. In this
way a retiring partner is released from the claim and the new
partner made liable along with the firm for the debt.
As many business men are content to carry on this business
relationship, quite unconcerned as to the absence of written
agreements, frequently finding out to their cost the seriousness
of such a blunder, we give the working rules of a partnership,
in the absence of an agreement modifying them.
1. All the partners are entitled to share equally in the
business and must contribute equally towards the losses, whether
of capital or otherwise, sustained by the firm.
2. The firm must indemnify every partner in respect of pay
ments made and personal liabilities incurred by him
(a) In the ordinary and proper conduct of the business of
the firm ; or
(b) In or about anything necessarily done for the preserva
tion of the business or property of the firm.
8. A partner making, for the purpose of partnership, any
actual payment or advance beyond the amount of capital which
he has agreed to subscribe, is entitled to interest at the rate of
5 per cent. per annum from the date of the payment or advance.
4. A partner is not entitled, before the ascertainment of
profits, to interest on the capital subscribed by him.
5. Every partner may take a part in the management of the
partnership business.
6. No partner shall be entitled to remuneration for acting in
the partnership business.
 PARTNERSHIP 3:
7. Any difference arising as to ordinary matters connected
with the partnership business may be decided by a majority of the
partners, but no change may be made in the nature of the part
nership business without the consent of all the existing partners.
8. The partnership books are to be kept at the place of
business of the partnership (or the principal place, if there is
more than one), and every partner may, when he thinks fit,
have access to and inspect and copy any of them.

Partnership Accounts
Leaving the consideration of these important legal points,
let us proceed to the preparation of the Partnership Accounts
from the trial balance placed before us. (For Adjustments, see
p. 37.)
December 31, 1902.
I t. <(. t s. d.
S. Serge, Capital Account (Jan. 1, 1902) . . 20,000 0 0
C.Cheviot . . 18,000 0 0
Machinery and Plant Account 12,000 0 0
Freehold premises 26,200 0 0
Sundry creditors 27,600 0 0
Bills Payable Account 4,800 0 0
Reserve Account (for contingencies) . . . 2,100 0 0
Fixtures and Fittings Account 7,200 0 0
Mortgage on Premises Account 9,000 0 0
Wages Account 15,860 0 0
Sales Account 90,400 0 0
Purchases Account 62,077 0 0
Bankers' Account 4874 0 0
Cash Account 940 0 0
Stock Account (Jan. 1, 1902) 21,820 0 0
Salaries Account 1,100 0 0
Carriage 2,132 0 0
Interest and Discounts Account .... 86 0 0
Rates and Taxes Account 502 0 0
Insurance Account 382 0 0
Office Expenses Account 208 0 0
General Trade Expenses Account .... 2,080 0 0
Repairs Account 674 0 0
Interest on Mortgage Account 225 0 0
S. Serge's Drawing Account (including
interest) 3,535 0 0
C. Cheviot's Drawing Account (including
interest) 2,965 0 0
Sundry debtors 17,020 0 0
176,920 0 0 176,920 0 0
D
34 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

TRADING AND PROFIT

Dr. Trading

1902. x I. d.
January 1 . To stock on hand 21,820 0 0
December 31 purchases 02,077 0 0
wages 15,800 0 0
balance "gross profit" carried down to Profit |,
and Lobs Account | 20,153 0 0
119,910 0 (l

Dr. Profit and

1902. t. d.
December 31 To Salaries Account 1,100 0 0
Carriage Account 2,132 0 0
Rates and Taxes Account 502 0 0
,, Insurnnce Account 382 0 0
Office Expenses Account 208 0 0
(icnernl Trade Expenses Account 2,080 0 0
Repairs Account 074 0 0
Interest on Mortgage Account I 225 0 0
., reserve for interest on Mortgage Account
(half year) 225 0 0
51 l0 reserve for bad and doubtful debts . 851 o 0
., Interest on Capital Account . d.
5% S. Serge . . . . 1000 0 0
C. Cheviot 900 0 0
Depreciation Account 1,900 1 0 J 0
10% machinery and plant 1200
5% fixtures and fittings . 30(1
1.500 0
balance "net profit" carried down to Profit I
and Loss Appropriation Account . 8,400 0

I 20,239 ! 0 | 0

Dr. Profit and Loss

1902. t i, U
December 31 J To reserve fund 840 0 0
< ' Capital Account S. Serge, half share . 3780 I 0 ! 0
C. Cheviot, half share 3780 0 10
8400 I 0 I 0
 PARTNERSHIP 35
AND LOSS ACCOUNT

Account Cr.

19D2. l ' $. ' d.

December 31 By Bales . . 90,460 0 0
stock on hand 29,450 0 I 0

119,910 0 0

Loss Account Cr.

1902. i . i d.
December 31 By balance Trading Account . . 20,153 0 , 0
Interest and Discount Account 86 0 I 0

20,239 0 0

Appropriation" Account Cr.

1902. ! e. . ; d.
December 31 By balance Profit and LoBs Account, " net profit" 8400 0 I 0

8400 10 0
36 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
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a * *
 PARTNERSHIP 37

Adjustments
In consultation with the partners, the following adjustments
are made prior to the division of profits.
1. Interest on partners' capital at 5 per cent. per annum.
2. Annual depreciation of machinery and plant at 10 per
cent., and on fixtures and fittings at 5 per cent.
3. Provision for bad and doubtful debts at 5 per cent.
4. Provision for half-year's interest on the mortgage at 5 per
cent, per annum to December 81, 1902.
5. Ten per cent. of the net profit (if any) to be carried to the
reserve fund.
Stock was agreed as being, on December 81, of the cost
value of 29,450.
A copy of these accounts is handed to each partner, who, by
way of acceptance of the accuracy of the statements, signs the
balance sheet entered in the private ledger of the firm.
Comparison of the balance sheet with that of a sole trader
(p. 21), shows the main difference to be the giving of the par
ticulars concerning each partner's capital, showing at a glance
the additions or deductions to or from his capital in the business
during the year.
We also notice that in place of the definite salary charged
by Mr. Reader for his services in managing the business, the
present partners have withdrawn considerable sums on which
interest has been charged, as agreed by the partners. Inasmuch
as interest is credited to capital, it is only fair, in view of unequal
drawings, that interest should be debited on the sums with
drawn ; there must, however, be an agreement to that effect.
In the Drawings Account an interest column is frequently
provided for the interest calculations, and the total carried to
the outer cash column at the end of the period, thus

A. Drawings Account
Interest to Dec. 31.
X . d. * s. d.
Jan. 31. To cash . . 2 5 10 50 0 0 Dec. 31. By transfer to
Feb. 28 ..2 1 8 50 0 0 Capital Account
March 31 . . 1 17 6 50 0 0
And so on to Dec. 31
Interest . .
38 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Should there be credits of cash to the account, interest would
be allowed on such sums. In the above example the withdrawals
have been equal amounts drawn at the end of each month ; fre
quently, however, the amounts and sums vary considerably,
necessitating calculations of interest for the number of days to
December 81.
Goodwill
The introduction of Mr. Serge's capital, connection, and
services was considered sufficient inducement to admit him as a
partner to the firm. It will readily be understood, however,
that in arranging a junior partnership with an old-established
concern, the question of a consideration for goodwill will arise.
Goodwill is the value placed upon the name, connection, and
the income-earning power of the business. The basis of valu
ation varies so much that it may be said to resolve itself into a
matter of bargaining. One year's share of the profits taken on
the average of the last three years ; or the sum may be fixed upon
as a proportional part of from two to five years' profits.
The value of goodwill, carrying as it does the connection of
a firm, is evidenced to a retiring partner in the fact that on
relinquishing his share of it, he is debarred from calling upon
or circularizing the firm's customers, thus rendering the work
of establishing another business a difficult and risky one.
Let us consider the following instances met with in
practice :
1. " X.," an accountant, takes into partnership " Y.," and
shows the latter that had he been in partnership with him
during the last three years, his share of profits would have
averaged 300 per annum. Therefore, he requires a premium
of 600 as a cash payment for the prospect of entering a busi
ness with this income presumably assured, and with the possibility
of its being increased.
No entry would be needed in the firm's books, the 600
being paid direct to the banking account of " X."
2. (a) In the event of cash being needed in the business, as
in the case of a solicitor financing clients, or a trader
short of capital, then it would be advisible for " Y."
to insist upon the sum being paid, along with the
capital he introduces, into the bank.
 PARTNERSHIP 39
The entry in the firm's books would be

Bank Dr. 600

" X " Capital Account . . . 600

(b) The admission of a junior partner, " C," who agrees to

contribute 2000 capital and to pay 900 to " A."
and " B." for a one-third share of the profits.
As " A." and " B." have divided profit equally, the 900
would be entered :
Bank Dr. 900
" A." Capital Account . . . 460
"B." ... 450

3. On entering into partnership with L. and M., N. objects

to the payment of cash for goodwill, additional to 5000
introduced by him as capital, but agrees to allow L. and M.
to take credit in the assets for 1000 for such goodwill. The
entry would be :
Goodwill Account ... Dr. 1000
" L." Capital Account . . . 750
"M." 250

The two having divided profits in the proportions of three-

fourths and one-fourth, the agreement with " N." being one-third
interest in the business, he will be entitled on realization to one-
third share of any appreciation of the goodwill. For instance, in
the event of selling to a company for 2800, his share of the profit
would be 600. On the other hand, should the goodwill, on wind
ing-up the concern, be valueless, one-third of the loss, 888 6s. 8d.,
would be borne by " N." To guard against the latter eventuality
he might be able to arrange with the old partners that any such
loss would be charged to them only.
The following examples will illustrate the treatment in the
accounts :

Example 1
Red, White, and Blue agree to dissolve partnership. White
and Blue retiring and Red taking over the goodwill on the basis
of two years' profits, calculated on an average of the previous
4Q ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
five years, less 10 per cent. The result of the five years' trading
has been

1896 Profit 2400
1807 1680
1898 Loss 950
1899 Profit 1120
1900 , 1060

The capital of each partner before the figures are adjusted is

as follows :
Red. White. Blue.
3100 2900 1280

Prepare General and Personal Accounts, showing the result

of the dissolution.

JOURNAL
I. d.
Goodwill Account. Dr 1911 It 0
To Red (Capital Account) .... 6H7 4 0
White .... 637 4 0
Blue .... 637 4 0
(ItaUing goodwill, and crediting to part
ners equally, in absence of instruction
to contrary. Value as [,er agreement)
Cash. Dr. 5454 I 8
To Red (Capital Account) .... 5454 8 er 0
' (Being amount brought in to pay out
White and Blue).
White. Dr 3537 i 4 0
Blue. Dr *. . . 1917 4 0 ,
I To cash , | er 5454 8 0

Profit and Loss Statement

1898. To loss . . 950 0 0 1896. By profit . . 2400 0 6
balance . 5310 0 0 1897. . . 1680 0 0
1899. . . 1120 0 0
1900. , 1060 0 0
6260 0 0 6260 0 0

Balance as above 5)5310 0 0

Average profit 1062 0 0
Loss allowance of 10 i<er center 106 4 0
955 16 0 x 2
= amount paid by Red for Goodwill 191112 0
 PARTNERSHIP 41

Goodwill
Dr. (Jr.
t TFT d.| . id.
To value as per
agreement . 1911 12 0
Red. Capital Account
By balance .... 3100 0 0
share of goodwill. 637 4 U
cash 5454 8 0
9191 12 II

White. Capital Account

To cash 3537 4 0 By 2900 0 0

.. share of goodwill . 637 4 0

Blue. Capital Account

To cash 1917 4 0 By balance . . 1280 0 0

,. share of goodwill . 637 4 0

Cash Account

To Red 5454 8 0 By White 3537 4

Blue 1917 4
5454 1 8 I 0 5454 8 I 0

Example II

Q., E., and D. are equal partners, with capital of 1200,

1300, and 1400 respectively. They decide to admit S. into
equal partnership upon payment in cash of 1250 for one-fourth
share of the goodwill, and 1500 as his capital, which sums
are to remain in the concern. The liabilities of the firm are
2100, and by arrangement the assets, consisting of stock
2000, book debts 8200, horses, carts, etc., 300, and plant
500, are to be subjected to an all-round depreciation of 5 per
cent. A Goodwill Account which has not previously existed is
also to be raised in the books.
42 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Q, E., AND D. JOURNAL ENTRIES

Cash. Dr 1250
To Q.. one-third share of purchase of goodwill
by S 416 13 4
E., one third share of purchase of goodwill
by S 416 13 4
D., one-third share of purchase of goodwill
by S 116 13 , 4
Cash. Dr 1500
To 8., Capital Account 1500 o | o
Goodwill Account. Dr 5000
To Q., one-fourth share of goodwill .... 1250
K 1250
" D., t .... 1250
8., ,. .... !' 1250
l'rotit and Loss Account. Dr 300 ! 0 0
To stock 100
book dobts 100
horses, carts, etc IS
plant 25
(Discount on assets agreed upon)
Q., Capital Account. Dr 100
E 100
D., . . . . 101)
To Profit and Loss Account 300 0
(Share of Iosb consequent on revaluation of assets)

CASH ACCOUNT
Dr. Cr.
.. d. s. d.
To amount received from By balance carried down 2750 0 0
S. in payment for good
will (one-fourth) . 1250 0 0
To 8., Capital Account . 1500 0 0
2750 0 0 2750 0 0
To balance 2750 0 0

GOODWILL ACCOUNT
i
. d. t. d.
To agreed amount trans By balance carried down 5000 0 0
ferred to Capital A/cs 5000 0 0
5000 ~o~ 0 5000 0 0
,. Balance b/d . 5000 0 0
 PARTNERSHIP 43
Q. Capital Account
r. Cr.
!1
i. d.
To Profit and Loss By balance 1200 0 0
Account. . . 1(10 0 cash 416 13 1
balance c/down 2706 13 ., goodwill 1250 0 (i
2866 13 4
2866 j 13
balance < 2766 13 4

E. Capital Account

To Profit and Lobs By balance . ' 1300 0 0

Account. 100 0 0 cash . . 1: 416 13 4
., balance c/down 2866 13 i goodwill 1 1250 0 0
ii 2960 Sh 13 4 2966 13 4
i n ,. balance 2866 13 4

1). Capital Acoocnt

To Profit and Loss By balance . 1400 0 0

Account. . . 100 0 0 cash . 416 13 4
balance c/down 2960 13 4 goodwill . . 1250 0 0
3066 13 4 3066 13 4
balance . . 2966 13 4

S. Capital Account

2750 0 0 By cash . 1500 1 0 0

goodwill . 1250 0 II
2750 0 0 2750 0 0
1 balance . . 2750 | T ~o

Q., E., I)., and S. Balance Sheet.

Liabilities. Assets.
Sundry Liabilities 2,100 (l 0 Stock . . . . , 1.900 0 0
Book debts 3200 0 0
Capital t. d. Less reserve 160 0 0 1
Q. 2766 13 4 3,040 0 0
E. 2866 13 4 Horses, carts, etc. 285 0 0
1). 2966 13 4 Plant .... 475 0 0
S. 2750 0 0 Goodwill . . . 5,000 1) 0
11,350 0 0 Cash .... 2,750 (1 0
13,450 0 ~0 13,450 0 0
 44 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Example III
C. enters into partnership with A. and B., and arranges to
pay 2000 for goodwill, the cash to be left in the business, and
introduce 8000 as capital. A. and B. are equal partners, and
the following is their balance sheet :

Creditors 2,400 Debtors, after allowing for dis-
Reservo 2,200 counts 11,400
Capital of A 20,000 Cash 900
B 9,650 Stock . 9,450
Plant and machinery . . . 3,000
Freehold property .... 9,500
34,250 34,250

A. and B. agree to allow 1000 of the reserve to remain as

a provision for bad debts, to allow 5 per cent. off the plant and
machinery, and 1 per cent. off the freehold property.
After making the necessary adjustments, placing 1000 of
the goodwill to A. and B. respectively, and also the balance of
the reserve after charging the provision for debts and deprecia
tions, the balance sheet of the new partnership will be

Balance Sheet
t t. t
Creditors 2,400 0 Debtors 11,400
Reserve 1,000 0 Cash 10,900
Capital of A 21,477 10 Stock 9,450
B 11,127 10 Plant and machinery . . . 2,850
C 8,000 0 Freehold property .... 9,405
44,005 0 44,005

Although these instances have been given of the treatment

of goodwill, it should be stated that, as goodwill is generally
considered an unsatisfactory asset in a firm's accounts, it is
preferable that the incoming partner should make a cash pay
ment to the other partners' private accounts ; or add it to the
partners' Capital Accounts in the business, debiting cash with
the same. The question of the value of the goodwill would
then bc left over until a dissolution or winding up of the
partnership.
The following is an example :
 PARTNERSHIP 45

Example IV

On January 1, 1906, B. becomes partner with A. in a busi

ness which had been carried on by the latter. A.'s assets on
that date were valued for the purpose of the partnership as
follows :
t
Premises and plant 2500
Stock 1960
Book debts 1250
Cash at bank 250

and his trade liabilities taken over by the partnership amounted

to 1750. B. pays into the bank 3250, of which it is agreed
750 shall be credited to A. as the purchase price of one-half
the goodwill.
Journal
t i. a. i. a.
Premises and plant. Dr 2500 0 0
Stock 1950 0 0
Book debts 1250 0 0
Cash at bank 250 0 0
To Trade liabilities 1750 0 0
A.'s capital 4200 0 0
5950 0 0 5950 0 0

Cash. Dr 3250 0 0
To sundries A.'s capital . . . 750 0 0
B.'s ... 2500 0 0

Balance Sheet
January 1, 1906
Dr. Cr.
I. d. . d.
To creditors .... 1750 0 0 By debtors 1250 0 0
Capital AccountsA. 4950 0 0 cash at bank . . . 3500 0 0
B. 2500 0 0 stock 1950 0 0
premises and plant . 2500 0 0
9200 0 0 9200 0 0
46 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

31. Define partnership.
32. Distinguish between the different classes of partners.
33. Give instances of persons interested in the profits of a business without
involving the liability of partnership.
34. Give an example of a Partner's Drawing Account showing interest
calculations.
35. Define novation, goodwill.
36. What are the working rules of a partnership in the absence of an
agreement ?
37. Mention the manner in which goodwill may be dealt with in the
accounts.
38. Give an example of a partnership balance sheet showing the Partners'
Capital Accounts.
39. Smith, Brown and Robinson enter into partnership, as equal partners, for
the purpose of purchasing the successful business of Peter White, who is
retiring.
The business was taken over as on January 1, 1905, as it stood, upon the
basis of the last balance sheet which was as follows :
Peter White
Balance Siiket
December 31, 1904
t. d. . a.
To Capital Account . 20,540 0 0 By leasehold factory . 12,540 0 0
sundry creditors . 3,218 0 0 machinery and plant 8,200 0 0
,, Reserve Account Patents Account . 000 0 0
for depreciation . 008 0 0 ,, sundry debtors . . 1,560 0 0
stock on hand . . 1,458 0 0
,, difference in books 8 0 0
24,366 0 0 24,366 0 0
The purchase price of the business as a going concern was agreed at
25,000, which amount was duly paid to Peter White.
Cash was paid into the new firm's banking account by the partners as
follows :Smith, 12,000; Brown, 10,000; Robinson, 6000.
Before opening the books of the new firm it was agreed (a) to write off the
difference in the books ; (b) to transfer the Reserve Account for depreciation to
Machinery and Plant Account, and to write off, a further 200- as depreciation;
and (c) to write off 200 from Patents Account.
Make the entries necessary to record the above transactions in the books of
the new firm, and prepare a balance sheet disclosing the position of Smith,
Brown and Robinson upon commencing business.
 CHAPTER V

TERMINATION OF PARTNERSHIP
DissolutionStatement of AccountsExceptions to Partnership Liability
Insurance to provide for withdrawal of CapitalRealization Account
Treatment of Deficiency of Insolvent Partner.

Passing from the consideration of entering into partnership, we

now deal with the termination of that relationship.
Subject to agreement, every partnership is dissolved, as
regards all the partners, by the death or bankruptcy of any
partner; at the option of the other partners, in the event of
any partner suffering his share of the partnership property to
be charged for his separate debt ; by the Court in such cases as
lunacy, fraud, etc. Termination may also take place by effluxion
of time, and if the partnership has not been entered into for a
fixed term, on the giving of proper notice by any partner to the
others, as by reason of business or personal differences between
the partners, or of declining business and continued losses.
The rules observed, subject again to agreement, in settling
accounts between the partners are as follows :
(a) Losses, including losses and deficiencies of capital, shall
be paid first out of profits, next out of capital, and last, if
necessary, by the partners individually in the proportion in
which they were entitled to share profits.
(b) The assets of the firm, including the sums, if any, con
tributed by the partners to make up losses or deficiencies of
capital, shall be applied in the following manner and order :
(1) In paying the debts and liabilities of the firm to persons
who are not partners therein.
(2) In paying to each partner rateably what is due from the
firm to him for advances as distinguished from capital.
(3) In paying to each partner rateably what is due from the
firm to him in respect of capital.
47
48 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
(4) The ultimate residue, if any, shall be divided among
the partners in the proportion in which profits are
divisible.
Unless carefully provided for in the partnership articles, the
settlement of the Partnership Accounts in the winding up usually
presents considerable difficulty. In such cases as the death,
the expulsion, or the withdrawal of a partner, the fact of the
continuance of the business by the other members of the firm,
or its being wound up finally in settlement of the claims, will
of necessity have an important bearing on the interests of the
partners.
In continuing the business, the value of the retiring partner's
share has to be ascertained. This often involves a consideration
of the present value of the assets and the valuation of goodwill.
Property, plant, and fixtures may have been written down
excessively, and goodwill probably not appear in the accounts ;
or, on the other hand, wasting assets may not have been
depreciated sufficiently, and allowances may have to be made
for bad and doubtful debts, and for claims against the firm.
An executor, or the representative of a retiring partner would,
in the former event, doubtless insist upon the necessary adjust
ments being made prior to the settlement ; whilst in the second,
the continuing partners would probably claim a correction of
the accounts to prevent their interests suffering by taking over
inflated assets.
It would be well to note here that section 42 of the Partner
ship Act, 1890, provides that
" Where any member of a firm has died or otherwise ceased
to be a partner, and the surviving or continuing partners carry
on the business of the firm with its capital or assets without
any final settlement of accounts as between the firm and the
outgoing partner or his estate, then, in the absence of any
agreement to the contrary, the outgoing partner or his estate
is entitled at the option of himself or his representatives to
such share of the profits made since the dissolution as the
Court may find attributable to the use of his share of the
partnership assets, or to interest at the rate of 5 per cent
per annum on the amount of his share of the partnership
assets."
Let us assume the following statement to be placed before
 TERMINATION OF PARTNERSHIP
us as the basis of an adjustment between " X.," " Y.," and the
executors of " Z.," a deceased partner :
Book value. Agreed value.
* t,
Premises 2600 3000
Plant 1250 1 500
Office furniture Nil 50
Goodwill Nil 1500
To give effect in the accounts to the above, Premises and
Plant Accounts would be debited with the increases in the values
and accounts opened for office furniture and goodwill, and Capital
Adjustment Account credited with the total ; the final Journal
entry, on the supposition that profits are divided equally,
being
i. d. t. d.
Capital Adjustment Account. Dr. . 2200 0 0
To " X." Capital Account 733 6 8
"Y.JJ , 733 6 8
" Z. 733 6 8
For one-third share to each partner of re
valuation of assets.
If, however, X. and Y. insist upon certain assets being written
down, and a reserve being made against the loss on realization
of the book debts, we might have a considerable reduction of
Z.'s capital, which would possibly result in the winding up of the
business, or a resort to arbitration. Cases such as these impress
upon us the necessity of agreements setting forth very clearly
the procedure to be followed in the event of a change in the firm.
Another important consideration is the payment of a retiring
member's share. The immediate withdrawal may in many cases
seriously cripple the financialresourcesof the firm, and thus reduce
their trading possibilities, hence the desirability of a clause in
the partnership agreement for allowing a reasonable time for the
payment of the sum, say by quarterly amounts extending over one
or two years, or even for its retention in the concern as an invest
ment. In both cases interest would be allowed for the convenience.

Exceptions to Partnership Liability

Bearing on this it may be noted that partnership liability
does not follow by reason only of the receipt of a share of the
profits of a business, particularly in the following cases :
E
50 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
(ci) The receipt by a person of a debt or other liquidated
amount, by instalments or otherwise, out of the accruing profits
of a business.
(b) A contract for the remuneration of a servant or agent of
a person engaged in the business, by a share of the profits of the
business.
(c) A person, being the widow or child of a deceased
partner, and receiving by way of annuity a portion of the
profits made in the business in which the deceased person was
a partner.
(d) The advance of money by way of loan to a person engaged
or about to engage in any business, on a contract with that
person that the lender shall receive a rate of interest varying
with the profits, or shall receive a share of the profits arising
from carrying on the business, provided that the contract is in
writing, and signed by or on behalf of all the parties thereto.
(c) A person receiving, by way of annuity or otherwise, a
portion of the profits of a business in consideration of the sale
by him of the goodwill of the business.
An important feature in regard to cases (d) and (e) is, that in
the event of the bankruptcy or insolvency of the borrower of the
loan or the purchaser of the goodwill, the lender of the money
and the seller of the goodwill are not entitled to recover their
claims until the other creditors for valuable consideration have
received payment in full ; in other words, they are deferred
creditors until the estate pays 20s. in the . Should, however,
such a one hold collateral security, he is entitled to realize the
same on account of his loan.

Insurance as provision for withdrawal of Capital

To guard against the serious inconvenience likely to result

from the withdrawal of capital owing to the death of a partner
holding a large interest in the concern, some firms very pru
dently effect a joint insurance on the lives of the partners to
provide funds to pay out the share in such an event. The
charging of the premiums would be a matter of arrangement
between the members of the firm.
 TERMINATION OF PARTNERSHIP 51
As an illustration, consider the following problem given in
an accountant's examination recently :
A firm of merchants, A., B., and C, to provide against dis
location of business in the event of the death of any one of the
partners, take out a policy for 8000 upon their joint lives.
The premium, 150 per annum, is charged as a business
expense. After seven years' payment, C. dies. Assuming they
are equal partners, you are required to adjust matters between
them after receipt of the amount of the policy.
In the absence of a more definite statement as to the agree
ment between the partners concerned, the following methods
of dealing with the question might be placed before the
student :
1. Assuming all the money received goes to the survivors
t. d. t s. d.
Cash or bank. Dr 3000 0 0
To A., Capita] Account 1500 0 0
B 1500 0 0
Being amount of policy received on death of C.

2. If the cash goes equally to A., B., and the executors of C.

. d. I. d.
Cash or bank. Dr 3000 0 0
To
A.,
B. Capita]
Account
1000
1000 00 00
executors of C. 1000 0 0
3. If it is intended that the amount should go to the sur
viving partners after crediting each partner proportionately
with the amount of the premiums paid
. d. . d.
Cash or bank. Dr 3000 0 0
To A., Capital Account 350 0 0
B. 350 0 0
C. 350 0 0
Being refund of premiums paid on joint policy
To A., Capital Account 975 0 0
B. 975 0 0
Being balance due to A. and B., the survivors,
after refunding to eacli partner propor
tionately the amount of the premiums paid.
In the third case, interest on the premiums paid might also
be taken into account.
52 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Realization of Assets
Coming now to the accounts in the winding up of the business,
we find the final settlement to be shown by
(1) The Realization Account.
(2) Cash Account.
(3) The Partners' Accounts.
Of these only the first need be explained. The Realization
Account is charged with the assets as stated on the Cr. side of
the balance sheet (the cash balance being entered in the Cash
Account), and also with the expenses of realization; whilst on
the Cr. side are entered the sums realized for each asset ;
the balance which is profit or, more frequently, loss on realiza
tion being transferred to the Partners' Capital Accounts in the
proportions in which profits of the trading have been divided.
Now for examples to illustrate the method of dealing with
partnership settlements.

Examplk I
Messrs. Black and White were equal partners in a retail
boot shop. They decided to retire and dispose of their business
as on December 81, 1903. At the close of the year their
balance sheet was as follows :

Balance Sheet
December 31, 1903
t t. d. . d.
To B., Black Capital A/c 3050 0 0 By lease 1250 0 0
W., White 960 0 0 ,", fixtures 220 0 0
Sundry creditors . . 480 0 0 ,, sundry debtors . . 840 0 0
stock 2060 0 0
cash at bank ... 120 0 0
4490 0 0 4490 0 0

The lease and fixtures were disposed of for 2700, and the
cash duly received. The book debts were collected, and realized
752. The stock was sold by auction and produced 1340 after
payment of commission and expenses. The sundry creditors
were paid off, 38 being allowed for discount. The expenses
of realization amounted to 87.
As bookkeeper to the firm, prepare whatever accounts may
 TERMINATION OF PARTNERSHIP 53
be necessary to show the result of the realization and the
amount receivable by each partner.

JOURNAL
Dr. Cr.
t
Realization Account. . .Dr. 7 4370 ii
To sundries
Lease Account. . . . | 1 1200
Fixtures Account ... 2 220
Sundry debtors ... 3 840
Stock . . . ... 4 2060
(Being transfer to realization
account of sundry assets for
disposal)

Cash Dr. 1 6 mo 0 0
To Realization Account . .17 2700
(Being cash received for lease
and fixtures)

Cash Dr. 6 702

To Realization Account . . 7 702
(For cash received on account of
book debts)
I
Cash Dr. 1340 0 I 0
To Realization Account . 1340
(For net proceeds on disposal of
stock by auction)

Sundry creditors .... Dr. ISO 0 0

To cash U2
Realization Account . 38
(For cash paid and discount
| allowed on payment of sundry
creditors)

Realization Account. . .Dr. < 7 87 0 0

To cash [6 87 0 0
(Being expenses on realization
of assets)

Realization Account. . .Dr. 37:1 0 0

To B., Black Capital Account 180 10 0
W.,White Capital Account 180 10 0
(Transfer of profit on realization
'of assets, etc.)
54 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

LEDGER
1 LiIASe Account
Dr. Cr.
1903. 1 s. d) 1903. 1 < * It. d.
Dec. 31 To balance . | 1-250 0 0'i Dec. i 31 By Renliza- 1 N 1250 0 0
1 1 1 ii tionAccount
i ii

Fixtures Account
Dec. 31 | To balance 220 0i0[i Dec. '31 By Realiza- 1 220 0 0
titmAceount i i
< i

Sundry Debtors Account

Deo. 31 To balance . 1 840 I 0 0 ! Dec. :il By Reuliza- sin
tionAccount

Stock Account
Dec. | 31 |! To balance . | i| 2000 0 0 [ Doc. ' 31 I By Realiza- 1 || 2060 0 0
tionAccount

Sundry Creditors Account

To Cash Ac- , 1 480 0 0 I1 Dec. 31 By balance . 480 0 0
count

Cash Account

1 1
Dec I HI i To balance 12010 By sundry
Realiza crs. . . 1 442 0 0
tion A/c expenses 1 87 0 0
lease and Balance
fixtures 2700 0 o/d 4383 0 0
Book
debts 752 0
1340 ; 0
4912 0 4912 0 0
Balance
b/d . 4383 0
 TERMINATION OF PARTNERSHIP 55

7 Realization Account
Dr. Cr.
'I. 1 4 t. d.
To sundry By cash . 1 2700 00
assets 1 4370 0 0 " w 1 752 00
cash for 1 1340 0!0
expenses 1 87 0 0 discount
balance allowed
c/d . A 1 373 0 0 by sun
dry era. 1 38 0 0
4830 0 0 1830 0 0

To W. White
Capital A/c 1 186 10 0
To B. Black
Capital A/c 1 186 10 0
By balance
373 0 0 b/d . . 373 0 0

B. Black's Capital Account

1
1904. ! To balance 1903. By balance .
1 3236 10' 0 Doc. 31 profit on , 3050' 0J0
l| c/d . .
i' 1 realiza i
tion of
'1 assets . 11 186 10| 0
'1[1 3236 10 0
II1 I
By balance
b/d . . 3230 10 0
,| 1 1
W. White's Capital Account
I
To balance 1146 10 Deo. 31 By balance . 960
o/d profit on
realiza
tion of
assets . 180
1146
By balance
b/d . . 1146 10 0

Summary
Cash. Dr. Balance 4383 0 0
B. Black's Capital Account. Cr. balance 3236 10 0
W. White's 1146 10 0
4383 0 0
56 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Example II

A. and B. carried on business in partnership for several years,

dividing profits, two-thirds to A., and one-third to B., the original
capital of 900 having been provided in those proportions. On
the death of A., C. was appointed to realize and distribute the
assets. The last balance sheet was dated September 80, 1902.
A. died March 81, 1903. The amount realized was 3000.
There was due to creditors 1000 ; for rent, rates, and other
liabilities, 200 ; costs and expenses in relation to the winding-
up of the business, 100. The Partners' Accounts wereA.'s
Capital Account, 600 ; Current Account in credit, 750 ; B.'s
Capital Account 300 ; Current Account in credit, 700.
Set out the partners' Ledger Accounts, credit A. with interest
at 5 per cent. on 50 for half a year, and make out a final
statement and adjust the partners' accounts, showing the
balance payable to each. Income tax not to be taken into
account.

Realization Account
Dr. Cr.
1. d. i. d.
To book value of assets . 3550 0 0 By proceeds of sale of
costs of realization . 100 0 0 assets 3000 0 0
A.'s Account interest 15 0 A. two-thirds of loss 434 3 4
B. one-third ... 217 1 S
3651 5 O 3651 5 0

Cash Account
Dr. Cr.
. ii. . d.
To assets 3000 0 0 By creditors .... 1000 0 0
rent, etc 200 0 0
costs 100 0 0
A 017 1 8
B 782 18 4
3000 0 0 3000 0 0
 TERMINATION OF PARTNERSHIP 57

A.'s Account
Dr. Or.
JE s. d.
To two-thirds of loss on By capital 600 0 0
realization . . . 434 3 4 Current Account . . 750 0 0
balance down . . . 917 1 8 interest, six months at
5 per cent, on 50 . 15 0

1351 5 0 1351 5 0

To cash . . . 917 1 8 By balance . 917 1 8

B.'s Account
Dr. Cr.
t : d. . d.
To one-third loss on reali- 300 0 0
217 1 8 Current Account . . 700 0 II
balance down . . . 782 18 4
1000 0 0 1000 0 0
To cash . 782 18 4 By balance . 782 18 4

Deficiency of Insolvent Partner

We have now to consider the case of one of the partners of a
firm being nnable to make good his deficiency of, capital and
contribute to the loss resulting from the realization of the
firm's assets. A decision of Mr. Justice Joyce in the case of
Garner v. Murray is to the effect that the proportions of the
solvent partners in the deficiency are to be brought in and
credited to the Deficiency Account, and the insolvent partner's
share of deficiency is to be left standing to the debit of the
Deficiency Account. The balance sheet should then show on
the liabilities side the solvent partners' Capital Accounts, and
on the assets side the Cash, being the proceeds of realization,
together with the insolvent partner's share of deficiency and the
debit to him. The Cash should then be divided rateably between
the solvent members of the firm.
However, considerable discussion has recently taken place
on this legal reversal of the custom which previously obtained
of charging the solvent partners with the insolvent partner's
deficiency in the same proportions as profits were divided, that
is, in considering the loss resulting from a partner's failure to
58 ACSOUNTING AND BANKING
make good his debit in the same manner as a loss arising from
an ordinary trade debtorthis interpretation being thought to
be the correct and just one in accordance with section 44 of the
Partnership Act. The opinion is very largely held that the
latter view is correct, and that the principle laid down in
the above case will not be maintained. In view of the former
being a legal decision, the two methods of the treatment of the
account are given in the following example :

Example III
A., B., and C. are equal partners. Their balance sheet at a
certain date was
t I. d. . d.
A., Capital Account . . 2000 0 0 Book debts 1200 0 0
B. , 1000 0 0 Stock 1100 0 0
Creditors 500 0 0 Plant 700 0 0
C, Capital Account . . 500 0 0
3500 0 0 3500 0 0

C. is insolvent and cannot bring anything more into the partner

ship. They decide to wind-up, and dispose of the assets for
1900, and the expenses of realization amount to 100. Close
the accounts of the firm.

Method adopted prior to Garner v. Murray

Realization Account
I. d. I. d.
To sundry assets . . . 3000 0 0 By cash 1900 0 0
expenses .... 100 0 0 deficiency c/d . . . 1200 0 0
3100 0 0 3100 0 0
To deficiency b/d . . . 1200 0 0 By A. one-third ... 400 0 0
B. one-third ... 400 0 0
C. one-third ... 400 0 0
1200 0 0 1200 0 0

Balance Siibet (after close of Realization Account)

A., Capital Account . . 1600 0 0 Cash 1800 0 0
B. , f00 0 0 C, Capital Account . . !KlO 0 0
Creditors 500 0 0
2700 0 0 2700 0 0
 i UNIVf^3.TY J

TERMINATION OF PARTNERSHIP 59
As C. cannot contribute anything, the debit on his Capital
Account is divided between A. and B. in the same proportions as
they divided profits as between themselves. After doing this
and paying off the creditors the balance sheet is
t. d. s. d.
A., Capital Account . . 1150 0 0 Cash 1300 0 0
B. . . 150 0 0
1300 0 0 1300 0 0
and the cash is divided accordingly.

Following Garner v. Murray decision

(1) A solvent partner is not liable (qy. as a partner) to con
tribute for an insolvent partner who fails to pay his share.
(2) Contributions due from solvent partners for losses and
deficiencies should be actually brought in (not charged in
account).
A. and B. must therefore each bring in 400, and only C.'s
share of the deficiency goes to the balance sheet.

Balaxce Sheet (after close of Realization Account)

s. d. s. d.
A., Capital Account . . 2000 0 0 Cash 2000 0 0
B. . . 1000 0 0 C
Creditors 500 0 0 Debit of capital 500
Share of deficiency 400
900 0 0
3500 0 0 3500 0 0

Pay creditors, and it gives the following :

t. d. s. d.
A., Capital Account . . 2000 0 0 Cash 2100 0 0
B. . . 1000 0 0 C. (irrecoverable) ... 900 0 0
3000 0 0 3000 0 0

Divide the cash between A. and B. by way of dividend of

14s. in the , i.e.
A. Ig^^s of 2100 = 1400
B. jggjjths of 2100 = 700
2100
<5o ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

40. State when, if ever, an outgoing partner of a firm is entitled to share in
the profits of the firm, made after the dissolution of the partnership.
41. In preparing the accounts of a partnership firm, enumerate the various
points to which you should give special attention in order to safeguard each
partner's interest.
42. What are the rules for the distribution of assets in a final settlement of
accounts between partners?
43. In the absence of an agreement state the rules for settling accounts
between partners on dissolution.
44. Discuss methods of making provision for the withdrawal of capital from
a partnership concern.
45. Give examples of the usual accounts provided in the winding op of a
partnership business.
46. Discuss the settlement of a loss where one of the partners is a debtor to
the firm, and is insolvent
47. X., Y., and Z. are in partnership, their respective capitals being 1500,
1200, and 800. The partnership articles provide for interest on capital at 5
per cent, per annum, and profits and losses to be divided in the proportion of X.
one-half, Y. one-third, C. one-sixth. A. has lent to the firm 1000 at 6 per cent,
interest, and B. 500 at the same rate. Interest on capital and loans is paid
up to date. It is decided to dissolve partnership on June 30, 1905, on which date
the assets of the firm were as follows :

Machinery and plant 2,000
Loose tools, patterns, etc 1,000
Stock in trade 2,500
Sundry debtors 4,500
10,000
The liabilities (in addition to those to partners) were
t
Sundry creditors 3000
Bank creditors 2000
5000
The business was sold as a going concern, subject to the following allowances
oil, the book values : machinery and plant, 10 per cent. ; loose tools and patterns
and stock, 20 per cent. ; book debts, 15 per cent. ; but also subject to the pay
ment of 600 for goodwill.
Prepare a realization account, and show what was the result to each partner.
48. A., B., and C. were equal partners in business for several years. A.
died December 31, 1903. The articles of partnership provided that on the
death or retirement of any one of the partners, the goodwill should be taken
into account. The balance sheet at the date of A.'s death was as follows :
 TERMINATION OF PARTNERSHIP 61
1 . d.
Cash at bank 6,022 17 0
in hand 23 17 2
Debts due to the firm 22,022 19 0
by the firm 8,086 15 2
A., Capital Account 9,982 18 0
B 5,000 0 0
C. ,', 5,000 0 0
B. and C. arrange for D. to come into the firm and bring in as capital
10,000. The goodwill is, by agreement, to be valued at 4500, and the new
firm takes over the business in equal shares, and pays out to the estate of A. the
whole value of his share and interest.
Prepare from the above a balance sheet and a statement showing the amount
due to A.'s estate, and draft a balance sheet of the new firm as it should appear
at the commencement of its operations January 1, 1904.
 CHAPTER VI

JOINT STOCK COMPANIES

Classes of SharesConversion of Shares into StockMemorandum and Articles
of AssociationProspectusSection 12, Companies Act, 1900 Company's
opening entriesStatistical BooksProfit and Loss Account and Balance
SheetForfeited SharesProfits prior to Incorporation.

From the last chapter we learnt somewhat of the uncertainty of

arranging satisfactory partnerships, and of the responsibility
and liability of partnerships ; also of the difficulty and delay in
withdrawing the capital invested therein. In view of these
points, it is hardly to be wondered that the principle of limited
liability has met with so much favour among investors of both
small and large sums. The advantages of limited liability
ease of realizing his holding, that is, turning his shares into
cash, statutory regulations in regard to the" books of account
and the conduct of businessall give confidence to the intending
shareholder, who, in the careful selection of a sound under
taking, may feel reasonably sure of a fair return on his
investment.
Before dealing with the accounts of a joint stock company,
let us consider some of the various points of which we should
have a knowledge.
Joint stock means joint capital, and the company is the
association of a number of persons who contribute or engage to
contribute certain proportions or shares of the capital.
Most companies are registered with limited liability, i.e. that
the shareholder cannot be called upon to pay more than the
unpaid amount on his shares : so that the holder of fifty 10
shares in such a company, on which 6 per share has been
paid, has no further liability than the 200 unpaid. In some
cases, as in the finding of money by a few persons, who are
taking the preliminary steps for the purchase of a patent or a
business with a view to selling again, the company may be
62
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 63
limited by guarantee, i.e. that each person undertakes to
subscribe a certain proportion of the total sum guaranteed. It
will readily be understood, that companies with unlimited
liability involve so much risk, that they are not viewed with
favour by investors.
A company may be registered by special Act of Parliament,
e.g. railway, tram, and similar undertakings requiring special
powers ; but industrial and commercial companies are begun,
carried on, and ended under the Joint Stock Companies Acts of
1862-1900.
Any firm or partnership of more than twenty members (in
the case of a banking business, ten) carrying on any business
for gain, must be registered under the Companies Act ; and no
company can consist of less than seven persons.
The capital of a joint stock company is divided into certain
fractions or parts of the total sum, such division of interest
and, it may be, liability, being termed shares, generally of 1 or
5 each.
Shares may be of various classes :
Ordinary, giving no special advantage or privilege in regard
to the sharing of profits or the distribution of capital in the
event of winding up the company.
Preference, carrying with them a prior claim to a fixed share
of the profits, say 5 or 6 per cent., and, it may be, also to capital
when distributed.
Cumulative Preference, giving the shareholder the power of
claiming upon future profits for any shortage in the payment
of his dividend during the current period.
Preference shares carry with them this cumulative claim
if the articles provide so.
Deferred, in which the claim upon the distribution of profits
is waived until the ordinary and preference shareholders have
received certain dividends.
Founders', which are practically deferred shares allotted to
the promoters or the few who have had the trouble and expense
of working some patent or speculative undertaking to a suc
cessful issue.
Guaranteed, on which a stated dividend is guaranteed to be
paid for a fixed term of years (usually by the vendor of a
business taken over by the company).
 64 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
In further explanation of the above distinctions let us take
the following instances :
A., wishing to float his business, feels doubtful about securing
the minimum subscription (the number of shares, stated in the
prospectus, to be applied for to allow of an allotment). He there
fore offers the following inducements to encourage investors : share
capital, in 1 shares, of 100,000 divided into 40,000 6 per cent.
cumulative preference shares, preference in respect of profit and
capital, 40,000 ordinary shares, and 20,000 deferred shares to be
allowed to him as part of the purchase money, and on which no
dividend is to be payable in any of the five following years until
10 per cent. has been paid to the ordinary shareholders, the first
appropriation of profits being to the preference shareholders.
As an alternative proposal, A. might have guaranteed the
payment of the dividend during a limited number of years to
either or both classes of shareholders, but this would be under
taking so much as to probably raise suspicions in the minds of
investors, and cause them to leave the speculation severely
alone, 'thus defeating the vendor's object in offering such
favourable terms.
As an illustration of founders' shares, a fairly common form
a few years ago, take the case of a patent financed by a small
syndicate of ten members, who set a value of 10,000 upon the
patent and their work and expenses. They ask for additional
capital of .50,000, and agree to accept founders' shares for
the 10,000, stipulating to defer any claim on profits until 6 per
cent. has been paid on the 50,000 ordinary shares, after which
the balance is to be divided equally between the two classes of
shares. This appears a satisfactory arrangement until such
time as a disposable balance of 10,000 appears in the Profit
and Loss Account giving a return of 8500 on the founders'
shares, and raising their market value to an extraordinary sum.
Conversion of Shares into Stock.If authorized by its articles,
a company may convert its fully paid shares into stock, which
enables the holding to be dealt with in multiples of l, or as
may be provided by the articles of the company. As an instance,
we may mention Coats, Ltd., who on the 10 shares reaching
in 1898 a price of 75 sanctioned their shares being converted
into stock.
The use of the term " stock " merely denotes that the
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 65
company has recognized the fact of the complete payment of
the shares, and that the time has come when those shares may
be assigned in fragments, which, for obvious reasons, could not
be permitted before. The stock shall still be a qualification, e.g.
of directors, who must possess a certain number of shares, and
that the meetings shall be of persons entitled to this stock who
meet and vote as shareholders, in the proportion of shares which
would entitle them to vote before the consolidation into stock.
It may be mentioned that such stock may again be recon
verted into shares.

POWEES AND ReGDLATIONS OF COMPANY

In place of the partnership agreement which, in the last
chapter, we found embodied the arrangements for carrying on
the business and the contract between those sharing the profit
or loss, we have the following to set forth the powers and
regulations of the company.
Memorandum of Association in which the objects of the
company are fully set forth, and the powers of the company
defined. It must contain the following particulars :
1. The name of the company with the addition of " Limited "
as the last word of the name.
2. The situation of the registered office.
8. The objects of the company.
4. A declaration that the liability of the members is limited.
5. The amount of capital and the number and value of the
shares into which it is divided.
Articles of Association.As the affairs of the company are
managed by the directors, acting for the shareholders, it is
important that there should be certain regulations or working
rules for the management of the company, these being given
very fully in the articles of association. Small companies
frequently adopt those known as Table A of the Companies
Act of 1862 (revised in 1906), with or without modifications ;
larger companies usually adopt special articles.
The articles may be altered by a special resolution passed
in a general meeting, but must not contain anything illegal or
go beyond the powers of the memorandum to which the articles
are subject.
The memorandum and the articles of association are signed
v
66 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
by seven persons called the subscribers, who are the first
members of the company.
Prospectus. After these preliminary notes upon company
work, we may now proceed to deal with the floating of the
business of a firm whose accounts we have audited for several
years past. In consultation with the solicitors the prospectus
is prepared. This, in compliance with the Companies Act of
1900, must be dated, signed by the directors, and filed with the
Registrar of Joint Stock Companies, before being issued. It
must include a copy of the memorandum of association, and give
the names of the signatories, and among other particulars state
the names, descriptions, addresses, and qualifications of the
directors; the minimum subscription on which the directors
propose to proceed to allotment ; the particulars of shares, and
consideration for shares issued as fully or partly paid, or other
wise than for cash ; the names and addresses of the vendors and
the particulars of the purchase money, specifying the amount for
goodwill ; also the disclosure of all material contracts.
The object of these regulations is to prevent intending share
holders being misled, either by misrepresentation in the pro
spectus or important omissions from it. The minimum sub
scriptions having been paid, the memorandum and articles filed
with the Registrar of Joint Stock Companies, together with a
statutory declaration of compliance with the requirements of
the Act, and of course the payment of the requisite fees, the
certificate of incorporation is granted, and the company
commences business.
A further safeguard of the interests of the shareholders is
provided by section 12 of the Companies Act of 1900, giving
those interested an opportunity of inquiry into any matters
affecting the formation of the company. Note specially that
by paragraph (8) the auditors must certify as to the allotment
of shares ; the cash received in respect of such shares ; and to
the receipts and payments of the company on capital account.

SECTION 12 OF THE COMPANIES ACT, 1900

(63 & 64 Vict., Ch. 48)
12. (1) Every company limited by shares and registered
after the commencement of this Act shall, within a period of
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 67
not less than one month nor more than three months from the
date at which the company is entitled to commence business,
hold a general meeting of the members of the company, which
shall be called the statutory meeting.
(2) The directors shall, at least seven days before the day
on which the meeting is held, forward to every member of the
company a report, certified by not less than two directors of
the company, or, where there are less than two directors, by the
sole director and manager, stating
(a) The total number of shares allotted, distinguishing shares
allotted as fully or partly paid up otherwise than in
cash, and stating in the case of shares partly paid up
the extent to which they are so paid up, and in either
case the consideration for which they have been
allotted ;
(b) The total amount of cash received by the company in
respect of such shares distinguished as aforesaid ;
(c) An abstract of the receipts and payments of the company
on capital account to the date of the report, and an
account or estimate of the preliminary expenses of the
company ;
(d) The names, addresses, and descriptions of the directors,
auditors (if any), manager (if any), and secretary of
company ; and
(e) The particulars of any contract the modification of which
is to be submitted to the meeting for its approval,
together with the particulars of the modification or
proposed modification.
(3) The report shall, so far as it relates to the shares allotted
by the company, and to the cash received in respect of such
shares, and to the receipts and payments of the company on
capital account, be certified as correct by the auditors (if any)
of the company.
(4) The directors 'shall cause a copy of the report, certified
as by this section required, to be filed with the registrar
forthwith after the sending thereof to the members of the
company.
(5) The directors shall cause a list, showing the names,
descriptions, and addresses of the members of the company, and
the number of shares held by them respectively, to be produced
68 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
at the commencement of the meeting, and to remain open and
accessible to any member of the company during the continuance
of the meeting.
(6) The members of the company present at the meeting
shall be at liberty to discuss any matter relating to the formation
of the company, or arising out of the report, whether previous
notice has been given or not ; but no resolution of which notice
has not been given in accordance with the articles of association
may be passed.
(7) The meeting may adjourn from time to time, and at any
such adjourned meeting any resolution of which notice has been
given in accordance with the articles of association, either before
or subsequently to the former meeting, may be passed, and the
adjourned meeting shall have the same powers as an original
meeting.
(8) If default is made in filing such report as aforesaid, or
in holding the statutory meeting, then, at the expiration of
fourteen days after the last day on which the meeting ought to
have been held, any shareholder may petition the Court for the
winding up of the company, and upon the hearing of the petition
the Court may either direct that the company be wound up, or
give directions for the report being filed, or a meeting being held,
or make such other order as may be just, and may order that
the costs of the petition be paid by any persons who in the
opinion of the Court are responsible for the default.

Share Capital Entries

The company previously referred to is formed with a registered

capital of 20,000, divided into 6000 6 per cent. cumulative
preference shares of 1 each (preferential in regard to both
dividend and capital), and 14,000 ordinary shares of l each ;
5s. per share is payable on application, 5s. on allotment, and the
balance by equal instalments in two and three months after
allotment. The vendor is allotted 5000 ordinary shares, and
paid 4000 cash for the assets and goodwill of the business.
All the preference shares and 4000 of the ordinary shares are
applied for and allotted. The entries regarding these trans
actions appear in the books as hereunder :
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 69

Jan. 1. Purchase Account. Dr 9000
To vendor 9000
Purchase of sundry assets and goodwill
as per schedule.
Bank. Dr 2500
To Ordinary Share Capital Account. Cr. 1000
Preference Share Capital Account . 1500
Being 5. per share application money
6000 preference shares
4000 ordinary
Bank. Dr 2500
To Ordinary Share Capital Account. Cr. 1000
,, Preference Share Capital Account. . 1500
Being 5s. per share on allotment
6000 preference shares
4000 ordinary
Bank. Dr 2500
To Ordinary Share Capital Account . . 1000
Preference Share Capital Account . 1500
Being 5. per share1st call on, etc.
Bank. Dr. 2500
To Ordinary Share Capital Account . . 1000
Preference Share Capital Account . 1500
Being 5s. per share2nd call on, etc.
Vendor. Dr 9000
To Ordinary Share Capital 5000
bank 4000
Being allotment of 5000 ordinary shares
and cash payment for purchase of
goodwill and assets of the business.

Dr. Purchase Account Cr.

To sundries 9000

Vendor

To ordinary shares .... 5000 By Purchase Account .... 9000
cash 4000

Ordinary Share Capital

By cash, application 1000
allotment 1000
1st call . 1000
2nd ., . 1000
vendor . . . 5000
70 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Cumulative Preference Share Capital

Dr. Or.

By cash, application .... 1500
allotment .... 1500
1st call 1500
2nd 1500

Bank or Cash Account

t. d. t . d.
To applications : Ordinary shares 1500 0 0 By vendor . 4000 0 0
Preference 1500 0 0
allotments : Ordinary 1000 0 0
i Preference 1500 0 0
1st call : Ordinary 1000 0 0
1st Preference 1500 0 0
2nd Ordinary 1000 0 0
2nd Preference 1500 0 0

Another method of dealing with the opening entries is to

open separate application, allotment, and call accounts which
are afterwards transferred to the Share Capital Account. In this
way over-applications, transfers from the application to the
Allotment Account and arrears of the various payments are
shown without interference with the Share Capital Account.

Example I

A company offers for subscription 250,000 shares of 1 each

at a premium of 2s. 6d. per share, payable 5s. on application,
7s. 6d on allotment, and the balance one month after allotment.
In response to the offer, applications were received on October
1, 1905, for 800,000 shares. The company went to allot
ment on the following day, when applications for 10,000 shares
were declined and the deposits received on application returned,
applicants for 80,000 shares received only half the amount of
their respective applications, and the excess of their deposits was
applied towards payment of the amount due on allotment. The
remainder of the applications were allotted in full.
Let us make the Journal entries for these transactions :
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 71

JOURNAL
Dr. Cr.

1905
Oct. 1 Cash Dr. 75,000
To Application Account 75,000
(Being applications for 300,000 nt 5a. eaoh)
Application Account Dr. 02,500
Allotment Account Dr. 93,750
To Share Capital Accouut 125,000
Premium or Shares Account 31,250
(Being allotment of 250,000 shares5s. per share on
application and 7*. M. per share on allotment)
Application Account Dr. 2,500
To cash 2,500
(Being application money returned on 10,000 shares
declined)
Application Account Dr. 10,000
To Allotment Account ........ 10,000
(Being amount received on application for 40,1)00
shares declined, but carried to reduce amount due
on allotment of other shares)
Cash Dr. 83,750
To Allotment Account 83,750
(Being balance due, and assumed to have been re
ceived)
Nov. 2 First Call Account . . .... Dr. 125,000
To Share Capital Account 125,000
(Being call due on 250,000 shares at 10. per share)
Cash Dr. 125,000
To First Call Aooount . 125,000
(Being amount assumed to have been received)

The financial books of the company will be similar to

those hitherto in use and such as are kept by a private
firm with a well-planned system of accounts. It is, however,
compulsory upon companies to keep certain statistical books.
These are
Register of Members, or Shareholders' Register.
Register of Mortgages or Charges.
Register of Directors and Managers.
Annual List of Members and Summary Book.
Minute Book.
72 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
In addition the following subsidiary books are met with in the
offices of most companies :
Application and Allotment of Shares' Book.
Call Book.
Register of Transfers.

REGISTER OF MEMBERS AND

Name: Smith, John.

Address and occupation: 440, Austin Friars, London, E.C. Corn merchant.

Dr. Shares acquired. Dr. Cash payable on shares.

i
I
I Total
amount.
"So 9
4

1902. I. il . il.
Jan. 3 Applica- I
11 1 tion and) 5 0j 37 10 n
Mar.10 Allotment)
I First call 5 0 87 10 0
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 73
Dividends Book.
Seal Register.
Agenda Book.
Share Certificate Book.
Also books in relation to debentures, vide Chapter VII.

SHAREHOLDERS' LEDGER

Date of entry as a member: January 11, 1902.

Date of ceasing to be a member :

Cash paid od shares. Cr. Shares transferred. Or.

1
2a .
1 i Total value of
Amount. o shares trans
ferred.
I 11 .Si
1 r S

1902. 1902. . d. 1902. From To I (. d.

18 Apl. 5 100 1 100 2:; 11)0 n (i
Jan. 3 Jan. 3 1 ; 18 15 0
., 11 13 4 18 IS 0
Mar. 10 Mai. 15 32 37 10 0
74 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 75

Certificate

"THE COMPANIES ACTS, 1862 to 1900."

Names and Addresses of the Persons who are the Directors

OF

Limited,
on the day of 190 .

(Pursuant to Section 19, Sub-section 1 (6), of The Companies Act, 1900.)

Names.

Signature

Date 190 Description

{i.e. Manager or Secretary.)

This list should be attached to the annual retnrn, immediately after the
list of members.
76 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Number of )
Certificate f~
"THE COMPANIES ACTS, 1862 to 1900."
A
FORM E /""V Companies'
As altered by the Board of Trade pursuant to Section 11 of the I J 5tmP
Companies Act, 1862. I I shouM ^
impressed
bere.
Sbummarg of apttal ana Sb&atts
0*
BOOTH BROWN,
LIMITED,
made up to the Twenty Second day of October, 1906.
(Being the Fourteenth Day succeeding the 8th day of October, 1906, when the First
Ordinary General Meeting in the Year was held.)

Nominal capital, 30,000 divided into * {20000 ord "} 8nares f * *{l eacn
Total number of shares taken np to the 22nd day of October, 1906 (6000 pref.
(Which number must agree with the toUl shown In the list as held by \ 18,460 ord.
existing members) *
Number of shares issued subject to payment wholly in cash . . . 14,460
Number of shaves issued as fully paid up otherwise than for cash . 10,000
Number of shares issued as partly paid up to the extent of \ ^
per share otherwise than for cash /
t There has been called up on each of 6000 preference shares . . 1
8460 ordinary . . 15s.
j < jj "
J Total
andamount of calls received, including payments on applicationWj.,
allotment I -^rJ
Total amount (if any) agreed to be considered as paid on 10,0001
ordinary shares which have been issued as fully paid (otherwise [10,000
than in cash)
Total amount (if any) agreed to be considered as paid on -1
shares which have been issued as partly paid up to the extent |
of per share J
Total amount of calls unpaid Nil
Total amount (if any) paid on shares forfeited . . . Nil
Total amount of debt due from the company in respect of alh
mortgages and charges which require registration under the(3ooo
Companies Act, 1900, or which would require such registration j
if created after the amendment of that Act J
NOTE.A list of the names and addresses of the dlreotors must follow the Hat of members.
Banking oompanies must also add a list of all their plaoes of business.
* Where there are shares of different kinds or amounts (e.g. preference and ordinary, or 10 and 6),
state the numbers and nominal values separately.
f Where various amounts have been called, or there are shares of different kinds, sta
separately.
I Include what has been received on forfeited as well as on existing shares.
| State the aggregate number of shares forfeited (if any).
The Return must be signed, at the end, by the Manager or Secretary or the
Company.
of
and
,-0
day
of_
holding
Limited0
in
the
List
shares
of
peponresr,osnosns of
the
asince
and
showing
held
have
twho
time
date
the
their
dof
shares
last
at
return0
hcanreany
norasuemnietsn 0 dtbe
and
*Tis
number
nheld0
stated0
column
the
added
sito
ofahugtmheiaup
not
must tWof
sdt
ubnrgcethirgovsauet0e, held0
cshares
these
be
number
the
that
class
each soaaredsuiefmvrsinerdsetd0 number
rouialhenbfnormay sshould
tof
each
Tdate.
date
given0
be
pthe
The
rX
well
aehgrnonaasheistnfrsetcfruaesltdraiosnplaced
be
and
the
but
onot
tthat
iof
rhouldnpasmay
namenpesoarfestmreidtre0e
Remarks.

1
sPofathraicrulnears thedateofsfeirnced by
lastthereperturn whohavectoesaosneds rDateofegistra ttionofransfer.

mbeembers.^
Number.t

ofsAhcaroeusnt.
sofPtahrtaicrunelasr thedateofsfeirnced by
thelastrpereturn swhotmemaresiolns ofrieDgaistera ttionofransfer.

bers.
J Number.t make
stated
the
been
have
total
that
with
in
tosoneasagree
taken
soup.
um ary

N*umber ofshares heldbyexisting members dateofat return.-f

rtoameprmltenaisduocfrsmeuakrlitns.aet0rlesy
picin
the
each
of

Oc upation.

acd urpeastioens,.
andoN0e,
Ad res .

Chrniastmiea.n

.Surname.
shown
separately.
sharesso
held.

FInolio register ledger contain ingpar- tlculars.

78 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

APPLICATION AND

Number of Applicant's name. Residence. Trade or profession.

letter.

10 Smith, John . . . 440, Austin Friars, London, Cork Merchant

E.C.

CALL
First call of five shillings per share, made March 10, 1902, payable

Share Number
Name. Address. Occupation. ledger of shares
folio. held.

Smith, John < . 440, Austin Friars, Cork Merchant . 1 150

London, B.C.

REGISTER OF

TRANSFERORS.
Number
Date. of Folio in
transfer. register of Name. Address. Occupation.
members.

April 5 18 1 Smith, John . 440, Austin Friars, Cork Merchant

London, E.G.
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 79

ALLOTMENT BOOK

Date of Date of Number of Number of Folio in

application. allotment. shares shares register or Remarks.
applied for. allotted. members.

Jan. 2, Jan. 11, 150 150 1

1902. 1902.

BOOK
at once, making amount paid up on each share ten shillings.

Total amount of Cash

call. Date Paid. book Interest. Remarks.
folio.

i s. d. Days. t j t. d.
37 10 0 March 15 12
i
1 1
,
I I 1

TRANSFERS
TRANSFEREES.
Number of
bbares
Folio In transferred. Remarks.
Name. Address. Occupation. register of
members.

Brown, William . 186, Bond St. Hatter . 23 100

London, W.
 09O > nno G H I1 O > O to Cof
Paid
PFully
Shares
1
ueach
rmJ%
eulfaetrive.nce
NLIMITED
TRADERS
isubject
in
the
unto
mclbuesrievde
Shares. DIVIDED
PCINTO
6%
6000
SHARES
OP
RUEMFUELRAETNICVE The
PrCfeSofSixDtoucnihematvarefue0raixlrtndeletnicdvs,e Ris
the
Pergoipsrtie^
rteodr
Tof
thenmabm
swbe
orof
the
ghthii
Cpia7anekrtn.oir-hstdMeiouf)tceuritecadotne.
^Secretary.
No.
REGISTERED O1
14,000
SHARES
EACH
AND
EACH.
OF
RDINARY RSOOP
In
andrankbrEAhpereaPdSfnIiPrTonEAeuraCLmse.Ty
Cthe
SHARES
PREFERENCE
CUMULATIVE UNDER
THEC0^-
o^oRATED
*

^
Msaid
Aand
of
the
Company.
sermtociracnltdieuosmn Seal
Common
the
Company
of
said
this
Given
under

33
Directors.

TO
16621900
ACTS,

BOOK
CESHAKE
RTIFICATE

Certify
to
that
Zbis
is
Countersigned

No.
CERTIFICATE

of
day
10
of

LIMITED
TRADERS PCruemfuelraetnicve
1031|

Shares issued
to
to_
of
CERTIFICATE
No. No.
REGISTERED

Nos.
Directors' Signatures
a:

Date
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 81

DIVIDENDS BOOK

Name of Preference Income No. Net

share Ordinary Deferred Total. tax of amount Date
holder. shares. shares. shares. deducted. war of cleared.
rant. warrant.
Ufo. Amonnt. L. fo. Amount. L. to. Amount.

In the above case separate ledgers are kept for each class of shares. When
only one ledger is kept one ledger folio column only is needed.

Example II

Let us now deal with the following exercise :

Prepare from the following ledger balances on December 81,
1902, of William Pearson & Co., Ltd., Profit and Loss Account
and Balance Sheet.
The adjustments to be made are
A provision of 5 per cent. for bad and doubtful debts.
Depreciation of 10 per cent. on Machinery and Plant Account.
1000 to be taken to the reserve fund.
The nominal capital consists of 50,000 shares of 1 each.

Share Capital Account (issued 30,000 shares of 1 each
with 10s. per share called up) 15,000
Unpaid Calls Account 150
CaBh in hand 190
Sundry creditors 1,960
Sundry debtors 3,640
Cash at bank 1,150
Reserve fund 4,000
Machinery and Plant Account 6,000
Mortgage Debentures Account (45 debentures of 100
each at 5 per cent0 interest) 4,500
Freehold premises 11,500
Stock (Jan. 1, 1902) 8,800
Manufacturing wages 12,450
Salaries 1,230
a
 82 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
i.
Discount Account (amount allowed by creditors) ... 48
Carriage and cartage 395
Rates and taxes Ill
Insurance 98
Sales 62,850
Trade expenses 382
Repairs 174
Purchases 41,800
Unpaid Dividends Account 252
Bad Debts Account 191
Office expenses 124
Interest paid on debentures 225

Stock was taken as on December 81, 1902, and was valued

at 6820.

Messrs. WM. PEARSON AND CO.. Ltd.

December 3Ut, 1902
Dr. Trading, and Profit and Loss Accounts Cr.

5. d. s. ,1.
To stock, Jan. 1st, 1902 . . . 8,80C 0 0 By sales .... 62,850 0 (1
41,800 II II stock on hand . 6,820 0 0
n wagea 12,450 0 0
carriage and cartage. . 395 0 II
Profit and Loss A/c c/d . . 6,225 0 n
69,670 0 0 69,670 o II

1,230 0 0 By Trading A/c b/d 6,225 II I)

rents and taxes .... 111 o 0 .. discounts 48 0 II
98 0 0
trade expenses .... 382 0 II
174 0 II
191 0 II
offloe expenses ... 124 (1 II
., debenture interest (5%)
225 0 0
., reserve bad debts
5/oon3640 .... 182 0 (1
depreciation on plant, etc.
10% on 6000 . . . 600 0 II
2,956 0 0
6,273 0 II 6,273 (I 0

To reserve fund 1,000 0 II By balance b/d . . 2,956 ii it

amount available for dividend 1,956 0 1'
2,956 0 0 2,956 o 0
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES

oo o o
2020 R2Y1ft -80 000ct 0000 281

o OO
O
n
*00
r- O
CO .-I Os
^

.2

11
6 Im
o
5S -
Q
< 2 I
O ACO
I '.e

iO
OS

200 000 00

TO
5
1

I
84 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
The example just given, being a first exercise on Company
Accounts, is but a simple one, and therefore we must consider
other items that may need setting out in a companies Profit and
Loss Account and Balance Sheet.
A division of the Profit and Loss Account showing the amount
disposable and the appropriation of same is furnished thus

Appropriation Account
S.
To transfer to reserve .... 1000 By balance from last account . 1200
,, bonus to employees5% on P. and L. Account
net profit 340 brought down . 6800
6% dividend preference shares 2400
10% ordinary shares 3000
Balance, carried forward 1260
8000 8000
By balance . 1260

In regard to the Capital Account in the balance sheet,

particulars should be set out of
(a) Registered, authorized or nominal capital, as fixed by the
memorandum of association, together with the number, class, and
amount of each share.
(b) Subscribed or issued capital, being the total amount
allotted to members of each class of shares.
(c) Called up capital, stating the amount called up on each
class of share and the total.
For instance, a company registers its nominal capital, which
authorized sum it must not exceed, as 100,000 in shares of
l each ; and issues 80,000 of such shares upon which 15s. per
share is called or paid up : were the shares divided in 40,000
preference and 60,000 ordinary, the particulars of each class of
shares would be given.
Calls paid in advance would be added to, and calls in arrears
would be deducted from, the called-up capital, and then the
balance carried out in the effective column as the total sum
a'ctually received or considered as paid.
In this way the shareholders, intending shareholders, and
also the creditors of the company, may have a complete state
ment of the share capital. If, as in the case of a bank, there is
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 85
considerable uncalled capital, the uncalled capital may be regarded
as a reserve to meet further demands upon the resources of
the bank. For instance, the X. & Y. Bank, Limited, with a
subscribed capital of 10,000,000, of which 2,000,000 only has
been called up, has in case of requirements an eight millions
sterling of resources.
We may also notice that in a partnership the net profit
or loss is, as a rule, transferred to the capital accounts of the
partners, whereas in a company balance sheet the profit
appears as an item available for distribution as dividend to the
shareholders, or to be dealt with as may be recommended by the
directors and decided by the shareholders in general meeting : if
a loss, the amount appears on the credit side of the balance
sheet.
Forfeited Shares.It may happen that an allotment of shares
may be made to a speculator or allottee, who is unable to meet
the calls upon him. In case of such default power is usually
held by the directors to forfeit such shares, which may again be
re-issued to some other applicant, and that too at a discount not
exceeding the amount paid on the shares by previous holders.
On forfeiture we have to make certain adjustments in the
accounts. Thus, suppose A. B., to whom twenty shares of 5 each
have been allotted, and on which he fails to pay the last call
made upon him, has his shares forfeited, our entries would be
A. B. Dr.
To Forfeited Shares Account.
Cash paid on shares forfeited as per resolution of th.
Share Capital Account. Dr.
To A. B.
Amount called up on forfeited shares, as, e.g.

A. B. (Shareholder)
Dr. Or.
1904 . d. 1904 | t . d.
Jan. 1 ToApplication and 1 Jan. 1 By CaBh. Appli
Allotment A/o 20 0 0 cation 10 0 0
Feb. 1 1st Call A/c . 20 0 0 Allot
May 1 2nd ! 20 0 0 ment. 10 0 0
Deo. 1 3rd 40 0 0 Feb. 5 1st call 20 0 0
1905 May 5 2nd call 20 0 0
Dec. 31 Transfer to For 1905
feited SharesA/c 60 0 0 Deo. 31 Transfer to Share
Capital A/c . 100 0 0
160 0 0 160 0 0
86 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Dr FORFEITED SHARES ACCOUNT Cr
t ! 1905 .. t
Deo. 31 By transfer from
ll I A.B. ... I 60
Dr SHARE CAPITAL ACCOUNT Cr
1905 i s. d. * s. d.
Dec. 31 Toforfeited shares, 11 p
100 0 0
The amount standing to the credit of Forfeited Shares Account
will be treated as a reserve and placed on the Dr. side of the
balance sheet, subject to any discount allowed on the re-issue
of the shares.
As most students experience difficulty in dealing with the
entries involved in the forfeiture of shares, we give a fuller
illustration in the following :
Example III
The Weyside Company, Limited, was formed for the purpose
of purchasing the old-established business of Richard Blank,
and was duly registered with a nominal capital of 200,000, in
200,000 shares of 1 each. This capital was divided into
100,000 ordinary shares of 1 each, and 100,000 6 per cent.
preference shares of 1 each.
The whole of the preference shares and 52,000 of the
ordinary shares were offered for public subscription, payable,
in both classes of shares, as follows :
2s. 6d. per share on application.
2s. M. ,, ,, allotment.
5s. Qd. ,, ,, January 15, 1905 (first call).
5s. Od. ,, ,, February 15, 1905 (second call).
The balance as and when required.
The whole of the shares offered to the public were applied
for and allotted in due course.
The balance of the ordinary share capital was issued as fully
paid to the vendor as part purchase price of his business.
Five hundred ordinary shares applied for by John Smith,
upon which the application money only had been paid, were sub
sequently forfeited in accordance with the articles of association.
Let us pass the entries necessary to record the above trans
actions through the books of The Weyside Company, Limited, and
bIiow how they would appear in the company's Balance Sheet.
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 87

JOURNAL

1!K)5. I . j <i.
Jan. 2 Sundries Dr.
0 0
To Ordinary Share Oapitul Account 13,000
ApplicationAccount (ord.shares) 6,500
Allotment Account 6,500
(For amount due up to and including
allotment of 52,000 ordinary shares.)
Sundries Dr.
To Preference Share Capital Ac
count 25,000 0 0
Application Account (preference
shares) ; 12,500
Allotment Account (preference
shares) 12,500
(For amount due up to and including
allotment of 100,000 preference
shares.)
Vendor Dr. 48,000
To Ordinary Share Capital Account 48,000 0 0
(For allotment of 48,000 ordinary
hares of 1 each as fully paid up
in part paymentofpurchasemoney.)
IS First Call Account (ord. shares) Dr. 13,000
To Ordinary ShareCapital Account 13,000 0 0
(For call of 5s. per share due this
day 011 52,000 ordinary shares.) .
First Call Account (pref. sharos) Dr. 25,000 0 0
To Preference Share Capital Ac I
count 25,000 0 0
(For call of 5s. per share due this
day on 100,000 preference shares.)
Feb. 15 Second Call Account (ord. shares) Dr. 13,000
To Ordinary Share Capital Account 13,000 0 0
(For call of 5*. per share due this
day on 52,000 ordinary shares.)
Second Call Account (pref.shares) Dr. 25,000 0
ToPreference SbareCapitalAccount 25,000 0 0
(For call of 5. per share duo this day
on 100,000 preference shares.)
Juno 30 Ordinary Share Capital Account Dr. 375
To sundries
Allotment Account (ord. shares). 02 10 0
First Call Account 125 0 0
Second Call Account 125 0 1 0
Forfeited Shares Accouut 62 10 I 0
(For forfeiture this day as per resolu I I
tion of the Board of 500 ordinary
shares, standing in the name of
John Smith, on which 15s. per share
had been called up, butonly 62 10s.
(i.e. 2s. 6d. per share) bad been
received.)
 88 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Dr. APPLICATION ACCOUNT (Ordinary Shares) Or.
1905 1 1 .. d. 1905
Jan. 2 To Ordinary
Share Capital Jan. 2 By cash 6,500 o
6,500 0 0 -
APPLICATION ACCOUNT (Preference Shares)
1905 I 1905
Jan. 2 To Pref. Share 1 Jan. 2 By cash . .
Cap. A/o . . | 12,500 0 0 12,500
II
ALLOTMENT ACCOUNT (Ordinary Shares)
1905 1905
Jan. 2 To Ord. Share Jan. 7
Capital . . ! 6,500 0 0 June 30 Ord. Share 6,437 j 10
Capital . 62 10
6,500 0 0 6,500
ALLOTMENT ACCOUNT (Preference Shares)
11)05 1 1905
Jan. 2 To Pref. Share Jan. 7 By cash . .
Capital , . 12,500
12,500 0 0
1
FIRST CALL ACCOUNT (Ordinary Shares)
1905 II 1905
Jan. 15 To Ord. Share Jan. 20 By cash . .
Capital . . 1 12,875
13,000 0 0 June 30 Ord. Share
1 Capital . 125
j| 13,000 0 0 13,000
FIRST^CALL ACCOUNT (Preference Shares)
1905 . 1905 I
Jan. 15 To Pref. Share Jan. 20 ! By cash . .
Capital . . 25,000

SECOND CALL ACCOUNT (Ordinary Shares)

1905 1905
Feb. 15 To Ord. Share Feb. 20 By cash .
Capital . . 13,000 12,875
June30 Ord. Share
Capital . 125
13,000 I 0 13,000
SECOND CALL ACCOUNT (Preference Shares)
1905 !
Fob. 15 To Pref. Share 1905 I
1 Capital . . Feb. 20 | By cash . 25,000
25,000
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 89
Ilr. ORDINARY SHAKE CAPITAL ACCOUNT Cr.
1905 ' 1905 i . d.
June S0! To sundries . 375 0 0 Jan. 2 By sundries . 13,000 0 0
,, balance o/d 86,625 0 0 n 2 vendor 48,000 0 0
., 15 First Call
A/c (Ord.) 13,000 0 0
Feb. 15 Second Call
A/c (Ord.) 13,000 0 0
87,000 0 0 87,000 0 0
1
i June 30 :86,625 0 0
PREFERENCE SHARE CAPITAL ACCOUNT
1905
Jan. 2 By sundries .
15 First Call 25,000 j 0
A/o (Pref.)
Feb. 15 Second Call 25,000 j 0
A/o (Pref.) 25,000 i 0
75,000 | 0

VENDOR
1905
Jan. 2 To Ord. Share 1
| Capital . . 48,000 0 0

FORFEITED SHARES ACCOUNT

1905
June 30 By Ord. Share
Capital . . 10

CASH BOOK
1905
Jan. 2 To Applic. A/c 6,500 0 0
(Ord. shares)
2 Applio. A/c 12,500 0 0
(Pref. shares)
7 Allot. A/o . 6,437 10 (1
(Ord. shares)
., 7 Allot. A/c . 12,500 0 0
(Pref. shares)
20 First Call A/c 12,875 0 (1
(Ord. shares)
20 First Call A/c 25,000 0 II
(Pref. shares)
Feb. 20 Sec. Call A/c 12,875 0 0
(Ord. shares)
20 Sec. Call A/c 25,000 0 0
(Pref. shares)
113,687 10 0

0<p Th-
UNIVERSITY
ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

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o o 1 o o
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|O O'O I 1000 0000 0000 36,60
0600

S
OS2 !:
oi> . aC3 .
o" rH -
fc

u ?B sa o ucs
~f o
52
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 9i
Profits prior to Incorporation.A matter frequently requiring
to be dealt with in the purchase of a concern by a company, is
the question of profit earned prior to its incorporation. For
instance, a company begins business on April 1, but the agree
ment of purchase with the vendors includes profits made from
January 1. At the end of the year, assuming the profit for the
twelve months to be 3000, part of this doubtless belongs to the
period, January 1 to March 81. These three months' profits
must not be distributed as dividend, as it has not been made by
the company, it is really part of the purchase. We must first
ascertain the amountnot necessarily a fourth of the year's
profits, but to be computed on the turnover or trade of the
business, so that if the year's trade amounted to 30,000, on
which the Profit and Loss Account shows a 10 per cent. profit, and
the turnover for the first three months is 10,000, 1000 would
be taken as the profit made prior to the company taking the
business. As to the disposal of this 1000, there are varying
methods. It may be a reduction from the goodwill, or may be
utilized to write down preliminary expenses ; generally, how
ever, it is placed to the credit of a Reserve Account ; but re
member, that as such sum does not form part of the company's
trading profits, it must not be distributed to the shareholders as
dividend.
Example IV
The North London Engineering Company, Limited, was
registered on January 1, 1903, with a nominal capital of
100,000, in ordinary shares of 1 each. It had power to issue
15,000 mortgage debentures of 100 each, bearing interest of
4 per cent. per annum. It took over on that date an existing
engineering business and commenced manufacturing. Stock
was taken and the books balanced, and accounts prepared
annually ; and at the close of 1904 stock was taken and valued
at 14,250. The following adjustments were necessary before
closing the accounts :
(a) Depreciation to be written off plant and machinery at the
rate of 10 per cent., and off Patents Account at 20 per cent.
(b) The half-year's debenture interest due on December 81 to
be passed through the books.
(c) A 5 per cent, provision for bad and doubtful debts to
be made.
 92 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Make such adjustments and prepare a Trading Account, a
Profit and Loss Account, and a balance sheet from the following
balances (December 81, 1904), after carrying 1500 profit to the
Reserve Account :

Ledger Balances (December 31, 1904)

Share Capital Account (60,000 shares of 1 each issued
and 10s. per share called up) 30,000
Unpaid Calls Account 300
Patents Account 900
Cash in hand 320
Sundry creditors 4,095
Sundry debtors 7,240
Reserve Account 8,500
Machinery and Plant Account 12,480
Mortgage Debenture 9,000
Freehold Buildings (January 1, 1904) . . . 24,000
Stock Account (January 1, 1904) 17,200
Manufacturing wages 22,100
Salaries Account 2,400
Carriage 560
Rates, Taxes, and Insurance Account 252
Sales Account 121,580
Trade Expenses Account 721
Repairs Account 240
Rents Receivable Account 374
Purchases Account 84,604
Unpaid Dividends Account 68
Mortgage Debenture Interest Account 180
Provision for auditors' fees 75
Bad Debts Account 578
Interest payable and bank charges 138
Additions to buildings during the year 3,840
Holdfast Bank, Limited (overdraft) 4,200
Bad Debt Reserve Account, January 1, 1904 .... 321

TRADING ACCOUNT
Dr. Or.
t. d. . d.
To stock at January 1, By sales .... 12130 0 0
1904 .... 17,200 0 0 stock on hand . 14,250 0 0
., purchases . 84,604 0 0
manufacturing
wages 22,100 0 0
carriage (taken as
inward) . . . 560 0 0
gross profit o/d . 11,366 0 0
135,830 0 0 135,830 0 0
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 93

PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

Dr. Or.
* .
, salaries 2,400 0 0 By gross profit
rates, taxes, and brought down . 11,366 0 0
252 0 0 Rents Receivable
er trade expenses 721 (i 0 Acoount. . . 374 0 0
, repairs 240 0 0
. mortgage deben
ture interest 180 0 0
, mortgage deben 1
tore interest ac
crned due 180 0 o
, provision for audi
tors' fees 75 0 0
. bad debts . 578 0 0
0 interest and bank
charges . 138 0 0 i
, reserve for bad
debts 5
7240 .
leas amount 1
at Jan. 1 . 321
41 0 0
, depreciation of
machinery
10% 12,480 . 1,248 0 0
patents written
down 20 %
900. . . . 180 0 0
balance to App.
A/o . . . . 5,507 0 0
11,740 0 0 1 11,740 0 0

APPROPRIATION ACCOUNT

i i. d. . a.
To transfer to Reserve 1 Bybalance from Profit
Account . . . 1500 0 0 and Loss Account 5507 0 0
., balance . . . 4007 0 0
5507 0 0
i By balance . 4007 0 0
ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
0=0
300
O M
CO 033
NNO
CO t~ M *1

rfoo 0 0 0 0 | 00
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T3
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ilill!
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

49. Name the different classes of shares, and distinguish between each class.
50. What is meant by the conversion of shares into stock ?
51. What is the memorandum of association of a company? What par
ticulars must it contain ?
52. What are the articles of association of a company? How may they be
altered or added to ?
53. What is the business of the statutory meeting of the Companies Act,
1900?
54. What are the statutory books required to be kept by a company ?
Briefly explain their uses.
55. Set out fully the particulars in regard to share capital that may be given
in a company balance sheet.
50. How would you deal in the accounts with forfeiture of shares ?
57. In pursuance of a resolution passed by the directors of the A. B. Com
pany, Ltd., on April 30, 1906, 10,000 shares of 1 each were allotted to sundry
persons, payable as follows :
2s. 6d. per share on application.
5s. allotment.
5s. first call, June 30.
7s. 6d. second and final call, due August 31.
Assuming all these to have been received by the company, show the entries
required to be made by the secretary in the books.
58. After the books of a company have been closed for the year, there are
balances on the following accounts :
Reserve Account.
Calls paid in advance.
Insurance premiums paid in advance.
Profit and Loss Account.
State whether they should be debit or credit balances.
 CHAPTER VII

joint stock companiescontinued

Borrowing of MoneyClasses of DebenturesDebenture StockExamples of

Debenture IssuesForms of Debenture and Stock CertificateForms of
Books dealing with DebenturesEntries for Issue of Debenture Stock
Treatment in the Accounts of Expenses of IssueIssue at a Discount
Debentures to BankersRedemption of DebenturesReduction of Capital
with Examples.

Debenture and Debenture Stock

A joint stock company usually includes in its memorandum

power to borrow money and to charge its assets and resources
for the repayment of principal and interest. The following
clause is included in the memorandum of A. Company, Ltd. :
" To raise, or borrow, or secure the payment of money, in such
manner and on such terms as may seem expedient, and in
particular by the issue of debentures or debenture stock,
whether perpetual or otherwise, and charged or not charged
upon the whole or any part of the property of the company,
both present and future, including its uncalled capital."
Although the security given by a company may be in
various forms, as, for instance, a mortgage of certain parts
of its property: an equitable mortgage, as in the deposit of
title deeds to a banker ; the security usually takes the form
of debentures.
Debentures acknowledge or create an indebtedness, and are
usually securities given by a company under seal to cover the
repayment of principal and interest to the debenture holders.
The debentures may be ,
(a) Simple or naked debentures containing no charge
against the company's assets, the holders being in the position
of ordinary creditors.
96
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 97
(b) Containing a floating charge, which means an equitable
security upon the assets of the company.
(c) Mortgage debentures charging the property of the
company ; usually secured by a trust deed which invests the
trustees for the debenture holders with important powers should
necessity arise.
Debentures are usually payable to the registered holder but
may also be payable to bearer, in which case they are negotiable.
It is important to note that the Companies Act, 1900, requires
the registration of debentures within twenty-one days of the
creation of the mortgage or charge.
As the terms "debenture" and "debenture stock" are fre
quently used in an uncertain fashion, a word of explanation is
needed. The former is a document given by the company under
seal as acknowledgment or security to the debenture holder;
whereas debenture stock is a term applied to the liability or debt
itself. The term " debenture stock " is more properly used to
describe loan capital, generally secured by a trust deed mort
gaging the property and assets of the company to individual
trustees, or to a debenture corporation for the benefit of the stock
holders. Whilst debentures are only transferable, similar to
shares, in the amounts of the debentures ; debenture stock may
be dealt with in fractions of stock, in amounts as small as 1.
It may be said that in issuing perpetual debenture stock the
liability of the company is more that of an undertaking to pay
an annuity rather than as a liability to repay a loan. For
instance, the purchaser or holder of a 1000 4 per cent,
debenture stock expects to receive from the company an
income of 40 per annum, and yet have power to transfer his
holding.
The shareholder is only entitled to dividend from profits ;
and in the event of a winding-up to a return of capital after
the settlement of liabilities ; and may even be called upon to
find uncalled capital to satisfy the claims of debenture holders.
The debenture holder claims his interest quite irrespective of
profits being made, and should default be made in payment
of such interest or other events happen, as set forth in the
debentures, may enter into possession of the security, an8d
probably have priority of claim on the entire property and
assets of the company ; not only over the shareholders, but over
H
98 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
the ordinary creditors. In fact, cases often occur where the
entire assets are taken over for the benefit of debenture
holders, and shareholders and creditors left with nothing.
The following are instances of debenture issues ; in each
case prospectuses were sent to likely investors, applications
received and allotments made, as in the case of dealing with
share capital. The advantageous position of the debenture
or stock holders in regard to the security for the payment of
principal and interest, as compared with that of the shareholder
for his profits and holding, will readily be appreciated from a
study of the particulars given.
We would point out that each issue varies in its terms ;
these and the rate of interest depending very largely on the
standing of the company, the character of its operations, and
the security offered, as well as upon the state of the money
market at the time of issue.
Whilst the first three are issued at par, No. 4 is at a premium
of 2 per cent., and No. 5 at a discount of 5 per cent.
1. 25,000 4 per cent. debentures in sums of 100 each ;
redeemable at par on January 1, 1915; interest paid half-
yearly on January 1 and July 1, secured by a floating charge
upon the whole of the company's assets. The instalments
of the debenture payable 10 on application, 15 on allotment,
25 in three months after allotment, and 50 in six months
after allotment.
2. 120,000 4?, per cent. debenture stock redeemable on
July 1, 1925, at 105 ; the stock when fully paid to be trans
ferable in multiples of 1 ; secured by a specific mortgage
to trustees upon landed properties and by a floating charge
upon all the other assets of the company, but not including
its uncalled capital for the time being.
8. 200,000 4 per cent. debenture stock, redeemable at
105 during twelve years by annual drawings, guaranteed as
to principal and interest and premium by Messrs. Security &
Co., Ltd.
4. 500,000 4 per cent. first mortgage redeemable debenture
stock at 102, secured by a first mortgage in favour of the
Debenture Corporation, Limited, as trustees, of all the lands,
buildings and premises of the company, and in addition thereto
by a floating charge.
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 99
5. Issue of 1000 100 4 per cent. debentures at 95 repay
able on January 1, 1915, secured by a charge on the whole
of the undertaking, including uncalled capital.
The following is the form of debenture as in Case 1 :

DEBENTURE BOND FOR ONE HUNDRED

POUNDS
No
Issued under the authority of the Articles of Association, and
pursuant to a resolution passed by the Directors of the
said Company on the 18th day of December, 1905, to issue
Debentures to the nominal amount of 25,000.
WHEREAS
of
has advanced to the said Company the sum of One Hundred
Pounds sterling, on condition that the said Company will repay
the same to him, his executors, administrators, or assigns, at
the time hereafter mentioned, with interest thereon in the
meantime at the rate of 4 10s. per centum, per annum, by
equal half-yearly payments on the 80th day of June, and the
31st day of December in each year :
NOW THESE PRESENTS WITNESS that in consideration
of the sum of One Hundred Pounds sterling paid to the said
Company by the said the said Company hereby
binds itself, its successors, and assigns, to pay to the said
his executors, administrators, or assigns, the
principal sum of One Hundred Pounds on the 81st day of
December, 1915, and also to pay interest thereon in the mean
time, at the rate of 4 10s., per centum per annum, half-yearly
on the 80th day of June, and the 81st day of December in
each year, until payment of the said principal sum, and
for the due payment of the said principal sum, and the
interest thereon, the said Company hereby charges its under
taking and all its property receipts and revenues whatsoever
and wheresoever, both present and future during the sub
sistence of this Debenture, provided always that the said
Company makes default for a period of six calendar months
in the payment of any interest hereby secured, then the
 ioo ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
principal sum hereby secured shall thereupon become payable
on demand to the said his executors, adminis
trators, or assigns.
AND the said Company hereby declares that the whole of
the said Debenture Loan, or such part thereof as may be issued,
and the interest thereon, shall be and remain a first charge
on the undertaking and property of the said Company, and the
receipts and revenues aforesaid, and that the holders of the
said Debenture Loan or such part thereof as may be issued,
shall be entitled as between themselves and the said Company,
and also as among themselves pari passu, and without any
priority or preference one over another.
IN WITNESS whereof we, the undersigned, being two of
the directors of the said Company, on behalf of and for the
said Company, have to this Debenture set our hands and seals,
the seal of the said Company being also affixed, and the same
being countersigned by the secretary of the said Company, on
the day of 1906.
|Secretary.
Directors.

Hereunder is also an example of stock certificate held by

stockholders, as in Case 4.
Stock Certificate No. Amount of Stock.
Deb. 4500 " A." 100.

THE BLANK COMPANY, LIMITED

Shake Capital, 750,000
In 250,000 6 per cent. Cumulative Preference Shares of l each,
and 500,000 Ordinary Shares of l each.
ISSUE OF 500,000 "A" DEBENTURE STOCK.
Bearing interest at the rate of 4 per cent. per annum, payable
1st January and 1st July.
Issued under authority of Articles Nos. 55 and 56 of the Articles
of Association, and a resolution of the Directors passed the
1st day of October, 1903.
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 101
THIS IS TO CERTIFY that Alfred Nixon, Esq., F.C.A., of
81, Victoria Buildings, Manchester, is the Registered Holder
of 100, One Hundred Pounds, of the above " A " Debenture
Stock, which stock is constituted and secured by trust deed
dated the twenty-fifth September, 1904, and made between the
BLANK COMPANY, LIMITED, of the one part and the De
benture Corporation of the other part, and is issued to and with
the benefit of the provisions contained in that deed.
Given under the Common Seal of the Company this Twelfth
day of September, 1905.
Director.
Secretary.

N.B.The Company will not register a transfer of any stock

without the production of the certificate relating to such stock,
which certificate must be surrendered before any transfer, whether
of the whole or any portion thereof (being a multiple of 1), can
be registered, or a new certificate can be issued in exchange.

Forms of Books and Entries of Issue.

Having now acquired a knowledge of the leading points in
regard to these securities, upon which an enormous loan capital
is raised by companies, let us turn to the entries dealing with
the issue. We find that they correspond with those made in
regard to the allotment and calls of Share Capital Account,
given on p. 78.
We should also keep the following books :
1. Numerical list of issue of debentures, giving in consecutive
order the particulars of debentures issued.
2. Debenture Ledger for each debenture-holder, showing par
ticulars of the holding, of interest due and paid.
8. Register of debenture stock, giving
(a) The names, addresses, and descriptions of the holders
for the time being of the stock.
(b) The amount of stock held by every such person.
(c) The date at which the name of every such person was
entered in respect of the stock standing in his name
and every part thereof.
4. Transfer Debenture Register.
102 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
NUMERICAL LIST OF ISSUE OF DEBENTURES

Date of No. of Amount. Rate of Interest payable Folio In |i v u.

To whom issued.
issue. bond. interest. in each year.

!
!
Charges and mortgages will be entered in the Register of
Mortgages and Charges, as mentioned on p. 74.
In the balance sheet the full particulars of the debentures in
regard to the authorized amount, the number issued, and the
rate of interest will appear on the liabilities' side of the balance
sheet.
The treatment in the accounts of debenture issues is of the
first importance, and therefore must be our next concern.
Example I
A company issues 80,000 4 per cent. debenture stock,
20,000 of which is issued to the vendors in part payment of
purchase money. Of the issue to the public
10 per cent, is payable on application.
40 allotment.
25 ,, first call.
25 second call.
The cash and journal entries would be as follows :
Journal

. 20,000
20,000
Application and Allotment Account. Dr. . . 5,000
5,000
2,500
2,500
Second Instalment Account. Dr. . . . 2,500
2,500
Cash Book

To Application and Allotment Accountdebenture stock . 5000
2500
. 2500
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 103
Distinctive um11bers.

1
Date received.

d
I 1
s 3
Fui 0ou

Date received.

andAp licationalmotomentey
due.

-
a
o
o ionat iceived.
a <
-1 f;
- in "I

Number al oted.
-

H
W b .Su
11

andaN0e,d res ,
oc upation.

C5 ^3

Date.
 I1
>nnOaz T o >2!O >
ofBalance debenture Fee paid.
held.
ltreafnstfe.r
whom
By
Amount. :
i

Amount transfer ed. d.*.

Cert. No.
Folio.

aD7eqbunituresd. tFromwhomransfer ed.

Oc7upation.

HDOF
REOBLGEDINS3TU1R3SE1

RDTERGBAEINSTFU3R1E Transfer e.
Ad res 0
No.of transfer.

alorotment
Dateof transfer. Name.

Amount. Ii O7cupation.

Dtreabdnoresftmured.s Cert. No.

Transfero . Ad res .
Folio.

Towhomtransfered.
Name.

register.
In Folio !
No.of transfer. Date.

Dateof registration. 0i &

 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 105
Expenses of Issue.As many issues are underwrittenthat
is, debenture trust companies or firms guarantee the whole or
part of the issue for a considerationbrokerage is paid for
securing subscriptions, and as usually there is a heavy cost for
printing and advertising, the expenses amount to a considerable
sum. This is apportioned over a period of years, and in
Case 1, where the debentures are repayable in ten years, each
year's revenue account might well be charged with one-tenth of
the cost of issue. The balance sheet will show the adjusted
amount on the credit side as expenses of debenture issue.
Issue at a Discount.In Example 5, where for each 100
debenture only 95 cash is received, the discount of 5 per
cent, would be considered as an expense of issue, and would be
treated as just described. In this case the 5000 would have
to be provided at the end of ten years, which might be done by
charging revenue with 500 per annum, and reducing Expense
of Issue Account each year by that amount.
An important point is the statement in the balance sheet of
the liability on the debentures. This liability is 100,000, and
should be so stated on the debit side of the balance sheet ;
whilst the 5000, or the balance to charge to revenue, should
be included on the credit side as expenses of issue. This we
consider preferable to the statement amongst the liabilities of
95,000, even though a note be made that the debentures are
repayable at 100,000 ; the note is easily omitted, and the full
liability would not then be disclosed.
Debentures to Bankers.As security for overdrafts and ad
vances made to a limited company, bankers frequently secure
themselves by holding debentures of such company. In such
cases the fact of the bank having been given debentures in this
way should be stated on the liabilities side of the balance sheet,
the bank overdraft or liability being shown, and a note made of
the debentures held as security.
Redemption of Debentures.Referring to the issues of deben
tures given on p. 98, we notice that the repayment of No. 8 is
by annual drawings and others at a fixed date. At the expira
tion of the period renewal may be effected, or a new issue of
debentures offered to the public to redeem those due. Lest
difficulties should arise in obtaining the necessary funds from a
new debenture issue or from additional share capital, to discharge
io6 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
at the end of the period the liability of the debenture-holders,
the company may decide to create a fund for the repayment
of the debentures. This would probably mean repayment out
of revenue, either by an equal annual proportion of profits, or
in such amounts as the available balance of revenue account
allowed. Such amounts may take the form of a sinking fund,
or be invested in good outside securities, as in the example
given below.
Another method of preparing to discharge the liability would
be to take out a policy with a first-class insurance company for
the repayment of the sum at the stated time, and charge
revenue account with the annual premiums during the term.
Some provision might also be made during the time from the
sale of capital assets not required by the company.
The entries in the books for the Debenture Redemption
Account would be similar to those for a General Reserve or
Reserve Fund ; thus
Profit and Loss Account. Dr.
To Debenture Redemption Fund Account.
Should the debentures be repaid by annual drawings at a
premium, our entries would be

Debenture Account. Dr 10,000
To Debentures Redemption Account . . . 10,000 .
Being redemption of 100 debentures of 100
each, as per resolution of board, dated
Reserve for redemption of debentures. Dr. . 500
To Debentures Redemption Account . . . 500
Being premium payable on redemption of
100 debentures of 100 each at 105
Debentures Redemption Account 10,500
To cash 10,500
Entries will be made in the Transfer Register, and also in
the Debenture Holders' Account.
Reduction of Capital.One of the reproaches levelled against
joint stock company enterprise is that many large companies
have been over-capitalized, and thus, when bad times came or
heavy loss took place, the members of such companies received
little or no dividend, and were only able to sell their shares nt
a heavy loss. Although not contemplated by the Companies
Act of 1862, subsequent Acts gave power for a reduction of
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 107
capital to be carried out if provided for in the memorandum
and articles of association.
Should the rights of creditors be affected by the reduction,
the sanction of the Court must be obtained ; as also in (a) writing
off lost capital, (b) reducing the liability of members for uncalled
capital, (c) paying off capital out of capital, with the proviso that
it may be called up again.
The reduction should be an all-round one, i.e. the reduction
should be in respect of each share, ordinary and preference
unless the regulations give the latter class a preference in regard
to capital. In most cases the words " and reduced " must be
added for a certain period, depending upon the circumstances,
to the company's name.
Example II
The following is the Balance Sheet of The Blank Company,
Limited, as on December 31, 1902 :
Balance Sheet
To Capital. it,
Nominal: By Patents Account at cost . 114,663
100,000 prefe- Leasehold Works Account 3,820
rence shares n Machinery and Plant Ac-
of 1 each . 100,000 count 4,120
100,000 ordi- n sundry debtors .... 1,241
nary shares stock on nantl .... 4,921
at 1 each . 100,000 Advertising Suspense
Account 2,000
200,000 Preliminary Expenses
Issued: " Account 406
74,720 prefe- Profit and Loss Account 1,482
rence shares cash in hand .... 28
of 1 each
fully paid . 74,720
42,633ordinary
shares of 1
each fully
paid . . . 42,633
117,353
sundry creditors . . . 14,000
bank overdraft .... 1,328
132,681 132,681
The company proved unsuccessful, and resolutions were
passed to carry out the following scheme of reconstruction
(see p. 110):
io8 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

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sLoans smeocrotngdage bProfit
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and
0%
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cumulative
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sd0% de
000
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charges
sundry
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o0p00
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rhdairneasry osof
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rhdairneasry ebdenmtuprteion
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0000
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Liabilitiet.
Acapital
uthorized Subscribed
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Sundry
creditors c31,
00C
ember. .
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shown Bills debentures
Earch
000)..
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Dr.
no ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
1. That the 1 preference shares be reduced to an equal
number of fully paid shares of 10s. each.
2. That the l ordinary shares be reduced to an equal
number of fully paid shares of 6s. 8d. each.
8. That the amount thus rendered available for the reduc
tion of the assets be apportioned as follows :
The Preliminary Expenses Account, Profit and Loss Account,
and Advertising Suspense Account to be written off en
tirely.
1200 to be written off the Leasehold Works Account.
1400 to be written off the Stock Account.
20 per cent, depreciation to be written off the Machinery
and Plant Account, and the balance available to be written
off the Patents Account. Prepare a balance sheet giving
effect to these proposals.
See Balance Sheet on p. 108.

Example III
Notice also in the following illustration of a reduction of
capital the following points :
1. A reduction of ordinary share capital, in which the
vendor has accepted the reduction of the nominal amount of
the shares allotted to him for the purchase of the business.
2. An issue of second mortgage debentures, issued as security
to the bankers and their creditors.
8. Debenture Redemption Fund, included in the investments
of the contra side.
4. A Reserve Fund increased by transfer of balances from
previous accounts.
See Balance Sheet on p. 109.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

59. Give a definition of debentures.
00. Describe the various classes of debentures.
61. Distinguish between debentures and debenture stock.
62. Explain the meaning of issuing debentures at a discount ; at a premium ;
redeemable at par ; redeemable at a premium.
63. Give a list of the books usually used to record debenture transactions.
64. Give an instance of the treatment in the accounts of expenses of issue of
debentures.
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES 111
65. Debentures are issued to bankers as security for an overdraft. How
would you state this in the balance sheet ?
66. Discuss methods of dealing with the redemption of debentures.
67. Give instances of the reasons for the reduction of a company's capital.
68. The directors of a company issue debentures at a discount. Describe
the entries necessary to record the transactions in the books, and state how tho
items would appear in the balance sheet, assuming the debentures to be repayable
in fifteen years.
69. A limited company offered for subscription 10,000 debentures pf 10
each, bearing interest at 4| per cent., and received application

and other applications which brought up the total to 12,500 debentures. Ten
per cent. of the amount was payable on application, 40 per cent. on allotment,
and 50 per cent0 three months after allotment. On February 1, 1903, 80 per
cent0 of the sura applied for was allotted to each applicant. Rule a form of
application and allotment book, and enter therein the particulars in respect of
the four cases mentioned above.
70. A private firm sells its business to a company. It has assets

Land and buildings 20,000

Plant and machinery 35,000
Stock 10,000
Book debts . . . 5,000
And it owes 3,000
The company takes over all the assets and liabilities and pays the firm
90,000 in 2,000 ordinary Bhares of 5 each, fully paid, 2,000 5 per center
preference shares of 5 each fully paid, and 20,000 4 per cent, debenture stock,
at par, and the balance in cash.
The company's capital is 100,000, consisting of 80,000 ordinary shares of
5 each, 6000 5 per cent. preference shares of 5 each, and 30,000 4 per cent.
debenture stock, all of which are issuedthe preference shares at a premium of
10s. per share payable on allotment, 10s. a share in respect of both classes of
shares is to be paid on application, 2 (in case of preference shares 2 10s.) on
allotment, 1 10s. on first call, and 1 on final call, while the debentures are to
be paid for :
10 per cent0 on application.
40 allotment.
25 first call.
25 final call.
Make the cash and journal entries in the company's books.
 CHAPTER VIII

PROVISION AND RESERVE ACCOUNTS

Secret ReservesSinking FundsCalculation of Annual InstalmentsDepre

ciation FundRenewal FundSuspense AccountInsurance Fund
Premiums on SharesReserve Capital.

In the preparation of a balance sheet, we find that in order to

give a true record of the affairs of the firm it is necessary to
give careful consideration to each item, whether liability or
asset, to satisfy ourselves that the amount we enter is not
merely figures from the books, but a statement of facts. It is
here that the accountant, with his experience and critical
faculty, is able to render valuable service in ascertaining, from
an impartial point of view, whether all revenue charges have
been included, all liabilities taken into account, and such pro
visions and reserves made as a prudent business man or director
of a company ought to make.

Provision for Charges

In previous examples we have seen the necessity of making
a provision for bad and doubtful debts and for discounts on
outstanding balances. Provision is also made for various
charges, such as commissions, wages, rent, and taxes, legal
expenses or disputed claims. Each of these provisions would
be charged against the profit of the current period. In the
balance sheet the provisions on the book debts would be deducted
from the Dr. balances on the Cr. side, and the provision for
outstanding charges would appear on the liability side. Fre
quently these provisions are termed reserves ; but if so, it
should be specifically stated for what purposes the reserve or
provision has been made.
Surplus cash invested by many concerns as a deposit account
112
 PROVISION AND RESERVE ACCOUNTS 113
with the bank, in corporation stock and other securities, is
frequently considered by shareholders and even directors as
reserve ; whereas it is but a change of one asset into another,
and may have to be called upon to discharge current liabilities
should business requirements demand it.

Reserve Accounts
So much confusion exists in regard to the right application
of the terms at the head of our chapter that we may be par
doned in quoting Pixley on the subject
"Although the terms 'reserve' and 'Reserve Fund' are
frequently used in the accounts of companies as though they
were synonymous terms, there is a distinct difference between
them.
" A reserve is merely the surplus of the credit side of the
balance sheet over its debit side, although perhaps the reserve
may be divided under such headings as reserve and balance of
profit and loss carried forward.
" A Reserve Fund, however, is not merely a surplus shown
on the debit side of the balance sheet, but must be represented
by special investments, which may or may not be shown dis
tinctly on the credit side of the balance sheet. If, therefore,
the reserve is used in the general business of the company it
is not a ' Reserve Fund,' although, perhaps, the term might be
properly used if some stock used in the ordinary course of the
business was specially set aside until reinvested in further stock
specially ear-marked.
" The term ' surplus ' or 'rest ' is a better term to use than
' reserve,' as no one could possibly pretend they were under the
impression that such was specially invested."
On the other hand, Dicksee differs from this view, and
maintains that "reserves" are those charges made against
profit and loss to provide for estimated losses and probable
claims against revenue, and that the term " Reserve Fund " is
properly used for the surplus of the credit side of the balance
sheet, irrespective of whether the amount be invested in or
outside the business.
Much discussion has taken place on this debatable point,
but there is no doubt that the business man understands that a
I
ii4 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
reserve is a surplus of profits which the directors have thought
it well to have as a "nest egg" to guard against the risks of
business from which the company may suffer in future years ;
whilst a Reserve Fund to him implies that such reserve is
invested in good and readily realizable security outside the
business.
Therefore, to us it would seem advisable, to prevent the
present confusion of nomenclature, that when provisions are
made of approximate amounts for such charges as doubtful
debts, outstanding trade expenses, income tax, depreciation,
etc., the term " provision " should be given, as in the balance
sheet (page 109), and that "reserve " should be used for amounts
distinctly carried forward to cover or minimize the effect of un
foreseen disasters that may happen in future years, and that
when the term "Reserve Fund" is seen in a balance sheet it
may be understood that on the asset side will appear special
investments for the corresponding amount.
In expressing these views we must point out in regard to the
question of investments outside the business, it is a matter that
must be left very largely to the discretion of the managers. If
there is a surplus of cash resources, then it would be wise to
invest in a safe outside security ; but if the operations of the
company require this surplus, and it can be used to the advan
tage of the shareholders, then outside investing cannot be
advised.
Obviously to invest a reserve of 10,000 at a three per cent.
return, and by doing so be compelled to pay five per cent. for
overdraft with a banker, would hardly be considered sound
business policy.

Secret, Hidden, or Internal Reserves

This term is used to signify that certain assets are undis
closed in the company's balance sheet, or that certain assets
appear in that account at less than their actual value. Instances
of the former are the omission of fixtures and fittings and even
of premises, and of investments appearing at much below their
market value, or of plant and fixtures which have been so
heavily depreciated as to be much below their present worth,
stock-in-trade may be credited at much less than cost or present
 PROVISION AND RESERVE ACCOUNTS 115
market prices, and excessive reserves for doubtful debts made
on Dr. balances.
Directors of successful companies frequently adopt the policy
of having something up their sleeve, and justify the provision of
these secret reserves on the ground that in this way they can
meet future contingencies without alarming shareholders by
calls upon the Reserve Fund. Judicial sanction has also been
given to and accountants cleared from liability in passing such
accounts. It must be said, however, that although the directors
of such concerns may justify themselves on grounds of business
policy, yet it seems as though it were a departure from the sound
rule that the balance sheet should be a full and fair balance
sheet, and should record facts ; further, that present shareholders
may to some extent suffer in the receipt of current dividends on
the sale of their shares by the fact of such non-disclosure of
values belonging to the company.
In a recent case, directors went so far as to make special
payments from such a secret reserve without disclosure of such
to the shareholders. It was, however, decided by the Court
that no such power could be lawfully granted in the articles of
association.
Sinking Funds
The company on p. 98 has at the end of the period to
meet a liability of 6000 premium on the debenture issue. To
gradually sink this liability it may be decided to charge Revenue
Account with such an amount each year as will, if invested out
side the business, produce at the date of payment the sum
required. Debentures might also be redeemed by the provision
in like manner of such a sum as, with interest, would discharge
the liability to the debenture holders. It will thus be seen that
a Sinking Fund is one formed by amounts charged against
revenue to meet some definite liability of the future, and that to
provide the cash to enable this to be done such annual instal
ments are invested outside the business, so that the investment
with interest thereon will enable such liability to be discharged
at the fixed date.
As an alternative method of providing the cash for the
repayment of the debentures at the due date, a policy may be
effected with a first-class company for the amount required at
n6 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
the end of the period, and the annual premiums charged to
profit and loss.
A Sinking Fund may also make provision for the replacement
of plant and machinery or the renewal of a lease.
The difference between a Reserve Fund and a Sinking Fund
is that the former is a prudential setting apart of profits for
unknown eventualities that may occur in the years to come,
whilst the Sinking Fund is generally a fixed charge against
revenue to provide for a definite future liability or the replace
ment of wasting assets.
A simple illustration of the working of a Sinking Fund is
that of the erection of a school by a county council. The total
cost is 20,000, and as the expenditure is not merely for the
present requirements, but also to serve a generation to come,
it is only just that the expenditure should be spread over a
lengthy period.
Further, to charge the whole of the expenses in the current
year's accounts would mean a serious increase in the rates.
Therefore, the money is borrowed for thirty years, and to cover
the principal and interest for such period a one-thirtieth instal
ment, as shown by tables, is charged against the rates yearly,
and placed to Sinking Fund Account to accumulate with interest
for the discharge of such liability.
Sinking Funds play a prominent part in the financial deal
ings of many local authorities.
These authorities obtain borrowing powers for their various
undertakings as follows :
1. By the Sanction of a Government Departmentgenerally
the Local Government Boardwho operate under
the provisions contained in a Public General Act of
Parliament; or
2. By a Provisional Order granted by a Government Depart
ment and confirmed by Parliament ; or
3. By the promotion of a special Act, termed a Local Act.
The power to borrow carries with it an obligation to repay
the amount borrowed in a certain fixed number of years from
the date of borrowing, and to conform to these conditions the
local authority usually provides a Sinking Fund.
Sinking Funds the object of which is to provide out of
revenue moneys such sums as are necessary to sink the liability
 PROVISION AND RESERVE ACCOUNTS 117
of borrowed moneys -within a certain timeare of two kinds,
viz. "non-accumulating" and "accumulating," and the differ
ences between these two are considerable. In the former, the
sums paid out of revenue into Sinking Fund each year will be
such equal annual amounts as will in themselves be sufficient
to redeem the debt at the end of the term of years allowed by
the borrowing power, and any income derived from the invest
ment of such equal annual amounts is, as a rule, credited to
the fund providing the annual contributions.
An Accumulating Sinking Fund is one which requires the
annual setting aside of such equal amounts of revenue moneys
as will, when accumulated at compound interest, produce the
amount borrowed by the end of the period prescribed in the
borrowing power.
As an illustration of an Accumulating Sinking Fund wc
will take the case of a local authority borrowing under sanction
the sum of '2055 for use in connection with its electric light
undertaking, such sum to be repaid in ten years from the date
of borrowing. When the money has been raised, a series of
calculations referring to the Sinking Fund require to be made,
and a Sinking Fund Schedule drawn up as follows :

ELECTRICITY DEPARTMENT
Calculations showing the annual Sinking Fund required to repay a loan of
2055 in ten years, the rate of accumulation being 3 per cent.
Meters.

Annual payments
from revenue to Annual payments Total amount in
Year ending Sinking Fund to Annual interest into Sinking Fund Sinking Fund at
at 3 per cent. Including
accumulate at interest. end of each year.
3 per cent.
t. d. s. d. >. d. s. d.
March 31 ma *179 5 2 179 5 2 179 5 2
7 179 5 2 5 7 7 181 12 9 363 17 11
8 179 5 2 10 18 4 190 3 6 554 1 5
9 179 5 2 16 12 5 195 17 7 749 III o
1910 179 5 2 22 10 0 201 15 2 951 14 2
1 179 5 2 28 11 0 207 16 2 1159 10 1
2 179 5 2 34 15 9 214 0 11 1373 11 3
3 179 5 2 41 i 2 220 9 4 1594 0 7
4 179 5 2 47 16 5 227 1 7 1821 2 2
5 179 5 2 54 12 8 233 17 10 2055 0 0
1792 11 8 262 8 4 2055 0 0
* Obtained on reference to arithmetical tables re Sinking Funds.
n8 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
On or before March 81, 1906, the Sinking Fund would be
opened by transferring from Revenue Account the sum of
179 5s. 2d., which amount would be invested as soon as pos
sible in high-class securities at as high a rate of interest as
can be procured ; the chief financial officer in carrying out this
operation aiming to invest, if possible, at a higher rate of interest
than the 8 per cent. upon which the Sinking Fund Schedule
is based. During the year to March 81, 1907, the interest
receivable upon the invested amount of 179 5s. 2d. should be,
according to the schedule, not less than 5 7s. Id. ; if less, the
Revenue Account has to make it good ; if more, the difference
is usually carried forward to provide for any future shortages in
interest. This income, together with another instalment of
revenue moneys amounting to 179 5s. 2d., would be paid into
the Sinking Fund, invested, and allowed to accumulate as before.
This procedure is continued until March 81, 1915, the date by
which, according to the sanction to the borrowing, the full
amount of 2055 should be repaid, and the date upon which
the Sinking Fund, in accordance with the above schedule, should
stand possessed of funds sufficient for the purpose of repaying
the debt outstanding.
Some local authorities prefer to use their Sinking Fund in
stalments in the redemption of loans instead of investing them,
and in these cases they are required to make good the interest
upon such used amounts to the extent of the amount which
would have been produced had the instalments been invested.
The Journal entries for these transactions may be said to be
as follows :
s. d.
Dr. Revenue Account. Cr. Sinking Fund Account 179 5 2
(Transfer from revenue.)
Sinking Fund Cash Account. Cr. Revenue Cash Account . . 179 5 2
(Transfer of Cash.)
Sinking Fund Invest. Account. Cr. Sinking Fund Cash Account 179 5 2
(Investment of Sinking Fund.)
Sinking Fund Cash Account. Cr. Sinking Fund Account (say) 5 7 7
(Interest received on investmentsignoring personal accounts.)
Sinking Fund Invest. Account. Cr. Sinking Fund Cash Account 5 7 7
(Investment of interest.)
These entries would repeat annually, except as regards the
amounts.
On March 81, 1915, the debt becomes due for repayment,
 PROVISION AND RESERVE ACCOUNTS 119
and the Sinking Fund Investments Account will show a debit
balance of 2055, whilst a like figure will be shown on the
credit side of the Sinking Fund Account. The investments are
then realized, the borrowed money is paid off, and the Sinking
Fund Account is closed by transfer to the " Surplus of Assets
over Liabilities Account " of the local authority.
The Journal entries consist of the following :
t. 1. d.
Dr. Sinking Fund Cash Account. Cr. Sinking Fund Invest. Account 2055 0 0
(Realization of Investments.)
Mortgagees' Personal Accounts. Cr. Sinking Fund Cash Account 2055 0 0
(Repayment of debt.)
Sinking Fund Account. Cr. Surplus Account 2055 0 0
(Transfer and closure of the Sinking Fund Account.)

The Surplus Account will appear upon the liabilities side of

the Balance Sheet of the local authority.
As explanatory of the method adopted for the calculation of
the annual instalment required for Redemption Funds Accounts,
we give a short illustration for the benefit of students who may
be interested in this branch of accounting.
3 per cent, stock 105,278 redeemable in fifty years.
Required annual instalment to Redemption Fund. Accumulations at 3
per cent.
1.
0*0088655 set aside annually accumulates at 3 per cent, to 1.
.-. 0-008655 x 105,278 = 933-34, or 933 6s. lOd. Required annual in
stalment.
2.
1 set aside annually, accumulating at 3 per cent., amounts in fifty years to
112-7969.
What sum will amount to 105,278 ?
105278 _ 933 6 iQd
112-7969
3.
The annual instalment of 933 6s. lOd. has been paid into the fund for
sixteen years. It is desired to check the correctness of the total accumulations
at the end of that period.
1 annually accumulates at 3 per cent, in sixteen years to 20-1569
.*. x this by our annual instalment 933 6s. l0eZ. = 933-34
Leaving . . 18813-26
Which should be in the fund at the end of the sixteenth year.
120 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Above Calculations by Logarithms.
1. Note.Multiplication becomes addition.
Log. 105-278 = 5-0223376
Log. 0-0088655 = 3-9477032

2-9700408 = No. 93334

93334 becomes 933 34 = 9336-9-60

2. Note.Division becomes subtraction.
Log. 105-278 5-022337G
Log. 112-7969 2-0522971

2-9700405 = No. 93334 = 933-34

3.
Log. 20-1569 1-3044237
Log. 933-341 2-9700405
4-2744642

4-2744642 becomes 18813-26 = 18813-5-2.

Depreciation Fund
In previous accounts, we have simply charged profit and
loss with the working depreciation, but in the case of manufac
turing concerns which have, in view of developments of electrical
and engineering progress, to face the possibilities of new inven
tions and improvements in machinery, and, consequently, the
supersession of plant, there arises the question of a prudential
depreciation over and above the working one. To meet this,
many large concerns form a depreciation fund to cover the
risks just described. The annual sum fixed upon is charged
against revenue and credited to a depreciation fund account,
which will appear ordinarily on the credit side of the balance
sheet as reducing the book value of the plant. As will be
noticed when we deal with the double account system, this
depreciation fund is created to serve as a reserve for the replace
ment of plant in many undertakings which are compelled to
adopt the double account method of dealing with the accounts.
The depreciation fund in such cases appears on the debit
side of the balance sheet.
 PROVISION AND RESERVE ACCOUNTS 121
Renewals Fund.A number of manufacturing concerns and
undertakings whose equipment will require replacement at the
end of a period, make provision for the replacement of machinery,
plant, and equipment by an appropriation from revenue of sums
which are invested in outside securities, and allowed to accu
mulate to provide the cash when required.

EXAMPLE I
Reserve or Renewals Fund Account
Dr. Cr.
t. d. . d.
Balance at March 31, Balance brought for
1906, carried to ward, April 1, 1905 3,092 13 5
balance sheet . . 11,449 16 4 Interest on invest
ments .... 79 1 2
Interest on unin
vested balance at
bankers' rates 7 19 7
Appropriation Ac
count, amount set
aside for renewals 8,270 2 2
11,449 10 4 11,449 16 4

Insurance Funds.The payment of heavy premiums, or the

difficulty of getting first-class offices to insure against certain
risks, frequently leads to the formation of a specific reserve
intended to cover, either partially or entirely, the various risks
undertaken by insurance companies. One establishment we
visit merely invests the premiums previously charged for burglary,
plate glass, and profit and loss insurances, and allows the accu
mulation of such amounts and the interest on them to constitute
the insurance fund for these risks. The entries in the accounts
are
Profit and Loss Account. Dr.
Insurance Fund. Cr.

for the amount of the premium. For the investment, Invest

ment Account is debited and the Cash credited with the annual
payments, and the interest from the investments debited to
Investment Account and credited to insurance fund.
Another large firm, instead of carrying the surplus profits
to a reserve fund, appropriates a large sum as an insurance
fund, and as the revenue account permits, transfers additional
amounts, until a reserve of some quarter of a million sterling
122 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
appears in the accounts as the insurance fund. This, it is
important to note, is invested in gilt-edged and readily realizable
securities, so that it may be perfectly safe and available in the
event of calls being made upon it. It will readily be seen that
such an internal insurance fund reduces the charges against
revenue very considerably. The entries in the accounts would
be similar to those in the case of an ordinary reserve fund

Profit and Loss Appropriation Account. Dr. . 10,000
To insurance fund. Cr 10,000
Insurance Fund Investment Account. Dr. . . 10,000
To bank 10,000

In this case the return on such investments is credited to

the Revenue Account, the insurance fund being increased by
direct appropriation from the revenue, when thought desirable.
We also find that steamship companies at times arrange to
underwrite part of the risks on their own vessels, in which case
an Underwriting Account will be kept, to which will be credited
the net amount of the portion of the premiums charged and the
risks covered, and in the event of claims the proportion to be
borne charged against it. Any credit balances may either be
taken to Revenue Account as a profit on the current year's opera
tions, or may be carried forward as a Reserve or Marine Insur
ance Fund for future operations and risks.
Suspense Account.This is one opened to place or hang up
for a time any items of which the ultimate disposal is uncertain.
For instance, payments are sometimes received by post without
knowledge of the sender's name, and even cashiers at times
omit the name on the counterfoil of a receipt-book. Slight
differences in the balancing of books that have been partly
audited are also passed to such an account, but this use of the
account is reprehensible.
The account also appears in the balance sheet to include
expenditure apportioned over a period of years as Suspense
Account for advertising, Suspense Account for expenses of issue
of debentures, preliminary expenses, for adjustment of income
tax charges, and for repairs and alterations, which in a particular
year have been unusually heavy. The term ' ' Suspense Account "
only, without any explanation, is misleading, and should not
appear in the accounts.
 PROVISION AND RESERVE ACCOUNTS 123
Premiums on Shares. Banking and insurance offices, as
also prosperous trading companies, in issuing additional share
capital are able to obtain a premium for the shares allotted.
Such premium is very properly considered as not being available
for profit distribution, but is transferred to the credit of a reserve
account or fund ; if, however, there are " paper assets," such
as preliminary expenses, still appearing in the books, it is
considered that such items may properly be cleared off from the
Premium Account. The entries for such an issue would be

Cash. Dr. 15,000
To application and Allotment Account .... 15,000
For application and allotment money of 10s.
per share on 20,000 shares, and premium of 5s.
on each share.
Application and Allotment Account. Dr 15,000
To Share Capital Account 10,000
,, Premium Account 5,000
Reserve Capital.In the balance sheets of certain joint-stock
banks and other companies this term may be noticed. The
power to reserve capital is granted by the Companies Act of
1879, which provides that a limited company may, by special
resolution, declare that any portion of its uncalled capital shall
not be called up, except in the event of the company being
wound up. This reserve capital cannot be charged or dealt with
by the directors, and only by leave of the Court, be converted
into ordinary capital.
This matter of reserve capital is of great importance to
debenture holders, as it has been held that, even though uncalled
capital may be included in the debenture charge, this will not
include a first claim upon the reserve capital
As the student may now be expected to have a good know
ledge of the distinction between capital and revenue accounts
without the aid of a statement in trial balance form, we place
before him a statement of particulars from which he may test
his knowledge by the preparation of a trial balance and balance
sheet, the latter of which is given as illustrating many of the
points dealt with in this and the previous chapters.
124 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

EXAMPLE II
Authorized Capital200,000, divided into 100,000 Ordinary Shares of 1 each
and 100,000 6 per cent. Cumulative Preference Shares of 1 each.
50,000 preference shares have been issued, and are fully called up.
50,000 ordinary shares have been issued, and 15s. per share called up.
The authorized debenture issue is 100i000.

Preference share capital paid up 49,500
Calls on preference shares in arrear 500
Ordinary share capital paid up 37,400
Calls on ordinary shares in arrear 100
Debentures issued100 bonds of 100 each, bearing interest
at 4J per cent. per annum 10,000
Ordinary sharescalls paid up in advance 300
Cash at bank 1,650
in hand 90
Trade creditors 3,860
Trade debtors 19,600
Stock in hand, Dec. 31, 1904 12,350
Fixed plant and machinery 33,200
Freehold land and buildings 27,500
Loose plant and tools 9,600
Reserve fund 6,000
Patterns and drawings 5,000
Investments on account of reserve fund 5,500
Reserve for bad and doubtful debts 980
Depreciation fund for plant and machinery 1,600
Dividend on preference shares for the year 2,970
Interim dividend on ordinary shares 1,870
Profit and Loss Account, balance after paying interim dividend
on ordinary shares arid dividend on preference shares . . 4,850
 PROVISION AND RESERVE ACCOUNTS 125
000 00
0 003 0 0 0 0
000 31,60760000 000 1070 0,600 1,00 1000

00 0 * 00
00 0 00

-i 1,60 0,60 0
55
oa 1,60
00
00

m
55 e
O H
o 1
M P
o
o
W ST O --^
00 o=> 00 ~1
r; h
53
0 1
w m
CO
OS

.0 1 1 | 1 o
i 0 1 1 00 | 0
1000 10,00 0000 10 30 00 O O'O I 000100
3p00 E30
126 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

71. What is meant by Provision Accounts ? Give examples.
72. State how Provision Accounts are entered in a balance sheet.
73. Distinguish between reserves and a reserve fund.
74. Explain the terms, surplus, rest, secret or internal reserves, reserve
capital, insurance fund.
75. What is a sinking fund, and how does it differ from a reserve fund ?
76. Discuss the use of a Suspense Account, and give examples of its use.
77. Distinguish between accumulating and non-accumulating sinking funds.
78. What is meant by a depreciation fund ? State its place in the balance
sheet.
79. How would you deal in the accounts with premiums on shares ?
80. A company has issued 20,000 5 per cent, debentures redeemable at par
out of profits, at the end of twenty years. State what method should be adopted
to provide for such redemption, so that each year's profit may bear its due pro
portionate burden of contribution.
81. The Turbine Steamer Company, Ltd., owns a fleet of fourteen steamers
trading to the Eastern seas. These boats are at present insured in the ordinary
way at Lloyds ; but the company desires to effect its own insurance for the
future. Explain briefly what steps should be taken to inaugurate an internal
marine insurance fund, and state what entries would appear in the books and
annual accounts of the company when the fund was in operation.
 CHAPTER IX

INCOME TAX

Persons liableClassification of IncomeRegulations for calculating Profits

DeductionsAbatementsAllowancesForms of preparing Accounts for
the CommissionersExamplesChange in the RateDividends free of
Income TaxAdjustment AccountRepayment of over-Assessment,
section 133Finance Act, 1907.

In the month of May of each year most business men receive

from the local surveyor of taxes a form of return for income tax
assessment. The filling up of this lengthy and somewhat com
plicated form of four pages is to many recipients so difficult and
worrying a task as to be frequently postponed, bo that at the
finish the service of the accountant is required to either make
the return or to deal with the correction of an over assessment.
Originally levied as a temporary expedient for furnishing the
wherewithal for war expenditure, the tax has become so fruitful
a source of revenue that it seems likely to be always with us.
The rate is fixed each year by the Finance Act, better known
as the Budget, which is presented annually to the House of
Commons by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who fixes the
rate according to the estimated financial requirements of the
country for the coming year. The present rate of income tax is,
subject to certain exemptions and abatements, Is. in the , and
the period covered is from April 6 of the current year to
April 5 of next year. As its name implies, it is a tax on
income, and not merely on profits, and the fact of this dis
tinction being often misunderstood is a frequent cause of error
in statements placed before the income tax commissioners,
resulting in much trouble and annoyance to those concerned.
Persons liable to assessment :
All persons resident in the United Kingdom, including
foreigners.
127
128 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
All persons not resident in the United Kingdom, receiving
income arising in the United Kingdom.
Classification of Income.By the provision of five schedules,
every source of income is meant to be included for taxing
purposes. These schedules are :
A. Income derived from land and properties.
B. Income derived from occupation of lands.
C. Income derived from annuities and dividends from public
funds.
D. Income derived from trades, professions, or vocations.
E. Income derived from salaries, fees, etc., from public
bodies and companies.
As, in accounting, our main concern is with Schedule D, we
need only mention the following points in connection with the
other schedules :
Schedule A.This is usually known as property tax, and is
paid by the landlord, except in the case of cottages to a less
annual value than 10, and small weekly and monthly properties,
where the owner is assessed. It is usually levied on the tenant,
who, after payment of the amount, deducts it from the next
payment of rent. The assessment is generally made on the
poor-rate valuation, and from this an allowance of one-sixth in
the case of houses and buildings, is deducted for repairs, etc.
In some instances, where houses and shops may be let at a low
rental, the assessment may be higher than the actual rent paid.
Schedule B is a schedule for profits from farming, market
gardening, etc., and may be assessed
(1) As one-third of the gross annual value, under Schedule
A; or
(2) Under Schedule D.
Schedule C.This arising from the capital invested in public
funds is deducted from the payments made by Government
officials.
Schedule E.The tax under this schedule is paid by corpora
tion and government officials, and the officers of public com
panies, and includes the income from salaries, fees, wages,
perquisites, pensions, and other profits. A claim may be made
for expenses necessarily incurred in the performance of the
duties of the office or employment The tax is based on the
actual salary or income of the year, and not, as in Schedule D,
 INCOME TAX 129
on a three years' average, and an increase of the salary during
the year is liable to an additional assessment.
Secretaries of joint stock companies should note that
directors, managers, and auditors are included in this schedule,
and that managers of departments, secretaries, cashiers, and
chief clerks are not entitled to be assessed under the three years'
average.
Schedule D.A memorandum of general explanation and
instruction is enclosed of the Form of Return, No. 11a. The
following notes are given

RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR CALCULATING PROFITS FROM

TRADES, PROFESSIONS, EMPLOYMENTS, OR VOCATIONS
The tax extends to the profits of all trades, etc., carried on or exercised in
the United Kingdom by any person whatsoever, whether a subject of His
Majesty or not, and wheresoever residing; and also to the profits of trades
carried on or exercised elsewhere than in the United Kingdom, if carried on or
exercised by persons residing in the United Kingdom.
Average
The amount of profits is to be computed on an average of the three pro-
ceding years, ending either on the 5th day of April, 1906, or on the date prior
thereto to which the Annual Accounts have been usually made up ;
Or, if the trade, etc., has been set up or commenced within three years, on
an average, from the period of commencing the same ;
Or, if commenced within the year of assessment, the profits are to be
estimated according to the best of your knowledge and belief, and the
grounds on which the amount shall have been estimated should be stated
for the information of the commissioners.
In computing the profits upon which the average is to be taken
DEDUCTIONS are allowed
For repairs of premises occupied for the purpose of the trade, etc., and
for the supply or repair of implements, utensils, or articles employed,
not exceeding the sum usually expended for such purposes according to
the average of the three years preceding.
For debts proved to be bad; also for doubtful debts according to their
estimated value.
For the rent of premises used solely for the purposes of business, and not as
a place of residence.
For a proportion, not exceeding two-thirds, of the Rent of any dwelling-
house partly used for the purposes of business.
For the Annual Value of any premises occupied by the owner solely for
the purposes of business, and not as a place of residence, according to
the amount on which duty has been paid under Schedule A.
For a proportion, not exceeding two-thirds of the Annual Value
(according to the amount on which duty has been paid under Schedule
K
 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
A), of any dwelling-house occupied by the owner and partly used for
the purposes of business.
For any other disbursements or expenses wholly and exclusively laid out
for the purposes of the trade, etc.
NO DEDUCTIONS are allowed
For any Interest on Capital, or for any Annual Interest or any
Annuity or other Annual Payment, payable out of the profits or gains.
(The duty on such interest or annual payment should be deducted from
the person to whom the payment is made.)
For any sums paid as salaries to partners, or for drawings of partners.
For any sums invested or employed as Capital in the trade or business,
or on account of capital withdrawn therefrom.
For any sums expended in improvement of premises, or written off for
depreciation of land, buildings, or leases.
For any loss not connected with, or arising out of the trade, etc.
For any expenses of maintenance of the persons assessable, their families,
or private establishments.
For any loss recoverable under any insurance or contract of indemnity.
For any sum paid as income tax on profits or gains, or on the annual
value of trade premises.
For any premium for life insurance, or for wear and tear of machinery or
plant; but Allowances may be Claimed in respect of these items.
In considering the above it will be observed that the
deductions allowed are only those necessary for carrying on the
business, bad debts, and the estimated value of doubtful debts,
rent, and repairs. Of course, the ordinary trade expenses, such
as wages, rates, carriage, travelling expenses, fire, accident,
and glass insurances, general expenses, etc., will be allowed.
In explanation of the deductions not allowed we may say
that interest on capital and salaries to partners, form part of the
income of the partners upon which they would be assessable if
not acting as principals. Expenses of maintenance and with
drawals of capital or private payments, such as life insurance
premiums, voluntary subscriptions, income tax (which includes
property tax), are also a personal liability, quite apart from
business. The provision of an annuity or a thrift fund, being an
investment of capital, can hardly be considered as an expense
essential to carrying on the trade. We could hardly expect the
allowance of a loss recoverable under an insurance or indemnity.
Expenditure on improvement of premises, premiums for
renewal of leases, are taken to be capital expenditure, and for
the same reason the depreciation of land, buildings, leases,
goodwill, patents, preliminary expenses are not allowed, being
 INCOME TAX

losses of capital. In fact all depreciation must be eliminated from

the accounts, but the taxpayer may make a claim for the wear
and tear of machinery, plant, fittings, and fixtures used in
carrying on the business and, in the substitution of new
machinery for old, the value of the latter from the cost of the
new plant. The rate allowed for depreciation is usually 5 per
cent., but this is left to the discretion of the commissioners or
surveyors, many of whom consider that the allowance for
repairs and replacements is ample.
Most business men consider the disallowance of depreciation
or of a concession of 5 per cent., as against 7 to 25 per cent,
charged in the accounts, as being far from fair treatment. For
instance, a ten years' lease is purchased for 1000 written off
100 per annum against revenue, making it virtually a rental
no allowance, resulting in a loss of 50 during the ten years.
Such payments as chief rents, interest, and mortgages are
not allowed to be charged in the profit and loss statement,
the reason being that on payment the income tax would or
should be deducted from the sums. Bank interest on an over
draft will, however, be allowed as a charge, the bank including
the tax in their return of profits.
This calls our attention to the policy of the Government in
as far as possible, charging the tax at its source. As we have
seen, chief rents and interest are paid less the tax, so also
with dividends and debenture interest, which, as a general rule,
are paid less income tax. An illustration will help in under
standing this.
John Welltodo owns property assessed at 900, upon which
he pays tax less 150 deduction for repairs and expenses.
He pays a chief rent of 160, from which he deducts 8 as
tax, and also pays mortgage interest of 4 per cent, on a sum of
5000, viz. 200 less tax of 10, and interest on a second
mortgage of 2000 at 5 per cent., from which he deducts
tax of 5.
In this way the tax authorities receive at first hand the tax
of 37 10., leaving John Welltodo the collection of the tax
from the owner of the chief rent and the mortgagees. When this
is done J. W.'s net payment of tax is 14 10s. on his net taxable
income of 290. Claiming abatement of 160, his actual
payment of tax would be 6 10s.
132 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
As illustrating the way in which the various schedules bring
in the different classes of income, note the following :
A. Pickwick, a corporation official, is financially interested
in the following :
Owner of property. Assessment under Schedule A, deducted from rents or
paid direct.
Joint interest in market Assessment under Schedule B, probably charged in
garden on his land. firm's accounts.
Investments in Consols. Assessment under Schedule C, deducted in payment
of interest.
Holder of shares, and de- Assessment under Schedule D, deducted from de
bentures, in joint stock <lends and interest.
company.
Fees as director of above Assessment under Schedule E, either deducted from
company. fees or paid direct.
Salary as corporation Assessment under Schedule E, paid direct.
official.
Exemption.When the income of a person from all sources does
not exceed 160, exemption from the income tax can be claimed.
Abatement.From incomes of from 160 to 700 abatement
may be claimed as follows :
160 to 400 abatement 160
400 to 500 150
500 to 600 120
600 to 700 70
It must be observed that remission of income tax can only
be claimed in the case of individuals, and not by bodies corporate
or incorporate.
An allowance is also made for premiums of life assurance
effected in a British office, not exceeding one-sixth of the total
income of the taxpayer.1 This allowance is not to be taken into
account in reducing the amount for abatement : thus with an
income of 520 and an insurance premium of 30 the tax would
be payable on 370. It may be pointed out that no allowance
is made for payments made to thrift funds, as in the case of
corporation officials, who frequently prefer making provision for
later years in this form than in paying premiums on endowment
policies in an insurance company.
Inspection of the deductions not allowed will show that the
Profit and Loss Accounts prepared for trading concerns frequently
1 By the Finance Act of 1906, this allowance is also made on premiums paid to
legally constituted foreign offices. See p. 370.
 INCOME TAX 133
include charges against the profits which would not be allowed
by the commissioners. The bookkeeper or accountant is, there
fore, called upon to submit to the surveyor an amended Profit
and Loss Account; this may take the form of a copy of the
account in the books showing the adjustments that it has been
necessary to make, or an amended account may be prepared in
which only the allowed items are included.
EXAMPLE OF METHOD 1
1904. 1905. 1906.
Profit as per Profit and Loss Account . .
Add Interest on capital
loans
Partners' salaries
Depreciation, laud and buildings and
lease
Depreciation, machinery
fixtures
Income tax
Property ,

Deduct assessment of premisesSchedule A.

Profit 1904 ....
1905 ....
1906 ....
3)T
Annual average . . .
Less allowance for de
preciation of plant, ma
chinery, and fixtures
Less abatement . . .
Life Insurance
Premium ....

Example or Method 2
Trading Account
Dr. Cr.

To stock brought for- By sales . . .

ward stock on hand
To purchases (net) . .
gross profit . . .
z
134 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Profit and Loss Account
Dr. Cr.
To carriage .... By gross profit
rates and taxes . . ,, discounts .
insurance ....
lighting ....
salaries, wages, tra
vellers' commission
general expenses .
stable expenses .
repairs . .
advertising .
,, bad debts . .
,, net profit . .

Profit 1904
1905 .
1906 .
3^
Average .
Less claim for depreciation .
abatement
life insurance premium

The former method, as giving the actual figures in the books,

and therefore preferred by the surveyors, is the one usually
supplied in practice. As a simple example let us deal with
Mr. Reader's Profit and Loss Account on p. 12.
Example III
Profit and Loss Account. A. Reader
December 31, 1906
s.
Net prufit as per account 9 0
Add A. Reader's salary 300 0
interest on capital 150 0
loan 25 0
,, depreciation 55 0
539 0
Less claim for depreciation at 5 per cent 22 10
516 10
Less abatement 120
life assurance premium 30
150 0
360 10
 INCOME TAX
Supposing the partners to have no other source of income,
and the profits, on division, such as to enable them to claim
abatements, a separate return should be made by each member
of the firm. Thus if Johnson & Co., consisting of A., B. and
C. Johnson dividing profits equally, make a profit of 1740,
each partner on a personal assessment would claim an abate
ment of 120, that is if such partners' total income is repre
sented by the 580 profit derived from the business.
In making the return for Serge and Cheviot (p. 34), it will
be noticed that as the premises are owned by the firm no charge
is made against profit and loss for rent. As an assessment for
the premises has been made and tax paid under Schedule A,
deduction will be allowed for such assessment. When, however,
premises are occupied by the taxpayers, a rental for such occu
pation is considered to be a personal expense, and an amount of
not more than two-thirds of the assessment allowed as a
deduction from or charge against profits, the other third being
regarded as the rental for the beneficial ownership.

Example IV

Serge and Cheviot

December 31, 1902

By profit as per Profit and Loss Account 8,400
Add interest on mortgage 450
,, interest on capital 1,900
depreciation 1,560
reserve fund 840
income and property taxcharged in Taxes Account, say . 350
Total 13,500
Deduct assessment of premises under Schedule A . .
claim for depreciation :
machinery and plant
,, fixtures and fittings

Example V

Let us now prepare the statement for the North London

Engineering Company (p. 93).
136 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

To profit as per Profit and Loss Account 5507

Add mortgage debenture interest . . . 360
depreciation of machinery, 10 per cent. 1248
patents written down 180
1788
7295
Deduct rents received 374
annual value of freehold works . . 1200
Less one-sixth 200
1000
1374
5921
Probable allowance of 5 per cent, for depre
ciation of machinery 624
5297
Example VI
A. B. makes profits in his business for three years, in arriving
at which 2 per cent, depreciation on buildings, and 10 per cent.
on machinery have been charged, as well as interest on loans,
income tax, property tax on the premises, which are his own
subject to a chief rent, repairs of premises, and salary of himself
each year; while in the first year the balance of a lease of
premises previously occupied by him, and the cost of removal
to his present premises, had to be borne. His life is insured,
in respect of which he pays annual premiums.
Make out his income tax returns without figures.
lit year. 2nd year. 3rd year.
Net profits separate accounts
Add interest on loans
income tax
salary of A. B. . .
property tax paid
depreciation of buildings
machinery ....
balance of lease of premises ....
cost of removal 1
Deduct allowance for wear and tear of
machinery
annual value of premises
life insurance
abatement
Change in Rate of Tax. Another point to notice is that in
the event of a change in the rate of income tax, say from Is. to
1 If a compulsory removal, this item would probably be allowed.
 INCOME TAX 137
lOd., allowance has to be made in the deductions from dividend
and interest receipts and payments, thus a year's dividend
to the 81st December of the year in which the reduction had
taken place, would have the tax deducted at the rate of Is. from
January 1 to April 5, and at lOd. from that date to December 81.
Dividends free of Income Tax.Occasionally companies de
clare dividends free of income tax, which means that the tax
will be paid by the company, and charged to revenue account.
A 10 per cent, dividend free of income tax, practically means
that the shareholder receives 10 J per cent. dividend. For example,
a 10 payment of dividend means approximately 10s. tax (Is.
in the ), the 10s. being paid by the company.
Adjustment Account.In the case of joint stock companies, the
income tax transactions are somewhat complicated, owing to
(a) The deduction from dividends and debenture interest of
income tax.
(b) The three years averaging of profits.
(c) The adjustment of Profit and Loss Account to satisfy
the income tax commissioners in regard to depreciation, etc.
(d) The charge being made in advance.
It is, therefore, necessary to open an Income Tax Adjustment
Account in order that revenue may be charged with the proper
amount, and that the correct statement of the liability, or other
wise, may appear as a Suspense Account in the balance sheet.
For example, the assessment on a company for 1906-7,
on the three years' average, is 800. Accounts are made up
to December 81, 1906, and dividends paid, from which 220 is
deducted as tax. We therefore have, say, 60 to charge against
1906 accounts, and 20 to carry forward in suspense for the tax
January 1 to April 5, 1907.
Income Tax Account
t t
To commissioners 300 By Dividends Account .... 220
Kent and Taxes Account, or
Profit and Loss .... 60
balance carried down ... 20
1907. 300 300
Jan. To balance carried down 20
Although it is common knowledge that, in spite of all the
care given by the surveyor of income tax in obtaining correct
returns, many who are liable escape the tax or pay less than
138 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
they should, yet others neglect to claim the return of sums
deducted from their income in the forms of interest and
dividends, when a little trouble in filling up the forms that
may be obtained at the surveyor's office would enable them to
have the tax refunded. For example, a lady in receipt of
income from investments of 140 per annum, has 7 deducted
in various sums on payment to her. She is ignorant that this
would be refunded on taking the necessary steps, and so her
income is diminished by 7.
Repayment of Over-Assessment, Sec. 138, Income Tax Act,
1842.1Increased competition and other adverse causes may
place a business on the down grade, and thus it may happen
that, on making the return on the three years' average, the
profits of the current year fall below the amount so ascertained
and paid. Relief is given by sec. 133 of the Income Tax Act,
1842, as amended by sec. 6 of the 1865 Act, which provides
that on application to the authorities, the taxpayer may claim
repayment of the sum paid in excess. It is provided that
should the actual profit of the current year be less than the
assessment, based on the average of the three previous years, a
new average may be made of the actual profit of the current,
and the amounts of the two previous years; and repayment
may be claimed of the tax paid in excess, i.e. on the difference
between the old average and the new average, unless the
actual profit of the year exceeds the latter sum, in which case
tax will only be refunded on the difference between the profit
earned and the old assessment.
Example I
1903. 1904. 1905.
2000 1600 1200. Average 1600 for 1906-7 assessment.
The profit for 1906 turns out to be but 1100, therefore, taking
advantage of sec. 183, we find
1904. 1905. 1906.
1600 1200 1100. Average 1300.
And as the tax has been paid on 1600, claim may be made to
recover the tax on the over-assessment of 800, viz.

1600. Assessment for 1906 on average of 1903-5.
1300. Average of actual profit for 1906, and the two previous years.
300
1 Repealed by the Finance Act of 1907. See p. 140.
 INCOME TAX 139
Notice that in this case that the claim can only be made on
the difference between the first and second averages, and not
on the difference of the actual profit of 1906 and the old average.
Should it be desired to take advantage of sec. 138, there
should be no delay, but immediately on the accounts being made
up, notice of the claim should be given to the surveyor.

Example II
In the month of June, 1902, A. B. and Co. made return of
profit for income tax assessment under schedule D, for the year
ending April 5, 1903. The amount was 9000, being the average
of the three years ended December 81, 1901, namely: 1899,
9000 ; 1900, 10,000 ; and 1901, 8000. The assessment was
duly made, and the tax on 9000 paid in January, 1903. Some
months later, when the accounts for the year 1902 were made
up, the taxable profit for that year was ascertained to be 6900.
State what adjustment and relief A. B. and Co. are entitled to,
and how such relief is to be obtained ; also state what difference
it would have made in the amount of the relief if the profits of
the three years ended December 81, 1901, had been : for 1899,
13,800 ; 1900, 6200 ; 1901, 7000.
In the first case, repayment may bc claimed of tax on 700,
the differences between the new and the old averages. In the
second instance, as the actual profits will be found to exceed
the new average, the original assessment would stand, and
therefore no claim could be made.
This is according to the Act, but in practice it will generally
be found that the surveyors will allow either the difference
between the new average and the old, or between the figures of
the actual year and the old average, whichever is in favour of
the Inland Revenue. Thus referring to the above example
Old average. New average.
1899 13,800 1900 6,200
1900 6,200 1901 7,000
1901 7,000 1902 6,900
3)27,000
9,000 6,700
140 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
it will be seen that the actual year of assessment (1902) is
higher than the new average, and that therefore the difference
reclaimable is between 9000 (i.e. the old average) and 6900,
the actual profits for the year, viz. 2100.
The Finance Act of 1907 repeals sec. 138 of the Income Tax
Act of 1842.
The Act also introduces a new feature by allowing an
abatement of 3d. in the on the amount of earned income in
cases where the total income from all sources does not exceed
2000. This is additional to the abatements given on p. 182
and to the allowance on life insurance premiums.
A tax-payer claiming the above abatement must prove before
September 30th that his income from all sources does not
exceed 2000, and satisfy the surveyor as to the amount of
earned income on which he claims the allowance.
Another point to notice, is that employers are required to
make a return giving the salaries of all employees liable to the tax.
Assessments may be amended and penalties recovered within
a period of three years.
Further, it is provided, that until it is possible to take a
three years' average, the estimate of profits will be based on
the actual profits of the preceding year.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

81a. Give one example of income included in each of the schedules under
which the tax is collected.
82. What is property tax ? Who usually pays it ? and on whose behalf?
83. Give a list of the deductions not allowed in computing profits.
84. What difference may it make to an employee if assessed under Schedule
E instead of Schedule D ?
85. State the abatements allowed on incomes under 700.
86. X. has been for some years receiving from a private firm a salary of 520
per annum. He owns 1000 worth (nominal) of each of the following: 4 per
cent. railway debentures, 3 per cent. Australian Government Stock, 2 per
cent. Consols, laundry company shares paying 9 per cent. free of tax. What
should ho return as his income for assessment, and why ?
87. The Z. Co., Ltd., shows the following profits for the years 1901, 1902,
1903, viz. : 762, 520, 660. These figures include G0 per annum interest
on reserve fund invested, and are arrived at after charging for the respective
yearsincome tax, 15, 20, 18, depreciation of plant, 250, 220, 200,
rent and rates paid 280 per annum, insurance 40, and debenture interest
350 per annum. Prepare the return for assessment for the year 1904-5, after
agreeing upon 175 depreciation with the surveyor.
88. Give the nominal accouut for income tax as you would enter it in the
 INCOME TAX 141
company's ledger, showing how much would be debited to Profit and Loss
Account for 1904.
89. Adjust for income tax (Schedule D) purposes the Profit and Loss Account
of Messrs. Robert Sawyer and Sons, timber merchants, set out below, and show
the amount assessable for tax. The profits for the years 1902 and 1903, upon
which tax was payable, were agreed with the Inland Revenue Surveyor at
2304 and 1858 respectively.
Profit and Loss Account

To salaries 920 By balance from Trading Ac-
bad debts 425 count 5430
interest on capital .... 1050
income tax 56
,, depreciation on plant
at 10 per cent 780
,, loss through cashier's
embezzlement . . . . 108
,, reserve forbad debts
December 31, 1904 870
1903 720
150
annuity to G. Sawyer,
sen 350
profit for the year
carried down .... 1591
5430 5430
90. The accounts of the Witney Woollen Company showed the following
results :

Profit for the year 1903 7250
1904 6220
1905 4460
These profits included three years' income received from investments 850,
from which tax had been deducted, and there had been charged three years'
income tax 1200, and three years' depreciation of machinery, 1600. The
buildings are the property of the company, and are assessed under Schedule A
at 550. Prepare the account for assessment under Schedule D for the year
1906-7, assuming an admitted allowance for wear and tear of 400.
91. A client takes stock once in eighteen months, and his business profits for
two of these periods (after withdrawing a management salary of 250, and
charging interest of 400 per annum upon his capital) are 1800 and 2200,
such profits including 100 per annum on debentures. Prepare his return for
income tax.
92. From the figures below for the year ending December 31, 1904, of a firm
consisting of three partners, make up the return for income tax, showing clearly
how you arrive at same, and stating your reasons.
The profits for the years ending December 31, 1902 and 1903, were 1020
and 875 respectively.
 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Gross profit 2475
Rent, rates, and fire insurance 150
Wages 325
Partners' salaries 200
Commissions paid 50
Discounts received 25
Bank interest 20
Life insurance premium on the joint lives of the partners . 50
Bad debts written off 225
Reserve for bad debts 100
Interest on capital 150
Interest on loans 50
Dividends on consols 20
Insurance against bad debts 70
Discounts and allowances, debit balance 40
Income tax 80

92a. From the following Profit and Loss figures for three consecutive years
prepare in proper form an account for submission to a surveyor of taxes. The
closing stock is 1000.
1903. 1904. 1905.
10,000 9,000 8,000
Cottage rents received . . 100 100 100
Profit on shares sold . . 200
Stock, January 1 . . . 4,500 5,000 1,200
40 40 40
Rent and rates .... 250 220 230
400 510 510
60 50 50
Gas and water .... 30 35 40
Depreciation of machinery
10 per cent 500 500 500
Stable expenses .... 200 180 190
Proprietor's drawings . . 800 500 650
12,000 15,000 11,000
926. Jones and Robinson turned their businoos into a limited company on
January 1, 1904, as Jones, Robinson and Company, Limited.
The profit for the year ended December 31, 1904, was 3000, after charging
interest on debentures, 400, interest on loan, 150, income tax, Schedule A,
50, Schedule D, 225, directors' feesWilliam Jones, 500, Thomas Robinson,
350, and John Jackson, 150.
The profits for the year 1902 and 1903 of the old firm wore agreed with the
surveyor of taxes at 3000 and 4500 respectively, and it was arranged to
consider the business as a continuing one.
What should be the amount of the company's assessment under Schedule D
for the year 1905-6?
92c. State the principal features of the Finance Act of 1907 in regard to
income tax.
 CHAPTER X

DEPARTMENTAL, AGENCY AND BRANCH ACCOUNTS

Departmental Books and Trading AccountsDepartmentsShopsManu

facturing ConcernsForeign BranchesExamples of Consignment and
Current AccountsAgency Accounts with Examples Ascertainment of
net Profits on Departments.

In visiting many large establishments we are interested in finding

how admirably the account keeping is designed to give the
maximum of information with the minimum of time and trouble
in regard to the extensive and complicated operations of the
capitalist. One warehouse we visited has its twenty or more
departments, each under its responsible head, who practically
carries on a business in regard to the trading in the particular
class of goods of which he has special knowledge.
Again, we have the capitalist who controls the business of, it
may be, fifty retail shops in various parts of the country ; and
another principal who has financial interest in branch establish
ments on the continent, the colonies, or in the United States.
Then late years have seen huge amalgamations and combines
of special branches of industry and trade with enormous
capitals.
Let us first consider, in a general way, the manner in which
the accounts are framed to deal effectively with the essentials
of the subdivisions and extensions. Taking the ordinary case
of a house with but a few departments, we find in use, as
dealing with the goods, the columnar Day Books and Returns
Books in which purchases, sales, and returns are analyzed
and posted in monthly totals to the respective departmental
accounts.
143
144 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

EXAMPLE OF PURCHASES OR SALES DAY BOOK

Departments.
Hnte. Invoice Description of Ledger Total.
No. Goods. Folio.
A. a c.

The principal modification of accounts as compared with

those of the previous chapters is that the Trading Account will
show the profit or loss of each department ; whilst the depart
mental accounts give the volume of business, and the stocks
of each branch of the trade, and further we notice that the
subsidiary books have been adapted to answer these purposes.
At another neighbouring establishment, where over twenty
departments are in active work, we discover that each depart
ment is expected to keep a set of subsidiary booksPurchases,
Sales, Returns, and Stock Books ; the postings to the personal
accounts being made in the general office.
In many concerns it is usual to make an apportionment of
the general expenses, and of special charges to the departments,
and to charge interest on the capital employed in the particular
branch. In this way the principal ascertains the net profit or loss
on each branch, whereas in the method above described only gross
profit was shown.
In retail establishments doing a large cash business each
department is debited with the purchases made for it, charged
with a percentage of profits expected to be made, and credited
with the sales ; the taking of stock serves to check the super
vision on the goods, and shows whether or not the fixed profit
has been made by the department, thus

Gloves
To stock at soiling price. By cash sales.
purchases. stock at selling price.

Much the same method is adopted in the case of a number of

branch shops, which practically are departments not limited to
 DEPARTMENTAL, AGENCY, ETC., ACCOUNTS 145
the one roof. Here, however, the expenses of the shop in the
shape of rent, rates, wages, stable expenses, and depreciation, and
it may be interest on the capital employed, will be charged against
the branch, and thus each manager enabled to show the net profit
or loss on his branch.
Manufacturing concerns departmentalize the different pro
cesses of manufacture, each section being charged with materials
and stores, productive wages, apportionments of rent, rates and
taxes, fuel, illuminating power, etc., and also the percentage for
establishment charges ; and credited with its output of finished
parts or work, and the transfers to other departments at a
standard rate or the market price.

Foreign and Colonial Bbanches

Foreign trade is conducted in a variety of ways, and is com

plicated by the question of currency entering into the accounts.
Perhaps the simplest case is that in which a merchant ships to
an agent a consignment of goods to be sold on his account and
risk. As an example take the following :
Richard Random and Sons shipped goods to Paul Gold, their
agent at Cape Town, on September 1, 1904, and sent therewith
a pro forma invoice for 578 (goods 500, freight 60, and
insurance 18). On October 28, 1904, Paul Gold sent home an
Account Sales, from which it appeared that a portion of the
goods had realized 460, and deducting expenses 10 and com
mission 25, he enclosed draft at three months for the balance.
The stock remaining unsold amounted, at invoice prices plus
expenses, to 280. On November 2, 1904, he sent home another
Account Sales, which showed that the balance of the consign
ment had realized 320, which, less 8 expenses and 10
commission, he remitted by a three months' draft.
Show how the above transactions should appear in the books
of Richard Random and Sons.
The Consignment Account might show the following :
146 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

CONSIGNMENT ACCOUNT

19u4. . d 1904. t. d.
Sept. 1 To goods . . 500 0 II Oct. 28 By acceptance,
freight . 60 0 II net proceeds 425 I) i)
insurance . 18 0 0 stock . . 280 11 0
Oct. 30 Profit and
Loss A/c . 127 0 0
(1 0 705 I' 0

To stock from Nov. 2 By acceptance,

above . 280 0 0 net prooeeds . 302 0 11
Profit and
Loss A/o . 22 II 0
302 0 0 302 0 11

Or as an alternative
CONSIGNMENT ACCOUNT

t (i. 1904.
s. t s.
To goods 500 0 Oct. 28 By A/c Sales,
0
freight . 60 0
0 P. Gold . . 460 0 0
insurance . 18 0 Nov. 2 A/c. Sales,
0
expenses and P. Gold . . 320 0 0
commission 35 0 II
expenses and
commission 18 0 0
Profit and
Loss A/c . 149 0 0
780 0 0 780 0 0

P. GOLD

1904. t . d. 1904. s. d.
Oct. 28 To A/o Sales 460 0 0 Oct. 28 By expenses and
Nov. 2 i A/o Sales 320 0 0 commission 35 0 0
28 ., bill . . . 425 0 0
Nov. 2 ., expenses and
commission 18 0 0
bill . . . 302 0 0
780 0 0 780 0 0

If, however, frequent consignments are made, and as is

usually the case, drafts drawn on account of the shipment to
enable the consignor to negotiate the bills, a Current Account
would be kept for the agent in which interest debits and credits
would be made on the various items.
DEPARTMENTAL, AGENCY, ETC., ACCOUNTS 147

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ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
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 DEPARTMENTAL, AGENCY, ETC., ACCOUNTS 149
Firms with an extensive foreign trade will establish branches
abroad, each branch keeping its own accounts, of which sum
maries of the transactions are forwarded periodically to head
office, say in London or Manchester.
In the branch books the Remittance Accounts and Head
Office Accounts will show, the one all remittances made to
England, and the other the summaries of the business and the
stocktaking adjustments, and state the balance of capital due
to the head office. Corresponding to this in the London books
a Remittance Account and a Branch Account will be kept.
Examples, furnished later, will give ready understanding of the
branch and head office account keeping.
Agency Accounts.Very similar to the preceding is the account
keeping for agencies, of which the two following instances may
serve as illustrations :
Home Trade Agency in which the agent holds stock for his
principal, sells the goods and collects accounts, charging a Del
Credere commission on the sales for which he guarantees the
proceeds. Stock books are kept by the agent giving particulars
of receipts and sales of goods, and showing the balance of stock
in his warehouse belonging to his principal. Advice sheets are
forwarded of sales and receipts, and at fixed times cheques and
bills remitted for the latter. In the principal's books the agency
is charged with sales and credited with remittances, and the
commission charged against a Commission Account ; the stock
at the agency is considered as forming part of the general stock-
in-trade, the amount being shown by the Memorandum Stock
Book kept at the head office.
Another instance is that of a Buying Agency for an American
house, the agents carrying out instructions as to buying, dyeing,
finishing, and forwarding of the goods, and settling for the
purchases from remittances cabled from the States placed to the
agent's credit at the bank.
In this case the head office requests
(a) A statement showing all receipts and payments, and
the final balance confirmed by the bankers.
(b) An account showing purchases and expenses and the
shipments made to the head office and the final stock in
Manchester; the balance representing the net cost of the
buying agency, viz. ^430 8s. 9d.
(c) The balance sheet confirming (a) and (b).
 MESSRS. YANKEE AND CO.,
Receipts and Payments Account for
1905. S. I?. I. d.
Jan. I 1 To cash in bank 128 11 6
Dec. I 31 | ,, amounts received during
the year from New
York 15,900 0
amounts remitted direct
to manufacturers by
various bills of ex
change .... 13.151 10 | 6
29.051
amounts received for
sundry cash sales of
fents, etc. 16

29,196
Manchester Branch Trading Account and Profit
1905. s d. d.
Jan. 1 To stock on hand . 137 0
31 ,. purchases . . . . 26,916 18 1
Less returns . 113 6 1
26,803 12
,. packing, etc. 231 15 9
,. pattern cards . 28 16 6
cables, consul fees, etc. 121 13 4
382
27,323

loss from above 253 0 2

salaries and wages . 658 7 0
,. rent. rates, and taxes 107 7 7
fixtures .... 60 3 6
bank charges . 16 7
1.0SS 11 10
MESSRS. YANKEE AND CO., NEW YORK,
Liabilities. 1 t . d.
To trade creditors . 1.498 9 3
creditors for expenses . 85 15 9
1,584 11
Yankee and Co., head
office.balance, January
1, 1905 106 0 11
s. (1.
remittances 29.051 10 6
Less shipments 24,526 3 1
4,525 7 5
4,631 8 4
Less loss on trading 480 3 9
4,201
5,785
1
MANCHESTER BRANCH ACCOUNTS
the Year ended December 31, 1905
1905. . d. t.
Jan. 1 By outstanding aooounts 159 17
Deo. I 31 purchases of goods . 20,916 18 1
Less returns to manu
facturers .... 113 6 1
26,803 12 0
Less discounts 648 14
26,154 17 6
Less unpaid accounts,
December 31, 1905 . 1,498 9 8
24,650 8 3
By. 171 7 3
pattern i 23 9 3
cables, consul fees, etc. 121 13 4
316 9 10
branch management ex 1
penses
Salaries and wages . 658 7 | 0
Rent, rates, and taxes . 87 7 ! 8
Fixtures 60 3 ! 6
805 18 2
balance in bank 3,257 14 0
29,196 7 10
AND LOSS FOR TUB YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 1905
1905. t *. (L t. d.
Dec. 31 By shipments to New York 24,538 7 9
Less returns . . . 12 4 8
24,526 3 1
sundry cash sales 16 10
24,542 g 11
stock on hand . 2,527 15 6
27,070 4 5
loss on trading . 253 0 2
27,323 4 7
discounts . . . 616 COo 9
bank interest 12 4
net loss on business 430 9
1,088 14 10
MANCHESTER BRANCH BALANCE SHEET, December 31, 1905
Atsett. t. d.
By cash in bank . . . 3,257 14 0
stock ou hand and in
hands of bleaohers,
dyers, etc. 2,527 15 6

5,785 . 9 6
152 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
From this preliminary treatment it will be realized that as a
business extends, it soon becomes an absolute impossibility for
the proprietor to exercise the personal supervision over each
section of the business, which was probably the first cause of its
satisfactory results and progress, and he must gradually depute
more and more of the detail work to others, until the time comes
when he is obliged to hand over entire sections of his business
to various managers, his own time being fully occupied by
general supervision and directions.
It is just at this stage that we have been asked by our client,
Mr. Worker, to alter his accounts in such a way that he can see
that each of his managers, who have recently been given sole
charge of three of his principal departments, is producing
satisfactory results. The fourth and smallest he retains himself,
but wishes to be assured that the other three do not suffer by
reason of allowing a considerable portion of the work to be done
by others. He has throughout kept his books on the double
entry system, and has asked us to arrange that his present
accounts shall be disturbed as little as possible, to allow of
the detailed results of each department being ascertained
separately. Many of his customers buy from more than one of
the departments, and desire their statements, as before, to appear
in one account only.
The first point with which we are concerned is that of
purchases. The newly appointed departmental managers have
full power to deal with their sales and purchases, but before
placing any contracts or orders exceeding 100 are instructed
to consult Mr. Worker.
With regard to goods inwards, after the quantities are
checked by the receiver of the goods and initialled by him,
the price and general detail of the invoice is passed by the
manager, who also initials it, and then calculations and additions
are examined by the office staff and initialled once more, and the
invoice, after being passed by Mr. Worker himself, is ready for
entry. The Purchases Analysis Book contains the same rulings
as before, except that instead of having one column only for
the goods it now contains four, headed respectively, " Goods
Dept. A," "Goods Dept. B," "Goods Dept. C," and "Goods
Dept D." In this way the total goods purchased for each
department is ascertained.
 DEPARTMENTAL, AGENCY, ETC., ACCOUNTS 153
The sales also require to be similarly subdivided, and if the
circumstances will permit, may be invoiced out, preferably by
means of carbon books from each department, and then these
sales are entered in a Sales Summary Book with a special ruling
to set out

Departments.
Consecutive Name. Description of Quantity Posting Total
invoice No. goods (optional). (optional). folio. amount.
C

. d t.d. . d. t.ld.

I I

The date in this case, where there are numerous transactions

every day, would appear at the head of each page or in the body
of the page only, though if preferred a special column could
be made in the book to record this.
The totals of the sales and purchases would then be posted
to the nominal ledger, separate accounts being, of course, used
for each department. By analyzing the stock under similar
headings it will be easy to ascertain the gross profit for each
department, in the same way as the Goods Account or Trading
Account gives the gross profit for the entire business.
To ascertain the net profit for each department, it is then
necessary to charge the various expenses incurred by each.
The method of doing this varies in almost every case, but
Mr. Worker's business is a typical merchant's business, and
after discussion with him we decide to apportion the expenses
on the following basis :
Rent, rates, taxes, lighting, heating, etc., to be charged on
the cubic space occupied by each department, which we find
to be A 80 per cent., B 25 per cent., C 20 per cent., D 15 per
cent,, office and management 10 per cent.
Wages and travellers' salaries and expenses on behalf of
any special department are charged against that department,
and also all other direct charges which can be divided on that
154 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
basis, under which head we include carriage inwards, and, if
included in the price of the article, carriage outwards.
Insurance is debited in the same proportion as the estimated
average stock, which we arrange shall be treated as A 40 per
cent, B 80 per cent., C 10 per cent., D 20 per cent.
Horsekeep and stable expenses cause considerable dis
cussion, but after keeping time accounts for two months which
were taken as a fair average this was divided into A 50 per
cent., B 10 per cent., C 35 per cent., and D 5 per cent.
Discounts were found to vary in the different departments.
All purchases were subject to 4 per cent., but the sales discounts
were as follows : A 4 per cent., B and C 2 per cent., D 3 per
cent. These, therefore, were charged against the various depart
ments on their actual sales, any discounts forfeited owing to
late payment going to the General Profit and Loss Account.
Bad debts were charged against the various departments
incurring the same.
Office expenses and management charges were in this
instance debited against the departments in proportion to the
turnover, though in many cases this is not fair, as usually one
or more sections require, owing to the extra detail involved,
or the relatively smaller amount of the transactions, a much
greater amount of clerical work proportionately than the
others.
Interest on capital was also charged against each department.
The estimated amount of capital invested was ascertained by
adding the average stock to the average book debts, and deduct
ing the average amount of liabilities owing by each. This figure,
therefore, gave the approximate amount invested in each, and
interest at 5 per cent. was calculated on the same.
Having at the commencement of the year laid down these
general instructions and principles, we were further asked at
the end of the period to deal with the figures which had been
taken out in the ordinary trial balance of December 81, and to
let Mr. Worker know the result of each section and the general
result of the whole.
The turnover for the different departments had been as
follows : A 100,000, B 80,000, C 20,000, and D 50,000.
The trial balance, after we had made what we considered
necessary adjustments during the audit, finally appeared :
 DEPARTMENTAL, AGENCY, ETC., ACCOUNTS 155
I if. Cr.

Department A, gross profit . . . . . 15,000
I!. 8,000
C, 5,000
1>, 9.000
Discounts received . . ' 8,000
allowed 8,000
Debtors (net) 51,000
Creditors (net) 34,000
Rank 5,000
Stock 36,000
Fixtures 1,000
Rent, lighting, etc 3,000
Wages, travelling expenses, etc. . . . 19,280
Insurance 100
Ilorsckeep, etc 1,800
Carriage 2,100
Rati debts 320
Office and management expenses . . . 2,000
Interest Account 3,000
Managers' salaries 2,000
Loan 20,000
Capital 25,000
129,600 129,000

From these figures we prepare the following accounts to

show the net profit on each department.
ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

1 S~

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'a-

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oo o o= o
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 DEPARTMENTAL, AGENCY, ETC., ACCOUNTS 157

Balance Sheet
December 31, 1006
Liabilities. Assets.
Trade creditors (net) 34,600 Fixtures . . 1,000
Bank overdraft . . 5,000 Stock . . . 36,000
Loan creditor . . . 20,000 Sundry debtors 51,000
A Worker, Capital
Account
Balance per last
Account . . 27,000
Less drawings . 2,000
25,000
Add profit . . 3,400
28,400
88,000 88,000

When one has to deal with manufacturers' accounts for the

purpose of ascertaining the profit or loss on each department
the process naturally becomes more complicated, for in addition
to the raw materials purchased for each department, and the
wages and special expenses, very frequently finished goods
ready for sale in one department are used in another department
for raw materials.
For example, a chemical manufacturer manufacturing, say,
ten separate and distinct chemical products, each of which is
treated as a department in itself, will find that many goods
which are bought for, or may be manufactured by, one depart
ment, are used as raw material in another department.
To treat these departments fairly it is therefore necessary
to record these transactions, which may either be dealt with
as an ordinary sale by Department A, and a purchase of raw
material by Department G, by cross entries through the books ;
or if such items are of frequent occurrence, a special book will
be used to record them, which will set out the department
giving and the department receiving, together with the date, and
the nominal account in each department which has to be
debited or credited respectively.
The price to be charged will usually be laid down by the
authorities, the usual principle is that where the goods are not
manufactured by the department giving the same, that they are
158 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
to be transferred at cost. This often arises in the case of
a department which uses very largely a particular raw
material, and on account of the quantity used, is able to buy
on advantageous terms. If other departments also use this
commodity, but in much smaller quantities, they will usually
be instructed to buy it from the first department at cost price.
Where goods are used by a second department as a raw
material which are manufactured by the other, the usual
practice is to transfer the said goods at the ordinary selling
price, so that a fair profit is allowed to the seller for the goods
produced. Care should, however, be exercised, especially just
before stocktaking that the selling department shall only
transfer sufficient for the immediate requirements of the others ;
for since stock is always priced at market or cost, whichever
is lower, the manufactured article would be taken into stock
by its own department at cost, whilst the same goods after
transfer would be reckoned at the increased price when held by
the others, and might in that way be used to show a fictitious
profit for the transferor, whilst it would not affect the transferee
in any way, since it would be valued at the price debited to him.
In a manufacturer's business it will be necessary to further
subdivide the Purchases Analysis Book. When dealing with a
trading concern we saw that one column was usually sufficient
for each department for goods bought, but now we have many
commodities specially obtained for various sections of the
business, which all require separate headings. For instance,
each manufacturing department will probably need the following
columnsraw material, carriage (this usually being a very
important item in a manufacturing concern), packing (where
the different portions of the business use varying kinds,
qualities, and quantities), etc., in addition to the ordinary
expenses columns which are applicable to all businesses.
The wages question here, as elsewhere, must necessarily be
put upon a sound basis, varying with the method of payment
in vogue for each department. If based upon time, the
ordinary processes for dealing with the arrival and departure
of the men will be governed by the office ; if, however, piece work
is the rule, the system of passing the goods must be clearly and
distinctly laid down, and the quantities received from each hand
or gang will be checked and recorded in the wages sheets for
 DEPARTMENTAL, AGENCY, ETC., ACCOUNTS 159
purpose of payment. In either case the wages books must be
prepared in such a way that by means of analysis or classifica
tion the wages payable by each department may be distinguished
at a glance, and the correct debit to each duly ascertained and
treated accordingly in the books.
The question of repairs and depreciation is a subject of
importance in manufacturing departments, and a clear and
distinct system should be laid down in regard to it. Where
each has its own machinery, it is desirable, and usually not
difficult, to apportion these charges directly to the section to
which they belong. In many places, however, there are
arbitrary rules laid down to cover these charges in what are
considered fair proportions over each department using
machinery.
The same remark applies to fuel or power, though in this
case it is hardly ever accurately ascertained for each depart
ment ; many firms adopting the simple rule of debiting the
charge in proportion to the production of each, though one
can see at a glance that this is a very rough and ready way
of ascertaining what is or is not a proper charge.
Ead debts are also debited to the different manufactures
according to the actual amounts lost, whilst the other items,
viz. the indirect expenses including rent, rates, taxes, gas,
water, office and general expenses, etc., will be charged pro
portionately over the whole in such a manner as the proprietor
thinks fair ; for, unfortunately, the departmental managers will
hardly ever be persuaded that their special charge is not heavier
than facts justify.
However, if these directions are generally followed and
applied carefully to each particular business, the main object
of showing the manufacturer what each section is earning will
be attained satisfactorily.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

93. Give suitable rulings for the Sales Journal of a wholesale business com
prising three departments, viz., " Mantles," " Dress Materials," and " Felts."
There are two sales ledgers in use, viz. " Town " and " Country," and each
ledger is kept upon the self-balancing principle.
94. Give an example of the Profit and Loss Account of a branch shop.
95. Distinguish between profits on purchase and selling price.
i6o ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
96. Give instructions to a client with regard to the accounts required for a
branch shop.
97. Briefly describe the method of dealing with the departmental accounts of
a manufacturing concern.
98. Give an example of a Consignment Account.
99. What is a Current Account? Give an example.
100. Describe the method of apportioning trade expenses against departments.
101. A wholesale firm has several retail branches which it supplies with
goods. The branches regularly pay in all their receipts (through the bank's
branches) into the main account, notify same to head office, and send monthly
an abstract, showing how much has been paid on Ledger Account, and how
much for cash sales, also amount of credit sales and discounts, and total of
debtors' balances. State precisely what accounts should be opened in the head
office books to register these transactions so far as material for Profit and Loss
Accounts, giving short illustrations to show how they should be brought into
general agreement in preparation for audit.
102. Messrs. J. Silkstone and Sons, coal merchants, of London, opened a
branch business at Maidstone, on January 1, 1903. The trial balance of the
books of the Maidstone branch, as on December 31, 1903, was as follows :

Trial Balance
December 31, 1903

Head Offico Adjustment Account .... 1574
Coal sales 1700
Sundry debtors 640
Horses, carts, etc 280
Salaries, rent, and expenses 620
Cash in hand 78
Coal from head office (as invoiced) .... 1 748
Sundry creditors 42
3366 3366
The stock of coal at Maidstone on December 31, 1903, was valued at 984.
Prepare a Profit and Loss Account showing the result of the working of the
Maidstone branch for the year ended December 31, 1903, and draft the entries
necessary to incorporate the above figures in tho head office books.
 CHAPTER XI

BRANCH ACCOUNTS

Foreign ExchangeForeign Account KeepingFinal Entries in Head

Office Accounts.

It is proposed, in this chapter, to deal with the " Wholesale and

Retail Trading Company," who, in addition to owning a large
central establishment, consisting of their central warehouse and
head offices, possess several branch houses with power either
to buy or sell for cash or on credit, and some shops who sell for
cash only. They are also thinking of opening another house,
which will have power to buy and sell, and will also be allowed
to have its own banking account and conduct the whole of
its separate financial arrangements.
Their present arrangements are as follows : The shops which
have power to sell only are supplied from the central warehouse
and are debited with these goods at the selling price. The
books kept at the shops are : a Petty Cash Book, a Cash Book, a
Summary Book, and a Stock Book. The Petty Cash Book will
be kept on the imprest system, and all expenses and other out
goings of the shop will be entered in this book. The first entry
will be a debit for the cheque received from the head office,
and each week or month, according to the arrangement, which
depends upon the amount of the cash required, the branch will
forward to the head office a statement of its expenditure, and
will receive a cheque for that amount from them, which will
therefore bring the cash balance back to its original figure.
The takings are entered in the Cash Book, and are paid gross
into a local bank for the credit of the head office, or in places
where this arrangement does not exist are sent direct. The
Summary Book is really the ledger account with the head
office, and credit is given for all the goods sent to the branch,
whilst any returns, allowances for damage, breakages, shorts,
161 M
 162 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
etc., are debited together with the cash takings sent to the head
office. Stock is taken periodically, and is entered as the balance
of the account in the Summary Book, which should then balance,
any difference meaning, of course, that (in the case of a deficiency)
so much stock or money has been lost by error or leakage.
The head office records these transactions by having the
following accounts in their books for each branch : (1) a Furni
ture and Fittings Account ; (2) a Cash Account for the petty
cash ; (3) a Goods Account ; (4) an Expenses Account, for such
expenses as may be paid direct by the head office; and (5) a Profit
and Loss Account The first account will be debited with all
the original capital expenditure and all subsequent additions,
and is credited with depreciation, which is debited to the branch
Profit and Loss Account. The second of these accounts is
opened by the debit posting of the cheque for the branch petty
cash, and is credited with the totals expended as supplied by
the branch return. These items are debited to the branch
Expenses Account, either by means of a contra item to the
Expenses Account, or by means of a special journal known as a
Branch Expenses Book, the form for which is given later in this
chapter. The balance of the account represents, of course, the
petty cash balance in hand at the branch. The Goods Account
is a copy on the opposite sides of the account of the Summary
Book kept at the branch, and the balance of the account will
represent the stock in hand at the branch at selling price. The
Expenses Account will be debited with all the expenditure made
from tho head office on behalf of the branch, and also with the
items transferred from the Petty Cash Summary through the
Branch Expenses Book. This account will be closed by half-
yearly transfers to the Profit and Loss Account. The materials
for the profit and loss figures are obtained from the foregoing
accounts as described above, so far as the debits other than
goods are concerned. The credit side is made up by means of
special books, the principal of which are a Branch Sales Book
and a Branch Returns Book. The first of these books records
all goods sent to the branches, and like an ordinary transaction
of a sale is debited to the Branch Goods Account for the indi
vidual branch supplied, and is credited to a " Sales to Branches
Account " in monthly totals. The Branch Returns Book is a
record of the debit notes sent by the branches, and the monthly
 BRANCH ACCOUNTS 163
total of this is debited to the " Sales to Branches Account " and
credited to the individual " Branch Goods Accounts " in detail.
The net amount of the goods supplied to each branch, as ascer
tained by its goods account, is at the end of the half year
credited to the Branch Profit and Loss Account; the contra
item to the debit is made up in one of two ways. The first of
these is to ascertain the average gross profit made on all goods
sold through these retail branches over the ordinary wholesale
price, and to debit the Branch Profit and Loss Account with
the estimated wholesale price by deducting this average gross
profit from the goods they have purchased during the half year,
and by debiting the amount so deducted to the " Sales to Branches
Account." The stock on hand must also be reduced to the
wholesale price by debiting the Profit and Loss Account of
the branch with the average profit which has been added to the
stock on hand by taking it at selling price, or by dealing only
with the goods actually sold, as shown in the example. All
this sounds rather complicated to any one who has not had
actual experience of this class of business ; but if the specimen
account for the shop branch is carefully followed, it should be
quite easily understood. The second method of dealing with
this section of the accounts is to ascertain the actual*wholesale
price of the goods supplied to each shop, and enter in extra
columns added to the Branches Sales Book and the Branches
Goods Accounts, by means of which the actual profits added are
ascertained and dealt with instead of the estimated average
profit as previously explained.
In the specimen accounts dealt with below, it is assumed
that the system in vogue is based on the assumption that the
warehouse adds 5 per cent. to the cost, to ascertain the ordinary
wholesale price, and that 25 per cent. is added to this figure for
the retail profit. The items are those required for one of the
branches, and for simplicity the entries at the head office are
recorded as if only one branch existed.
The transactions are for the half year ended June 80.
.
Jan. 1 Branch A, which has been fully equipped during the
preceding half year, receives this day, goods 300,
cash 10, and commences business.
6 Cash is received from the branch on account of sales . . 50 0
On the manager's request the expenses cheque is sent for 10 0
 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
t.
Jan. 6 Further goods sent 30 0
7-31 Goods forwarded to Branch A 280 0
Cash 25 0
Cash received from branch on account of sales .... 170 0
Marh 30 Head office pays the rent of Branch A for the quarter
ending March 31 40 0
June 30 Head Office pays the rent of Branch A for the quarter
ending June 30 40 0
Head Office pays the rates of Branch A for the half-year
ending June 30 18 0
Feb. 1 ) During these dates the branch has received goods . . . 2015 0
to cash . . . 200 0
June 30 ' And has remitted on account of sales 2140 10
June 30 There was at the branch at date, cash 5 0
Goods at selling price 262 10
The goods supplied to the branch were purchased from
sundry creditors by the head office for 2000, to which was
added 5 per cent. (equals 100) for the latter and 25 per cent.
(equals 525) for the branch.

Brakch A, Goods Account

Dr. Cr.

1906 t 1906
To goods. Branch \ 300 Jan. 6 Bv Cash 50
Jan. 1 170
sales 1 J 7-31
30 0 Feb. 1 to 2140 10
8-31 280 0 June 30
Feb. 1 toj June 30 ,, stock carried
2015 0 down . . 262 10
Juue 30 '
By Branch Profit
and Loss Ac
count, beingloss
of stock on ac
tual stocktaking 2 0
2625 0 2625 0
July 1 To balance . 262 10

The debits of the above account are posted in detail from

the Branch Sales Book, the totals of the book being credited to
" Sales to Branches Account." The first three credit items
come from the Cash Book, the fourth from the actual stock
sheets, whilst the fifth is the difference between the two sides.
 BRANCH ACCOUNTS
Dr. Branch A Petty Casii Account Cr.
1906 1006 x
Jan. 1 To cash 10 Jan. 6 By Branch Expenses
6 10 Account .... 10
7-31 25 Jan. 7 tol By Branch Expenses
Feb. 1 to\ 20Q June 30' Account. ... 230
June 30 / ' ~ Balance .... 5
245 245
July 1 To balance .... 5
The debits are posted from the Cash Book in the ordinary
way, whilst the credit is transferred from the Branch Expenses
Book, a form of which appears later.

Branch A Expenses Account

1906 1906
March 31. To cashRent to June 30. By Branch Profit and
40 Loss Account . . . 338
Juno 3(). To cashRent to
40
n To cashRates to
18
n Branch Petty Cash
Account (per
Branch Expenses
Book) .... 240
338 S38
Branch A PnoFrr and Loss Account

J^ejTo purchases . . . 1890 0 Junel By sales per
30 / the Goods
expensesper Branch Account 2625 0
" A " Expenses Less stock 262 10
Account 2362 10
Rent . . 80
Rates . . 18
Wages, etc. 240
338
Goods Account for
loss of stock 2
profit carried to
General Profit
and LossAccount 132 10
2362 10 2362 10
166 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
The figure credited to Goods Account is taken from the
Branch Goods Account, and the contra is the 1890 on the
other side of the same account, being the estimated cost to
the branch, and the balance is debited to the " Sales to
Branches Account " to write back the overcharge made at head
office in order to check the branch takings.

Dr. Purchases Account (Head Office) Cr.

Jan. 1 to June 30. To goods . 2000 June 30. By Profit and Loss
Being cost of goods bought Account .... 2000
by head office and sent to
Branch " A."
Sales to Branches Account
t.
June 30. To Branch A Jan. 1 tci By goods. Branch
Profit and Loss June 30./ Sales Book . . . 2625
Account . . 472 10
To Suspense Ac
count ... 62 10
To Profit and Loss
Account . . 2090 0
2625 0 2625

The figure credited to Suspense Account is the profit charged

on goods sent to the branch at retail selling price, but not yet
sold, viz. 262 10s. This amount is made up by the following
calculation : Goods costing the head office 100 have 5 per
cent, added for the head office profit ; it therefore equals 105,
to which is added 25 per cent. for the branch profit, equals
26 5s.total 181 5s. It therefore becomes a simple propor
tion, based on the equation that if 181 5s. selling price equals
100 cost price, then 262 10s. selling price (stock at Branch A)
will equal 200 cost, the difference 62 10s. being credited as
stated to a Suspense Account, so that no profit shall be taken
on unsold goods.
Suspense Account
June 30. By Sales to Branches
Account . . . 62 10s.
This account is closed on July 1 by transferring it back to
the new " Sales to Branches Account."
 BRANCH ACCOUNTS 167
Dr. Head Office Profit and Loss Account Cr.

June 30. To purchases . . . 2000 June 30. By Sales to Branches
Account .... 2090
Stock will stand in the balance sheet as 200, being the
balance of Branch A Goods Account, less the credit balance of
unearned profit on the stock as shown by the Suspense Account.
These figures for the sake of simplicity are drawn as if no
other transactions took place at the head office but those which
relate to Branch A, and the sundry creditors and cash are
omitted, as they call for no special comment. This is what is
known as the multiple shop system, and is applicable particu
larly to all retail businesses which do not make their own
purchases.
The Branch Expenses Book, if used, might take the following
form :
BRANCH A

Posting Postage
folio. ToUl. Wages. Carriage. and Travelling. Sundries.
stationery.

. a. t. ii . d. d. a. a. t d.
Jan. 6 (To credit 10 0 0 5 6 0 2 16 0 9 0 1 0 0 Paper for i'b 0
13 of Cash packing
etc. Account
etc. Branch
"A")
Per ana
240 0 0 136 16 82 3 0 7 0 8 10 0 lysis U 10 0
Credit these totals to Branch A Expenses Account, to amalgamate with expenses paid
by head office.
In dealing with any question of this sort, whether in practice
or in an examination, it must be remembered that adding
25 per cent. to the purchase price is not the same as deducting
25 per cent. from the selling price when the cost price of stock
is required. Obvious as this seems, it is surprising how often it
is overlooked in the hurry of an " exam."
We now come to deal with those branches which, though
they buy independently of the head office and sell on credit, yet
do not deal with any cash other than for small cash sales and
their own current expenses. These need very little special
bookkeeping. Stock and expenses may be kept in a similar
manner to that described above, and returns are made of the
168 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
sales and purchases which are made on credit, and the ordinary
accounts will be kept at head office of these items.
Finally, in this chapter we have to consider how to advise our
clients with regard to the new branch they propose to establish
which is to conduct its own business in every way but for the
general supervision from the head office.
The first point is to have a good office staff capable of
dealing fully with all ordinary matters of account, and this has
been already arranged. The instructions we give relate only
to the special work caused by the branch.
We advise the keeping of special accounts for goods bought
or sold between this branch and the other branches, or the
head office, as if, in fact, they were ordinary outside customers.
The money passing between the branch and head office means
another account if numerous items occur, though, this is not
necessary, for the entire transactions may be worked through
the Head Office Adjustment Account in the Branch Books, and
the Branch Z Adjustment Account kept in the head office
books.
This account records any item for which no other contra
exists at the branch, and exactly how it is made up will depend
upon where the branch authority begins. If, for instance, the
head office before the branch has started has furnished or fitted
up the place, and desires that all the accounts should be kept at
the branch, the opening entry will be a debit to Furniture and
Fittings and a credit to the Head Office Account in the books of
the branch. If the cash transactions passing between them are
few in number the next entry will be a debit in the Cash Book
posted to this account for the opening cheque sent by head
office, and so on.
In the mean time full accounts are kept at the branch for all
transactions, needless to say, by double entry, Personal and
Impersonal Accounts both being kept, and at the end of the
half-year the branch prepares its Profit and Loss Account in the
ordinary way, transferring first the balance of the Head Office
Goods Account and any other accounts kept between the two to
the Adjustment Account. To this account is also transferred
the balance of the Profit and Loss Account, and a Balance Sheet
is prepared showing the balance of the Head Office Account as
a liability.
 BRANCH ACCOUNTS
Copies of the Profit and Loss Account, Balance Sheet, and
Adjustment Account are then sent to the head office to be dealt
with there. At the head office a Branch Adjustment Account is
kept to correspond with the similar account at the branch, and
on receipt of the final accounts from the branch the two Adjust
ment Accounts are compared, and any difference is looked into,
and if due to goods or cash in transit a suspense is created and
the two sets of accounts are then ready for amalgamation by
striking out the balances shown by each Adjustment Account
and adding the various figures of assets and liabilities together.
The following is the Balance Sheet and Adjustment Account
sent from the branch on June 80 :
Head Office Adjustment Account
Dr. Cr.

June 30. To balance .... 5000 Jan. 1. By furniture and fit
tings .... 500
cash 1700
31 800
Mar. 15 , 300
31 , 100
May 15 250
June 30 balance of Goods
Account . . . 980
Profit and Loss
Account . . . 370
5000 5000
July 1 Balance . . . 5000
Balance Sheet, Branch Z, June 30
Dr. Liabilities. Assets. Cr.
t
To Sundry creditors 655 By Furniture . . . 600
Head office . . 5000 Less depreciation 25
475
Stock . . . 3520
Book debts . . 1640
Less reserve for
discounts . 41
1599
Bank. . . . 61
5655 5655
170 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
The final trial balance at head office after closing the nominal
accounts appeared as follows :
Dr. Cr.

Sundry debtors 3,800
Reserve for discount on same .... 90
bad debts 200
Creditors 1,820
Reserve for discounts 40
Stock 3,250
Branch Z Adjustment Account .... 5,055
Furniture 1,280
Bank 620
Profit and Loss Account 1,935
Capital 10,000
14,045 14,045
The difference in the Adjustment Account proved to be a lot
of goods valued at 55 sent from the head office on June 29,
which had not been received until July 8 at the branch. This
item had therefore to be added to stock on hand in the combined
balance sheet which is now prepared.
Balance Sheet, June 30
Dr. Liabilities. Assets^ Cr.

To Creditors . . . 2,475 By Furniture . . . 1,755
Less reserve for dis- , , Stock 6,825
count .... 40 ,, Book debts . . . 5,440
2,435 Less reserves for
, , Profit and Loss Ac- discount and bad
count .... 1,935 debts .... 331
Capital .... 10,000 5,109
Bank 681
14,370 14,370
On the principle that a business which is not progressing is
losing ground, the " Wholesale and Retail Trading Company "
very shortly after opening the Z branch decided to start a
branch in Paris, and wished the general conduct of the business
to be on similar lines. They also asked that we would make
any adjustments we considered necessary in the books, and
explain the method of dealing with Foreign Exchange in general.
Of course the question of variation in the rate of exchange
is comparatively trifling between the two countries, each having
a gold standard, because it stands to reason that no one will pay
 BRANCH ACCOUNTS 171
more in Paris, for instance, for a draft on London than it would
cost to forward the actual specie properly insured. Where,
however, the other country has a silver or a paper currency this
variation immediately assumes considerable importance, since
the price of silver varies continually, and apart from the question
of the demand for drafts there is the intrinsic value of the silver
to take into account and convert into English gold in the first
place. Whilst, where a paper currency is used a still lower
figure is given for it, because in this case it is uncertain when
such paper will be converted into gold or silver, and therefore
capable of being used outside the country of issue.
The next point to consider is the law of the land in which
you propose to open your branch with regard to accounts.
Most foreign countries have some regulations as to what books
must be kept, and the manner of recording the transactions.
In France, for instance, the law requires that a summary of all
transactions shall be entered through the Journal, which there
fore becomes the posting medium for every transaction. This
book has in the first instance to be produced to a public official,
who examines it to see that it is duly paged, none missing, etc.,
and then stamps it as correct, and anything requiring legal
proceedings, in which accounts are concerned, must be proved
from the Journals with the official visa.
Though naturally this considerably adds to the work of a
bookkeeper when all items go through the Journal, it may be a
help to balancing the Ledger. The usual method in France is
to add the Journal in one total to the year end, and to extract
the Ledger Accounts to show the total debit and credit postings
of each account, and not the balances only as in England.
TRIAL BALANCE
December 31.
Total postings. Balance.

Debit. Credit. Debit. Credit.

Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr.

8562-15 8562-15
10620-50 9415 25 120525

Fr.19875625 Fr.198756-25 Fr.53654 10 Fr.53654-10

 172 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
The assistance in balancing arises from the fact that in
France all the books are officially opened through the journal
each first of January, and as all postings pass through the
Journal, the grand total of the Journal for the year amounts to
the same as the total columns of the Ledger as shown in the
trial balance ; and, therefore, supposing an error of 100 francs
existed in the trial balance, it could be seen by comparison with
the Journal whether the error arose on the debit or the credit
side, or whether both sides were in error.
Remittances may be made either by cheque or by the Paris
house buying in Paris a draft payable in London, or by London
sending a bill of exchange through in the ordinary way.
In the case of our French branch, it is necessary, of course,
to keep the books according to French law, and the Journal
therefore becomes an official book through which all our entries
must pass. Apart from this, the system of bookkeeping is
practically the same as for the English branch, save that it
simplifies matters very much if all fixed assets are treated at the
head office. Any necessary purchase made by or through the
branch being charged to head office as soon as convenient. We
are first invited to deal with the Branch Accounts, after the
June audit is completed. At that time the amount to the debit
of "Paris Branch Account " is 1197 2s. 9d., which inquiry at
Paris shows to be the difference between the assets, viz. fittings,
etc., 800, stock 1471 3s. 2d., and the liabilities in France
574 5s., and we are informed all is ready to commence trading
forthwith.
Fixed Assets.In regard to the fixed asset of 800, we
should suggest its being transferred at once to the head office
books, at the actual rate ruling at the time of purchase. Al
though some authorities advise the retention of the fixed assets
in the branch books, it seems preferable, having regard to the
fluctuations of exchange and the charging of depreciation, to
treat this class of expenditure in the manner set out above ; as
being a simple, and, at the same time, an accurate method of
dealing with capital expenditure on branch houses.
In our company's transactions at June 80, the rate of
exchange was 25 francs 20 centimes to each pound sterling.
On December 81 the rate was 2512 francs, whilst for the six
months the average had been 25-15 francs. During the half
 BRANCH ACCOUNTS 173
year goods had been sent out from the head office amounting to
1293 Is. 9d., and remittances had been received from the branch
on account of the same to the extent of 800. These remittances
as and -when received are credited to a special account, which
sets out the value of the remittance both in francs and pounds,
and is transferred to the Branch Account only at the half year end.
There are still two classes of items not yet dealt with at the
branch, one of which is the floating assets, and the other the
profit and loss items for the period. The first of these is
converted into sterling at the rate ruling on the day on which
the Balance Sheet is made up, since if the branch were to be
closed the floating assets must be turned into cash, and the
local liabilities (that is those payable in francs) deducted and
the balance in hand remitted, and such remittance would, of
course, be at the rate ruling on that day. The profit and loss
items are turned into currency at the average rate ruling for the
period, since they were transactions covering the entire period.
On December 31 the French books were therefore duly
closed and a Profit and Loss Account taken out, which showed a
profit of 6044 francs, which converted into sterling at the average
rate of exchange amounted to 240 6s. M.
The French trial balance and a copy of their Profit and Loss
Account were then sent across to England, and were there con
verted into sterling on the lines which have been already laid
down. The trial balance appeared as follows :

PARIS TRIAL BALANCE

December 31

Dr. Cr. Rate of Conversion. Dr. Cr.

Fr. Fr. Fr. t i. d. . a.

Sundry debtors 26415 2512 (Dec. 31) . 1051 11 0
Stock . . . 31840 2512 (Dec. 31) . 1267 10 4
Remittance Ac
count . 20121 Actual realization 800 0 0
Profit and Loss
Account . 6044 25-15 (average) . 240 6 3
Creditors . . 18332 2512 (Dec. 31) . 729 15 6
Head office . . 55084 Actual . . 2190 4 6
Cash in hand . 1084 2512 (Dec. 31) . 43 3 0
Fr.79460 Fr.79460 3162 4 4 3160 6 3
Difference in sterling trial balance due to the conversion of the ourrenoy
trial balance at varying rates (excess debit) 1 18. id.
 174 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

PARIS BRAXCH,
Dr.

g. d.
To balance at dato 1197 2 9
i, goods sent to Paris daring half-year . . 1293 1 9
Profit and Losb Account, being profit at
branch subject to depreciation of fixtures 240 6 3
profit on exchange 1 18 1
2732 8 10
balance 1632 8 10

FINAL TRIAL BALANCE,

Dr.

Head office. Paris. Z

. d. . d. . d.
Debtors 4,321 0 0 1051 11 0 1629 0 0
Stock . 3,142 0 0 1267 10 4 2914 0 0
Branch Z . 4,840 0 0
Paris . 1,632 8 10
Furniture 1,216 0 0 451 5 0
Bank . 310 0 0 43 3 0 496 0 0
Paris furniture 285 0 0

15,746 8 10 2362 4 4 5490 5 0

BALANCE SHEET,

Capital
Creditors ....
Profit and Loss Account

 BRANCH ACCOUNTS 175

ACCOUNT
Cr.

s. d.
July 1 By Furniture Account written out of French
300 0 0
Dec. 31 800 0 0
1632 8 10

2732 8 10

December 31
Cr.
Head office. Faris. z
1. d. t t. d. . d.
Creditors .... 3,640 0 0 729 15 6 650 5 0
Head office .... 1632 8 10 4840 0 0
Bad debts reserve . . 210 0 0
10,000 0 0
Paris Profit and Loss
Account .... 225 6 3
Z Profit and Loss A/o . 672 0 0
General Profit and
Loss Account. . . 999 2 7
15,746 8 10 2362 4 4 5490 5

December 31
t. d.
1,952 5 0
*. d. 7,323 10 4
11 0
Less reserve . 210 0 0
6,791 11 0
849 3 0
16,916 9 4
i76 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
This amount is credited to the "Profit and Loss on Ex
change " at the time the French figures are incorporated with
the English, and so the balance of the latter is preserved.
The head office then entered the Profit and Loss Account
into their books, crediting the General Account, and debiting
the Paris branch with the profit. The accounts were then closed
in the usual way and amalgamated with the branch Balance
Sheets. It must, of course, be remembered that the Paris profit
is subject to depreciation of the fixed assets, which are now kept
in the head office books only, and that the Paris bookkeeper
must transfer the balance of his Profit and Loss and Re
mittance Accounts to the Head Office Account.
The head office entries for Paris, and the final entries are
shown on pp. 174, 175.
Although for simplicity no interest on capital is shown in
the above accounts, it must be remembered that the same
principle applies here as was described in the treatment of
departmental accounts and the interest charged on capital
invested in each, and that the profit as shown in the branch
books should be debited with the depreciation of the fixed
assets, which appear in the head office accounts only, and also
for the interest on the money which is sunk in the foreign
branch, whether in the form of fixed or floating assets.
The above example shows the working of a foreign branch
having full control to buy and sell ; but, of course, many cases
arise where accounts of such a nature are unnecessary. For
instance, the case of a mining company receiving its expenses
in full from England, and sending home direct the ore raised.
In a case of this sort, all that is necessary is to forward home
an Analyzed Cash Account showing the expenses and such
statistical returns as may be required by the authorities. In
such a case the question of foreign exchange will scarcely enter
into the matter, the ore will be sold and treated in English
currency entirely, and the payments made in the foreign country
will, of course, be converted into sterling at a rate to cover the
remittances from England on the general lines laid down earlier
in the chapter.
 BRANCH ACCOUNTS 177

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

103. Show how you would combine the Balance Sheets and interchanging
accounts of a concern having separate trading centres in London, Liverpool,
and Manchester.
104. Explain in detail how you would deal in an English merchant's books
with fluctuations in exchange resulting from transactions with his branch
establishment in Bombay.
105. The following is the trial balance of the Calcutta branch of a London
house on December 31, 1905 :
Dr. Cr.
Its. Ra.
Stock on hand, December 31, 1904 . . 5,000
Purchases 30,000
Sales 45,000
Sundry debtors 10,000
Sundry creditors 7,000
Bills receivable 3,000
Bills payable 2,000
Wages and salaries 2,000
Rent, rates, and insurance 1,500
General expenses 600
Fixtures and furniture 2,000
Cash at bank 13,000
Cash in hand 400
London office 13,500

67,500 67,500
Rate of exchange, December 31, 1905, 16.
Average rate for 1905, 15.
Rate December 31, 1904, 14.
Calcutta Branch Account in London books, 896 10s. 6d.
Convert the above figures into sterling for inclusion in head office books,
and state the principles which guide you in doing so.
106. In the case of an English registered company, having works situated in
a foreign country, where the rate of exchange is subject to violent fluctuation,
what is the correct rate to adopt in the case of :
(a) Fixed assets at the works.
(6) Any additions thereto during the year.
(c) Revenue items.
In the audit of the accounts of such a company where a large figure appeared
therein in respect of " difference in exchange," what steps would you take (if
any) in regard to the verification thereof?
107. A London company, owning a mine in India, receives monthly cash
statements, in Indian currency, from its local manager. How would you pass
these returns into the company's books, and effect the necessary conversion into
sterling ? Illustrate your answer by means of rulings of the book or books you
would suggest, and enter therein six imaginary transactions.
108. Messrs. Knox and Hammer, of Manchester, opened a branch house in
N
 178 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Barcelona, to which place Mr. Hammer proceeded as managing partner, with a
salary of 250 per annum, and two-thirds of the net profit of the Barcelona
trading, and one-third of the Manchester profit. Manchester supplied Barcelona
with cash 1000, which was repaid during the twelve months' trading ending
December 31, 1900. Manchester also kept the Barcelona house supplied with
goods. At this date, the affairs of the Barcelona business stood as follows :
Sundry creditors, 530; stock-in-trade, 900; book debts, 1943; balance in
bank, 380; bills payable, 183; premises, fixtures, etc., 980; profit, 600
(after charging Mr. Hammer's salary). Make up the Barcelona Balance Sheet at
this date, including the liability to Manchester on Goods Account.
 CHAPTER XII

THE ACCOUNTS OF INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIETIES

Receipts and Payments AccountsIncome and Expenditure AccountsBalance
SheetsFees and Subscription RegistersTramways' Revenue Account
with Percentages of Charges.
In the presentation of the Accounts of Institutions and Societies,
we find considerable variety of form, and often uncertainty as
to the right method of treatment. One placed before us is as
follows :
Income and Expenditube Account
Dr. September 1, 1904, to August 31, 1905 Cr.
1904. t -. d. 1905. ,. d.
Sept. 1. To balance in Aug. 31. By advertising . 14 7 6
hand ... 22 10 0 rent, rates,
1905. etc.. . . 50 2 0
Aug. 31 To fees, 1st term 325 0 0 cleaning. . 33 0 9
2nd 228 10 0 salaries . . 623 12 10
3rd 295 7 6 stationery . 65 10 0
subscriptions 27 7 6 ,, school exes. 31 2 6
stationery . 90 3 6
commission . 12 0 817 16 1
balance . . 171 14 5
989 10 0 989 10 6
The impression meant to be conveyed by the above state
ment is, that as at the commencement there was only a balance
of cash of 22 10s. 0d., and at the end a bank balance of
171 14s. 5d., the increase of 149 4s. 5d. was the profit for
the year. This difference we find is due to the fact that the
first term's fees include the arrears from July, 1904, and the
third term's fees include some paid in advance.
The statement is merely a Receipts and Payments Account,
i.e. a summarized statement of the year's cash tranactions, com
mencing with the balance in hand from the previous period,
and showing the cash in hand at the end.
On making inquiries, we find that included in the amounts
are receipts and payments which have reference to the previous
179
i8o ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
and next year's operations, and that several liabilities belonging
to the current twelve months are not included, as Rent, and
Booksellers' Accounts. The account, therefore, is not an Income
and Expenditure Account, but one of receipts and payments,
and should be headed so. The confusion has arisen owing to
the idea with some officials that cash received is income, and
cash paid expenditure. What those concerned wish to know is
whether the year's operations have resulted in a gain or a loss.
This it is the object of the Income and Expenditure Account to
show, and therefore that is the form of account we would present
(see opposite page).
This account, which also furnishes the figures of the pre
ceding year for the purposes of comparison, includes all income
belonging to the period under review, whether received or not,
and also includes expenditure or charges belonging to the period,
whether paid or not ; the balance representing the profit or loss
on the year's operations.
It will be observed that it corresponds in form to the Profit
and Loss Account of a trader, and to the Revenue Account of a
non-trading concern ; charges against profit being entered on the
debit side, and profits on the credit side ; whereas in Receipts
and Payments Account the items are placed as in a Cash Book,
receipts on the debit, and payments on the credit sides. A
columnar Cash Book will be used, providing separate columns
for the separate heads of income and expenditure, and at the
end of the period adjustments will be made by the inclusion of
outstanding accounts and liabilities, such adjustments being
transferred as balances to the next period (see p. 182).
Subsidiary to the Cash Book, the Fees Book would be kept,
showing the accounts due for each term and payment of same.
FEES REGISTER
December, 1906
First Tebm
Name. Fcea. Extras. Stationery. Total. Date received. No. ofreceipt.

Same for second and third terms.

ACCOUNTS OF INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIETIES 1S1
O OS O OS -*< CO CS t- CO #oo | O 00
1 V O 00 o 00 r-
CO 00 t-
i-t i1 HO OS CN t~ rH o
t-
O CO 00 CM
00 00
CO cs
00 S^*1
:-
CM CO O
m ,I 0 ss cs

i
o O 00 00 CO CO CO
CO O 00 o 00 SO H *o o
t1 t> t~ 00 1I
1-1204 to
- cn co 0 CO wM ?1 o :~ c 1 O o rH in t- iO 1-HO O .-< r-t CM <-<
CO
AoiH -iin ICS CO0 (N 00 O 00 CO
CM t~ CO in OCM CM N
* CO
i-i CM CM -7 1
W CM
0 CM CM -M CM 00
cn 00 CO
<1 CI w

3
.2* ^ .2* 0 3c
i
s 3 "5 >.
s Ou a
ill! LoS* a 2
P=<cc 3 A Pi
on
COOOOOCMOOCOIO 1-H-
1 rH
* 1< i-< <1 << <1
eJ O-HCOt-C0C0*OCS"0 CO
IH CM r- CO gOSH CM eg
CI
^toHioooia | | *
1-1204. .ss^sasss i i
f<
C,)r.
^Sco^pSS | |
 182 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Societies deriving most of their income from subscriptions
would keep a Subscription Register, arranged alphabetically for
reference, and for checking the published list. As the subscribers
generally continue their subscriptions for a number of years,
the register is ruled to give the particulars for, say, five years.

SUBSCRIPTION BEGISTEB
Warehousemen and Clerks' Society

1908. 1907. 1908. 1909. 1910.

Date Amt. Date Amt. Date Amt. Date Amt. Date

Name and Address. Amt. received. received. received. received. received.

COLUMNAR CASH BOOK FOR SOCIETY

Cr.
Voucher number. Rent,
Date. Name. I Adver Oeneral Printing,
rates, Salaries. expenses. station
tising. etc. ery, etc.

July 1 By sundry
to payments
June 80 (detailed).
Add:
Outstanding
charges,
June 30,1 907
(detailed).
Deduct :
Outstanding
charges,
July 1,1906.
Deduct pay
ments in
advance.
Net expendi
ture for tho
year.
ACCOUNTS OF INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIETIES 183
Another form of presenting the accounts of the various
voluntary societies, in one of which many of our readers may
take an active part, it may be as treasurer or secretary, is
shown by the financial statement of a dramatic society given
on pp. 184, 185. Here we have a good arrangement of the
receipts and payments with the cash balances adjusted at the
end. The short Revenue Account, in which the outstanding
accounts and the net surplus of the season are shown, com
pletes the accounts, which admirably illustrate the difference
in form and in the information given by a Receipts and Pay
ments Account, and a Revenue Account.
An excellent example of the accounts of a society is furnished
by those of the Council of the Institute of Chartered Accountants,
of which the account given on p. 186 is an abridged copy.
The Revenue Account, abridged, of the Tramways Depart
ment of the West Ham Corporation (see p. 187) supplies the
committee with the useful information of an analysis of
cost and of income, and is an admirable example of such
accounts.
In regard to the annual accounts of hospitals, the form
given on p. 188 is an outline of the one prescribed for hospitals
participating in the Hospital Saturday and Sunday Funds, from
which it will be noticed that income and expenditure items are
entered on the same sides as receipts and payments.
Societies and institutions derive much of their income from
trust moneys and other funds, upon which the extent of their
operations are largely dependent. It is therefore essential that
a balance sheet should be presented to the members and sub
scribers to show the various investments and assets and the net
accumulation of funds, to which would be transferred the balance
of Income and Expenditure Account of the year.
As examples we give (on p. 189) the Balance Sheet of the
Society of Accountants and Auditors (Incorporated), and (on
pp. 190, 191) the 1905 accounts of the Chartered Institute of
Secretaries.
1 84 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
THE ORPHEUS AMATEUR
Dr. Accounts for
Receipts.
Subscriptions
President and Vice-Presidents. 15
Members 20
15
Performances
Sale of tickets" H.M.S. Pinafore'
. d.
18 15 0
30 0 0
2.", 0 (1
12 10 0
86
y"-
44 at 16 10 0
86 at
672 197 21 10 0
at 21 12 6
315 at 17 5 0
79 17 6
Sale of refreshments . 18 10 0
98
184 12
Sundries
Sale of costamcs
music 15
refreshments (unsold at perform
ances)
programmes
Members' fines
27 is
Total receipts on account of season 1903-4 . 248
Balancecash in hand, season 1902-3 15
263

REVENUE
Expenditure. t < d. t . d.
To 212 2 2
Sundry creditors
Blue Danube String Baud .... 15 15 0
Outstanding accounts for refreshments, etc. 19 10 0
35 5 0
3 3 10
1 i. d.
Cash in hand . 36 12 10
Debtors . . . 1 16 0
38 8 10
Less creditors . 35 5 0
3 3 10 250 11 0
Audited and found correct,
I. TlCKEM.
ACCOUNTS OF INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIETIES 185
DRAMATIC SOCIETY
Season 1903-1904 Cr.
Payments. . d. s. d.
Donation* 1 *
" Orpbous " cot at Hospital 50 0 0
Lifeboat Fund 15 15 0
65 15 0
Performance*
Hire of scenery 20 0 0
x . d.
Hire of costumes .... 5 5 0
Purchase of costumes . 25 10 0
30 15 0
Purchase of music ... 17 10 0
Hire of music 4 0 0
21 10 0
Hire of rooms for rehearsals .... 3 3 0
Professionals' fees 15 15 0
Train and cab fares 20 0 0
Hire of Publio Hall 10 10 0
121 13 0
Sundries
Carriage 8 14 7
Advertising and printing 13 0 11
Postage and stationery 1 9 4
Disbursements 1 10 3
24 14 2

Total payments on account of season 1903-4 212 2 2

Payment of outstanding accounts, season
1902-3 14 10 6
Balancecash in hand, season 1903-4 . . 36 12 10
263 5 (J

ACCOUNT
Income. t. d. s. d.
By Receipts 248 5 6
Sundry Debtors
Fee for sub-letting room 1 1 0
Members' fines . 15 0
1 16 o
Balance 1902-3Cash in hand . . . 15 0 0
Less sundry creditors . 14 10 6
9 6

250 11 0
 00 ON as
>o oo G T as O > o a> 7 pO
kid.

Cr.

1*11
d*1.

isinking
fund
ntvonesrtemsnt
iplaced
ntonsumserest
deposit
IAHNCASETOIUETNETDS
CTHE
OF By
scueetc.brstcirfpitciaotnes0
fees, By
fees
of
cxretimfpitcaitoens
efor
gPratuineas
0 elimi.nary
Fguineas
00
atel ow.s. Fgat
0
euineas
l ow.s. iBy
nvteonstrmesn.ts.
Income. g1uinea. . A0
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ociate.s. g1uinea. . Fgat
0
euineas
l ow.s. g1
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ociat.es.
EXePErNODIUTNURTE
AND
AINCOME fines
rBy
eadonmis i.on.
eBy
fees
xamination
1J,..., i036.. ofroms
hire
By
entrance
fees I0
ntermedi.ate final
Special
0..
ertificate 3n.,,. 0.,,r>.
Cfee* Subscriptions
Yeab
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D81,
07
ethecnemdbedr A0
scuciat.es.
F0
el oc.u. Final
0

.|d.
d.*t.

Sof
land
aclerks,
silebacraeirtasrny, share
of
by
ithe
cnhecaxurpternesd s Eeifor
of the
xnpcoenvdsemirture
athe
SLondon
to
Society
ltof
uodweantcse'
To
tand
hall
oto
sinking
fund
rfanisfcer.s The aspltotroucwdviaentcei.s'al
copies
Aof
dcisotruinbtuainotn
for
bcfund
atolcruamnuilcaetde
Hlfuel,
oetc
iusgehkt'ping, Psand
rtuaintdirtoin.esr.gy0,
Expenditure.
bjoint
codmietse' ended
D'7.31,
ecyearembe.r
of
maenxapgenmenst
To To
of
exameixnapteinoses
Pand
srtiantitoinergy FfulrntitiurnegB
and
To
rent,
rates,
taxes,
etc.
Adetc
vertising, and
Bates
taxes Examiners'
fees libraries
branch
To
Ground
rent To
depreciation Advertising
pensions Insurance
Library Prizes
Dr.
>noO G Hw O CD T ii HG T O > 5S a oo MH W cn

0 1
13
10300
Or.
000 007 1,003 01
36

Average 0-060 07 0.00 sundry

and
Traefveniuce owledgment for
A0-00
unit,
at
cknper epaid
dby
lepcatr imceintyfor
fof
private
terusedaemrwsay
70permile.
DEelpacrt imceinty
aSundry
dvrervteniuse, cLines
by
ounoil
worked
not
cworked
Lines
by
ouncil Cars
Horse
Cabs
Electric
Income Traefve.nluo.e mileage
route

ing,
etc consumers
0Earch
31,
Yeaii
ARcethefoenvodeundute

HAM
WEST
OF
BCOUNTY
OROUGH

d. 0 0 0 0 00 6
$. 0 0 0 1p 0 30 0
31,003 1000 006 600DE3637 10,0 0
60 6E

0001 1,01666 1,060 1063

00 0030 00 300 1EDE
0,600 03

Average
700r
mile. 0- 0-01 0-03
000 00 630
3- 000 0-000 0-00 0-00 0-006 00
0- 060
1- 0-
06 610
1- 0-300 000
0H00 0O81
csOther
uni
haencxdkpiengse0,s in
fire
sOther
water,
taetxipoen rsye,s and
Gaeirntmearnanelcn,ttools,
pmrepairs ecarts,
lqeucwa7
itrpimceanlt,
BNet
cto
Aaclraoniuce.ndt
Revenue
cand
of
Wages
omnodtuocrtomresn staff
and
oSfaliacr.eirs
general
of etc.
gpuoasruatn.atgeces,
etof
other
Wages
rmapfloi.yc's for
the
Pcuryear
of crhea.nste working
of
Total
ameoxupnetnse
adrjyear
pAddeuvst.imo.eunts shed
of
Pcostrcaropor.t.ion
Electric
Expenditure Cabs
oiling
and
Elcarseaning
lietc
forms0
cences0
bTueimlpdoirnargys
Superintendence Genxepreanlses and
Rates
taxes Compensations
Treaxfpelnsoes betc
uildings, Powerexpenses

Dr. Rents
 oo CO >ono c,T , 55 O
> d a>,
Expenditure
foryear
e1n2d0i6n.g

Expenditure
foryear
ending
1209.

Expenditure
foryear
ending
1204.
ICOME
AND
ETHE
FOR
'C0BER
ENDING
YEAR
X310
-06
PENDITURE
d.f.
NHousrpietsa.l. (Outpatients)
AnalyBls.
d.t. patients)
(In

Pevtiasiolnesd)] ii.
(di. Surgery
dispensary iii. ex[Total
operndintaurye] extraordinary
Total
D(odmetsatilced) charges (detailed) vi. Misceexl aneous
vii. M(de
i.
anagement Building
ii.
improve
(Sadleatrie.lsed) (depteani.slesd)
iv.
stablishment expendi.ture
Expenditure. Cdmin stration
B. '.
xtraordinary
Maintenance
C. (detai.led)
tailed).. ii.
Finan.ce. i.. . ments..
Repairs
Rentv.

Receiptsfyearor
ending
1206.

Receiptsfyearor
e1n9d0i5.ng

Receiptsfyearor
e1n9d0*i.ng

Hospit.al
of
Name Sunday
Hiii.
ospital SHiv.
aotsuprdiatyal pperty titution Ppvii.
ivi.
nsursing atiyemnetsn'ts ioTotal
rndcionmaery
Blibscrip- Inv:v.ested Itaxnrecome
rOther
viii.
eceipts
Dividen.ds
Income. Donatio.ns
ii. turne.d xtraordinary
Ci.n ual tiona Boxes. Fond. ".
Fund. Rents. Legaci.es.
Ordinary
i..
ACCOUNTS OF INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIETIES
^ cn os \a * os U0

* O CO r-i
rH IT- r-
OS 00
r-1
202 22 22 00 0020
M 2

^ o as

-a 10
s

and
cstock0
in
ornpsoraltsi,on

plibrary
of
stock
and
ublica.tions

cash
By
of
Bank
atngland..
(idnevtsamiolntead)

J
S

^ t-
- r-< (N
. 00 CO
rH 00
r
u cm co * 9
CO
co ct co os t~
3 S r-
<!
190 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

THE CHARTERED
IXCOME AND
From September 1, 1904,
Dr.
Expenditure. 1. d. t i. d.
To General Expenses
Rent, etc 819 1 4
Offloe charges 125 10 2
Salaries 789 0 0
Printing and stationery . 148 2 0
Travelling expenses .... 19 18 4
11 10
expenses of examinations . 98 10 11
journal expenses 454 0 10
year book 254 16 4
lecture expenses, eto 181 19 9
maintenance of library . . . 16 16 0
legal expenses 9 0 0
,. depreciation on furniture and books 50 10 6
branches 2 5 0
2969 11 2
being excess of income over ex
penditure, carried to balance sheet 794 9 8
3761 0 5

Balance
At Aiupitt
Dr.
To Capital Account 1.
Entrance fees 2022 6
Subscriptions compounded . . . 276 B
2298 9
prize fund 77 10
library fund 17
sundry creditors 2
2631 18 11
Income and Expenditure Account
Balance from last account . 4703 11
Balance, as abovo 794 3
5497 13

8129 12

We have examined the above Accounts with the books and vouchers of the
confirmed by their certificate, and we have verified the investments.
ACCOUNTS OF INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIETIES 191

INSTITUTE OF SECRETARIES
Expenditure Account
to August 31, 1905
Cr.
Income. t I . d.
By subscriptions received 3326 2 9
interest on investments 154 12 11
examination fees I 283 j 4 9

3764

Sheet
31, 1905
Cr.
By Investments (at cost) . d. 1
783 L. & N. W. Ely. 3% Perpetual Deb.
Stock 863 14 8
615 L. & S. W. Rly. 3% Consolidated
Deb. Stock 718 15 11
400 National War Loan, 2j% . . . 392 1 0
500 New Consolidated Stock, 2J% . . 468 9 10
1000 Local Loans, 3% 1002 11 0
2124 15. 8d. 3% London County Coun.
Stock 2000 0 0
1075 4. 3d. 2J% Guaranteed Irish Land
Stock 1000 0 0
6445
furniture, etc. (IoBs depreciation) . . 375
library books, etc. Oess depreciation) . . 105
sundry debtors and debit balances . 123
cash
At Lloyds Bank 1075 6 5
In hand 4 4 2
1079
8129
D. Savage, Treasurer.
Institute, and we certify them to be correct. The cash balance at the bankers is
Blank & Co., Honorary Auditors.
 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

109. Distinguish between a Receipts and Payments Account, and an Income
and Expenditure Account.
110. Give an example of an Income and Expenditure Account.
111. Name the books you would recommend for the accounts of a society.
112. Outline a form of Annual Accounts for a small hospital.
113. Into what accounts of a charitable institution would you bring legacies,
donations, annual subscriptions, and life subscriptions ?
114. Frequently so-called Balance Sheets are exhibited, particularly by
charitable societies, whereas really they are only Cash Accounts. What further
is necessary to make them complete Balance Sheets, showing the true financial
position ?
115. The following is an abbreviated statement, presented to subscribers and
friends by the management of an important public charitable institution, and
bearing an auditor's certificate.

Financial Statement
January 1 to December 31, 189

To banker's balance 370
receipts, donations, etc 4,629
"M" building fund 793
470 Consols sold 460
To trust funds-
Receipts 8,828
Dividends 2,559
2,449 Consols sold 2,418
To dividends on Consols and Turkish 4 per cents. 741
By grants 4,740
By salaries and general charges 1,677
459 Consols bought 450
By trust funds
Grants 2,715
11,323 Consols bought 11,109
By banker's balance 107

20,798 20,798
There is no other account published, but at the foot of the statement, and
independent thereof, and without the signature of the auditor, there is a note
stating that there are investments amounting respectively to 100,588 10s. Id.,
and 20,254 6s. 2d., and that there are unpaid grants amounting to 12,595.
Give your opinion as to this form of account, and state briefly in what way
you would have presented the accounts.
 CHAPTER XIII

MA NUFA CTURING

Classes of AccountsWagesStoresTrading or Working Account Depre

ciation : Method of Treatment in the AccountsProfit and Loss Account
and Costing.

In addition to ordinary trading results, manufacturing com

panies want to know the result of their labour in the actual
processes which they work, and their accounts are accordingly
devised for this purpose.
For bookkeeping purposes they may be broadly divided into
three classes businesses manufacturing one special class of
goods of such a nature that the cost of each article cannot be
ascertained ; businesses making several classes of goods, where
each class or section is worked on the lines of a separate
department; and, thirdly, concerns where the cost of each
article made or job completed is ascertained separately. The
first of these classes may be said to include most concerns
(especially as the second is only an extension of it), and it is to
this section that it is proposed to devote this chapter.
The third class alluded to comprises the accounts of such
trades as builders, engineers, etc., where, as a rule, the contracts
are of considerable size, and frequently goods are purchased
exclusively for one particular contract.
The difference between these companies and trading con
cerns consists, of course, in the fact that the latter buy goods,
which they receive into their warehouses and subsequently sell
again in the same condition, whilst the former buy what is
usually called raw material, which, after passing through cer
tain processes, is sold in an entirely different form. The
chances of waste and peculation, therefore, are considerably
increased, and to guard against this it is very desirable that as
'93 o
 194 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
full a check as possible shall exist on the goods used during the
various stages of manufacture.
Another point of difference is the large amount, when com
pared with the turnover, which has to be paid out as wages.
This is paid to many men from whom it is unusual to get a
receipt or acknowledgment, and it is therefore necessary to have
a thoroughly good system to deal with the matter, especially as
the payment is, of course, always made in cash.
Wages
The two principal bases on which wages may be paid are
time work and piece work. With regard to the former, most of
the large concerns have some mechanical process to record the
arrival and departure of the men. This will probably take the
form of a registering clock for arrival and departure, though
other systems, such as metal checks, etc., are also in vogue.
The times are then taken for each man, and the number of
hours he has worked are duly entered in the Wage Book, which
also contains the rate per hour, or more usually the rate per
standard week of so many hours, which varies according to the
trade and the part of the country in which the works are situated.
These entries are then carefully checked by another clerk to
prevent, as far as possible, collusion, and the calculation of the
wages due is then made, extended, and finally checked by
another clerk, the total amount is entered in the book, and
signed by all who have calculated or checked any portion of
the work. A cheque is then drawn for the exact total, and
the wages of each employe put into a numbered box or an
envelope, ready for payment when the time comes. As all these
processes take time, it is usual for wages to be made up, say, to
the Wednesday night prior to payment on Saturday, so that the
company has always two days' wages in hand.
Where overtime is paid for at an extra rate, such as time
and a quarter, time and a half, etc., it is usually entered in a
coloured ink, and a special column provides for the allowances
made at the end. To avoid writing the names every week, a
Wages Book is frequently ruled to deal with several weeks on
one opening, or, if this is impracticable, many pages are cut
short on the extreme edge to allow the names which appear on
the first page to do duty for several weeks.
 MANUFACTURING 195

FORM OF OVERTIME PASS Clock No.

Name
Sec. Dept.
Date. Entered factory. Commenced work. Stopped work. Left factory.

This form of pass to be issued by foremen to employees working overtime,

to be lifted by the watchman when employees leave the factory, forwarded to
the dept. for foreman's O.K., and to fill in portion of pass marked.* To bo
returned to the Cost Dept. by 8.30 the same morning.
* The above employeo worked Issued by
hrs. overtime, as stated -Foreman.
above, on t work. Lifted by
Foreman. -Watchman.
f Stale whether day, piece, or premium work ;
also if any exceptions are to be made to the
regular, li, 1), and double time allowance.
The following may serve as a simple form of Wages Book
where the working is done entirely on the time system :
Week ending

Ho. Name. Thur. Fri. Sat. Mon. Tuea. Wed. Overtime . , Remarks.
allowed. Total. Rate. Amount. Subs eU.
. d.
1. Jones, John 10 10 4 10 10 10 54 40t. 2 0 0
2. Smith, Wm. 2 2 2 2
10 10 4 10 10 10 2* 64 36. 2 2 8
3. Robertson, Jas. 10 10 10 30 27s. 015 0
* Extra allowance for overtime at the rate of time and a quarter.
Where " subs " or payments made during the week under
special circumstances are allowed and are fairly frequent, it is
advisable to have a special column for them after the " amount "
column, and then two additional sets of columns, one for
" balance to pay " and the last one for remarks.
Piece work, if the work is remunerated on that basis, is
certified by the foreman, and checked, or, at any rate, tested in
total by other means, and the Wages Book is altered according
to the circumstances. It will be found in practice that some
workers are dealt with on a time basis even where the piece
work is in general use, and in any case the time of " coming
and going " is always recorded to see that the men are getting
the full work out of the machinery.
 196 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Stores
The next question which must be dealt with is that of stores
and the method of entering them in the books. Stores Journals,
inwards and outwards, and a Stores Ledger are generally used
to record these.
The Stores Inwards Journal will be ruled to show the date
received, description of stores received, from whom received,
quantity, price, and amount, together with reference folios to
the " Goods Received Book," if this is kept, and to the Stores
Ledger. The Stores Outward or Stores Issued Book varies
according to the business and the methods of management. In
some cases it simply states date, request number, to whom
issued, for what purpose, description, quantity, price, posting
folio, amount. The request number is kept for the purpose of
recording the consecutive number of the counterfoil slip from
the book given to each foreman. These slips serve the double
purpose of being at once the receipt for the storekeeper and are
also the vouchers against the foreman. For, if the system is
satisfactorily carried out, the stores used by the various foremen
will be extracted and compared with each other, and also with
what is considered the standard for the class of work such fore
man may be engaged upon. The book may have special columns
to deal with different departments or, as shown in the next
chapter, to deal with tbe different jobs on the works in special
businesses of the description dealt with in that chapter.
We next come to the Stores Ledger, which, as its name
implies, is simply a summary of the two previous books classi
fied under various suitable headings of materials and stores
used in the process of manufacture.

8TORE8 LEDGER
Nuturo of material
Size or other description-
Dr. Cr.
 MANUFACTURING 197
Every time the books are made up, and at such other inter
vals as may be prescribed by the management, stock is taken of
all these various classes of goods and they are duly recorded in
the Stores Ledger, the accounts are ruled off, and the balance
of stock on band is brought down for the purpose of reopening
the Stores Ledger accurately. Any difference between the
opening stock and purchases on the one hand and the deliveries
and closing stock on the other is entered in red ink, and such
differences are reported at each stocktaking to the manager,
and perhaps also to the directors, who, in case of a serious
discrepancy, will take such steps as they think necessary.
Another difference between manufacturing companies and
trading concerns is the method of stating their final accounts.
The latter, in the case of a private firm, will state their Profit
and Loss Account as a single account, or will divide it into two
parts, known respectively as the "Trading Account" and the
"Profit and Loss Account." The former consists simply of a
summary of the " Goods Account," and sets out the sales and
purchases, with the adjustment of stock, whilst the latter con
sists of all other expenses. In the case of firms manufac
turing the account is always divided into at least two parts, the
first of which, frequently termed " Working Account," deals
with the cost of manufacture, but contains more items than
appear in the Trading Account before referred to. What pre
cisely does appear in the Manufacturing Account varies with
different firms. Some give the total expenditure connected
with the work, including raw materials, wages, stores, fuel,
rent, rates and taxes of the works, salaries of works managers,
etc., on the ground that all expenses of manufacture must go
into this account, and this as a theory seems correct. Many,
however, hold that it is preferable as conveying more information
to the owner if the debits charged against this account consist
only of such items as directly vary with the quantity of work
turned out, that is to say, raw material, wages, stores, carriage
inwards, and in some cases fuel, leaving out those items which
are for a fixed amount whatever the production may be. Since
the division is a matter of opinion, for examination purposes it
is best to deal with the items in the way with which you are most
familiar, at the same time pointing out the reason and advantages
of the different methods if asked as to the division of the account .
198 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Depreciation
Another question which seriously enters into this class of
accounts is that of depreciation, and to deal with that it will be
well just to glance at the different assets one sees in a balance
sheet. They may be roughly divided into fixed, floating, and
wasting assets. Fixed assets are those by means of which the
business is carried on, and include land, buildings, plant,
machinery, etc. Floating assets are the actual loose assets by
which the business is continued, and which vary in their nature
and amount from day to day. This class includes cash, stock,
book debts, etc. " Wasting assets " is a term applied to certain
assets which from their nature become, as regards their present
purpose, absolutely valueless, by mere effluxion of time or ex
haustion. The principal assets of this nature are leases and
mines.
In order to ascertain exactly what profit we have made, it is
usual to value our floating assets on certain bases, whilst the
values of the fixed assets are still taken at the amount at which
they appeared in the last balance sheet, save for " depreciation,"
which is an amount charged against the profit of the company to
reduce the fixed assets to their realizable value, when, from various
causes, they cease to be of use to us in carrying on our business.
The rate of depreciation and method of dealing with it will
depend upon the estimated life of the asset, its value, if any,
when it has ceased to be of use to the manufacturers, the
amount and regularity of the repairs or renewals necessary
during its lifetime, and also the question of interest on the
capital expenditure.
There are several different processes by means of which the
asset may be reduced to the required figure. The first of these
is the writing of depreciation off the original figure, and may be
illustrated by the example of an asset costing 100, and expected
to last twenty-five years, with no residual value, in which case
4 per annum would be charged to Profit and Loss Account, and
credited to the asset. This method is used principally for assets
which do not require heavy repairs, nor extensive renewals,
alterations, or additions. It will be seen that a uniform amount
is charged each year against the profits, and all repairs will, of
course, also be debited as and when they occur to the same.
 MANUFACTURING 199
The second method is that of writing a fixed percentage off
the diminishing value each year, once more charging all repairs
and partial renewals against profits. Supposing, for instance,
our asset has cost 100 and is expected to last twenty-five
years, when its value for breaking up will be 7, it will be
necessary to write off 10 per cent0 per annum ; so that the first
year depreciation will be 10 on the cost of 100, leaving our
asset in the balance sheet at 90 ; the second year our depre
ciation will be 9, leaving an asset of 81, and so on. By this
method it will be seen that the earlier years bear a much higher
charge for depreciation than the later years; it is, therefore,
largely adopted where the asset is of such a nature that repairs
will be heavier as our asset grows older, and is the usual
system of dealing with machinery and other assets of that
nature, especially where there is at the end of the period an
appreciable residue in the shape of scrap metal, etc.
Another plan is to revalue the asset periodically, using one
of the above methods (usually the second) in the interval.
This is frequently done where the asset, though in its nature
a fixed asset, is of a fluctuating character, such as loose tools
or utensils, or where its life cannot be stated with any degree
of certainty, such as a horse. It is not suitable for other
classes of assets, since the charge to profit and loss frequently
varies, and it includes in the revaluation fluctuations of value
which are not desirable in a fixed asset. Suppose, for ex
ample, a machine cost you 50, and two years later, owing to
an increase of wages and materials used, the same machine
would cost 65, and yours, having been in use, was valued at
52, no one with sound financial views could possibly argue
that your machine had suffered no depreciation, and that you
had made 2 profit.
Depreciation may also be provided by a sinking fund. This
is frequently done in the case of leases, especially where it will
be necessary to buy a new lease, or pay a substantial premium
for the renewal of the old lease. On this system such a sum
is debited to Profit and Loss Account each year, and invested
outside the business to accumulate at compound interest, as will
provide sufficient to renew the lease or buy another without
disturbing the floating assets.
Certain assets, however, are not considered to be liable to
 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
depreciation either from their nature, such as land, or on account
of legal decisions, such as goodwill, leaseholds, and mines
(where the company is specially formed to work them), single
ships, etc.

Costing

To come now to the more practical details of the business

books and accounts, these, of course, will follow the ordinary
double entry routine, with the additional impersonal accounts
to record the special classes of assets and expenses. The dis
tinctive portion of the accounts to a manufacturer basing his
costs on a unit of manufacture will only commence after the
ordinary final accounts have been prepared.
In businesses where everything is worked on the question of
weights, such as the cotton trade, additional columns will be
provided in the Purchase Analysis Book and the Sales Day
Book to record the weights, and from these columns and the
various expenses as ascertained from the Profit and Loss
Account the figures in use in the cost accounts will be prepared.
It will thus be seen that cost accounts are an addition to
the ordinary double entry bookkeeping, and are more of the
nature of statistical returns.
The ordinary accounts are carried on in the usual way
each year until its close, and then full stock of all floating
assets must be carefully taken and priced according to the
standard rules ; that is, they must be priced at cost or market
price, whichever is lower at the time of stocktaking. The stock
must be carefully divided over the various headingsFinished
Goods and Goods in Process, Raw Materials, and the different
classes of stores in hand. Comparisons of the Stock and the
Stores Ledgers must be carefully made, and finally the various
stocks and stores must be credited to the accounts concerned,
and debited to Stock Account. Reserves must be carefully made
as in all other concerns, and after the depreciation and other
special questions have been settled, the Profit and Loss Account
and Balance Sheet may be prepared, and the various figures and
calculations added to show the details of cost.
 MANUFACTURING 20 1
We give below, from "Advanced Bookkeeping," a form
showing in outline a cost sheet, with comparative columns, of
a spinning department in a textile mill; also a statement
of production of yarns and cloth and stock at the end of the
period.

Analysis of cost for the week ending - Corresponding period

last year.
Wespunight
thiswek. Weight.
Expendi
ture. Cost. h Expendi Cost.
ture.
Expendi
ture. Cost.
&
t d. t. d. . .f.
Motive power . .
Materials for manu-
iacture ....
Machinery materials
Repairswear and
Sundries ....
Freight ....
Other wages . . .
Interest ....
Depreciation . . .
Kates and taxes . .
Discount ....
Commission and
brokerage . . .

Yarn epun. Cloth woven.

Connta of yarn. Weight. Value.

3=*

Yarn spun this week .

Previous to this week
Add bought yarn used
this week ....
Add bought yarn used
previously . . .
Less yarn sold this
week
Less yarn sold pre
viously . . . .
202 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

<
o O
Os OS
O 0 a 0
i'
00000000 OOOOOO 00 0
00000000 OOOOOO 00 0
33 ooooowcow 00 20 020 10010
OS 115 'J (N CM
ao 1^ 0 020
0 to
x.

a

O QOOOCCCOOfO-t* hh?JKhC
 MANUFACTURING 203

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

116. State briefly what you consider the principal points to be observed in
arranging a system of bookkeeping for a manufacturing concern.
117. What is a "Cost Account"? Give a specimen of a Cost Account
suitable for use in some manufacturing business with which you are acquainted,
giving both the ruling of such account, and also entering not less than six, and
not more than twelve, items of cost relating to that particular manufacture.
118. What books, in addition to the ordinary books of account, do you con
sider a manufacturer should keep in order to enable him to prepare a complete
system of Cost Accounts? What information do you consider that such a
system would provide ?
119. Define fully the meaning of the term depreciation, and explain by illus
tration its treatment in the books of a limited company carrying on business as
engineers and iron founders.
120. Sketch a system of maintaining a check on manufacturing wages.
121. How are stores entered and checked ?
122. What is meant by "Working Account?" State the charges usually
included in it.
123. Distinguish between fixed, floating, and wasting assets.
124. Describe various methods of dealing with depreciation in the accounts.
125. Outline a monthly statement of cost.
 CHAPTER XIV

MANUFACTURINGcontinued

Terminal Cost Accounts WagesMaterials StoresPlant IssuedIncorpo

ration of Cost with General Ledger SystemCosting outside the General
Accounts.

This chapter is intended to deal with that class of manu

facturing concerns which is referred to in the last chapter as
group three, and includes those businesses which are able to
ascertain the cost of each article produced in the work by
means of cost accounts usually opened for each job obtained.
It includes engineers, builders, contractors, etc., and the
accounts generally are popularly known as "Terminal Cost
Accounts."
The Cost Accounts under this system include practically the
whole of the revenue accounts, and may be a separate system
altogether, or may form an integral part of the ordinary double
entry system. If the former system be adopted, the costing
section should be put upon a double-entry system to provide
the test of accuracy which exists under that class of accounts ;
if the latter, it should be arranged so that all the items forming
the direct costs should be made a self-balancing section within
the general accounts.
The accuracy of the accounts is an assistance to those who
have to prepare future estimates, and since in businesses of this
description the more important work is only obtained after a
tender has been made by various competing firms, the impor
tance of this can scarcely be overestimated.
Wages.To deal with the variations of the detailed work
alluded to in the last chapter, the first point to consider is
wages. These may be divided, in the first instance, into wages
payable at the works and those payable outside. The latter de
pend very much on the class of business carried on. A builder,
204
 MANUFACTURING 205
for example, will pay the greater part of his wages away from
his office, and also the wages of men engaged on erecting the
machinery or structure in respect of which the contract is
made. This division of the wages does not call for any par
ticular attention, as special subsidiary wage-sheets are sent to
the place where the work is going on, and in many cases a
temporary office will be used. The clerk responsible will send
for the exact amount of wages, or, if he is further away, will
obtain a cheque for a round figure of sufficient size to cover
the wages and other out-of-pockets, and as soon as the exact
amount is ascertained, will send particulars of his payments,
which will be forthwith entered as being incurred on the par
ticular order.
The other wages are entered by the workmen on time-sheets,
showing the job and class of work, and also the amount of wages
earned on each item of work done on the various jobs. These
sheets are compared with the Wages Book, and are then ready
to be analyzed under the various jobs to be dealt with by our
costing system, in the manner to be described later. Any un
productive work is, of course, analyzed in a similar manner, so
that the total of the summary under the various job numbers
will agree with the total wages paid as per the Wages Book.
Materials.The raw materials, which were in the last chapter
treated throughout as " stores," may also be subdivided into
materials purchased for special jobs (which we shall call in
this chapter "direct materials"), and materials which are pur
chased for any order which may require them (here alluded to
as stores).
Direct materials will be entered in the Purchase Analysis
Book in a special column, which will have columns ruled to
show the job number, folio in Cost Ledger, and also, if so de
sired, columns for quantities. These are analyzed under various
jobs, or may be posted direct to the debit of the various contracts
in the Cost Ledger.
Stores.With regard to the stores the treatment is different.
In the last chapter it was recommended with a view of prevent
ing pilfering that a full system of Stores Accounts should be kept,
consisting of Journals for Stores Inwards and Outwards, and
also a Stores Returned Book, but such accounts were not abso
lutely necessary, however desirable. Under the present system,
2o6 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
however, Stores Accounts become a necessity, and the ruling of
the journals must be modified to show, not only the stores
issued, but also the work for which such stores are required. A
specimen ruling for these books is

STOKES ISSUED BOOK

Requisi Order Stores Cost

Date. tion Description. Quantity. Price. Amount. ledger ledger Remarks.
number. number. folio. folio.
i
t. d.

The ruling for the Stores Keturned Book, which is to record

stores which have been returned to stock after having been
requisitioned for various contracts, is similar to the above, but
the entries are, of course, reversed in the ledger. For the Stores
Inwards Book the same particulars will be recorded as were set
out in the last chapter, and the ruling of the Stores Ledger will
also be the same.
Expenses.The treatment of unproductive work and of the
establishment and office expenses still remains before we can
ascertain the total cost of any particular contract, and these
will be debited to the cost of a contract by charging a percentage
on the total wages of each job ; or, alternatively, a smaller per
centage on the labour and a percentage on either the materials
or the " works cost," which includes labour, materials, and the
first percentage.

Cost Accounts
We have set out above the details necessary to obtain the
information to furnish our accounts, and can now give a con
tinuous record of the bookkeeping required to set out the cost of
each contract. As previously stated, this can be taken as an
integral part of our double-entry system or treated as entirely
separate.
 MANUFACTURING 207
If we deal with the earlier method first, we shall make the
Cost or Contract Ledger the centre of a self-balancing system.
An account will be opened in the ledger for every piece of work
obtained.
In the General Ledger System, accounts will be opened for all
the usual nominal accounts and a Cost Ledger Adjustment
Account, and in this system the following will be a summary of
the method of treating the principal accounts where it differs
from the ordinary methods of bookkeeping.
Wages (which have been debited from the Cash Book as
usual) will be credited from the Wages Analysis Book with all
productive wages, and the Cost Ledger Account debited with the
same figure.
Direct materials will be treated in the same way from the
total of that column in the Purchase Analysis Book.
Stores will be similarly treated from an analysis of stores
issued, which agrees with the monthly totals of that book ; whilst
the stores returned are debited to the Cost Ledger Account and
credited to stores.
There will also be various expenses which are chargeable
directly against various jobs, such as travelling expenses, etc.,
which can be posted in the first instance to " expenses charge
able " and periodically analyzed, and this account will be
credited and the Cost Ledger Account debited with the total.
Particulars of the percentages charged to the various contracts
to cover indirect expenses can be debited also to the Cost Ledger
Account and credited to an "Indirect Expenses Account," and
the credit balance of this account should be sufficient to at
least equal the various debit balances remaining in the General
System.
In the Cost Ledger System the items will, of course, be
reversed : thus the General Ledger Adjustment Account will
be credited and the various contracts debited with the total
amount of wages chargeable, and so on, to show the total cost of
each job.
The Sales Book will follow the ordinary ruling, with weight
columns if usual in the particular trade, and two posting folios,
one for the ordinary Sales Ledger and one for the Cost Ledger,
the latter being credited with the amount.
The total of sales at the month end in the General System
208 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
will be credited to Sales Account, and the same amount subse
quently debited to sales and credited to the Cost Ledger Account,
the monthly total being also debited in the Cost Ledger to the
General Ledger Account, the credits having been previously
credited in detail from the Sales Day Book. The entries are, in
fact, the exact converse of direct materials.
Presuming for simplicity the unlikely case of all contracts
on hand being just completed at the year end, the Profit and
Loss Account can be prepared by extracting from the Cost
Ledger the various balances of the accounts for each contract.
If it is desired to raise a Profit and Loss Account in the usual
form, it can be obtained from the General Ledger by extracting
the balances of the various nominal accounts after excluding all
transfers to the Cost Ledger System.
The Cost Ledger will be finally closed by transferring the
balances to the General Ledger Account, whilst in the latter
system the Cost Ledger Account will be debited with the net
profits and Profit and Loss Account credited. The adjustment
of the indirect expensesthat is the difference between the
actual cost and the percentage charged against the contracts
will also appear.
The majority of firms, however, prefer to keep their Cost
System entirely separate, and this can easily be done by omitting
the various transfers in the General System as set out above
and providing a special Nominal Ledger for the Cost System,
debiting wages, stores, direct materials, etc., in that book instead
of the General Ledger Adjustment Account. In this case the
total of these accounts will be compared and agreed with the
corresponding figures in the General System, and at the year
end a separate Profit and Loss Account will be prepared from
the Cost Accounts alone, which should approximately agree with
the profit shown by the General System.
In some trades special books are used for outside work to deal
with " plant issued" and "plant returned," which are charged
to the contracts involving this class of work, the figures in each
case being based on a valuation made at the time, and therefore
charging each contract with its own depreciation on that section
of capital expenditure. This, however, does not call for further
explanation.
 MANUFACTURING . 209

Contracts in Progress
The question of contracts in progress now demands atten
tion, and may be divided into those which are so nearly com
pleted that a fair estimate may be made of what will be
necessary to complete the entire work, in which case it is
valned at its selling price less the amount reserved, and the
profit carried to the accounts as if it were completed.
Contracts which have only just been started are usually
taken into stock at the amount of cost, including, of course, the
usual percentages to cover the expenses.
If any contract is divisible into different sections which under
the agreement may be charged out separately, it is perfectly
safe to charge out any portion of the contract which is so
divisible as if it were a distinct contract. Whichever plan is
adopted, however, with the contract in progress is a practical
rather than an accountancy question, and the estimate of the
amount required to complete the contract, if the first method
should be so used, can only be very roughly checked by the office,
if, indeed, it can be checked at all. The office, however, should
go carefully over all charges incurred since the books have been
closed which should be debited to contracts in progress, or for
which no invoice may have been received, such as carriage, etc.,
and see that due provision is made for these items in the
estimate.

On Cost
Another point calling for fuller discussion is the question of
the percentage charged to cover indirect expenses. The principal
sub-headings of these expenses are rent, rates, taxes and insur
ance of works, motive power, repairs, upkeep and depreciation
of machinery and plant, works salaries, and other direct expenses
of the works, all of which may be classed as works expenses ;
and the office and financial expenses, which include stationery,
office salaries and expenses, directors' and general manager's
salaries, interest, discounts, bad debts, etc.
These charges, as previously explained, are provided for in the
Cost Account by a debit which may be based "on the number of
hours expended, the amount paid for labour, or the total cost of
p
210 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
the job, or a combination of all of these methods. In case it is
desired to use the first method, columns will have to be added
to the Analysis Book and Cost Ledger to show the time spent
on each job ; but most firms prefer to deal with all these
expenses by a charge on labour only, or alternatively by that and
a further percentage on the total cost. Possibly on account of
its simplicity, the method most usually adopted would appear to
be a charge on the cash paid for labour only. The rate to be
debited will be based on previous years' experience, as no general
rule can be laid down for any one firm, the charge varying in
every case for the different classes of business and the circum
stances of each manufacturer. The term of " on cost " is given
to cover this percentage.

Patterns

In addition to the other expenses which we have previously

dealt with, the patterns for the various machines or portions of
a machine must be debited against the job using them. If the
pattern is made specially for any job, it is usually debited to it,
unless there is every reasonable probability that it can be shortly
used again for a "repeat" or similar work. The method of
charging stock patterns varies considerably. In the first
instance, the total cost should be ascertained as if it were
an ordinary job, and the cost dealt with according to its
estimated life. This will depend, however, not on any length of
time, but on the frequency of its use. It is also complicated by
the fact that, owing to being seldom required, some of the
patterns may become obsolete before they are worn out. The
system adopted in some firms is to charge a fixed percentage
of the original cost of all general patterns against all orders
on which such patterns are used. This percentage will
be at such a rate that a considerable margin is left over to
provide for the patterns which cannot often be used. For
example, suppose a particular class of patterns will serve for
between fifteen and twenty times and cost 28. Very likely each
contract for which this pattern was used would be charged with
2 16s., or ten per cent. of the cost for use of the pattern, and
supposing this particular pattern were used seventeen times, this
would leave a margin, after writing off the original cost, of seven
 MANUFACTURING 211
times 2 16s. or 19 12s., a surplus which would cover the loss on
a pattern of similar cost which, owing to lack of orders, could
only be used three times. In order to do this without numerous
transfers, it is usual, after fixing the charge for each pattern, to
transfer the cost to a " Patterns Account " which covers all the
patterns, and against which the charge for every pattern used
will be credited.
It will also be seen that if the useful pattern of which we
have spoken in the last paragraph is still required, a second
can be made more cheaply than the first, since there will be no
designer's wages to charge in the second cost account for the
new pattern, as the old design is, of course, applicable, but the
charge of 2 16. will still be debited against contracts making
use of it.

Machines for Stock

The only remaining point which it is proposed to deal with
before we come to the final summaries is the question of
machines or parts of machines which are in regular use, and
which are manufactured for stock whenever there is a little time
to spare from the specific orders. Each job for stock will be
given a consecutive number as if it were an ordinary contract,
and a separate ledger account is opened for it in the Contract
Ledger ; but when it is completed, the total cost, including, of
course, the percentage for indirect expenses, which has been
added, the contract is credited and a Stock Account debited
with the total cost. When the opportunity arises to sell the
machine, the price will be credited to Stock Account through
the ordinary Sales Book, and the profit thus brought into
account. If, however, it is not a machine, but only a portion
which is to be used as part of another, the ordinary selling
price will be charged for it, and a special transfer made
from stock to the contract for which it is being used, as a
" direct material," such amount being entered in that column
in the contract account in red ink, so as not to interfere with
the balancing of direct materials in the Contract Ledger, with
the " Direct Material Account " in the General Ledger.
We have now explained the general principles of the cost
system, and have to show the reconciliation between the two
 >nnO Q > a 53
5?
Ourtehde3sr. d.>.

plantre-
Fo.
0In
turned
0treores tuorrned
dDate
elivered' red).

whom_
For
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LEDG31
COST Date.
required

iPslaunetd Ex0nses7hargeable. Id..

?inred).

Fo.
PNo.-
at ern

Fo.
Pof
acrtoincturlacrts Direct materials.

Fo.
job_
of
No. Nar ative.

Dr.
 MANUFACTURING 213
systems. The Cost Ledger will be ruled to show at a glance
the various classes of expenditure incurred on any particular
contractfor example, see p. 212.
From this ruling it will be seen that it is particularly easy
to make a full extract of the Cost Ledger, to show the actual
amount or value of all charges made against each contract, and
that is our course when we come to the end of our financial
period.
The form of such analysis will vary according to particular
views and requirements of each individual business. The
example on p. 214 is a specimen.
The method of using the analysis requires a little explana
tion. The amount of balance brought forward includes those
items which were valued in the last balance sheet at cost only,
not taking into account those contracts which were treated as
being completed, subject to a reserve. The next five columns
are simply extracted from the Ledger in the ordinary way ; the
indirect expenses column is, of course, the amount debited in
the Ledger by way of the percentages before referred to, and the
succeeding column is for contracts which are nearly completed
at the year end, where an amount is reserved and carried down
as a liability to finish the same. Our next column, " Total
cost," is simply an addition of the preceding figures. The next
is the total amount charged per the Sales Book, together with
the reserves brought from last year for the contracts nearly
completed at that date. The remaining columns are self-
explanatory.
The additions of the various columns dealing with materials
and expenses other than labour, should agree with the debit
balance of these accounts in the general system after the stock
on hand has been credited to the respective accounts. The
difference between the wages as shown on these sheets and
the debit to wages in the general system should agree with the
amount of unproductive wages in the summary of wages, and
will have to be written off as an indirect expense. From the
General Ledger System, the ordinary Profit and Loss Account
will be prepared after entering the reserves for uncompleted
contracts, etc., to correspond with the amounts already dealt
with in the Cost Ledger.
The profit or loss, as shown by the sheet extracted as above,
214 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

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as s
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ls .

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rilg

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 MANUFACTURING
should, subject to the adjustment of indirect expenses, agree
with the Profit and Loss Account as prepared from the General
Ledger.
If, during the year, capital extensions have been executed
by the concern's own workmen, a special account will be kept
of this, and the cost price will be debited to machinery or the
other accounts involved and the Cost Ledger Account closed.
The repairs executed will also be treated as a special outside
job and the total debited to repairs and treated as an ordinary
indirect expense, as mentioned above.
As candidates in the Accountants' examination are fre
quently required to draft a form of Cost Sheet, we append the
following outline form suitable for engineering works.

FORM OF COST SHEET

No. 99. Machine for
Date Nixon & Co.,Whitworth Street, Manchester.
Fitting
Turning
Planing
Shaping
Forging

Models
Castings
Wrought iron
Steel
Brass . . . .
Stores
Total primo cost . . . .
Fixed charges per cent0 on prime cost .

Profit
Day hook
216 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

126. Give an example of a Stores Issued Book.
127. Discuss the methods of dealing with establishment charges, and the
calculations for same.
128. Describe how the cost system may be incorporated in the General
Ledger Accounts.
129. Explain how contracts in progress should be treated in the accounts.
130. How are capital extensions and repairs executed in the works dealt
with?
131. Define "on cost," and state the principles on which you think it ought
to be apportioned.
132. The directors of the Old Time Spinning Company decide to entirely
replace their plant, which is now out of date. Having advertised for tenders for
the new machinery they require, they accept that sent in by Messrs. A. B. and
Co., amounting to 8850.
The old Machinery and Plant Account stood in the books of the company at
5400. There was also a depreciation fund in the books, the accumulated
credit balance of which amounted to 1050. Some of the materials composing
the old machinery were found to be in good condition, and Messrs. A. B. and Co-
agreed to take over shafting, etc., valued at 550, for use again ; whilst the
remainder was put up to auction and realized 1200 (net).
Make the entries necessary to record these transactions in the books of the
Old Time Spinning Company, and state how you would deal with the balance of
the old "Machinery and Plant Account."
133. In preparing the Profit and Loss Account of a manufacturing firm, what
different methods are there of providing for the waste of an asset owing (a) to
wear and tear, as in the case of machinery ; (6) effluxion of time, as in the case
of a building erected upon leasehold land ?
What methods do you favour for providing such waste, and why ? State
briefly what entries would be required to carry your suggestions into effect.
134. The Sherbourne Iron Furnace Co., Ltd., has a registered capital of
150,000, divided into 150,000 shares of 1 each ; 120,000 shares, upon which
10s. per share has been called up, have been issued and subscribed. Owing to
default by non-payment of calls, 100 shares, upon which 5 have been received,
have been forfeited in accordance with the articles of association.
On September 30, 1905, the stock in hand was taken, the value of which,
certified by the managing director, was as follows :
*. d.
Pig iron . . 16,045 0 0
Limestone . 78 0 0
Coal and coke 900 0 0
Iron ore, etc. 1,128 0 0
The Ledger balances on September 30, 1905, set out below, were extracted
from the company's books, after all the necessary trade reserves and deprecia
tions had been adjusted.
Prepare a " Furnaces " (or Working) Account, showing the cost of the pig
iron produced, a Trading Account and Profit and Loss Account for the year
 MANUFACTURING 217
ended September 30, 1905 ; and a Balance Sheet as on that date, after carrying
2000 to the Dividend Reserve Account :

Ledger Balances (September 30, 1905).

1. d.
Freehold Premises Account 23,400 0 0
Furnaces, Fixed Plant, and Utensils Account . . 24,920 0 0
Locomotives and Rolling Stock ,, . . 7,411 0 0
Reserve Account 2,000 0 0
Share Capital Account 59,950 0 0
Wages (Furnaces) Account 8,724 0 0
Bills Payable 120 0 0
Limestone Stock 122 0 0
Coal and Coke Stock Account 1,400 0 0
Iron, Ore, etc., , 1,006 0 0
Pig Iron 26,272 0 0
Coal and Coke Purchases Account 27,227 0 0
Limestone 3,320 0 0
Iron Ore, etc., 14,467 0 0
Sundry debtors 7,257 0 0
Profit and Loss Account (credit balance) . . . 7,822 0 0
Sales Account 86,873 0 0
Rates and Taxes Account 1,297 0 0
Repairs and Renewals of Furnaces, etc., Account . 2,500 0 0
Rolling Stock, etc., Ac
count 1,221 0 0
Office Salaries and Sundry Wages Account . . . 1,728 0 0
Travelling Expenses Account 237 0 0
Insurance (Fire and Employers' Liability) Account 385 0 0
Law Charges Account 233 0 0
Forfeited Shares Account 500
Sundry Creditors 5,604 0 0
Bad Debts Account (debit balance) 9 0 0
Dividend (paid March 31, 1905, on
account of the year ended September 30, 1904) 5,995 0 0
Bank Overdraft 1,981 0 0
Cash in hand 224 0 0
Carriage Account (inwards) 2,000 0 0
(outwards) 3,000 0 0
 CHAPTER XV

STATISTICAL RETURNS

Overdue Book DebtsCash SummariesLedger BalancesApproximate

Trading AccountsDiagrams and Curves in regard to Turnover and Ex
pensesDealings in Debenture StockPrices of Cotton and Bank Bate.

Accountancy has, within the last few years, included within its
scope the preparation of statistical returns, furnishing particulars
of the utmost service to proprietors and managers of all classes
of undertakings ; for instance, in regard to the comparative
statements of production, turn-over, expenses, and out-goings.
One reason for this is the growth of large businesses, either
by development or amalgamation, and the increasing keenness
of competition. It is an impossibility for directors of a big
concern to exercise a proper control over it without more frequent
statements of expenses than is furnished by periodical Profit
and Loss Accounts and Balance Sheets, which always involve a
certain amount of dislocation and inconvenience.
In the various chapters dealing with cost accounts certain
aspects of statistical returns are seen, more particularly in that
relating to colliery accounts, since the cost sheet in that class
of account is prepared periodically and frequently.
The nature and scope of these returns will naturally vary
with every individual case, since each will require different in
formation, which depends on the nature of the supervision and
the inside knowledge possessed by those to whom it is submitted,
and also on the materials from which we must form our figures.
For instance, the first section to deal with under this head
ing consists of book debts. With regard to the nature of the
information to be recorded in the report, it will be decided by
the internal system in the office itself. Let us suppose that
each month, when the statements are sent out, the names and
218
 STATISTICAL RETURNS 219
amounts are recorded in a " Statements Book," consisting
simply of a space for the ledger folio and name, and then
various money columns reserved for the month due, and as the
amount is paid, it is simply crossed out by a pen mark. If
this system is in vogue, it forms the material for our first book
intended for submission to the head of the office, whether he
be head bookkeeper, cashier, secretary, or accountant. It may
be, however, that no " Statement Book " exists, then the ledgers
may be self-balancing and checked monthly, in which case
overdue accounts are specially marked on the balances abstracted.
Finally, if neither of these systems exists, each ledger clerk
must submit a list of the overdue accounts in the ledger under
his control.
This list should be entered in a special " Overdue Accounts
Book," ruled to show all necessary particulars.

Folio. Name. Amount. Date Date Cash. Discount. Allowance. Kemarks.

due. paid.

18. 0d. I

The remarks column would contain any particulars necessary

to show why the account was not paid, or the method of finally
dealing with the transaction. It might contain notes to the
effect of "Dispute as to quality," "Items claimed to be re
turned and disputed," " Empties not returned," particulars of
securities held, if any, or in more unfortunate cases, " Receiving
Order made Oct. 15," "Deed of Assignment, Nov. 25,"u "Com
position of 10s. offered, Dec. 11."
These accounts would be carefully gone into, and probably
special letters or statements sent, by the secretary, and would
be submitted to the board for instructions as and when arranged.
They may decide to settle the dispute, or sue the debtor, or, in
one of the two latter cases quoted, decide to assent to the deed
of arrangement or otherwise. It is, of course, entirely a matter
of internal arrangement when, how, and for what purpose these
220 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
lists shall be given to the board. They may be submitted when,
say, two months overdue, to allow the secretary time to clear
them up, if possible, or authority may be given to the secretary
to assent to arrangements with insolvent debtors apart from
bankruptcy ; but periodically this book, or a summary from it,
should be submitted to the board or the proprietor, as the case
may be.
The next statement to be prepared for the board would be a
summary of cash receipts and payments for the month, which
would naturally appear in as simple a form as possible. To
this would be added a summary of the available balances and
funds expected to be received during the current month, and a
further statement of the liabilities to be met during the same
period, which might suitably appear in the following form :

Cash Summary fob Month ending May 31

To opening balance By creditors
sundry debtors expenses (detailed as required)
other receipts ,, other payments ....
balance
balance brought down ... creditors payable in June
bills receivable in hand . . current expenses ....
debts due during June . .

To this might be added the summary of the personal

accounts if the ledgers were self-balancing ; and in fact, even if
they were not, an approximate statement in a similar form is
useful for both debtors and creditors.

Sales Ledgers Accounts

f
May 1. To opening balance . By cash
31. sales discounts
other debits ... - returns and allowances
bad debts
other credits ....

In addition to these, if Stock and Stores Accounts are kept,

approximate monthly trading accounts can be submitted to the
board by use of the particulars obtaine l from the Stores Ledger.
 STATISTICAL RETURNS 221
ESTIMATED TRADING ACCOUNT FOR MAY
Sales
Loss purchases
Difference in stock (add incronsc, deduct decrease)
Estimated gross profit
Percentage
on turnover. Expenvt for month
Wages, per cash summary and adjustments .
General expenses per cash summary and
Purchase Book
Stationery and office expenses per cat
mary and Purchase Book ....
Monthly proportions of standing expenses
Rents, rates, and taxes
Gas, coal, and insurance
Directors' fees
Etc
Balance, being estimated net profits .

If desired columns may also be added to show the trial

figures under the same headings for the full year to date, with
corresponding figures for the previous month or for the corre
sponding month in the previous year.
In the case of manufacturing companies the statement will
naturally be rather fuller, and may be rendered in a complete
form by means of additional columns, all of which depend, of
course, on the care and accuracy with which the stores accounts
and the reserves and estimates are kept.
MONTHLY STATEMENT FOR THE BLANK MANUFACTURING CO.
Fob Period ending Mat 31
Sales for month
Stock at May 31 . . .
Less stock at May 1 .
Production for month
Opening , Closing Consumption
stock. stock. or Cost. age.
Direct t. ! d. \ t I. i
Raw material
(subdivided as required)
General stores ....
(subdivided as required)
Cash or Reserve,
purchases.
f s. ' (I. t t. d.
Wages
Fuel
Other direct charges .
Balance, being estimated gross profit
i r
222 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
The statement of the indirect expenses will be similar in
manufacturing and trading concerns, and does not therefore
require repetition. In the same way particulars may be given
of each department or branch (if any) when so desired by the
management. The special returns supplied by branches and
described in the chapters relating to them may also be sub
mitted, and are properly included under our heading of Statis
tical Returns.
All the statements which we have so far prepared for our
board meeting, as will be seen, are in the nature of bookkeeping;
returns, that is to say, are prepared principally from books of
account, and in many cases are balanced off and worked up as
if they were integral parts of our double entry system ; and
indeed all particulars have been furnished in the above forms
for the preparation of an approximate Balance Sheet, if one were
required. But there are other forms of returns which are very
useful and are employed in many trades, which come under an
entirely different description, and amongst these we must include
and deal with diagrams and curves.
These statements are of much service to limited companies
to show the fluctuation taking place on the market with regard
to their own shares or debentures, or to record the fluctuations of
the raw material or average selling price of any article which
a concern may deal in or manufacture, where such commo
dities have a standard market price which governs the sale or
purchase thereof. The form may perhaps be most simply
described as that of a weather chart, such as appears in many
daily papers, and may indeed prove a very true " weather chart "
to any company except the favoured few which are always
at " set fair."
The use to which these charts may be put is endless. For
instance, a statement may be prepared to deal with the total
sales of a trading concern for a number of years, all of which
may, by appearing in different coloured inks, or by a different
kind of mark, be represented on one chart, so that the managers
can see the full turnover done for many years past in comparison
with each other. In the case of sales it is an advantage to have
two charts running, one dealing with the sales of each month
only, and the other dealing with the total sales for the full
period of the year to the date mentioned at the head of the chart.
 STATISTICAL RETURNS 223
Three forms of this class of return are given below, from
which it will be easy to see the method of preparing and dealing
with them.

STATEMENT OF DEALINGS IN THE COMPANY'S DEBENTURE

STOCK FOR THE YEAR

AMOUNT Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
102
101!
101
1001 J-
100 V
99i
99
98i
98
Highest, ion June 30th- Lowest.oq Jan. 3rd

PARTICULARS OF TURNOVER FOR THE VARIOUS MONTHS

ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1906

AMOUNT Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
6,000
5,500 f sw \1.
/.. ' /
5,000 >
n ,
4,500 1905 1 i/ \\ /
1906 f 1
4,000 1904 /
3.500
3,000

Summary
1901. 1905. 190G.

Highest . . Nov. 5,902 June 5,829 June 6,007
Lowest . . Jan. 4,106 Jan. 4,710 Jan. 4,420
Average . 5,110 5,429 5,192
Total 61,427 65,146 62,304
 PARTICULARS OF TOTAL TURNOVER AT VARIOUS
MONTH ENDS

AMOUNT Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. ' Dec.
70,000 tI |
1005
60,000 1506
1904
50,000 >1
jt
40,000 /
30,000 '/
>
20,000 u
10,000
'05
0,000;06

The same information may, of course, be put into statistical

form if so desired, but the information for a series of years will
come out more clearly in a diagram where general tendencies
rather than exact figures are required to be noticed and
examined, which makes this method particularly suitable for
shares, cost of raw material, sales, or any one class of income or
expenditure, though, of course, it is quite unsuitable for any
detailed or complex statement. Charts may, of course, be
prepared if desired to show the rise or fall of percentages of
expenses, etc., or may be very useful as a means of comparison
as to any two classes of income or expenditure, though they are
not suitable for more than two different classes if intended in
any way to be worked together, though the following table will
show how they can be satisfactorily used even in this respect
where so desired.

PARTICULARS OF TURNOVER AND EXPENSES

UNIT DESCRIPTION P eriod of month s

Ending
5,000

4,000
^,
8ales "
3,000
Total Expenses
2,000 -
Manufacturing c
Cosl
1,000 Raw Material
Wages
A f
.,:,Ty
N. & CLOTH.
d Minimum Rate of
 STATISTICAL RETURNS 225
A similar table is also used to compare the cost and sale
prices of various machines where many machines are manu
factured of a similar class, but varying grades, for example,
bicycles or sewing machines.
Another class of information which can only be treated under
this heading, though it can scarcely be described as " statistical,"
is the information which it is usual to obtain in connection with
the standing of any new customer.
The sources of information are various, and may consist of
bankers' or traders' references, but more usually the report is
obtained from one or other of the numerous trade inquiry offices
which exist all over the mercantile world. In houses which
usually deal with large accounts it is frequently a fixed rule that
no credit shall be given to a new customer until a satisfactory
report has been received from one of these offices.
The method of dealing with the information obtained varies
in different officesin some all reports as received are given a con
secutive number, and a reference to this number is placed at the
head of the ledger account, occasionally with a note as to the
amount of credit to be given. Other firms prefer the system of
filing cabinets, which will be used with the cards supplied
for the purpose, so that all the accounts which have been opened
will appear in alphabetical order with the report from the
inquiry office and a note as to the promptitude or otherwise of
the remittances on previous business.
As illustrative of the usefulness and variety of information
which may be included in one chart, we give the annexed
specimen of one furnished to the members of the Manchester
Chamber of Commerce ; for the favour of which we are indebted
to Messrs. R Barbour Bros. of Manchester.

Q
 CHAPTER XVI

BANKING

Services of BankRelation of Banker to his CustomerSources of ProfitBill

DiscountingGuarantee of AdvancesAdvances to Bill BrokersOpening
of AccountDeposit and Current AccountsMoney at CallThe Bank of
England and its relation to the Banking WorldGovernment and the
General PublicBank RateBank Note IssuesBank ReturnsCheck on
Bank charges.

In the various classes of business in which we have been con

cerned in the preceding pages, the banker has rendered much
service. To Mr. Reader of our first chapter he was practically
the cashier, receiving and collecting cheques and bills, paying
accounts and retiring acceptances, also at a later stage in his
business career advancing money in the form of an overdraft to
enable him to extend his business operations. Similar service
was extended to the partnership concerns whose business we
considered. Then when we dealt with joint stock companies,
we found that the numerous transactions in regard to share
and debenture capital were dealt with by the bankers, as in the
receipt of application, allotment, and call accounts, and later in
the payments of dividends and debenture interest to shareholders
and debenture holders.
Banking is one of the most productive agencies a nation
possesses, and it is well that we should realize the immense
influence it has upon the commercial prosperity of a country,
especially as England may be considered to have the most
economical banking system in the world.
To quote what we have said in " Worked Studies " :
" It has been well said that banking is the nervous system
of the business world, promoting and controlling the immense
volume of our home and foreign trade. Its service to business
and commercial men increases in extent and diversity year by
226
 BANKING 227
year, and one can hardly imagine how trade could be carried on
without the assistance of our banking system.
" To enumerate a few of the services for which we are
indebted to our bankers
" (a) The convenience and safety of depositing surplus cash,
in many cases with a moderate interest accruing.
"(b) The convenience of making remittances by cheques
and drafts.
"(c) The collection of cheques, country notes, dividend
warrants, etc.
" (d) The obtaining of circular notes and letters of credit.
" (e) The advantage of making inquiries as to the financial
standing of persons desirous of doing business.
"(f) Acting as referees to customers.
" (g) The dealing with the various receipts and payments of
joint stock companies.
" (h) The securing of financial assistance by means of over
drafts, the discounting of bills, or advances on shipping
documents.
" (i) The acting as exchange brokers, and the placing of
branch houses abroad in credit by means of telegraphic transfers.
"(f) The value of bank shares as safe and remunerative
investments.
" This enumeration of banking facilities must make us realize
how much our trade is dependent for its smooth working and
success upon the growth of a system which has its ramifications
from our large business centres to almost every town and
village in the country, as well as to agencies throughout the
world."
It will be readily understood that in fulfilling these various
functions the banker will stand in different relations to his
customer, in each of which the duties, rights, and liabilities
between the banker and customer are separate and distinct.
By the economist these relations are set forth thus
1. As the purchaser from him of money or debts.
2. As his agent, or trustee, or bailee of his money and
valuable securities.
8. As the pawnee of the same.
4. As his warehouseman for valuables.
Put briefly, in the first case, which is that of the ordinary
228 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
current banking account, the relationship between the two is
that of debtor and creditor.
In the second the banker is the agent or trustee of his
customer, whose instructions he follows in regard to the disposal
of his securities.
In the third instance the banker is the pawnee of securities
on which he has made a loan, having the right to sell or charge
the securities for the satisfaction of his claim ; and in the fourth
warehouseman, no property or lien in the deposits
passes to him.
To the man of business perhaps the most important of the
above functions is the one of lending money, and it is to the
banker to whom he has recourse for financial help in the time
of need, when liabilities have to be met or additional capital is
required for extension of business operations.
Joint stock banks with large paid-up capital and still larger
uncalled capital in reserve, with big reserve funds and their
affairs managed by influential directors, attract the savings and
unengaged cash of thousands of individuals, who are pleased to
place surplus cash with bankers with the assurance that it is
safe, moderately remunerative, and readily obtainable.
Banks with such enormous funds at their disposal are thus
able to finance industrial and commercial firms, and by the
difference between the interest allowed on customers' accounts
and that charged to borrowers make exceedingly satisfactory
profits for the bank shareholders.
Let us inspect the accounts of Barclay and Co., Ltd. (p. 280),
and from it form some idea of the magnitude of the transactions
and of the income earning power of such companies.
Perhaps the most striking feature one observes is the fact
that, after allowing for bad debts, there is a gross profit of over
a million sterling upon a paid-up capital of less than three and
a quarter millions. In seeking for an explanation of this we
find that the bank has deposit and current accounts to the
extent of forty-four millions, and in addition a reserve fund of a
million and a half, most of the latter being invested in Consols.
It will be seen, however, that advances to customers and bills
discounted amount to some twenty-six millions, this being the
way in which the moneys deposited with them are utilized, and
upon which the profits are earned.
 BANKING 229
We may, therefore, understand that the sources of a banker's
profits arise almost entirely from the lending of money. This
takes the following forms :
1. Overdraft or loans, either with or without deposit of
securities.
2. Buying or discounting of bills.
8. Loans guaranteed by third partus.
4. The financing of shipments.
0. Advances to bill brokers and others.
1. In regard to these overdrafts and loans the custom varies
amongst bankers ; some allow the customer to overdraw to a
certain limit and charge interest on the actual amount of
overdraft, whilst others charge interest on the loan granted
even though the customer does not avail himself to its full
extent.
It is usual for the banker to obtain from the customers
collateral security to cover or partially cover the risk of the
overdrafts and loans. This may take various forms, viz.
(a) Deposit of deeds of property owned by the customer, with
or without a memorandum of deposit ; or a legal
mortgage of the property may be given to the banker.
(b) Deeds of property held by the customer, as mortgagee,
or held as security for advances, e.g. solicitors
financing builders.
(c) Bills of exchange.
('/) Share certificates which may, or may not, be transferred
to the nominees of the bank, and notice being given
to the company of the banker's lien where the shares
are not transferable.
(c) Debenture scrip accompanied by letter of deposit.
(/) Dock and warehouse warrants which on endorsement
carry a legal title to the goods.
(;/) Insurance policies, regarded as security to the extent of
the surrender value, and requiring notice to the
insurance company of the charge on the policy.
2. Bill Discounting.When a banker discounts a bill he
becomes the absolute owner of it, taking all the owner's rights
and responsibilities. If the bill is dishonoured he has his
remedy on it against the acceptor and all other parties who
have received notice of dishonour, including the customer who
2$0 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Dr. BALANCE SHEET,
Liabilities. t. 4.
To Current, Deposit, and other Accounts (including balance
of Profit and Lobs) 44,407,970 4 1
acceptances for customers 161,324 4 7
., capital, viz.
400,000 shares of 20 each, 8 paid 3,200,000 0 0
,. reserve fund (per contra) 1,500,000 0 0

49,269,294 8 8
Dr. PROFIT AND
t. d.
To salaries and other expenses at head office and branches,
including income tax 548,397 16 2
directors' remuneration 14,040 2 '.
,. reduction of Bank Purchase Account 50,000 0 ii
reduction of premises and payment for buildings . . 25,000 0 0
interim dividend of 12. per share on 387,076 shares, free
of income tax 232,245 12
dividend of 12s. per share on 887,076 shares, free of
income tax 232,245 12 0
balance, being undivided profit, carried forward to the
next year 81,754 8
1,183,683 6 J
F. C. GOODENOUQH, General Manager. F. A. BEVAN. Chairman.
We certify, in accordance with Clause 23 of the Companies Act, 1900, tbat all our requirements
at the Lombard Street office and at the Bank of England, and hate examined the securities represent-
compared the above balance sheet with the balances on the books at the head office, and with tbe
properly drawn up so as to exhibit a true and correct view of the state of the company's affairs as
London. July li, 1906.
 BANKING 231
June 30, 1906 Cr.
Attett. t. d. . d.
By cash in hand, at Bank of England
and with other bankers . . . 5,674,180 8 10
cash at call and short notice . 5,014,000 0 0
10,688,180 8 10
bills discounted 4,689,229 9 10
investments
(Including 300,271 16s. Od. se
curities lodged for county and
other public accounts)
British Government securities and
bank stook 2,820,069 19 5
Metropolitan and British corpora
tion stocks and bonds 912,113 18 5
Indian and Colonial Government
securities, including guaranteed
railways 1,816,289 6 1
British railway debenture guaran
teed and preference stocks . 1,573,999 9 2
Other securities 2,149,109 17 1
Reserve fund
1,181,071 15.3</. Consols at 85.
257,731 19t. 3d. local loans
stook at 97.
253,700 Egyptian 3% Loan ot
97, guaranteed by the British
Government 1,500,000 0 0
10,801,582 10 2
advances to customers including
interest accrued on investments,
etc 21,458,316 7 9
liability of customers for accept
ances (per contra) .... 161,324 4 7
., balance of Bank Purchase Account 92,000 0 0
bank premises and adjoining
property 1,378,661 7 6
49,269,294 8 8
LOSS ACCOUNT Cr.
I
By profit unappropriated 011 June 30, 1905 84,790
gross profit, after deducting rebate and provision for all
bad and doubtful debts 1,098,892

1,183,683 6 5
H.
E. R. DODSWORTHjI Dlrectort-
GOSLING Directors
u auditors have been complied with. We report to the shareholder, that we have vcrifled the cash
ing the investments of the bank and those hefd against loans at call and short notice. W e have also
detailed returns from the branches, and report that to our opinion It Is a fall and fair balance sheet,
shown by snch books and returns. c F- KEMP,
PRICE, SONS & CO. k CO. J> AU<mor"'
WATERHOUSE, .^u
232 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
endorsed it. The latter will not be liable, however, unless he
endorsed it.
The entries are as follows :

Dr. Bills Discounted Account. Cr. the customer, with full amount
of Bill.
Dr. the customer. Cr. Interest Account with discount.

Payment of Foreign Bills is obtained by the banker

(a) by negotiation.
Bill is sold to foreign banker or bill broker at current
rate of exchange.
If the bill is drawn in sterling, it must bear the
"exchange as per endorsement" clause in order to
make it readily negotiable.
(b) by collection.
Bill is handed to banker, who forwards to foreign
agent. It is then presented at maturity. The
banker is credited and notified, and he credits his
customer.
If the bill is drawn in sterling it is desirable that it
should bear the clause " payable at the current rate
for bankers' sight-drafts on London," and if it is
intended that all expenses in connection with its
collection are to be borne by the drawee, the follow
ing words in addition, "together with stamps,
commission, and postages " or " together with all
charges."
8. In regard to loans guaranteed by third parties, we think
it well to give a specimen of the form of guarantee.

December 1, 1906.
To the Banking Company, Limited.
Dear Sirs,
In consideration that you will have or continue a
banking account with the Company, Limited, of ,
in the county of Lancashire (hereinafter called the principal),
and make advances to them and give credit to them by, dis
counting bills or otherwise, we hereby jointly and severally
 BANKING 233
guarantee the payment of the balance which may, on the closing
of such account, be or become due to you from the said principal
individually, or in partnership with any other person or persons
to the extent of five hundred pounds.
And we agree that in default of any payment of the balance
due on the said banking account by the said principal, you shall
be at liberty, if you think fit, to receive and place to the credit
of such account all such moneys, whether in the shape of
payments, compositions, dividends, or otherwise, as may be
recovered from the said principal or from their estate, or from
any collateral securities, and after giving credit for the same,
the balance that may then remain shall be recoverable under
this guarantee ; and any liabilities you shall be under by reason
of your having put your name to any bills, or in any way
guaranteed the same for the said principal, may be reckoned as
part of such balance, notwithstanding such liabilities may, at
the closing of the account, be outstanding.
And we undertake and agree not to make claim, prove upon,
or receive dividends, from the said principal or from their estate,
in respect of any sum paid or payable by us under this guarantee,
or to pay you the amount due to you in respect of this guarantee,
until you have received the full sum due to you from the said
principal.
And we hereby further agree to pay interest at the rate of
5 per cent. per annum on the amount owing to you in respect
of this guarantee, from the date of your closing the account of
the said principal.
And it shall not be incumbent on you to enforce any pay
ment from the said principal or estate, or from any collateral
securities, before requiring us to pay the balance due on closing
the account, which account you shall be at liberty to close
whenever you may think proper. You are at liberty to give the
said principal any time or indulgence, and to renew any nego-
ciable securities you hold as you may think fit, without affecting
our liability under this guarantee ; and you shall not be pre
judiced by making any arrangement or composition you may
think proper with the said principal without first obtaining our
consent thereto. And this guarantee is to extend to the firm
of the Banking Company, Limited, for the time being, of
whomsoever composed, and to the Company, Limited, of
234 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
whomsoever it may consist, and is to be a continuing guarantee
until we give you notice in writing to the contrary.
Dear Sirs,
Yours faithfully,
Witness to the signature of all.
Name
Address

4. The financing of shipments has already been dealt with

on pp. 149 to 151.
5. Advances to bill brokers, etc. There are three ways in
which bankers may advance money to brokers
(a) From day to day.
(b) For a short period.
(c) Overnight.
(a) signifies that the loan is taken to be running from day to
day, so that the banker may recall it at any time he pleases.
(b) where the money is advanced for a definite period, usually
for the time between the settling days on the Stock Exchange,
when the loan is paid off or renewed, and the rate of interest
and amount of security adjusted.
(c) where brokers, being pressed for funds, arrange with their
bankers for a loan to be repaid the next day. The rate of
interest will depend on the supply and demand for such loans.

Banking Accounts
Deposit Accounts represent loans to a banker on which
interest is allowed, usually at 1 to 1\ below bank rate. These
loans are of three classes
(a) Sums repayable at call or demand.
(b) Withdrawable on specific notice.
(c) Amounts deposited with the bank for a fixed period.
A deposit account does not represent a specific fund held
by the banker in a fiduciary capacity. Such money may be
assigned as a whole, and in case of an account withdrawable on
demand or at call, and even in other events, would probably be
attached by a garnishee order.
Deposit receipts are given to the depositor; these are not
negotiable, and their transfer confers no right to the deposit
 BANKING 235
account. Such receipts are exempt from stamp duty, unless
interest is mentioned, when the receipt would require a sixpenny
stamp.
Current Accounts.This is the usual form of account of which
the bank's customers avail themselves, for the balance of which,
if in credit, the banker is debtor to his customer, and which, if
overdrawn, the banker is a creditor. In opening an account
an introduction to the banker would generally be expected,
and some information furnished in regard to the business and
character of the account, and instructions as to the drawing of
cheques.
Accounts of Companies.In the case of the opening of an
account of a joint stock company the banker will require
(a) Production of certificate of registration.
(b) Copies of memorandum and articles of association.
(c) Certificate of registrar of joint stock companies, show
ing that the company is entitled to commence business.
(d) Certified copy of directors' minute regarding conduct of
the account.
(e) Particulars in regard to authorized signatures.
It is the custom of country bankers to allow a small rate of
interest on accounts in credit, and on overdrafts to charge five
per cent., or one per cent, above the bank rate.
Commission.A charge made by the banks for the services
rendered to the customers ; the rate is a matter of arrangement
at times a fixed annual charge, at others no charge, but in
lieu thereof the maintenance of a minimum balance to credit.
The usual rate is one-eighth per cent, on the amount of with
drawals or cheques presented, calculated at the end of each
half-year, so that if the turnover for December 81 reached
8000, the commission debited to the account by the bank
would be 10.
The customer is supplied with a pass-book giving the particu
lars of debits and credits. The banker requests this to be left
for making up, and to be checked by the customer at frequent
intervals, with a view to its being a conclusive and accepted
record of the transactions between the banker and his customer.
This desirable object from a banking point of view may, from
various legal decisions, be now considered as good law.
In regard to current accounts, the Statute of Limitations
236 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
operates as between any other Dr. and Cr., so that if a customer
allowed his account to lie dormant for six years, he would be
precluded from taking legal action for the recovery of any
balance to his credit in the account.
A current account may be assigned as a debt, but only in
its entirety, and not in separate amounts to different persons.
Further, should a Cr. take garnishee proceedings, by which he
gets an order from the Court to attach a debt owing to his
debtor, the effect of the garnishee order served on the bank is
to tie up the whole of the customer's credit balance on current
account at date of the service, as being a debt due by the banker
to the customer ; thus a claim of 50 might hang up ten times
the amount.
In case of the bankruptcy of a customer, his credit balance
belongs to the trustee in bankruptcy, and the banker can be
summarily compelled to pay it over to such trustee.
Cash paid into current account is subject to the banker's
lien, unless paid in for a specific purposeas to retire a bill.
A current account must not be closed without reasonable
notice by the banker to his customer, and allowance must be
made for outstanding cheques.
Although infants may have current accounts and draw
cheques, overdrafts, being debts, could not be recovered against
them.

Bank of England

The Bank of England has exercised a wonderful influence on

the financial history of this country, and although the rise and
development of joint-stock banks have, without doubt, weakened
its influence, yet it may be considered the pivot upon which the
English banking system turns.
History.The Bank originated in 1694 by forty capitalists
subscribing to lend 1,200,000 to the Government at 8 per
cent. In return for this service a charter was granted, conferring
certain privileges and powers to trade in bills of exchange and
bills and to issue notes payable on demand. The charter has
been frequently renewed, and the debt has grown until it now
reaches a total of over 11 millions sterling.
By the Bank Charter Act of 1844, the note issue was limited
 BANKING 237
to 14 millions, upon securities of which the Government debt
of 11 millions forms part, and provides that any note issued
above that amount must be covered by coin or bullion stored
in the Bank. Its management consists of a governor, a sub-
governor, and twenty-four directors.
Its distinctive features, as compared with other banks, are
(a) The only Bank whose notes are legal tender.
(b) The Bank of the Government, which adds largely to its
prestige.
(c) Holds the gold reserve of the country.
(d) Fixes the bank rate week by week, and so acts as a
financial barometer of the state of the money market.
Functions.
1. For the Governmentit keeps the Government Bank
Account, superintends the transfer of Stock (Consols, etc.), and
pays the interest on the National Debt.
2. For the coinagebuys gold at 8 17s. 9d. per ounce.
8. For the bankskeeps the reserves of all the larger banks
and discount houses.
4. For the public(a) Issues as required and pays on demand
that well-known form of legal tenderBank of England notes ;
willingly accepted as money in almost every centre in the
world.
(b) As a purchaser of gold.
(t) Acts as banker.
On Thursday of every week a Bank Beturn is issued in
accordance with the Bank Act, and the following is the one for
the week ended October 8, 1906.

BANK OF ENGLAND
An account pursuant to the Act 7th and 8th Vic, cap. 32, for the week ended
on Wednesday, October 3, 1906 :

Issue Department

Notes issued 48,776,635 Government debt . . 11,015,100

Other securities . . . 7,434,900
Gold coin and bullion . 30,326,635
Total . . 48,776,635 Total . . 18,770,635
238 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Banking Department
f t
Proprietor's capital . . 14,553,000 Government securities . 15,956,166
Rest 3,801,383 Other securities . . . . 34,974,642
Public deposits .... 9,730,482 Notes 19,103,675
Other deposits .... 43,191,756 Gold and silver coin . . 1,298,118
Seven-day and other bills 55,980
Total . . 71,332,601 Total . . 71,332,601
It will be seen that two statements are supplied, one of the
Issue Department and the other of the Banking Department,
the business of each being kept quite separate.
Before discussing this return we had better outline the
conditions under which bank notes are issued by various banks.
Bank Note Issues.(a) The Bank of England was authorized
by the Bank Charter Act of 1844 to issue notes against securities
to the extent of 14,000,000, with power to increase its fiduciary
issue to the extent of two-thirds of any lapsed country issues.
(The fiduciary issue now amounts, under the exercise of this
power, to 18,450,000.) For every note issued beyond this
amount the Bank must hold coin or bullion, of which silver may
form one-fourth part. The Bank, however, holds no silver.
(b) Private banks. These must not exceed the amount of
their issue fixed in 1844, i.e. the average amount of their issues
for the twelve weeks preceding April 27, 1844. The number of
partners must never exceed six, otherwise the issue is lost ; and
the bank must not open an office within three miles of London.
A return of the notes in circulation must be made monthly.
(c) Joint-stock banks. Like the private banks the maximum
amount of the issue of these banks is the average amount of the
notes of such banks in circulation during a period of twelve
weeks, as above. Joint-stock banks of issue, registered as
limited companies, cannot limit their liability upon their notes ;
nor can they have an office within sixty-five miles of London.
A return of the notes in circulation is required monthly.
(d) and (c) The Scotch and Irish note issues are governed
by the Acts of 1845. The maximum circulation is the average
of the year ending May 1, 1845. Scotch and Irish banks may,
however, exceed their fixed limit, provided they hold gold equal
to such excess issue. Notes under 5 are permitted.
In Ireland, if any bank gives up its issue the Bank of Ireland
 BANKING 239
may increase its issue by the full amount of the lapsed issue.
Returns of the notes in circulation and of the coin held must
be made.
Licences.All banks of issue, except the Bank of England,
require a yearly licence to be taken out for each place at which
notes are issued. Four licences are, however, sufficient to cover
all places at which notes were being issued by a banker at the
time of the passing of the Act of 1844.
Dealing now with our Bank of England Returns.
Issue Department.Here we have a statement of notes issued
and on the contra side, the Government debt and the item of
other securities, which represent the taking over by the Bank
of the lapsed power of other banks to issue notes. These two,
amounting to 18,450,000, constitute what is termed " The
Authorized Note Issue of the Bank." The difference between
this and the actual note issue, viz. 80,326,685, must be repre
sented by gold coin and bullion stored by the Bank, and is so
shown in the statement.
Banking Department.To begin with the liabilities side we
have
(a) The proprietors' capital, which consists of stock upon
which dividends are paid of about 9 per cent. per annum.
(6) The Rest is the balance of the Profit and Loss Account,
and as it is never allowed to go below three millions sterling,
it is to that extent considered to be a reserve, primarily for
the shareholders, but also for the public.
(c) Public deposits consists of surplus money deposited by
the Government, and is practically the National Current
Account.
Other deposits form the Bank's liability to the general public,
and are made up of the current accounts of other banks, for whom
it acts as banker.
Among these are included many country banks, and the
whole of the London Clearing Bankers, some thirty in number.
In this sum is also included the deposits of wealthy corporations
and business houses.
Seven Days and other Bills.A small item representing bills
issued by the Bank in exchange for cash ; bills used as a means
to make safe remittances.
Turning to the credit side we have
240 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
(a) Government securities, which include consols, exchequer
bonds, treasury bills, etc., guaranteed by the British Govern
ment.
(6) Other securities, which are represented by Indian and
Colonial securities, railway and corporation debenture stock,
bills of exchange under discount, and securities deposited by
bill brokers and others for advances. This item includes all
advances to customers, whether secured or not.
(c) Notes. This amount forms part of the notes issued by
the issue department, and shows that the balance of the notes,
29,672,960, is in circulation outside the Bank itself.
Bank Reserve.We have seen that the notes issued amount
to 48,776,635, and that the difference between this and the
authorized note issue, 30,326,635, must be covered by gold
coin and bullion ; as, however, we find that the Bank holds
in notes 19,103,675, this sum and the gold and silver
coin, 30,326,635, constitute the Bank reserve, a total of
49,430,810. The fluctuations of this reserve are carefully
watched in the money market, and as the strength of the Bank's
position is measured by the reserve, excessive withdrawals of
gold by the colonies, foreign nations, or for home service, or
what is termed an active demand, will cause an advance in the
bank rate. On the other hand, the accumulation of a big
reserve or a sluggish market will result in a reduction of the
rate, in order that cheap money may encourage commercial
enterprise.
Bank Bate.This is the rate charged by the Bank of
England for discounting first-class bills. The directors, after
a consideration of the Bank returns, at their weekly meeting,
usually decide whether any change should be made in the
rate, which is taken as being the " official standard," or
" official minimum," regulating the money rates throughout
the country.
The effect of an advance not only checks commercial
activity at home, but also attracts money from nations where
a lower rate is being allowed. To lower the rate means, not
only, as before stated, the encouragement and extension of trade
in the country, but also the withdrawal of cash for foreign
enterprise.
At the date of the above return the rate was 4 per cent, raised
 BANKING 241
the following week to 5 per cent., and on Friday, October 19,
quite unexpectedly to 6 per cent. The explanation of this excep
tional advance is well put in the following passage from the
Manchester Guardian:
" A condition of affairs has arisen which has called for
exceptional measures. For months past London, the one free
market for gold in the world, has been steadily drained of the
precious metal to meet urgent demands caused by prosperous
trade and rampant speculation not only in America but also in
Egypt. America within a comparatively short period took
12,000,000 of gold from this market, and Egypt fully 4,000,000.
It had been hoped that the requirements for both quarters had
been satisfied, and although the last Bank return showed a
reserve about three millions less than that held a year ago, it
was thought that by the Bank obtaining bar gold in the open
market, the usual procedure of a diminishing reserve as the end
of the year approached might be reversed. At the last moment
it became known that upwards of a million sterling more would
be required for Egypt, though until to-day the Egyptian banks
who arrange these shipments advised the Bank of England that
the exports would be insignificant. Coupled with this unex
pected demand came renewed weakness in the New York
exchange upon London, threatening, if not actual withdrawals
from the Bank, at least a demand which would absorb supplies
from the Cape, etc., while it was stated that urgent orders were
actually received for gold on American account, to prevent the
execution of which the Bank took the unusual step of raising
their rate on a Friday. Naturally, with a reserve already
seriously depleted, the Bank could not afford to lose more gold,
even if it could forego the chance of obtaining fresh supplies, so
that the decision to go to 6 per cent. was entirely a protective
measure. It means a higher value of money generally, and it
is, of course, a hardship for merchants and traders throughout
the country, but one which must be borne."
As we have previously indicated, the great volume of
banking business is carried on by the great London joint-stock
banks, and it will therefore be interesting to note the following
approximate statement of the various methods in which their
resources are employed, and the average holding usually main
tained by them.
k
242 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Cash in hand, and at the Bank of England ... 15 per cent.
Money at call and short notice (lent to bill brokers
and short loans on the Stock Exchange) . . 10 ,.
British Government stock 10
Other investments 9
Bills discounted \
Loans to customers / "
Premises, etc 2

100

Bankers' Charges
In the case of overdrawn accounts, the debit for interest for
the accommodation amounts to a considerable sum ; it is there
fore well that the bankers' charges should be checked.
The commission is readily ascertained ; being an agreed sum
or a percentage on the withdrawals, calculated half-yearly.
In regard to interest, as many bookkeepers find a difficulty
in maintaining a check on the charge, we give the following
notes. Bankers will furnish particulars as to when interest
upon amounts paid to them shall commence. For example,
Manchester banks usually give credit as follows :
Local uncrossed cheques . . . from date banked.
Local crossed cheques .... from date following day of
banking.
London cheques two days after banking.
Country cheques three days after banking.
To check bankers' interest reckoned upon the daily balance,
a "Bankers' Daily Balance Book " ruled as follows :

Bankers' daily balances. Products.

Date. Number of 1
days.
Dr. Cr. Dr. Cr.

should be kept in the office.

The balance in pounds is multiplied by the number of days
during which it remains at that amount, "Dr." or "Cr.," and
placed in the " Products," the net total of which is multiplied
 BANKING 243
by double the average rate of interestobtainable upon applica
tion at your bankersand the resultant figure divided by
78,000, the quotient being the amount of interest required
received or chargedas the case may be.
If interest is reckoned upon the minimum monthly balance,
the above principle would require modification accordingly.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

135. State the effect of a garnishee order in respect of a judgment against a
customer being served on his bankers.
136. Should the fact that an order cheque is endorsed "per pro" have any
influence on the banker who is asked to collect it for a customer?
137. State the obligations of a banker with regard to cheques drawn upon
him by a customer.
138. Give a short example of a customer's overdrawn account, during the
half-year ended December 31, showing the amount of interest charged, and
explain fully how the interest is calculated.
139. A customer passes into his credit, coin, Bank of England notes, cheques
payable by the bank into which payment is made, cheques payable by other
town banks, and cheques payable by country banks. Explain shortly what
entries have to be made in the banker's books to record these transactions up to
the point of the cheques being collected.
140. State three different classes of securities accepted by bankers against
advances to customers, and briefly describe the formalities necessary in each
case between the parties when the loan is effected.
141. Describe briefly the course of action which is usually followed by
bankers with regard to funds in their hands :
(a) In the case of a deceased customer who left a will.
(6) In the case of a deceased customer who did not leave a will.
142. A. B. desires to borrow 500 from his bankers, who undertake to
advance this sum upon the security of A. B.'s life policy for 1000 (whole life
without profits) in the Established Assurance Company. State the grounds
upon which the bankers would consent to make such advance, and what steps
must be taken to carry out the transaction efficiently.
 CHAPTER XVII

BANK BOOKKEEPING

Cash SectionBills SectionSecurities and InvestmentsCustomers' Accounts

Profit and Loss SectionBranches"On the Balance "Rebate.

There is no business where absolute accuracy in the books

and system is so essential as in banking concerns, since most
of their transactions take place in actual coin of the realm, and
in paper money and securities representing the same.
In the single chapter which we are able to devote to the
detail of bank bookkeeping, it is only possible to give an outline.
The difficulty is increased by the fact that the practice of banks
in different parts of the country is frequently entirely distinct,
and the names for many of the books in use vary considerably.
In the provinces and in the smaller banks, the same cashier
will receive and pay out cash ; whilst in London a different set
is appointed to pay the cash, and usually each cashier at the
counter is deputed to deal with accounts of certain letters of
the alphabet only.
The following are the principal books of accounts used in a
bank.

I. Cash Section
1. Counter Cash Book, or Received Cash Book, or Receiving
Book.
2. Received Day Book or Waste Book.
8. Sectional Cash Book.
4. Paid Cash Book.
5. Coin Balance Book.
6. Paid Waste Book.
7. In Clearing Book.
244
 BANK BOOKKEEPING 245
8. Country Clearing Books (" Out " and " In ").
9. Goldsmith's Book.
10. Clearing Balance Books.
11. Cash Balance Book.

II. Bills Section

12. Short Bills Book.
18. Bill Journals or Diaries.
14. Bills Discounted Book.
15. Discount Ledger and Acceptance Ledger.
16. Acceptance Book.

III. Securities and Investment Section

17. Securities Register : (a) General ; (6) Customers' Loans ;
(c) Stockbrokers' or other Short Loans; (d) Standing Orders
Book.

IV. Customers' Section

18. Current Accounts.
19. Deposit Accounts.
20. Loan Accounts.
21. Loans Cash Book.

V. Profit and Loss Section

22. Current Accounts Analysis Book (debit and credit), or
Short.
23. Rentals Ledger.
24. Securities sold for customers.
25. Securities purchased for customers.
26. Salaries Book.

VI. Branches Section

27. Debit Journal.
28. Credit Journal.
29. Cheques remitted.
30. Cheques received.
246 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

VII. The Journal

For the entry of the summaries in debit and credit form of
the various books and registers, thus maintaining a continuous
check on the accounts termed " on the balance." The book
practically constitutes the aggregate postings account of all the
bank's transactions, and may prove from day to day the accuracy
of the bookkeeping.

In addition to these books, special records are required

in the case of those concerns which have the power to issue
notes, which it is not, however, proposed to deal with, as no
bank carrying on business within sixty-five miles of London
has power to do so, and this necessarily in England confines
the privilege to the smaller banks.

I. Cash Section

The first book in the list we have given, as its name implies,
is used to record the receipts as they are handed over the
counter, and frequently in this book an analysis of some
description is made. In small banks, and also in most pro
vincial banks, the same tellers both receive and pay cash, in
which case books one and four on the list will be amalgamated,
and are then frequently treated as subsidiary Cash Books, for
the balances of which the tellers are responsible, details of
which appear later.
The receipts from the Receiving Book are then analyzed
into a Waste Book (No. 2) to show cash received, Bank of
England notes and cheques, Clearing House, country clearing,
house (that is, cheques payable by our own customers) and
branches. From this the debit postings will be made, or, at
all events, compared with the entries made in the booksthe
custom of most banks being to post, as far as possible, from the
various original slips, cheques, and dockets, and then to compare
these entries with the figures recorded in other books.
The actual paying-in slips will then be handed to other
clerks, and will be posted to the credit of the customers and
analysed under suitable headings to agree with the various
 BANK BOOKKEEPING 247
ledgers or sections in the " Sectional Cash Book " (No. 8), or,
as some banks call it, the " Sectional Day Book." These three
books will therefore show the full double entry for ordinary
receipts from the customers, the customers being credited in
various ledgers as summarized by the " Sectional Cash Book,"
whilst from No. 2 the following books or accounts are debited :
Cash received debited to Coin Balance Book (No. 5).
Bank of England notes and cheques debited to Goldsmiths'
Book (No. 9).
Clearing House cheques debited to Clearing Balance Book
(No. 10).
Country Clearing cheques debited to Country Clearing Book
(No. 8).
House cheques debited to the Current Account (No. 18).
Branch cheques debited to the Branch system (VI.).
In addition to this, there are also cheques drawn on banks
which may not be on the Clearing House lists, which will have
to be cashed separately, and are settled by a cheque on Bank
of England.
Cash paid over the counter will be recorded in the Paid
Cash Book (No. 4), and afterwards will be posted from the
cheques to the debit of the Customers' Current Account, and
credited to the " Coin Balance Book " (No. 5). They will also
be analysed as before in a Secticmal Book to preserve the balance
of the section.
The Coin Balance Book (No. 5) will start with the opening
balance of cash and notes in hand for the day, and will be
further debited with all cash received from the Waste Book,
and also with any cash or notes received from the Bank of
England, as shown by the Goldsmiths' Book, and credited with
the cash and notes paid away, as particularized in the Cash
Paid Book. The balance of this account should represent the
cash in hand at the end of the day. The reason for the different
treatment of "cash" and "cash and notes," as described
above, is that it is the practice of the banks never to reissue a
Bank of England note (which are here always referred to as
"notes"), but to pay it direct into that bank with any cheques
drawn upon it. Therefore as a receipt it is treated differently
to cash, whilst if any payments are required partly or wholly
in notes, such amount is drawn from the notes in hand which
248 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
have been received in exchange for a cheque at the Bank of
England, and are therefore treated throughout as "cash" in
this section.
The Paid Waste Book (No. 6) performs a similar function
for payments that the corresponding book on the other side did
for receipts.
The In Clearing Book (No. 7) records all cheques which are
debited against us in the Clearing House, and the double entry
arises by a credit in the " Clearing Balance Book " and a debit
against the various customers, branches, agents, correspondents,
etc., as set out in the Paid Waste Book. Such postings as
before being made from the actual cheques sent in from the
Clearing House.
The practice of banks varies greatly with regard to the treat
ment of these cheques. Some return them, every time the Pass
Book is written up, to their clients in the pocket attached to
the Pass Book ; others return the cheques only at the half-year
.end, after the balance has been agreed by the customer ; whilst
still a third section does not return the cheques at all in the
absence of a special agreement to do so, and obtaining also an
indemnity from the customer. The majority of provincial banks
follow this last practice.
The Country Clearing Books (No. 8) provide for cheques
cleared on country banks, and do not differ from the other
Clearing Books except that such amounts are allowed an
additional time, varying according to the distance from London,
within which notice of dishonour must be given.
The Goldsmiths' Book (No. 9) records simply the trans
actions of the bank with the Bank of England, and will consist
of the debits paid into that bank as detailed by the Waste Book
(No. 2), and the other payments made into the current account
kept there. The reason for the Bank of England's cheques being
treated differently to others is, that the Bank does not clear " in "
through the Clearing House, that is to say, it requires cheques
payable by them to be presented to them direct, and not through
the Clearing House. The credit side of this account will consist
simply of the cheques drawn by the bank on their current account
and other payments to be made on their behalf by the Bank of
England.
The Clearing Balance Book (No. 10) shows the daily dealings
 BANK BOOKKEEPING 249
with the Clearing House, particulars of which have been checked
by means of the books already described, and the balance finally
shown will be closed by a transfer to or from the current
account at the Bank of England.
The daily totals of all the foregoing books, together with
the totals of bills matured or collected (outwards and inwards),
can now be grouped together, to show the accuracy of our work
so far as the actual cash portion is concerned, in the Cash
Balance Book (No. 11), the balance of which should, of course,
agree with the actual cash, notes, etc., on hand, and this con
cludes the cash section of our work. *

II. Bills Section

Dealing now with the bills section, we have to consider the
treatment of the bills receivable from two standpoints, each
of which involves different records. Bills receivable which
come to the bank's hands, are under one of two headings, .
either they are paid into the bank a few days before maturity
for collection only, to be credited on the day collected; or
they are actually purchased by the bank, in which case they
are known as bills discounted. Bills payable may be similarly
subdivided between the bills actually accepted by the bank
and bills which have been advised and are payable on behalf
of customers.
For the sake of simplicity, many banks give credit for bills
to be collected as soon as they are paid in, provided that they
mature within a few days. They are paid to the receiving
cashiers very frequently on a separate slip, and are immediately
handed over to the bills department. They are then entered in
the " Short Bills' Book " (No. 12), which is ruled to show the
full particulars of a bill which usually appear in an ordinary
merchant's books, and will be provided with two money columns,
the first of which is used to record the amount of bills which
will be forwarded for collection the same day, or otherwise
treated as cash, whilst the outer column is used to record the
amount of such bills that cannot be so treated. With regard to
the inner column, the credit may be made forthwith to the
customer from the paying-in slip, and the debit will be recorded
to the house to which it is forwarded for collection if it is not a
250 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
local bill, or otherwise to the Clearing House Account as a bill
for clearing, and thus into the cash system. Items recorded in
the outer column will be sorted according to the due date, and
then entered in a diary which reserves a page for each day and
records the number of the bill and the amount to be dealt with
as it falls due. A distinguishing note will also be added to show
which of the bills have to be forwarded a few days in advance
for collection in other towns.
All bills discounted will be recorded in the Bills Discounted
Book (No. 14), which shows particulars of the bill as before, the
amount, the rate of discount, period of bill unexpired, and con
sequent amount chargeable. The credit for the nominal amount
of the bill should be credited to the customer, and the charges
for discounting debited to him, although this is not the invariable
custom.
The Discount Ledger and Acceptance Ledger (No. 15) are
used to show the total amount of bills discounted for any one
customer, so that no more shall be advanced to him than may
be considered a suitable amount, and the Acceptance Ledger is a
similar book to show the acceptances the bank may hold of any
one firm. These books are collateral to the general system, and
do not involve any postings in the ordinary books of account.
The Acceptance Book itself is used to record the bills actually
accepted by the bank on behalf of its customers.
Bills advised by customers for payment will be noted in a
special diary, and on presentation will be treated in a similar
manner to an ordinary cheque.

III. Secubities and Investment Books

This section of our work may be broadly divided into
registers, which give a consecutive number and place to all
securities held by the bank, whether its own or held by the
bank for customers, and the ordinary Investment Books and
Ledgers.
The first class do not enter into the accounting system, and
are more in the nature of a directory to the strong-rooms, where
the bank's own securities are held, and also its customers'
securities. The latter section will include those deposited for
safe keeping, and also those given for the purpose of obtaining
 BANK BOOKKEEPING
an advance from the bank. The Investment Ledgers themselves
are, of course, ordinary books of account, and do not call for
special comment, following frequently the usual system of other
houses holding considerable investments, such as insurance
companies.

IV. Customers' Section

This important section is one in which the greatest differ

ences exist as to practice and variety of treatment and rulings
of books and accounts. It is the usual practice of London
banks, if a customer should require an advance, to give it
to him by means of a separate " loan," which is subject to a
standard rate of interest, and always remains fixed at that
figure, insisting that the floating balance between him and the
bank should be a credit on the current account. The majority
of provincial banks, however, allow their customers, requiring
such an advance, to overdraw their current account so that
such account may be either a debit or a credit, and the interest
will be charged not on the fixed amount of the loan, but on
the actual debit balance of the current account from time
to time.
The form of these ledgers may be that of an ordinary
business ledger with debit and credit rulings, or it may appear
with a special ruling to show the balances daily on the account.

Date. Particulars. Fo. Dr. postings. Cr. postings. Balance.

. d. t. d. t. d.

If it is the practice of the bank to allow interest on the current

account, probably columns will be added to provide for the
necessary details of the figure to be charged.
252 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Date. Particulars. Dr. postings. Cr. postings. I)alance. Days Product.

* : ,. d. t. d. t. d.
June 30 By balance 320 0 0 320 0 0 30 28,800
July 30 To cheque 200 ! 0 0 120 0 0 60 21,600
Sept. 28 By bills . . 350 0 0 470 0 o 10 14,100
Oct. 8 30 0 0 500 0 0 84 126,500
Deo. 31 interest . 2 12 3
To commission 5 0
balance . 502 7 3
702 12 3 702 12 3 191,000
By balance . 502 7 3 502 7 3

This method of calculating interest is particularly suitable

for recording interest on current accounts, where the rate charged
or allowed on the account is liable to fluctuate, as in the case
of banks, who usually vary the rate in accordance with the
official bank rate. The formula on which it is based is, that
the number of pounds in the balance, multiplied by the number
of days which such balance stands, and twice the rate of interest
charged or allowed, divided by 73,000, equals the amount of
interest in pounds.
The example given will show how this works. Our opening
credit appears in the books as 820, and this amount is extended
into the balance column. On July 80 a cheque is drawn for
200, which is debited against the account, and the entry is
then made reducing the balance to 120, and at the same time
we fill in the number of days the old balance stood, viz. 80 days,
and then multiply that figure 320 by 80 (days) and 8, which
is twice the rate of interest which we are allowing on this
account, which is 1 \ per centum. If any difficulty in remember
ing this rule is experienced, it can be easily brought back to
the mind by thinking of the old school formula. "Principal
multiplied by rate per cent., multiplied by time in years, divided
by one hundred, equals interest," as will be seen by applying
this form to our example :
Principal 820 X 80 (days) X l\ (per cent.) _ jnterest
100 X 865 (days in a year)
Therefore multiply both sides of our compound fraction by two,
and we find
820 X 30 X 3 _ 28,800
100 X 865 X 2 73,000
 BANK BOOKKEEPING 253
We therefore place the 28,800 in our products' column, and at
the year end divide that figure and the other products which
are similarly obtained by their common divisor, 78,000.
If the rate of interest should be changed during the half-
year, all that is necessary is to make a break at the date when
the change took place : suppose, for example, that up to July 20
the rate of interest allowed was 1 per cent. only, the entry would
be made as follows :
*
June 30. By balance 320 20 days = 12,800
July 20. interest changed to 1J per cent. 320 10 = 9,600

New product as against 28,800 at 1 J per cent. for the whole time 22,400
Difference 6,400 -f- 73,000 = 0 Is. 9d., which is exactly (of course) I per
cent, on 320 for 10 days.
Separate columns are sometimes provided for the debit and
credit interests ; or if most of the current accounts are in credit,
the debits may be entered in red ink.
The current accounts in many large banks are entered in
books containing only one account each, the books being kept
alphabetically in boxes, each of these boxes being treated as if
it were a single ledger. This, of course, does not affect the
principle in any way.
Deposit accounts are sometimes treated in the same way, or
they may be kept in an ordinary bound ledger. This will
probably depend on the nature of the deposit account, and the
terms of the deposit, but it does not call for any bookkeeping
comment.
Loans accounts will be treated in a similar manner on the
opposite side, of course.
The Loans Cash Book, or Loans Begister, is generally
used in connection with short loans, which are treated in this
book on the tabular system. These two books apply more to
London banks than to provincial concerns.

V. Profit and Loss Section

In this section we desire to record all those items which go
to make our bank profits, and we will therefore deal with these
consecutively. The charges made on current accounts by way
of interest and commission are the first dealt with by provincial
254 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
banks. At the end of the half-year the accounts are all
debited with the commission, either at the agreed percentage on
the turnover, or at the stipulated amount if a definite figure has
been arranged. The interest debit or credit is also inserted by
the calculation of the products, for which "ready reckoners"
exist. At the time these entries are made, they are entered
either in the Current Account Analysis Book, or (in large banks)
on sheets which are subsequently bound or otherwise secured
in the same way that the Application and Allotment Sheets
are bound in the case of a large allotment. From this book or
the sheets will be ascertained the full amount of all charges
made or interest allowed on every account in the "current"
section. Similar entries will be made for the other items
charged against or allowed to customers in the various
customers' ledgers.
The interest on short loans which appears in the Loan
Register will usually be paid by cheque at the time the loan
is repaid, and will be posted direct to the credit of Interest
Account.
Discounts on bills will appear in detail on each bill as it is
entered in the Bills Discounted Book, the daily total being
carried to the credit of Discount Account through the Journal.
Rents receivable will be recorded in a special Rental Ledger
and Account, from which the credit to Profit and Loss Account
will be obtained.
Income from investments will be credited by means of a
docket, which will debit an investment in the Investment
Ledger, and credit the Income Account as each dividend falls
due.
Certain customers also ask their bankers to buy or sell
securities for them, for which the banker makes a charge,
sometimes on the customer direct, at other times by payment
by the broker of a proportion of his commission. These items
are, of course, recorded in suitable books, showing the amount
payable to or by a customer and broker respectively, and the
difference between these items, which is the bank's profit, is
posted to the account in the Nominal Ledger.
The Salaries Book (No. 26) is in the ordinary form for such
books, and does not call for any special comment.
VI. Branches, in the case of banks, are treated very much
 BANK BOOKKEEPING
in the same manner as other banks or agents might be treated,
excepting for the inclusion at the year end of the profits they
have made and the incorporation of their balances with the head
office figures, in order to prepare a balance sheet. This portion
of the subject is fully treated in other parts of the book, and the
student is referred there for the method in which this is done.
The only book on our list which has not been specifically
mentioned is now the " Standing Orders Book," which records
any periodical payments or collections which have to be made
by the bank on account of its customers. This book, like the
Securities Register, to which department it belongs, is a statistical
book, setting out the particulars of the payment to be made, for
whom it is made, to whom, and the amount, and a similar book
will record the coupons which have to be collected. In the
former case, a docket will be filled in and forwarded to the
receiving bank or person, who will present it in the ordinary
way with the cheques. The collections will be treated also as if
they were cheques, but in this case the clearing regulations,
which do not affect the bookkeeping, however, are rather
different.
It has previously been pointed out that provincial and
London customs frequently differ, and this is chiefly in the
treatment of the " tellers," banknotes, and the customers'
current accounts.
The first point is when the same teller pays and receives cash.
In many banks where this custom prevails, each teller has his
own cash book, which will include Nos. 1 and 4 of our list (the
Counter Cash Book, received and paid), and will draw on the
chief cashier if he runs short of money, or pay to him any
surplus over his immediate requirements, as the case may be.
Under these circumstances, he balances his own book separately,
and his totals are included in the Cash Balance Book, indepen
dently of the book kept by the chief cashier.
The London banks, as stated in this chapter, never reissue
notes of the Bank of England which come to their hands, but
many provincial banks do so. If this system is adopted, the
notes paid over the counter are kept distinct from those in hand,
and are sorted at the end of the day and a special number is
written on each note, which acts as our bank's reference to
it for the future. To do this an extra book or books will be
256 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
required to record this, and the method of dealing with the
notes, as described earlier, will be modified accordingly.

VII. The Journal

On the Balance. To maintain a constant check on the
balancing of the books, the bank will summarize at the end of
each day the whole of its balances in a Journal, the figures in
total being dealt with so as to effect the balancing of each
separate section. The Journal in this case is usually in a
similar form to a Cash Book in a trading concern, and each
day will be added and balanced separately. The various
columns will show the source of the information, the account
to be debited or credited in the General Ledger, appropriate
columns for posting and other references, and the amount.
As we have, on pp. 230, 281 already furnished an example of
the final accounts of a banking company, we may ask the
student to prepare Revenue Account and Balance Sheet from
the following statement.
The following items may be taken as representing the posi
tion of the bank on January 1, 1905, and its aggregate trans
actions during the year 1905. Post them to their respective
accounts, and draw up a Profit and Loss Account and Balance
Sheet.

Exercise
t
Paid-tip capital, January 1, 1905 100,000
Undivided profits of 1904 4,658
Liabilities to customers on current accounts, January
1, 1905 326,300
Liabilities to customers on deposit accounts, January
1, 1905 235,842
Overdrafts and loans, January 1, 1905 287,400
Bills receivable in hand, January 1, 1905 165,200
Investments 140,000
Cash in hand 24,200
Cash at call and short notice 50,000
Cash paid in by customers on current accounts . . . 2,417,000
Cash drawn out by customers on current accounts . . 2.356,000
Cash paid in by depositors 664,000
Cash withdrawn by depositors 586,000
 BANK BOOKKEEPING
Bills receivable discounted 297,000
Less discount charged thereon .... 10,500
286,500
Cash paid out for part of same .... 6,500
Balance credited to customers .... 280,000
286,500
Bills receivable, matured and paid during the year . . 257,000
Deposit interest accrued and paid during the year . . 6,000
Deposit interest accrued to December 31, 1905, but not
paid 7,500
Interest received on investments 4,500
Interest accrued on investments to December 31, 1905 3,000
Consols purchased, 100,000 at 95 95,000
India 3| per cent0 sold 25,000
New premises, cost of freehold 12,750
Colonial bonds purchased 150,000
English railway debentures purchased 100,000
Managers' and clerks' salaries paid 6,950
Directors' fees paid 2,000
Income tax paid 865
Interest and charges debited to customers 24,250
Sundry bank expenses, cheque-books, etc., paid . . 1,468
Rent, taxes, etc., paid 2,800
Cash advanced on short notice 308,000
Cash advanced on short notice, repaid by brokers . . 230,000
Interest received from brokers 4,975
Rebate on bills discounted 1,525
Loss by bad debts written off 2,345
Interim dividend paid shareholders 7 per cent. . . . 7,500
Call made of 5 per share on 10,000 new shares . . 50,000

Rebate.As on the discounting of bills, Discount Account

was credited with the charge to the customer, it will be readily
understood that an apportionment must be made of the dis
counts which belong to the current and the following periods ; for
instance, a three months' bill discounted on December 1 should
have one month's discount credited to the Revenue Account of
December 81 accounts, and the other two months to the next
period's profits. Hence we have a Rebate Account, represent
ing discounts to be carried forward as a credit to the subsequent
accounts.
Bills accepted for Customers.Reference to p. 280 will show
that the liability of the bank for acceptance of customers' drafts
is stated on the debtor side of the balance sheet, and is counter
balanced by the entry on the credit side of a like sum, for which
the customers are liable to the bank.
s
258 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

143. Name the various sections into which bank bookkeeping may be divided.
144. Give an example of a customer's account in a bank ledger.
145. Explain the method of calculating interest on a current account.
146. What is meant by " on the balance " ?
147. What is the object of a Rebate Account ?
148. After writing up the Profit and Loss Account, the General Ledger
balances of the Conservative Bank, Ltd., as on December 31, 1901, were as
follows : paid up capital, 1,500,000 ; cash at Bank of England and in hand,
2,600,980; Customers' Current and Deposit Accounts, 17,580,000; bills dis
counted, loans and advances, 14,482,000 ; freehold premises, 380,000 ; rebato
on bills discounted, not yet due, carried to next account, 24,300 ; reserve fund,
1,200,000; English Government securities, 1,250,000; other Government
securities, 520,000 ; Profit and Loss Account (undistributed balance), 110,680 ;
securities pledged with public bodies, 81,000 ; Indian and colonial securities,
1,101,000.
On the same date (December 31, 1901) the acceptances on behalf of cus
tomers, and for which they were liable, appeared in the " Acceptances Book "
of the bank at 1,725,420.
Prepare a Balance Sheet as on December 31, 1901.
149. Criticize the following Balance Sheet. State what improvements you
would suggest, and your reasons for them.

Bank of New England, Limited

Liabilities
Capital (3,000,000 in 100,000 shares of 30 each,
on which 20 per share has been paid up) . . 2,000,000
Reserve Fund 500,000
Notes in circulation 522,750
Bills payable 770,347
Deposit and Current Accounts 8,473,421
Other liabilities 114,214
Profit and loss 53,148
12,433,880
Assets
Coin and cash balances with bankers 1,303,756
Bullion in hand and in transit 173,770
Money at call and short notice, bills receivable,
Government securities and other securities in
London, etc 2,667,636
 BANK BOOKKEEPING
Investments in the colonies, viz. :
Colonial government securities . . . 878,432
Municipal securities 119,953
Other securities 266,201
1,264,586
Bills discounted 2,276,421
Other advances and securities and debts, etc., due to
the bank 3,975,489
Landed property, premises, etc 772,222

12,433,880
 CHAPTER XVIII
CHEQUES
Definitions and Essentials Endorsements Dishonoured Lost Cheques
Crossed ChequesNot Negotiable ChequesClearingCircular Notes
Letters of Credit.
One of the greatest conveniences of modern banking is the
facility afforded in the settlement of accounts and the transfer
of debts by means of cheques. First the bearer cheque, then
the order, later the crossed and not negotiable cheques have
been developments of the banking system of incalculable service
to the business world.
By cheques, economy of time and labour and safety of remit
tance and payment are secured. Week by week millions of
accounts are settled without a coin being needed in the settle
ment of indebtedness. The cheque system is now highly
developed, and is one of which we, as Englishmen, may well be
proud. We wish to pay a subscription of a guinea, or to pay
an account of 500 to a creditor hundreds of miles away, and
the useful cheque is an ever-ready instrument at our hand to do
the service by transferring the funds available at our banker's
to the bank of our creditor, and that, too, with the minimum
amount of risk and expense.
Definition.A cheque is a bill of exchange drawn on a bank,
payable on demand.
The essentials to remember are, that it must be an uncon
ditional order and addressed by one person to another, and be
payable on demand.

Manchester, November 1, 1906.

To the Union Bank of Manchester Limited.

Pay Mr. A. Reader or order.
Fifty Pounds
50 0s. Od. Alfred Nixon.
260
 CHEQUES
Examination of the above cheque will show that it is an
order from Alfred Nixon, termed the "drawer," to the Union
Bank of Manchester, termed the " drawee," to pay on demand
to the order of A. Header, termed the " payee," the bank being
the payer, a specified sum of money.
The above cheque is said to be " in order," i.e. all the par
ticulars required by the banker are filled in properly, and on
endorsement by the person in whose favour it is drawn
(A. Reader) must be paid by the bank, provided sufficient funds,
or credit is available.
Dealing with the various points in connection with the
cheque, we find that each one must bear a penny stamp, usually
an impressed one ; but an adhesive one may be used, should
occasion occur for the drawer to make out the order on other
than the printed forms supplied in book form by the banker.
Only the drawer or the banker on whom it is drawn may stamp
an unstamped cheque, and not any intermediate holders. Poor
Law Guardians and Government departments, and also trustees
in bankruptcy drawing on local accounts, are exempt from the
stamp duty.
It was until recently a fairly general custom to attach a
receipt with the cheque, with the idea of the penny stamp serv
ing for both cheque and receipt ; but this is illegal, each requir
ing a penny stamp, that is, if, in the case of the receipt, the
amount is for 2 and over.
Date.Cheques may be issued (a) undated, (b) dated for a
Sunday, (c) post dated.
(a) The holder may insert the date.
(b) A cheque bearing a Sunday's date would be valid, but
would not be payable until the Monday.
(c) Post dated, that is, bearing a date in advance of the day
of issue. This form of cheque 7is frequently issued by those
who, whilst unable to pay the amount at the time, hand the
cheque to pressing creditors as an earnest of their intention
to meet their liability on a fixed day. Creditors often find it
advisable to accept such cheques.
Such cheques are valid in the hands of a holder, but a
banker will refuse payment until the date the cheque bears.
Should a post-dated cheque be paid by the banker there would
be no penalty, but the cheque could not be debited against the
262 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
customer until the date of the cheque, which, of course, involves
risk on the banker's part.
Amount.Should the writing and figures differ in regard to
the amount, the banker may either return the cheque as not in
order, or pay the amount in accordance with the written sum.
If the amount is given in foreign currency the banker is not
bound to pay, but should he do so he converts into sterling at
the current rate of exchange at the place and on the day of
payment.
Payable to.Cheques may be payable to
(a) " A. Somebody or Bearer," in which case no endorsement
is required.
(b) Payable to " A. Somebody or order," in which case it
would require the endorsement of A. Somebody prior to negoti
ation. Although order cheques are endorsed by the person to
whom payable, a banker could be compelled to honour the
cheque without such endorsement, in which case he would
require a receipt to prove payment.
(c) Payable to self or order, requiring the endorsement of
the drawer.
(d) Payable to order, without any name being given, would
require endorsement of drawer.
(e) Payable to " Wages or order " would be considered to be
a bearer cheque, needing no endorsement.
" Pay A. B." is negotiable. If it is desired to make the
cheque payable to a specified person only, " Pay A. B. only "
and " not transferable " should be written horizontally.
A. Nixon's account
is transferable.
Payee's account
Should a bearer cheque have the word " bearer " crossed
through, the cheque would be regarded as an order cheque. If
the word "order" were altered to "bearer," it would require
the initials of the drawer to verify the alteration.
All material alterations, as to date, name, order, to bearer,
amounts, should be initialled by the drawer, and should there
be several drawers, by all of them.
Endorsement. Endorsements are usually written on the
back, but there is nothing to prevent the endorsement being
written on the face of the cheque. The endorsement should be
in ink, but may be in pencil ; should it be by pressed stamp,
 CHEQUES 263
the paying banker will require the endorsement guaranteed by
another banker.
Endorsements may be either (a) general or blank, (b) special ;
the former being merely the signature of the person to whom it
is payable, and the latter an instruction from the endorser to
pay it to the order of another person, as
" Pay A. Reader or order."
Alfred Nixon.
An individual endorsing a cheque should endorse it as on
the face of the cheque, without any courtesy title ; thus, a
cheque payable to Miss Ann Jones should be endorsed "Ann
Jones." In the case of firms or companies, the endorsement
should show the authority of the person making the endorse
ment for the firm, as
per pro Johnson & Co.
J. H. Williams.
In the case of executors, the signature of one executor for
himself and co-executors would be in order, but with trustees
the endorsement of each trustee would be necessary.
Frequently, in drawing a cheque the payee's name is spelled
incorrectly, in which event the cheque should be endorsed as
given, and also with the correct signature ; thus, a cheque
payable to A. Nickson when A. Nixon was meant, would be
endorsed in both ways.
A cheque payable to a married lady's order, as Mrs. John
Jones, should be endorsed
" Ann Jones,
" Wife of John Jones."
Should a cheque be payable to an illiterate person, as even
yet occasionally happens, it should be endorsed as follows, and
the mark witnessed
his
Arthur X Slowboy.
mark
Witness,
Jack Sharp,
Bank Street,
Bury.
264 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
The endorsement of a person who unmistakably shows he
is not sober should also be witnessed, as also the payment of
the money to him.
Dishonour of Cheque.A banker will stop the payment of
cheques upon
(a) Knowledge of bankruptcy, or act of bankruptcy, in which
case the funds are held for trustee.
(b) Notice of drawer's death.
(c) Receipt of garnishee order.
(d) Notice from the drawer authorizing him to refuse pay
ment of the cheque presented.
(e) For want of funds on current account in credit, or exceed
ing allowed overdraft.
(/) For some informality, or the cheque not being in order.
Indication of the above is given by the banker in various
forms, usually
R/D = Refer to drawer.
I/F = Insufficient funds.
N/S = Not sufficient funds.
Not in order.
Writing and figures disagree.
No effects.
Effects not cleared.
Account closed.
If a cheque has been cut or torn, payment would be generally
refused unless evidence is given that it has been accidentally
done, and followed by a banker's signature.
It is useful to note that a cheque is paid when the money passes
over the counter, and the banker cannot legally demand its return.
Lost Cheques.In such an event, all parties to it should be
advised ; the drawer should be requested to stop payment, and
the loss advertised. If the payee selects the channel through
which the remittance is made, or the ordinary means of com
munication are made use of, the loss falls upon him, and he
must find the indemnity requisite before a new cheque is issued.
On a satisfactory indemnity being offered, he can insist upon
a new cheque being given to him.
General.A cheque is not legal tender, but a conditional
payment, only suspending the right of action until the cheque
 CHEQUES 265
has been presented. It may be added that the cheque is
accepted conditionally upon its being met.
Should a cheque be dishonoured in error, the right of action
for damages is with the drawer, and not with the holder of the
cheque, who cannot sue the banker. With a lost cheque the
banker will only accept the instructions of the drawer in
stopping its payment.
Crossed Cheques.So extensive is the use of cheques in the
payment of accounts, and so many are forwarded by post, that
something safer than the order cheque was found to be essential.
This safeguard is supplied in the crossing of cheques. Originat
ing from the Clearing House, the custom is now almost uni
versally adopted by business houses. The crossing consists of
two transverse lines written across the face of the cheque,
without or with the words "& Co.," or the name of a bank.
Such crossing is an instruction to the paying banker that the
cheque must only be paid to another banker. Generally, the
crossing is made by the drawer at the request of the customer.
Cheques are very commonly printed with the addition of the
crossing ; the holder of an uncrossed cheque usually crosses the
cheque for payment at the bank.

if/

/J ,

/7
The first is termed a general crossing, and means that
the cheque may be paid through any banker.
The second is termed a special crossing, and is an instruction
that the cheque must be paid to the bank named in the crossing
for collection by them.
The third and fourth are also special crossings made to
insure the cheque being paid to the account of the person or
firm in whose favour it is drawn. Although there is uncertainty
as to a banker's liability in disregarding this instruction, the
instruction is complied with by the banker.1
1 In a recent case, in which a cheque payable to the firm and crossed "A/o
payees" had been credited to a partner's private account, the banker was held
liable for neglecting the above instruction.
266 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
It will be observed that there must be two lines to constitute
the crossing, therefore one line would not constitute " crossing."
The name of a banker without the lines would also be
recognized as a crossing.
Further, there must not be a double crossing.
In paying crossed cheques to persons who have no banking
account, some inconvenience in the way of getting the cheque
passed through the account of another firm may be caused;
to obviate this, the crossing may be cancelled by the drawer
writing across the cheque "pay cash," and adding his signature
to the alteration. Of course an open cheque might be issued
to prevent this cancelling of the crossing.
Not Negotiable Cheques.The cheque is a negotiable instru
ment, that is, one, the property in which is acquired by every
person who takes it in good faith and for value. A bearer
cheque is transferable by delivery, an order cheque by endorse
ment and delivery.

By adding to crossed cheques the words "not negotiable,"

notice or warning is given to any one taking such a cheque
that in doing so he has no better title to it than the one from
whom he received it, and thus may be liable to refund the
amount of such cheque to the person in whose favour it is
drawn. Although these cheques are transferred, the intention
of making them not negotiable is to limit their being dealt with
except for collection by the banker ; an ordinary crossed cheque,
on the other hand, may be transferred again and again prior
to its collection.
By the Bills of Exchange (Crossed Cheques) Act, 1906, a
banker crediting a customer's account with a crossed cheque
before receiving payment of it is protected by sect. 82 of the
Bills of Exchange Act, 1882. This annuls a well-known case
in which the bank was held liable to make good the proceeds
of certain stolen crossed cheques, on the ground that as these
cheques were credited at once to the customer's account the
 CHEQUES 267
bank was collecting the money for itself, and therefore not
protected by sect. 82. This section enacts that when a banker
in good faith and without negligence receives payment for a
customer of a cheque crossed generally or specially to himself,
and the customer has no title or a defective title thereto, the
banker shall not incur any liability to the true owner by reason
of having received such payment.
Clearing of Cheques.Consequent upon the great increase
of remittances and payments by cheque, and the growth of
joint-stock banking, the bankers found it necessary that in
place of sending clerks to the various banks for the collection
of cheques, a more convenient method should be arranged.
The Clearing House system was therefore established, by which
the representatives of each bank meet and exchange the cheques
they hold upon other banks for cheques drawn upon them, the
difference being settled by transfer notes upon the Bank of
England. In this way no hard cash need be used in settlement
of the vast number of cheques transferred in this manner.
Some idea of the immensity of the transactions may be formed
from the fact that the annual turnover of the London Clearing
House is given as six thousand millions sterling.
Circular Notes.To save travellers inconvenience and risk
in carrying cash about, many banks issue letters of credit,
which are addressed, together with a general letter or order
to the bank's agents on the Continent, authorizing them to pay
to the order of the traveller certain sums of money. The notes
are issued for sums of from 10 and upwards, and are converted
into foreign money at the current rate at the time and place of
payment.
Letters of CreditThese instruments are also issued for the
convenience of travellers in order to place them in funds at the
various centres at which they may call.
They may be either general or special, the former being
directed to the bank's foreign agents at the places required, and
the latter being directed to some foreign bank.
268 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Example
CIRCULAR NOTE
Bank.
No
Lettre de Crdit Circulaire pour 10 sterling.
Londres, ce , 190 .
A Messieurs les Banquiers
dsigns dans nos lettres d'indication.
Messieurs,
Cette lettre vous sera remise par M. dont vous
trouverez la signature dans notre Lettre d'Indication susdite. Je
vous prie de vouloir bien lui compter sans frais quelconques la valeur
de dix livres sterling au cours usance sur Londres contre sa traite
ci-jointe sur cette banque.
J'ai l'honneur d'tre, Messieurs,
Votre trs-obissant serviteur,
Grant,
Secrtaire.
On the other side
Bank ,
Londres,
10.
A sept jours de vue prfix payez l'ordre de M.
dix livres sterling, valeur reue.

ce 190 .
The circular notes are accompanied by a letter of indication
as follows :
Londres, ce 1906.
Messieurs,
Le porteur de cette lettre, M. pour lequel
nous rclamons vos attentions, est muni de nos billets de change
circulaires pour son voyage. Nous vous prions de lui en fournir la
valeur sur son double acquit au cours du change usance sur notre
place et sans dductions de frais.
Si la ville o il en touchera le montant n'a pas de change direct
sur Londres, vous voudrez bien en combiner un avec la Place Cambiste
la plus voisine.
Vous observerez que tout Agio sur espces d'or ou d'argent, et tous
frais extraordinaires dans le cas d'un remboursement indirect, doivent
tre supports par le porteur et ne peuvent tre notre charge.
 CHEQUES 269
Cette lettre devant accompagner nos billets circulaires doit rester
dans les mains de leur porteur jusqu'a leur epuisement.
Nous avons l'honneur d'etre, Messieurs,
Vos tres humbles et tres obeissant serviteurs,
Gerant,
Secretaire.
The letter of indication must be produced when a circular
note is presented for payment, and the holder then endorses it.
The firm paying the amount must see that the signature
agrees with that on the letter of indication.

LETTER OF CREDIT
Bank, Ltd.
No.
Manchester, 190 .
To

Dear Sirs,
We beg to open a credit in favour of
for the sum of to be drawn for by
drafts on and we hereby under
take to honour the said drafts if in order on presentation.
Please note that the credit is in force for months from
date hereof, that each draft must be plainly marked as drawn under
the credit, and that the amount of each draft must be inscribed on the
back of this letter.
The letter itself should be cancelled and attached to the final draft.
We are, dear sirs,
Yours faithfully,
per pro Bank, Ltd.

Manager.
Entered.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

150. Give the definition and essentials of a cheque.
151. Under what circumstances will a banker refuse payment ?
152. What should be done in the case of a lost cheque ?
153. Briefly describe what is meant by the clearing of cheques.
154. State generally what you know of the law relating to crossed cheques.
155. What is the effect of crossing a cheque
(a) with, or
(6) without the words " not negotiable " ?
270 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
156. How should the following cheques be dealt with by the receiving
banker : (a) undated cheques ; (b) cheques presented after notice of the drawer's
death had been received ; (c) cheques dated six months prior to presentation ;
(d) cheque dated on a Sunday ?
157. State whether the undermentioned endorsements of cheques are in
order ; and if, in your opinion, irregular, explain in what way the endorsements
should be amended :
(o) A cheque drawn in favour of " James Smith, or Order * is endorsed
his
" James X Smith "
mark.
(b) A cheque drawn in favour of " Robert Radborn, Liquidator of the Hawk
Motor Co., Ltd., or Order" is endorsed
"ROBEKT RADBORN."
(c) A cheque drawn in favour of "George Good and Sons, or Order" is
endorsed
" George Good and Sons, A.R.C."
[d) A cheque drawn in favour of " Mr. Walter Long's Executors, or Order "
is endorsed
per pro " Walter Long's Executors, Geo. R. Long."
 CHAPTER XIX

BILLS OF EXCHANGE

FunctionsDefinitions and EssentialsStamp DutiesAcceptancesEndorse

mentsSignaturePresentation Dishonour Rights and Liabilities of
Parties to a BillAccommodation BillsCase of NeedAcceptance for
HonourForeign BillsEntry in the AccountsExchange.

Having given consideration to that form of bills of exchange

known as cheques, let us proceed with some notes on those
which, instead of being drawn on a banker, are drawn by one
business house upon another for the settlement of debts, and
which are known as drafts and acceptances.
There are two classes of billsinland and foreign ; and the
following formscheques, promissory notes, and drafts.
Functions of Bills.1. In its ordinary form, the bill fixes
the amount of a debt, and is taken to settle the indebtedness.
In this way the creditor has the advantage of having the amount
placed in such a form as to make it negotiable or transferable
to others, or by discounting may obtain a sum representing its
present value. To the debtor or acceptor it is convenient to
have a definite time fixed, in which he may provide the necessary
funds at maturity. In this way the larger houses enable thou
sands of shopkeepers and small trading firms to purchase larger
stocks, and give the opportunity of turning such goods into
cash with which to meet the drafts drawn upon them, payable at
from three to six months after the delivery of the merchandise.
2. Our foreign trade owes much to the service of bills. The
manufacturer or shipper in exporting draws upon the consignee,
or it may be, as per arrangement, upon commission houses in
this country, or by hypothecation of the documents, that is,
the bill of lading and the bill of exchange, accompanied by
invoices and insurance policy, obtains advances from or discounts
271
272 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
the bills with his bankers. The banker, in turn, will forward
the documents to his foreign agents, and either receive cash for
or satisfactory acceptance of the draft prior to the delivery of
the shipment to the consignee.
3. Another common form of a bill's functions is to enable the
English merchant, immediately on shipment of goods to a Con
tinental house, to draw upon some English firm, at, say, 80
days, as instructed by the foreign purchaser, forjhe amount of
the invoice, and to obtain the proceeds by discounting the bill.
The student will thus realize how largely international
trade is dependent upon these debt-transferring instruments in
facilitating the settlement of mutual liabilities between the
mother country, her colonies, and foreign nations.
As a simple illustration : Cross & Co., of Manchester, ship
to Agent & Co., of Antwerp, goods value 500 ; the latter, to
whom A. Merchant, of London, is a debtor, instruct Cross & Co.
on shipment to draw upon Merchant for the amount at 80 days.
In this way Agent & Co. settle their indebtedness to Cross & Co.
by the transfer of Merchant's debt, and thus the London and
Antwerp firms are saved the expenses of remittance to and from
the Continent, and the Manchester house is a gainer by the
arrangement.
Definition.A bill of exchange is an unconditional order in
writing, addressed by one person to another, signed by the
person giving it, requiring the person to whom it is addressed
to pay on demand, or at a fixed or determinable future time, a
sum certain in money to or to the order of a specified person or
bearer.
Put shortly, we may say that a bill is an order from one
person to another to pay to a stated person on demand, or at a
fixed future date, a certain sum of money. These points may be
observed to be included in the following draft :

500 0s. Od. Manchester, October 1, 1906.

3 Three months aftervttyte pay to the order of David
Copperfield the sum of Five Hundred pounds for value received.
To Oliver Twist, q\/ SuMnEY Cabton-
Lord Street;
Liverpool.
 BILLS OF EXCHANGE 273
When completed the above bill will bear three signatures
on it, namely, that of
(a) Sidney Carton, the drawer.
(fi) Oliver Twist, the drawee, and, after acceptance, the
acceptor.
(c) David Copperfield, the endorser or payee.
The bill may be negotiated or transferred by endorsement,
and delivered to another person or firm, and bear the endorse
ment of each firm by whom it is transferred. In the case of
foreign bills, it may happen that the bill bears so many endorse
ments that a slip called an " allonge " has to be added for
additional endorsements.
Should this order not be carried out at the due date,
provided that presentation has been made by the holder of the
bill at the place named for payment, or if not stated, then at
the acceptor's business or private address, the bill is dis
honoured. As proof of its presentation and dishonour the bill
would generally be noted by a notary, who thus certifies the
fact of dishonour; should a public notary not be available,
presentation may be certified by some responsible person, whose
certificate should be witnessed by two responsible persons.
Noting of inland bills is not requisite, but the noting and
protesting of foreign bills is essential.
It is advisable that notice of dishonour should be given by
the holder to each party and endorser of the bill, so that the
claim upon each may be maintained. Usually the holder
would claim from the last endorser, as the one from whom he
received it ; and each endorser upon the previous endorser, and
so to the drawer, who in turn would hold the acceptor liable for
the amount of the bill and the expenses.
Requisites of a Bill.The following points in regard to Bills
need our consideration.
(a) Stamp.
(6) Date.
(c) Place of issue.
(d) Tenor, or time of payment.
(e) Amount.
(/) Name and address of drawee.
(g) Name of payee, unless to the drawer's order, or to bearer.
(/<) Drawer's signature.
T
274 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
(i) Acceptance, which generally includes where payable.
(a) Stamp.All bills drawn in the United Kingdom must be
drawn on stamped paper. If payable on demand, at sight, on
presentation, or within three days after date or sight, a penny
stamp. Other bills of exchange and promissory notes of any
kind, except bank notes, an ad valorem stamp of

Not exceeding 5 . . Id.

Exceeding 5 and ,, ,, 10 . . 2d.
n ii 25 . . M.
), ,, 50 . . 6d.
ij ,) 75 . . 9d.
,, ,, 100 . . Is.
And for every 100, and also for any fractional part of 100, Is.
In the case of bills drawn and expressed to be payable out of
the United Kingdom, when actually paid, or endorsed, or nego
tiated in the United Kingdom, the stamp duty is reduced to
Where the amount exceeds 50 and does not exceed 100 Qd.
,, ,, 100, for every 100 or fractional
part of 100Gd.
Notice specially that, unlike a draft on demand, which only
requires a penny stamp, a promissory note payable on demand
requires an ad valorem stamp.
If the amount be stated in foreign currency, the stamp must
cover the sum, calculated at the rate of exchange on the day of
the date of the bill.
Whether the rate of interest is mentioned in the bill or not,
the stamp need only cover the principal.
As it happens that bills after being drawn are not accepted,
or even presented for acceptance, it may be observed that the
amount of the spoiled stamps may be recovered if application
be made within six months.
(b) Date.The date, or what he considers to be the correct
date, may be inserted by any lawful holder, but he should advise
the acceptor of the date inserted.
A bill may be dated prior or subsequent to the date on which
actually made, or to the date of the stamp, and be dated on a
Sunday. Although it is irregular not to date a bill, the effect of
the omission does not make it invalid.
 BILLS OF EXCHANGE 275
(c) Place 0/ Issue.This is usually stated on a draft ; the
bill would be valid even though the place where it is drawn is
not specified.
(d) Tenor, or Time of PaymentThis may be at sight, on
demand, after date, after sight. On inland bills after date or
after sight, there is an allowance of three extra days for pay
ment, termed " days of grace." Thus the bill given on p. 272
would be payable on January 4. No allowance is made for
lacking days; thus a three months' bill, dated February 28,
would be payable May 81, whilst one dated March 1 would
not be payable till June 4 ; but note that such a bill dated
March 81, would be payable July 3.
In the event of a bill being payable on Sunday, Christmas
Day, or Good Friday, it is payable on the preceding business
clay; if on a Bank Holiday, or a Sunday next after a Bank
Holiday, then on the succeeding business day.
(e) Amount.In addition to the statement of a fixed sum, a
rate of interest may be included, and as is common in promis
sory notes, the amount may be payable by instalments, and
the balance made payable on default. The amount may be
according to rate of exchange indicated or ascertained by the
bill. If specified in foreign money, the amount is calculated at
the rate of exchange for payments of drafts at the place where
the bill is payable and the date it is due, unless drawn up
" exchange as per endorsement."
As in the case of cheques, should the words and the figures
differ, the former are taken to indicate the correct sum.
(i) Acceptance.The acceptance is an acknowledgment by the
drawee of his assent to the order of the drawer, and may be
made by the drawee or his agent. A per pro acceptance binds
the drawee only to the extent of the authority given. Accept
ances by infants are invalid.
Should the drawee find that the name and address are in
correctly given, correction may be made.
The acceptance may be
1. General or clean acceptance, which assents without quali
fication to the order of the drawer, and consists of the signature
of the drawee only ; or more frequently, with the addition of the
place of payment, generally the London agents of his bankers.
2. Qualified, which may be in regard to (a) amount, (b) time,
276 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
(c) renewal, (d) payment by instalments, (c) place of payment,
and there only.
The holder of a bill may refuse to take a qualified accept
ance, and the drawer and endorser are not bound to it without
assent.
In the United Kingdom, the holder of a bill refused accept
ance is entitled to recover the amount of the bill at once from
the prior parties ; elsewhere, he can only demand better security
for payment at maturity.
Negotiation.Bills are negotiable, that is, transferable to
another person with all the rights and privileges to which the
holder is legally entitled, and as with cheques, unless negotiation
is restricted, are transferred by delivery, or endorsement and
delivery.
The holder may sue without notice to the person liable
to pay.
The transferee of a negotiable document is presumed to have
given consideration : e.g. holder in due course of a bill of
exchange.
A holder in due course takes free from equities, i.e. free from
any charge upon the instrument, or any taint in title.
Endorsements may precede or follow acceptances, and may
be
1. Blankthe simple name of the person or firm, without
any other instructions or limitation.
2. Restrictivewhich prohibits the further negotiation of
the bill, or which expresses that it is mere authority to deal
with the bill as thereby directed, and not a transfer of the
ownership thereof.
3. Special in which the endorser mentions a certain person
or persons, and may also state that it must not be transferred
(with or without leave to transfer).
Endorsements must be letter for letter as given :
If payable to several persons (not partners), each one must
endorse ; unless one has authority to endorse on behalf of the
others.
A minor may endorse in order to transfer a good title, though
not liable on the bill himself.
An executor or a trustee may endorse, but such endorsement
is generally guaranteed by his banker.
 BILLS OF EXCHANGE 277
A forged or unauthorized endorsement is inoperative, and
gives the holder of the bill no right to retain it or deal with it.
" Sans recours," i.e. " without recourse," is at times added
to a signature, and is a notice by the drawer or any endorser of
negativing his liability to the holder.
Signature.Where a person signs a bill in a trade or assumed
name, he is liable thereon as if he had signed it in his private
name. The signature of the name of a firm is equivalent to
the signature, by the person so signing, of the names of all
persons in that firm. A forged or unauthorized signature is
fully inoperative, and no right to detain a bill, or give a dis
charge therefor, or to enforce payment thereafter, can be acquired
through, or in that signature, unless the party against whom it
is sought to retain or enforce payment of the bill is precluded
from setting up the forgery or want of authority. A procura
tion signature only binds the principal when the agent is within
the actual limits of his authority.
Presentation.A bill must be presented for payment on the
due date, or recourse is lost against the drawer and endorsers ;
in the case of cheques, presentation within a reasonable time is
allowed.
A bill should be presented at the proper place, viz. :
(a) At the place specified in the bill.
(b) Where no place is mentioned, at the place of the drawee
given in the bill.
(c) Where this is not given, then at the addressee's place of
business, or at his ordinary residence.
Where the drawee or acceptor is dead, and no place of
appointment is specified, presentment must be made to a per
sonal representative, if such can be found.
Dishonour.Should a bill be dishonoured, immediate notice
must be given of such fact to the drawer and each endorser, in
the absence of which the drawer or endorser is discharged.
On the dishonouring of a bill, a holder may recover from any
party liable on the bill, and a drawer who has been compelled
to pay the bill may recover from the acceptor, and an endorser
who has been compelled to pay the bill may recover from the
acceptor or the drawer, or from a prior endorser
(a) The amount of the bill.
(b) Interest thereon from the time of presentment for
278 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
payment if the bill is payable on demand, and from the maturity
of the bill in any other case.
(c) The expenses of noting, or, when protest is necessary
and the protest has been extended, the expenses of protest.
Noting.The act of a notary who presents the bill and
initials it for identification.
A Foreign Bill Protest.To draw up in solemn form a decla
ration of the presentation and the answer received, and to affix
the notarial seal. The protest is then universally taken as
proof of presentation and dishonour.
Any endorser paying a dishonoured bill acquires the same
right against all prior parties, as does also the drawer against
the acceptor.
The following terms are met with in regard to bills :
Retour sans Protet, sans Frais, and sans Compte de Retour,
which mean that the endorser does not wish expense to be
incurred in case of irregularity.
Parties to a Bill.The parties to a bill of exchange are the
principal and sureties. The principal is the person primarily
liable for payment, viz. the drawee or acceptor, prior to accept
ance the drawer. The sureties are the persons secondarily
liable, i.e. liable to pay in default of the principal. These are
the drawer and the endorser. Although they are co-sureties
towards the holder of the bill, they are not so between them
selves, each prior endorser being liable to the subsequent
endorser, unless " sans recour."
The Drawer.The drawer of a bill, by drawing it
1. Engages that on due presentment it shall be accepted
and paid according to its tenor ; that if it be dishonoured he
will compensate the holder or any endorser who is compelled to
pay it, provided that the requisite proceedings on dishonour be
duly taken.
2. Is precluded from denying to a holder in due course the
existence of the payee and his then capacity to endorse.
The Acceptor. The acceptor of a bill, by accepting it
1. Engages that he will pay it according to the tenor of his
acceptance.
2. Is precluded from denying to a holder in due course
(a) The existence of the drawer, the genuineness of his sig
nature, and his capacity and authority to draw the bill.
 BILLS OF EXCHANGE 279
(b) In case of a bill 'payable to drawer's order, the then
capacity of the drawer to endorse but not the genuine
ness or validity of his endorsement.
(c) In case of a bill, payable to the order of a third person,
the existence of a payee and his then capacity to
endorse, but not the genuineness or validity of his
endorsement.
The Endorser.The endorser of a bill, by endorsing it
1. Engages that on due presentment it shall be accepted
and paid according to its tenor, and that if it be dishonoured
he will compensate the holder or a subsequent endorser who is
compelled to pay it, provided that the requisite proceedings on
dishonour be duly taken.
2. Is precluded from denying to a holder in due course the
genuineness and regularity in all respects of the drawer's signa
ture and all previous endorsements.
3. Is precluded from denying to his immediate or subsequent
indorsee that the bill was at the time of his endorsement a valid
and subsisting bill, and that he had then a good title thereto.
The Holder in due course is one who has taken up a bill
1. Complete and regular on the face of it.
2. Before it was overdue, and without notice that it had been
previously dishonoured.
3. In good faith and for value.
4. Without notice of any defect in the title of the person
who negotiated it.
Thus, if the holder has taken a bill before it was due, in
good faith, and gave value for it, and had no notice of any
defects in title, it will be immaterial that the bill was given
originally without consideration.
Accommodation Bills.An accommodation bill is one which
has upon it the name of a person who has signed as drawer,
acceptor, or endorser, without receiving value, and simply for
the purpose of lending his name and credit to another. A
person acting thus is an accommodation party, and he is liable,
just as any other party, to a holder for value, whether such
holder knew of his position or not. He is really a surety,
although the holder has recourse primarily against such accom
modation party who has accepted ; but the party accommodated
impliedly promises to indemnify such acceptor if he is compelled
28o ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
to pay the bill, i.e. the accommodation party is, on the face of it,
the principal debtor, having on payment the rights of a surety
against the party accommodated; e.g. securities held by the
creditor belong to him. An accommodation party is not liable
until value is given.
Lost BiU.In the case of a lost bill, the person who was the
holder may claim a new bill from the drawer on giving the latter
an indemnity against the one lost.
Case of Need.In the negotiation of foreign bills, with a view
to preserve the honour of the parties, and to save expense in
the event of the dishonouring of the bill, the name of a person
to whom the holder may have recourse in case of need may be
inserted by the drawer or any endorser. Of course it is at the
option of the holder to resort to the referee in case of need, and
prior to doing so the bill must be protested for non-payment.
Acceptance for Honour.If a bill is refused acceptance by
the drawee, or it is protested " for better security " after his
acceptance and subsequent failure, it may be protested for honour.
After protest it should be presented to any " case of need " named
on it, and if the case of need intervenes he should accept thus
Accepted for honour and account of A. B. & Co. (drawer or
endorser), with notarial charges, and will be paid, if regu
larly presented, when due.
N. Y. & Co.
If the name of the party for whose honour the bill is
accepted is not stated, the honour of the drawer is presumed.
Payment.When a bill is paid, the holder may be compelled
to deliver it up to the party paying it.
Foreign Bills.An inland bill is a bill which is, or on the
face of it purports to be
(a) Both drawn and payable within the British Isles.
(b) Drawn within the British Isles upon some person resident
therein.
Any other bill is a foreign bill.
The following are examples of a foreign bill, from which it
will be observed that to prevent inconvenience in the non-receipt
or delay in reaching its destination, the draft is usually drawn
in a set of two or three copies or vias, acceptance or payment
of one rendering the others void, and that only requiring to be
stamped :
 No. 1.
Exchange for $300. Manchester, April 27, 1906.
Ninety days after sight of this our First of Exchange (Second
and Third of the same tenor and date unpaid), pay to the order of

Nixon & Co., Three hundred dollars, value <^&C<^> 1/4, which

place to account as advised.

Hongkong.
Shipping Documents attached to be surrendered on payment.
Nixon & Co.
To Messrs. Westhead & Co.,
Hongkong.

No. 14127.
500. September 23, 1906.
Ninety days after sight, pay this First of Exchange (Second
and Third unpaid) to our order the sum of Five hundred pounds
sterling, payable at the National Bank of India's drawing rate for
, telegraphic
(or i-i v transfer)
x c x drafts on London, with interest at six (6)
v ' per
r
cent. per annum, added thereto from date hereof to approximate due
date of arrival of the remittance in London, value received against

Nixon & Co.

To Messrs. Anyone & Co.,
Calcutta.
Endorsed.-Pay the National Bank of India, Limited, or order.
Nixon & Co.

103 2s. 6d. Manchester, , 190 .

Ninety days after sight pay this First of Exchange (Second
unpaid) to the order of the London and Brazilian Bank, Limited, the
sum of One hundred and three pounds, two shillings, and sixpence,
payable at the Bank's drawing rate on day of maturity for sight bills on
London, value in ourselves, which please place to account as per advice
from
Nixon & Co.
To Messrs. Abletopay & Co.,
Rio de Janeiro.
No 13.
Endorsed.Pay the London & Brazilian Banking Co. Limited, or order.
Nixon & Co.
ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

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 BILLS OF EXCHANGE

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284 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
They are usually drawn "at sight," or "days after sight,"
in which latter case the acceptor in accepting adds the date of
sighting, from which time the currency of the hill dates.
In addition to the stamp duty of the country of issue, when
negotiated in this country, adhesive stamps are affixed in com
pliance with the Bills of Exchange Act.
We have seen that inland bills need not express consideration,
although " for value received " is generally included. Foreign
bills, however, should always state consideration as " for value
received," " value in account," etc.
In the event of an inland bill being dishonoured either by
non-acceptance or non-payment, it is not required that it be
noted, except when reference is made "to case of need;" but
in the case of foreign bills, it is absolutely necessary that on
dishonour the bill be noted and protested, as this evidence of
dishonour is required in foreign courts of law.
To summarize the points in regard to foreign bills, they are
(a) In sets.
(b) Usually drawn after sight or usanceusance meaning
the customary term for which bills are drawn between two
countries.
(c) Should be noted and protested on dishonour.
(d) State consideration.
(e) Governed partly by foreign, partly by English law.
Promissory Notes.A promissory note is an unconditional
promise in writing, made by one person to another, signed by
the maker, engaging to pay, on demand or on a fixed or
determinable future time, a sum certain in money, to, or to
the order of, a specified person, or to bearer. It resembles a
bill of exchange in being negotiable, and it differs from a bill
of exchange as to acceptance and as to production when a foreign
note is dishonoured, as also in the liabilities of the parties
respectively, the maker being primarily liable upon it.
Further, though payable on demand, it needs an ad valorem
stamp. The amount covered by such notes is very commonly
payable by instalments, upon each of which three days' grace
is allowed. In the case of several makers, it is usual to make
the notes joint and several, and when the note runs " I promise
to pay," and is signed by two or more persons, it is deemed to
be their joint and several note
 BILLS OF EXCHANGE 285
Examples

500 Birmingham, November 1, 1906.

On demand I promise to pay to Herbert Sharp, or Order,
the sum of Five Hundred Pounds.
Arthur Reader.

500 Leicester, November 1, 1906.

Six months after date we jointly and severally promise
to pay to the order of C. A. Moss the sum of Five Hundred
Pounds.
0 B. Black.
C. White.

Entry ofBill Transactions in the Accounts.Very careful should

be the business man to note fully the particulars of bills drawn ,
accepted, or endorsed by him. Every bill should bear a distinctive
or consecutive number, and be entered in a Bills Journal or
Bills Ledger, of which those on pp. 282, 288 are specimen forms.
Some firms adopt the method of keeping separate columns
in the Cash Book for bills ; those received entered on the debtor
side and credited to the customers; those accepted, or paid
away, being entered on the credit side, and posted to the debit
of those to whom handed. Another form of entry is to treat
them as cash, and enter them along with the cheques and other
receipts and payments, but this system cannot be considered as
satisfactory. In cases where the bill transactions are few, it is
usual to enter the particulars in a Memorandum Bill Book, and
then to journalize the bill entries, and when the cash is received
or paid, to make the entries in the Cash Book.
Let us take a few typical transactions, and make the Journal
entries for the same :

Bills Receivable
(a) Receipt of an acceptance
Bills receivable. Dr.
To Personal Account.
(b) Payment of the above acceptance to another firm
A. firm. Dr.
To bills receivable.
286 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
(c) Discount of above bill
Bank. Dr.
Discount. Dr.
To bills receivable.
(d) Payment to bank on maturity for collection
Bank. Dr.
To bills receivable.
(e) Bill dishonoured in case (J)
Person from whom received. Dr.
To A. firm. Cr.
if) Bill dishonoured in cases (c) and (d)
Person from whom received. Dr.
To cash or bank.
(g) Partial renewal of bill
Bill receivable. Dr. (new acceptance).
Cash. Dr.
To bill receivable (old acceptance).

Bills Payable
(a) Acceptance of draft
Personal Account. Dr.
To bills payable.
(b) Payment at due date
Bills payable. Dr.
To bank.
(o) Payment prior to maturityunder rebate
Bills payable. Dr.
To bank.
discount.
(d) Receipt of own acceptance from a debtor
Bilk payable. Dr.
To debtor. Cr.
(e) Failure to meet acceptance at maturity
Bills payable. Dr.
To personal account.

Example I
A. drew upon B., on January 1, 1905, a bill for 1000 at
three months, which he discounted with his bankers on January
10. Before the bill became due, B. applied to A. to renew half
the bill for a further three months, adding interest at 5 per
cent. per annum and cost of stamp, to which A. agreed on B.
paying him the other 500 in cash. A. therefore retired the
bill for 1000, and drew upon B. as agreed. Make the necessary
Journal entries for recording the above tranactions in A.'s books.
 BILLS OF EXCHANGE 287
. d. I. d.
Jan. 1. Bills receivable. Dr. . . 1000 0 0
ToB 1000 0 0
10. Cash. Dr 987 10 0
Discount 12 10 0
To bills receivable . . 1000 0 0
March . B. Dr 1006 10 0
To sundries
Cash 1000 0 0
Interest 6 5 0
Stamp, cash ... 050
. Cash. Dr 500 0 0
Bills receivable .... 506 10 0
To B 1006 10 0

Example II
A. and B. have the following accommodation bill transactions :
A. draws on B. for 675 at three months, from January 1, 1906.
A. discounts the bill with his banker for 640 on January 1,
and pays to B. out of the proceeds 320, which B. pays into
his bank. On March 28, 1906, to provide part of the funds
to meet his acceptance to A., B. draws on A. for 500 at three
months, and discounts the bill with C., receiving therefor 490
in cash, which B. pays into his bank, and through his bank
duly provides for his acceptance. Give the entries in B.'s
Journal recording these transactions.
1806. t. d. t. d.
Jan. 1. A. Dr 675 0 0
To bills payable 675 0 0
Cash. Dr. 320 0 0
Discount. Dr. (half of 35) ... 17100
To A 337 10 0
March 28. Bills receivable 500 0 0
To A 500 0 0
Cash. Dr 490 0 0
Discount. Dr 10 0 0
To bills receivable 500 0 0
A. Dr 6 17 9
To discount 6 17 9
i.e. A.'s proportion of accommodation
discount337J/490ths of 10
April 4. Bills payable. Dr 675 0 0
To cash 675 0 0

Foreign Exchange
We have shown how large a part the bill plays iu the dis
charge of home trade accounts ; now we may consider the part
288 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
taken by bills of exchange in the settlement of the indebtedness
arising from the immense volume of our foreign and colonial
trade, which in 1906 reached the enormous total of a thousand
millions sterlingimports and exports. When it is realized
that the settlement of this vast trade is mainly effected by
means of drafts, for the purchase and negotiation of which we
have a market of keenly competing bill brokers, it will be under
stood that "foreign exchange," i.e. the buying and selling of
foreign bills, is of much import to the merchant.
Put briefly, exchange is the transfer of debts represented by
paper ; the dealing in which is complicated by the debts being
in various currencies, and by the metals of the different countries
concerned differing in kind and quality. The prices of the bills
are, within certain limits, constantly varying, the fluctuations
being due to various causes, but mainly to the variations of
supply and demand of the particular drafts required; for
instance, if it is desired to remit to Paris, and there is an
abundance of French bills in the market, then the sterling
money will buy bills representing more francs than it would if
there were a scarcity of drafts payable in Paris.
Similar to dealings in shares on the Stock Exchange, bills
may be regarded as being dealt with at a discount or at a pre
mium, but rarely at par. The " mint par of exchange " is " the
relation between the amount of pure metal contained in the
standard coins of the various countries ; " thus the intrinsic
value of the gold in 1 sterling, as compared with francs, is
equal to 25*225 francs. From this we obtain what are termed
"specie points," i.e. the points at which it is calculated that
bullion may be forwarded to settle the debts, and the limit
above the higher or below the lower, the rate of exchange rarely
passes for demand or short paper.
In the case of Paris, the cost of conveying the bullion to
discharge a debt would be about 12j centimes for each l ;
therefore the lower specie point would be 25*125 francs, and the
higher one 25*325 francs ; in each case the difference between
the mint par of exchange (25*225) and the cost of transmission
of bullion. When a Manchester merchant wishful of buying
cheques or bills on Paris finds that his sovereign will only pur
chase less than 25*15 francs, he may decide to forward bullion,
or the English holder of bills on Paris may obtain francs up to
 BILLS OF EXCHANGE 289
the higher specie point (25'25) for his l ; but when this limit
is reached, bullion will probably be forwarded from Paris to
London ; just as in the former case, when the cost of remittance
exceeded the lower specie point, there would be a movement of
bullion from London to Paris. It must be remembered that
what we have said refers to " demand " or short bills or cheques,
as should the bills be payable at a future date, then interest will
enter into the calculations and affect the " course of exchange,"
a term meaning the rates of exchange.
To give an example, the price of a bill, other things being
equal, oscillates at about its face value, or mint par, the fluctua
tions being dependent on the supply and demand resulting from
the balance of indebtedness between two countries ; thus, let us
say, we owe to Germany 100,000, while Germany owes us only
80,000, then there will be competition for bills on Germany,
and their price will rise ; if, however, there are more bills in the
country than there are debts to pay, as in the event of our owing
to Germany 80,000 and having claims on her for 100,000,
then we may expect the price to fall ; it will thus be seen that
in the latter case a number of bill-holders will be put to expense
in obtaining the money for the bills held by them, and, in the
other case, traders put to expense in discharging their debts.
The value of a bill is also determined by the following factors :
(a) The time the bill has to run.
(b) The market rate of interest.
(c) The credit of the drawer and of the acceptor or of
endorsers.
The price of bills in a particular country is also influenced
by the price of bills on other countries ; John Bull may pay a
debt to Germany by buying a French bill, thus paying the debt
owing to Germany by a debt she owes to France. We have so
far referred to traders' bills, but in many operations the inter
vention of the banker is necessary, as, say, in the payment of a
German debt by a banker's bill drawn on Chili. These indirect
exchange operations are termed arbitrage.
From an inspection of the following exchange rates, the
student will notice how the element of time plays an important
part in the quotations, bringing into account the consideration
of interest for the time the bill has to run, and also the question
of money rates at the maturity of the bill.
 LONDON COURSE OK EXCHANGE

Price negotiated on 'Change.

Oo Usance.
January 22nd. January 21th.

Paris Cheques 2521J 25-23} 25-221 25-25

3 months 25-42J 25-47J 25 43} 25-48}
Marseilles . 2543} 2548} 25-43} 25 482
Amsterdam cheques J2-2J 12-2J 12-2J 12-2}
3 months 12-5J 12-6J 12-5J 12-6
Berlin 20-76 20-80 20-76 20-80
Hamburg .... 20-76 20-80 20-76 20-80
Frankfort .... 20-76 20-80 2076 20-80
Vienna and Trieste . 24-42 24-46 24-42 24-46
Antwerp .... 25-56J 25-61J 25-56J 25-6U
St. Petersburg . . 24J 24J 241 241
Moscow . 24J 241 241 241
Genoa, Naples, etc. . 25-56J 25-611 25-57} 25.621
Madrid, Barcelona, etc. 43J 43J 43ft 43ft
Lisbon 51ft 511 51?
Switzerland . . . 25-55 25-60 25-55 25-60

FOREIGN RATES OF EXCHANGE ON LONDON

Latest Rates of Usance. Latest Rates of Usance.
dates. exchange. dates. exchange.

Paris . . . Jan 25 25-22J Cheques. Rio Janeiro . Jan. 23 151<I. 90dys. st.
Brussels . . tt 24 25-33 Buenos Ayres 23 48Jrf.
Amsterdam . n 24 12'11} Short Do pm. on gold! 23 127-271
Berlin. . . 24 20-51 , Montevideo Dec. 28 53id. 90 d'ys. st.
n 24 20-25 3 months Bng. Sng
Hamburg . ) 24 20-50 short Melbourne Nov. 20 I dis. par. 6O dys. st.
Frankfort. . 24 20-48 Sydney . 20
Vienna . . 24 2410} Adelaide . 20
St. Petersburg M 24 94 3 months Calcutta . Jan. 25 1/41 \ telegraph
New York . n 24 4-81J 80 days Bombay . 25 1/4AJ transfer
at sight Hong Kong 2o 2/2} transfer
Lisbon . . t 24 52J Shanghai . 25 3/Oj
Madrid . . n 25 2725
Italy . . . " 24 25-23J

EASTERN EXCHANGE
Outwabd Rates.Bank Buying Rates
January 28, 1907
60 days. 30 days. Demand.
1
1 *- d. t. | d. .. d.
India and Rangoon . . per rupee 1 :pHS 1 318 1 4ft
2 21 2 28 I 2ft
. per dollar 1 "1 2 0 2 1
2 2 31 2 3}|
3 0 3 01 3 0}
3 1 3 11 3 U
 BILLS OF EXCHANGE 291
Taking the first quotation, it will be seen that, whereas
cheques payable in Paris were paid for at 28,21 per 1 sterling,
the purchasers of three months' bills bought them at the rate of
25'42 francs for each sovereign.
In reading the list, it must be noted that quotations in deci
mals usually mean that the sterling is the fixed unit of
exchange ; when the quotation is in pence, it is the equivalent
of the standard coins of the countries concerned. Also it should
be mentioned that in the case of decimal quotations the lower
rate is for first-class bills, the higher for ordinary trade bills ;
for those quoted in pence the lower is for trade bills, the higher
for bankers' bills.
Telegraphic Transfers.Remittances are also made by tele
graphic transfers through the agency of bankers or of " Reuter,"
by means of which amounts may be cabled from this side to be
placed to the credit of the firm concernedsay in Bombay
within a few hours, and at a cost the merest fraction of the sum
thus remitted.
In conclusion we would point out that as foreign exchange
may be regarded as a barometer which guides the merchant and
banker in forming fairly accurate ideas of the international
situation and of the course of trade between the respective
countries, it is important that those interested in foreign trade
should closely study current economic, financial, and political
events and their influence upon the question of exchange.

QUESTIONS AND EXEECISES

158. What is the definition of an acceptance given in the Bills of Exchange
Act, and what constitutes a sufficient acceptance ?
159. Explain and illustrate the difference between a general and a qualified
acceptance of a bill of exchange.
160. Henry and Co., of London, owing money to George and Co., of New
York, and having a debtor, John Bull, in that city, advise the latter of their
drawing upon him in favour of George and Co. Draw the bill.
161. What is the effect of altering a bill of exchange in a material part?
Mention some alterations which are deemed to be material.
162. Prepare a form of bill dated November 1, 1905, drawn by B. Brown and
Co., Ltd., upon and accepted by Henry Jack, of 81, Longley Road, Penborougb,
jeweller, for payment of 89 10s. at the Northern Bank, Ltd., in London, four
months after date.
163. Brown and Co., receiving a large number of bills of exchange from
customers, wish to adopt the most convenient method of recording them. What
292 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
do you recommend ? Make rulings, and show the entries in respect of the
above bill.
164. Is it absolutely necessary to note and protest a bill of exchange in case
of dishonour ? State briefly the legal object of noting a bill of exchange.
165. Jones and Co. draw upon A. and Co. for an account of 500, allowing
them 1 per cent. discount. At maturity the acceptors borrow from the drawers
100, to assist them in meeting the bill, which is, however, finally dishonoured,
Ajax and Co. repaying 70 of the loan. State the Ledger Account in the books
of Jones and Co., after the transactions are completed.
165a. Discuss the question of Foreign Exchange.
1656. Explain the following terms :
Mint Par of Exchange ; Specie points ; Arbitrage; Course of Exchange.
 CHAPTER XX

DOUBLE ACCOUNT SYSTEM

Capital Receipts and Expenditure AccountsGeneral Balance SheetRepairs

and Renewal FundCompanies to which applicableAccounts of Railway
Companies and General Balance SheetSingle Ship CompaniesTramway
Companies.

In dealing with the subject of this chapter, we have to look at

the question of a " profit available for dividend " from another
view. As the reader will have seen, up to this point we have,
at the conclusion of the financial period, written off the balances
of the nominal accounts to Profit and Loss Account, and have
provided for any depreciation of fixed assets by writing off to
this same account an amount considered sufficient to reduce
the various assets of this nature to their breaking-up value
when the time for this comes. The various assets at their
estimated value and the liabilities are then set out in the
Balance Sheet, and if the double entry is correct for the period,
the balance of the Profit and Loss Account is the same figure
as the difference between the assets and liabilities, and on being
carried to the Balance Sheet will make the two sides of that
account to agree. On examining this method it will be seen
that the effect (though more complete and satisfactory in every
way) is the same as in the Single Entry system, where all the
assets are placed on one side of the account, and the opening
capital (after adjustment for withdrawals, etc.) and the liabilities
on the other side, and the difference, where the assets give the
higher figure, being the profit for the yearthe profit in single
entry, therefore, is the excess of assets over liabilities and capital,
and the same rule applies in double entry, save that a Profit
and Loss Account is prepared in addition from the nominal
accounts, which must agree with the figure shown as excess of
assets.
293
294 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
In the Double Account system, however, the Balance Sheet
is divided into two parts : the first of these, consisting of what
is known in Railway Accounts as "Receipts and Expenditure
on Capital Account," contains on one side the total amount of
cash received on account of the shares, debentures, and pre
miums on the same from the public, and on the other side
particulars of the total expenditure to date in respect of the
fixed assets, including land, buildings, permanent way, rolling
stock, preliminary expenses, etc., all stated at first cost. The
second part is called the General Balance Sheet, and contains
the balance only of the first part, and then sets out in the
statutory form the floating assets and liabilities only together
with the balance of the Net Eevenue Accountthe profit
available for dividend in this case being the credit balance of
the Revenue Account.
The main differences are, (1) the form of Balance Sheet and
statement of the assets ; (2) the treatment of depreciation and
renewals ; (3) the question of preliminary expenses, premiums
on shares, etc.
With regard to the first, the foregoing remarks and the
subsequent forms should be sufficient explanation. To deal
with the second, it must be remembered that all the fixed assets
are stated at the original cost, and the only variation of this is
to add the cost of any extension of the system to the capital
expenditure. Depreciation, therefore, as understood and worked
in the accounts of a company using the simple double entry,
does not exist. If, however, an expensive lease is included as
a fixed asset, a depreciation fund may be raised by debiting
revenue and crediting the fund which will appear as a liability
in the General Balance Sheet, as will be seen by a reference to
the Gas Works Clauses Act, 1871. Apart from this, no deprecia
tion is provided for, but all renewals and repairs of every
description are charged against revenue. This rule is supposed
to do away with the necessity of depreciation, but it must be
remembered that in earlier years there will be comparatively few
repairs, and probably no renewals, and that in later years large
renewals will make one period compare very unfavourably with
the more fortunate half-years when such renewals are com
paratively small. To meet this objection, many companies
charge from the beginning of their existence an average sum
 DOUBLE ACCOUNT SYSTEM 295
against revenue, and credit this amount to a "Repairs and
Renewals Fund," and after debiting the account with the total
expense actually incurred during the period, carry forward the
balance as a liability in the General Balance Sheet.
The third question, the treatment of premiums on shares,
capital profits, preliminary expenses, etc., is settled by the form
of the accounts, which show that all these items are in the nature
of capital, and therefore the former cannot be divided as profit,
nor is the last written off out of profits ; whilst companies keep
ing their accounts by the single account system, might distribute
the former, subject to their articles of association; and, as a
matter of sound finance, will probably write off their preliminary
expenses against revenue in their early years of trading, usually
in three or five years.
This method of accounting was used in the first instance in
the case of certain companies which were incorporated by special
Acts of Parliament, such as railway, gas, and water companies.
As other companies are governed by " Table A," excepting in
so far as this document may be excluded or varied by the
company's special articles of association, so Parliamentary
companies are governed by the Companies Clauses Consolidation
Act of 1845, and the various Acts of a similar nature suitable
to their own class of business, subject to any variations made
by their own special Act. Railway companies, for instance, are
governed by numerous Acts, one of which, viz. the Regulation
of Railways Act, 1868, in a schedule sets out the form of accounts
in which railway companies were to present their half-yearly
statements to their shareholders, and for our present purpose
we may take that Act as the one which commenced the modern
" Double Account " system.
The forms prescribed can be seen in the published accounts
of all railways, and many of them are statistical only, the full
accounts consisting of
1. Statement of Capital authorized and created by the
Company.
2. Statement of Stock and Share Capital created, showing
the Proportion received.
8. Capital raised by Debenture Stock.
4. Receipts and Expenditure on Capital Account.
5. Details of Capital Expenditure, Half-year ending .
296 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
6. Return of Working Stock.
7. Estimate of further Expenditure on Capital Account.
8. Capital Powers and other Assets available to meet
further Expenditure, as per No. 7.
9. Revenue Account, Half-year ending .
10. Net Revenue Account.
11. Proposed Appropriation of Balance available for
Dividend.
12. Abstracts, Half-year ending (of various ex
penses, etc.).
13. General Balance Sheet.
14. Mileage Statement, Half-year ending .
15. Statement of Train Mileage.
On looking over this list, it may be pointed out that the
Balance Sheet is contained in parts 4 and 13, and in certain
cases also partially in No. 2 and No. 3, and that the Profit and
Loss Account appears in Nos. 9 and 10 ; beyond that, for book
keeping purposes, we need not go, whilst for examination purposes
(so far as questions have been set up to date) we can further
ignore 9 and 10.
Form No. 2 is in use mainly by the older railways which,
in earlier days, when money earned a higher rate of interest,
issued preference stock carrying rates of interest from 5 per
cent. downwards, and later found the varying rates trouble
some, and therefore obtained powers under a special Act
of Parliament to consolidate their stock. Thus supposing
a company had issued at various times the following
500,000 preference stock carrying 5% interest
1,000,000 4%
1,000,000 3%
and they wish to convert these to a uniform 3 per cent. con
solidated stock, it would be accomplished by issuing to the
holders of the two earlier stocks a sufficient amount of the new
" Consolidateds " to bring them in a similar income to that
which they now enjoy, therefore any one holding 100 stock of
each would receive in exchange for the 5 per cent. stock
166 13s- M., for the 4 per cent. stock 133 6s. 8d., and for
the 3 per cent. stock 100, so that the new capital would be
issued thus
DOUBLE ACCOUNT SYSTEM

1

A1muount
2000 2000

a
Amouni uncal ed

a
w
i
PS
u o
1-3
<; so
H Q 1
> I . co
rH co
O H To0toaulc
O 000000 0 1202 2 CO
co
H s CO
PS CO
< i
W <-H
co C
H Ok. b a
Q 3S 3S .
P3 op- '.' CO co
-3 o
M PH- co co
CO
o cc M CO .
o w s
H CO
H o
a =
c? !
PS *s o o
H M 1e
PS 0.0 ,0 28000 o
K o a0
c
b
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ITS
EH s
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.o CO CO
i-H
A1mciount
o 00000 0 12 ,2 2 2000 s
PS CO

CO
)<
c^

a
|a -aa
.5
T3 ^P
.2 % 1
a
B o. in
O
 298 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
t. d.
500,000 preference stock 5% would equal 883,388 6 8 new stock
1,000,000 4/0 1,383,833 6 8
1,000,000 3% 1,000,000 0 0

and these particulars would be set out in form No. 2 as

shown on p. 297.
It will be seen on reference to No. 4 that the figure of
6,500,000 only is dealt with, so that for the nominal amount
of our capital, which under the single account system would
appear on the Balance Sheet, we must refer to the statement.
To carry our accounts of the South of England Railway
Company to the full extent, we must now set out the Capital
Account, which, it will be noticed, bears what seems at the first
glance the contradictory heading of receipts and expenditure.
On second thoughts, however, we see this heading is correct,
since we want to know the actual amounts received on Capital
Account, as is shown on the Single Account Balance Sheet,
viz. " capital called up, less calls in arrear," whilst we also wish
to know the amount expended, and must include as creditors in
our General Balance Sheet all items and liabilities incurred on
Capital Account as well as the actual payments.
Another point to be borne in mind by the examination
candidate if faced with an account of this description is, that
though the official form attached to the Act provides on the
liabilities side of the Balance Sheet for a balance of capital
receipts, it is no uncommon thing for the company to have
expended more than they have received on Capital Account,
and therefore to show a debit balance in the Balance Sheet,
so causing the balance of Capital Account to appear apparently
on the wrong side.
Premiums received on the issue of shares are, in companies
of this description, a capital receipt, and must appear as such
in the accounts. This, of course, is different from the method
employed in the Single Account system, and should be duly
noted as such. Permanent loans, that is to say debenture stock,
are also capital receipts, and therefore come into No. 4, leaving
our General Balance Sheet, No. 13, entirely free for the floating
assets and liabilities as mentioned before in this chapter.
DOUBLE ACCOUNT SYSTEM
300 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

No. 13. General Balance Sheet

Dr. Cr.
t t
To Capital Accountbalance By cash at bankers, Current
at credit thereof, per Account, and at interest 191,654
No. 4 76,842 bills receivable .... 10,849
Net Revenuo Account general stores, stock of
balance at credit thereof, materials on hand . . 75,549
per account No. 10 . . 172,014 traffic accounts due to the
guaranteed dividends and 110,245
interest payable or ac amount due by post-office 3,678
cruing and provided for 36.997 balance due from other
amount due to Clearing 23,817
58,135 ,, sundry outstanding ac-
balance due to other com- 18,640
19,796
sundry outstanding ac-
58,648
insurance fund .... 12,000
434,432 434,432

When a substantial replacement and addition occurs, the

method of railways is to charge the cost of replacement in the
old style but at modern rates to the Repairs Fund, whilst any
increase in the cost above that figure would be considered as
capital. Thus a replacement of a station which had originally
cost 20,000, and which to rebuild in the same style would now
cost 28,000, by a newer and larger one required by the
increased traffic, which has cost the company 100,000 in all,
would be debited to revenue to the extent of 28,000, less any
amount received for the old material, and the balance only
charged as additional capital expenditure.
Subject to the Acts of Parliament and to the principles of
sound finance, the apportionment of expenditure to revenue and
to capital is entirely a matter for the companies, and no question
of interference by outsiders need be considered.
When we come to deal with a water company, for instance,
we find that in consideration of being allowed a monopoly in a
necessity of life for a particular district, the company, by the
Acts relating to this class of business, is precluded from paying
more than 10 per cent. as a dividend, which 10 per cent. is
treated as a cumulative preference dividend would be, that is to
say that the company may pay this dividend for every year on
 DOUBLE ACCOUNT SYSTEM 301
each share, and if in early years the rate has been less than
that, the company can now make up the deficiency. After
paying this 10 per cent. dividend, they are allowed to build
up a reserve fund, which, however, must not exceed one-tenth
of their capital, and all profits after that must go to reduce
the charge which they make for water to their consumers. A
double duty thus exists in a company of this class with regard
to the repairs and renewals, for with a prosperous company
one often sees the officials charging everything possible to
revenue, so as not to show so large a profit as to make it
necessary to reduce the price.
A similar rule as to maximum profits also governs gas
companies, unless, indeed, a smaller maximum than 10 per
cent, should be given in the special Act, in which case that
lower rate prevails.
Having therefore seen the principle and form of the Double
Account system as applied to parliamentary companies, we must
now give consideration to its extension to other companies,
which have adopted this method of keeping fixed assets and
revenue quite distinct.
The most important and usual of these is a Single Ship
Company, that is a society owning one ship only, and not a
fleet of steamers. Many of these companies are now registered
under the Companies Acts, 1862-1900, but many still hold to
the old rule of dividing the ship into 64 equal shares. In com
panies of this class it is usual to charge the first cost of the ship
to Capital Account, and after that to keep her in good repair
and pay any credit balance of Revenue Account to the share
holders from time to time. In this way, of course, no depre
ciation is dealt with, and since sooner or later our good ship
becomes scrap iron, it follows that the so-called dividends include
capital returned ; the investor should remember this and set
aside out of his dividend such portion as may be capital for
reinvestment, using the balance only for income purposes.
Some of these concerns insure their ship for what they consider
its present value, and state the amount at which it is insured in
the accounts. In this case the investor can make his own
provision for the day when the company is wound up.
The decision of the courts in the important case of Lee
v. Neuchatel Asphalte Co. also led a certain class of mining
 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
companies to disregard allowing for depreciation except to a
very limited extent. The company was formed to work various
asphalte " concessions " for a term of years, in which admit
tedly the asphalte would outlast the concession, and the Court
held that the credit balance of Revenue Account might be dis
tributed as dividend without reference to depreciation. In this
matter, however, the concessions had been increased, so that
when the case was tried they had actually longer to run than
when the company was formed.
Another decision bearing on the depreciation question was
that of Verncr v. The General and Commercial Trust Co. Here
the company was formed for the purpose of buying certain
stocks and dividing the income arising therefrom amongst the
shareholders ; such stocks and shares under these circumstances
were held by the. Court to be in the nature of fixed assets, and it
was therefore held that the credit balance of Revenue Account
could be divided, even though the capital value of the stock had
fallen below the purchase price, and no reserve had been made
to deal with the loss which was bound to arise when realization
took place.
It will thus be seen that the idea of keeping fixed assets and
floating assets entirely distinct has, by the various decisions of
the Courts, been gradually extending and applied to companies
other than parliamentary companies.
Of course, in all companies it is unusual to interfere with
any fluctuation of value of such fixed assets as land {Bolton v.
Natal Land and Colonization Co.) and goodwill (Wilmer v.
McNamara and Co.). These cases allowed dividends to be paid,
although it was alleged that assets of this nature had depre
ciated and no provision had been made for the same.
The true Double Account system may be applied to tram
ways, light railways, and certain mining companies with satis
factory results, and to certain other companies with legal
protection, but not always with such success or with real
financial soundness, unless, as has been pointed out in the
foregoing remarks, the shareholder is made to understand that
his capital or a portion of it is being returned in the form of
dividend.
Example of Accounts of tramway company :
 DOUBLE ACCOUNT SYSTEM 303
3 0 0 0 0 0 -a7 o o 00
la WO O O 0 0 O O o o
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if3 -a S -sla s <ao

W MO
304 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

166. State the objects of the Double Account system.
167. To what classes of companies is the Double Account system applicable?
168. Give an example of a Capital Receipts and Expenditure Account.
169. How may provision for depreciation be made?
170. Distinguish between the Double Account and the Single Account
methods of preparing a company's Balance Sheet, and explain in what respects
the two methods differ in their effect on the amount of divisible profit.
171. Distinguish between the treatment of premiums received on the issue
of shares by a Double Account undertaking, and a Single Account company.
172. From the following particulars write out a Capital Account and
Balance Sheet of the Sun Electric Light Company, Ltd., as on December 31,
1900:
Amounts on Amounts on Dec. 31 , 1900.
Dec. 31, 1890.
t t. d. i. d. t t. a.
42,628 17 2 Mains including cost of laying 90,211 10 4
1,163 18 8 Transformers, motors, etc. . 9,537 3 10
521 10 6 Meters and fees for certifying 2,171 11 6
Electrical instruments ... 186 8 8
963 3 0 Cost of provisional order . . 963 3 0
40,000 0 0 Preference shares, 40,000 1
shares 6 per cent 40,000 O 0
50,000 0 0 Ordinary shares, 50,000 1
shares 50,000 0 0
Debenture stock, 4i per cent. 20,000 O 0
Sundry creditors 7,943 1 7
Reserve for depreciation and
repairs 2,000 0 0
Sundry debtors 10,039 14 2
Stores on hand 5,005 12 2
Cash at bank 5,500 8 0
Cash in hand 27 0 6
Dividend on preference shares
for half-year to June 30,
1900, less tax 1,140 0 0
Revenue Account, including
530 10s. balance from Dec.
31, 1899 4,839 10 7
124,782 12 2 124,782 12 2
 Masonic. llarrf
t s.
B/F. 5 19
C/F.

Brought Apartments Kires and Billiards.

Nunc No. forward. and light. Break
attendance.
t. d. 1. d. a. a. a. a. d.
Harris .... Masonic. 5 19 4
Grieve .... 42 S (i 3 6
1
Bolton .... 43
Chances
Smoke-room .
Vaults ....

6 4 10 3 6
1
 CHAPTER XXI

TABULAR LEDGERS AND ACCOUNTS

Hotel AccountsTabular Ledger of a Gas CompanySolicitor's Cash Journal-

Perpetual LedgersCard and Slip Systems.
We now have to consider the method of bookkeeping comprised
under the above heading, and it will be convenient for the
moment to compare this class of ledger with that of the ordinary
commercial business, which, up to now, we have been mainly
considering. In the latter the Ledger is the book in which, for
purposes of convenience, we have collected the items under
convenient headings, personal and nominal, which have already
appeared in the books of first entry. Tabular Ledgers are,
however, themselves, as a rule, books of first entry, and the
contra to the Nominal Ledger Account is obtained by adding the
money columns in the Tabular Ledger, and by posting these
totals direct to the other Ledger Accounts.
They are mainly used in dealing with two distinct classes
of transactions. First, in connection with such businesses as
hotels, with a large number of casual customers who may
require their accounts at any moment, and where there are
numerous nominal accounts involved for the credit items.
Secondly, where there is a large number of customers with only
one item in their account for each period under review; for
example, a gas company, a Subscription Ledger for charitable
societies, clubs, etc
The simplest demonstration of the working of this system
is to give the form used in an hotel for the Customers Ledger,
and here each page represents one day only ; and it must also
be noticed that in some forms the names of the customers
are given at the top of the page, and the headings of such
nominal accounts as may be required appear down the page,
30s x
 306 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
and in this case the credit postings are made from the cross
additions.
In this case these entries will be entered up direct from the
counterfoils handed in by the waiters, and this book itself
forms the Sales Ledger, and the balances brought forward at
the end of each day are in fact the total of the debtors.
The additions of the other debit columns will be made and
the figures for the rest of the month will be entered on the
succeeding line, and the final total carried to the next day. At
the end of the month the totals of these columns, which, as will
be seen, have in this book been debited to the visitors, are posted
to the credit of the various Nominal Accounts in the Nominal
Ledger, thus completing the double entry. The cash is, of
course, debited in the Cash Book, and is credited here, whilst
the total of the overcharge and allowance column is debited in
the Nominal Ledger.
Though not connected with Tabular Ledgers, it is, perhaps,
the simplest to continue the description of hotel accounts.
The purchase side of the accounts will be entered as usual by
means of a Purchase Analysis Book and a Purchase Ledger;
but, instead of invoices, Pass Books will be issued by most of
the provision dealers, the monthly totals of each will be passed
through periodically, and also columns will be added in addition
to the money for quantity, quality, or vintage, and price for the
wines, spirits, cigars, etc.
The waiters will have triplicate books for the meals and
drinks supplied, one form being handed to the office, one to
the kitchen or the storekeeper as the case may be, whilst the
third form remains in his book for reference ; each of these three
are, of course, numbered with the same number. It is hardly
necessary to add that Store Accounts are kept of all the
wines, etc., of which stock is taken periodically and compared
with the balances appearing in the Stock Ledger.
With regard to the stock in the bar, and also usually
with the cigars, special requisition forms are filled up as
and when required, and these amounts are charged out to the
particular bar periodically at selling price, and the bar is
credited with all cash payments made by it daily or otherwise
to the office ; the balance between the two sides of the account
representing, of course, the stock in hand at the bar in question,
 TABULAR LEDGERS AND ACCOUNTS 307
capitalized.
heto
5c Sofupianmotesamtrsey.d If

i Cash sundries.
1 1
'suondop,
pav 1
etuaon - I
Lighting Drawings.
and 1a*1t.l

-osownsni
pas 'isjrj
'wiw "jusy I
Dja 'u?un[ Casta.
osaj 'iweuad
-X9a jauoosia
onc-iMSpaq |
0
H
13
w U
c
c I
S3 \ \
Mineral waters.
V2
Bank
c Drauglitaandles
tBOUtS. O
C
s.

uotqap Xipnng
li 'I
aSnprtl
Spirits.

WInea.
prtillia
Total. - sSontq
ohoj
I Supjs) 1
jvq luojjl (
OHOJ JSSp^T
S5i

Q
Jdqinnu 9WI
308 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
which must be frequently taken and compared with the
ledger.
It is also necessary to keep full and complete Stock Accounts
of all wines, spirits, cigars, etc., which will record the quantities
received as per the Invoice Book on the one hand, and the
amounts issued as per the various requisition slips given by the
waiters or the request notes from the bars ; and the stock should
be frequently taken and compared with the books, and any
items which do not balance exactly duly reported to the
management.
The examples of columnar Purchase and Cash Books given
on p. 807 serve to analyze the transactions of an hotel, not
letting rooms to visitors.
These special points practically exhaust the peculiarities
of hotel accounts, and therefore we will return to the tabular
question and give an example of a ruling where the customers
are regular and have usually only one transaction of each kind
in the period.
The example which we take here is that of a gas company,
and a very similar ruling will make it suitable for the rates
and taxes payable to the various local authorities, a water
company, or any similar institution. In this case the ruling
will be repeated to show in one opening four quarters at least,
or in the case of rates, etc., payable yearly or half-yearly, to
cover two or three years, according to circumstances.
From the form on p. 809 it will be seen that each house is
given a consecutive or reference number, which number will
appear on the debit note which is produced at the time of
payment and jotted down in the Cash Book. The various debits
for gas consumed, meter rents, hire of stoves, etc., appear here,
which is, of course, the Personal Ledger. Whilst the totals of
these various columns are added up, the totals are posted to the
credit of the various Nominal Accounts.
The credit side calls for no special comment, though as a
matter of fact, the discount column may be discarded if pre
ferred, and the total posted from the Cash Book. The other
allowances should be specified, and may be analyzed and posted
direct to the debit of the various Nominal Accounts.
With such companies, a special Tabular Ledger will pro
bably also be used to record the deposit required by gas
TABULAR LEDGERS AND ACCOUNTS
forward.

a
Other al ow ances.

1
Discount. 2
-
M
ja9
O
OJIOJ nooq qmo

Q1
Total debits. o

!
3
Stove
:

Meter rental. a,
m
w
Amount.
Gasconsumed.
n
a
1O
6
3uI9010 |
3niuado
*9U1VU
pUU U| om
OK 00U9J3J9^I
Ar ears col ectedc 3

onoj ajooq qeo

Ar ears
Dec.31.
1
3io ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
companies from their customers, which, taking into account
their power of cutting off the gas, and in some cases a right of
distraint, prevents their bad debts reaching a formidable figure.
Life assurance companies also adopt what is in effect a
Tabular Ledger to record the collection of the premiums ; but
as there is a special chapter dealing with accounts of this
nature, the student is referred to such for another form relating
to this class of ledger.
When we come to deal with other tabular books, the custom
is now so well known and so universal that it is hardly
necessary to do more than mention many of the books on this
system. The book most frequently met with is the Purchase
Journal, which usually contains a reference number to the
invoice, which is duly numbered and filed away, and then
columns for the name of the supplier, posting folio, total
amount, and then the numerous columns for the analysis of the
purchases or expenses.
A similar book is also used for the Sales Journal where
departments are kept separately, and a reference to the chapter
on Departmental Accounts will show a form of that description.
Another book which might come under the heading of
Tabular Bookkeeping is the Petty Cash Book when it is kept
on the Imprest system, and the posting of these expenses
made direct from the Petty Cash Book to the nominal accounts ;
the corresponding credit appearing in the Cash Book for the
cheque drawn weekly or monthly, as the case may be, to
reimburse the petty cashier.
The Petty Cash Book, in that case, would appear in a form
adapted to the business, of which a specimen is set out on p. 811.
In this case the items amounting to 15s. id. have been
already posted, and the other items for travelling expenses, etc.,
are posted to the debit of the various nominal accounts, and the
cash paid at the week end6 18s. 8d.is the credit for the
whole.
The Cash Book has also undergone tabulation in recent
years, and an example of this may be found in the Insurance
chapter. Many companies and societies of a somewhat similar
nature, such as industrial and provident societies, and building
societies, the bulk of whose transactions occur in cash, also use
a tabular cash book to save detail in posting.
TABULAR LEDGERS AND ACCOUNTS
.a CD 1 1
t 1 1 O~H
II
1 1
1Folio. iJ co

.o 1 1
si
2ic aV 9
Ok 1 1
S
1 1

0tationery. 1 1 __
1 1
1 1
Pandostages telegrams. 1 1
1 1 CO
1 1
t) CO 1 1-
.'. - 1
u
1 1
co -s 1 p
l~ !- =
is.
l

o
:
; O
r S3
^ Or 3 5-
a a
H3 -

= .* CO
- 73
o M 00
I!
= CO CO
312 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

44C
-a

8l =
31

Si
 TABULAR LEDGERS AND ACCOUNTS 313
Solicitors' Accounts.Another interesting form of columnar
journal is that in very common use in solicitors' offices, viz.
Kain's Cash Journal.
The special features are that, additional to the Cash and
Bank Accounts, it is the posting medium for all debits and
credits to clients, agents and partners, and that under the
heading of " office " all profit and loss items find entry.
At the end of the year an estimate of outstanding costs is
made, credited to the office and included in the debtor balances ;
and an estimated sum for outstanding charges (agents' fees,
etc.) charged against the office and included among the creditors.
The difference between the Dr. and Cr. columns of the office is
transferred to the Partners' Capital Accounts, as being the
profit or loss of the year.

Card and Slip Ledger Accounts

At this point it would be well to give a brief description of

and mention the pros and cons of the perpetual ledger system
of accounts and bookkeeping. We would first acknowledge our
indebtedness to the Trading and Manufacturing Company,
Limited, for the use of the blocks from which our illustrations
are taken.
There is no doubt that the slip and card system as a labour-
saving device has come very much to the front during the past
few years, and been adopted with great benefit by many leading
commercial concerns, not only for correspondence and other
business records, but for costing, Day Book entries, etc. The
latest development is to apply the method to that book generally
regarded as of the first importance the Ledger.
The perpetual card system is one in which the ledger
accounts are written on separate cards kept in a special tray or
drawer and arranged vertically in alphabetical, numerical, or
geographical order. The cards, when not in use, are held in
position by a rod passing through a hole in the bottom of the
cards. Each card represents an account, and is kept for that
account until filled up, when it is removed to a transfer tray
and replaced by a new card.
The following is a specimen of a ledger card, reduced size.
 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

\
TERMS CARD NO.
0 L.F. LIMIT
REMARKS
\ CREDITS DATE FO i,DEBITS CREDITS
DATE ITEM ,< jCDEBITS
sp JC S D ITEM mM s

y
Y -
LEDGER CARD1.

We also give illustrations of a drawer containing an alpha

betically arranged set of cards and one with numerical arrange
ment ; the latter also requiring index cards as shown.

DRAWSR containing alphabetically arhanged cards.

TABULAR LEDGERS AND ACCOUNTS 315
316 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

INDEX CAKD.

It will be obvious that such a system allows of

(a) The classification and grouping of the accounts.
(b) The separation and withdrawal of closed accounts.
(c) The distribution of the cards, when numerous, for the
preparation of statements, or of extracting the balances for the
trial balance.
(d) The saving of time and labour spent in opening new
ledgers.
It must, however, be equally apparent that the card system
would be strongly objected to by many firms on account of the
danger of the cards being withdrawn and not replaced, and the
opportunities afforded to business employees of tampering with
the accounts by the substitution of false cards. This objection,
however, may be considered as practically non-existent by the
adoption of the Perpetual Ledger with the slip system. Here
the ledger accounts are secured between strong and handsome
covers by steel posts, one of which acts as a lock ; simply
pressing down the covers automatically locking the binders and
preventing the removal of any sheet.
Another striking feature is that the index, instead of being
loose or contained at the beginning or end, as is the case with
the ordinary bound ledger, runs through the Perpetual Ledger,
dividing the accounts into alphabetical sections. Further, as
 TABULAR LEDGERS AND ACCOUNTS 317
accounts are filled they are removed to a Transfer Ledger, a
companion to the one containing the operative accounts.
The following are examples of a ledger account, showing the
perforation for the locking, and of a special name and address
index sheet.
 318 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
The advantages claimed for the Slip Perpetual Ledger
are
1. The opening of new ledgers dispensed with.The account is
given a certain position and number, which never changes, and
so enables the bookkeeper to post, after a time, without reference
to the index.
2. Only " live " accounts in actual use.When the sheet is
full, after certifying, the balance may be taken to the " Transfer
Ledger," its position and number being exactly the same as in
the Current Ledger. Convenience to the clerks for preparation
of statements and extraction of trial balance.
3. Facility of audit.Much of the matter required for the
audit will be found in the Transfer Ledger, and therefore Current
Ledger will be available to the office staff whilst the Transfer
Ledger is being audited.
4. Indexing distributed through the book, thus sectionizing the
ledger.Instead of loose index, or at front or back. To save
high numbers, each section commences at number 1.
The book once locked by closing down the covers, it is
impossible to remove or insert anything without the key.
To prevent the substitution of one sheet for another the
following safeguards may be adopted :
(a) The paper may have a special watermark.
(b) The firm's name may be printed at the head of each
sheet.
(c) Each sheet may be machine numbered, and a register
kept of their exact position; or the stock of sheets may be
placed under the control of some responsible person, and the
issue and balance of sheets subjected to audit.
The only objection to the adoption of the Slip Ledger that
need be mentioned is that there is uncertainty as to whether
such accounts would be accepted as evidence in a court of law ;
but in most business houses other records than those in the
ledger could, if required, be produced as evidence of any claim.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

173. To what special concerns are tabular accounts applicable?
174. State the advantages of the tabular method of account-keeping in any
business with which you are acquainted.
 TABULAR LEDGERS AND ACCOUNTS 319
175. Explain the use of a tabular ledger in the case of a gas company.
176. Explain Kain's form of Cash Journal for solicitors' accounts.
177. What special forms of books would you recommend for use in keeping
the accounts of a hotel. Give specimen rulings of the two most important of
such books.
178. Having been appointed bookkeeper by the proprietors of the White
Hart Hotel, Blanktown, you are asked to entirely remodel the system of book
keeping, and are instructed to submit monthly Profit and Loss Accounts. The
hotel contains fifty bedrooms, and does the usual " visitors " trade for a daily
average of forty guests. There are also two bars (" parlour " and " the vaults "),
a fair " posting " trade, a bus service to and from the station, and an " out
door " business, partly cash and partly credit, in wines, spirits, and cigars with
the surrounding gentry. Submit sketches of the books you would suggest,
accompanied in each case by a brief explanation.
178a. Describe the card and slip systems of dealing with Ledger Accounts.
1786. Discuss the advantages claimed for, and the objections raised against
the perpetual ledger system.
 CHAPTER XXII

BANKRUPTCY

Arrangement with CreditorsStatement of Affairs and SchedulesDeficiency

AccountPreferential PaymentsTrustees' Accounts and Statements in
Bankruptcy.

Although we have so far confined our attention to solvent con

cerns, able to pay 20s. in the pound in discharge of liabilities,
yet it is a common experience to be called upon to deal with
cases of insolvency.
The trader finds that he cannot meet his engagements, and
is worried by certain pressing creditors and threatened with
legal proceedings. To deal fairly by all his creditors, and with
the hope of making favourable arrangements with them to carry
on his business, he calls them together, places before them the
statement of his affairs, and either he or his friends make an
offer of a composition of so much in the pound secured by bills
of guarantee, or a deed of assignment.
This attempt at arrangement may be fruitless, and on the
debtor's own petition, or at the instance of his creditors, the
affairs may be wound up by bankruptcy proceedings.
On the next page is a statement of affairs submitted to a
meeting of creditors, to whom an offer of 12s. in the pound is
made, payable in equal payments in three, six, nine, and twelve
months, the payment being guaranteed by the debtor's friends.
Should the attempt to arrange with the creditors fail, they
or the debtor may apply for a receiving order to wind up the
affairs in bankruptcy, in which event the following forms and
schedules would have to be prepared and filed in the Bankruptcy
Court.
As candidates in the professional examinations are frequently
asked to give the front sheet of the statement of affairs, we place
before the student this somewhat lengthy form.
320
 BANKRUPTCY 321
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ANKRUPTCY. petition M(e)
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 > TO
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324 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
The sheets referred to by the letters give, in addition to
names, addresses, and occupations, the following particulars :
A. Unsecured Creditors.
Numbered consecutively and in alphabetical order; those
whose debts are for 10 and upwards placed first. The amount
of the claim, when contracted, and the consideration, are to be
stated, and also the particulars of bills of exchange held by the
creditor to be given.
B. Fully Secured Creditors.
Particulars of security, estimated value, and surplus, to be
stated.
C. Partly Secured Creditors.
Particulars as above, with statement of balance of debt un
secured.
D. Liability for Bills Discounted, etc.
Particulars of bill, and name, address, and occupation of
acceptors, and of holder if known, and whether liable as drawer
or endorser.
E. Contingent Liabilities.
Usual particulars as with creditors, also stating nature of
liability.
F. Creditors for Rent, etc.
Period for which claim is made, amount recoverable by dis
tress, and balance ranking for dividend.
G. Preferential Creditors.
H. Property.
Full particulars, with estimated amounts it may produce.
I. Debtors.
No., name, address, occupation, amount, L.F., whether good,
doubtful, bad, estimated to produce, particulars of securities
held.
Accounts to be shown as a deduction and not included in
Schedule A.
J. Bills of Exchange, etc.
Particulars of bills, with estimated amounts likely to be
realized, and of securities held.
K. The Deficiency Account.
By which the debtor sets forth the causes of his insolvency,
and accounts for the loss of oapital, any profit made, and the
deficiency of assets shown by the statement of affairs usually
 ld> pa G H n Is) 1st

00

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afor
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the1 of
'..
326 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
contains very interesting material for the public examination of
the bankrupt. Heavy household expenses, speculative trans
actions, which may be Stock Exchange or turf gambling, law
suits, embezzlement by employees, heavy bad debts, and trade
losses are amongst many of the reasons given.
Reference to the statement will show that creditors are
divided into various classes. The amount owing to unsecured
creditors, and expected to rank against the estate, is carried out
into the effective column ; fully secured creditors being set short,
and after allowing for the estimated value of securities, the
surplus carried to the credit side of the statement, the partly
secured creditors will rank with the unsecured creditors for the
balance of their debts, after taking into account the value of
the securities held by them.
Bills payable are included among the creditors.
Preferential creditors claim upon the estate for full payment,
as shown by the deduction in full from the assets on the contra
side of the sheet.
Subject to the retention of funds to cover the expenses of
administration of the estate, the following are preferential pay
ments in bankruptcy :
1. Rates due at the date of the receiving order; having
become due and payable within twelve months next before that
time ; and taxes assessed up to April 5 next, before the date of
the receiving order, and not exceeding in the whole one year's
assessment.
2. Wages or salary of clerks or similar servants, within the
four months prior to the date of the receiving order, but not
exceeding 50.
8. Wages of workmen or labourers, for time or piece
work, within two months before the winding up, but not
exceeding 25.
Following the above, the landlord, after the commencement
of the bankruptcy, may claim for six months' rent due prior to
the date of the bankruptcy.
The contra side needs little explanation, except that there is
a separation of the book debts, and the balances that various
properties are expected to realize are extended. Of course the
balance from secured creditors is included. There is also a
deduction for the full amount to which preferential creditors are
 BANKRUPTCY 327
entitled. The statement is completed by stating the deficiency
as entered to the debit of the Deficiency Account.

Example I
On December 81, 1908, Lawson & Co., finding themselves in
difficulties, call upon us to prepare a statement of affairs from
the following particulars :
t . i.
2600 0 0
Cash and bills in hand, face value 85, estimated to
30 0 0
500 0 0
Doubtful 1000 ; bad 50, estimated to realize . 750 0 0
Creditors partly secured 1200, the value of their
security being 800.
Creditors fully secured, 1900, the value of their .
security being 2400.
Stock on hand, 850. Estimated to produce . . . 750 0 0
Preferential creditors : Landlord for rent, 270
(annual rental, 240) ; manager's salary, 150,
for nine months
Estimated value of lease of business premises . . . 180 0 0
Contingent liability in respect to a contract not com
pleted, 300
Prepare statement under the form required by Bankruptcy
Acts 1888 and 1890.
 328 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Be MESSK8. LAWSON AND CO.

Statement of Affairs, December 31, 1903 ,

Grow Liabilities as estimated by Expected to Assets as estimated by

liabilities. debtor. rank. VST

s. t . A *
Unsecured creditors as Cash and bills in
2600 0 0 per list " A " . . . 2600 0 0 handasperlisf'C" 85 30 : 0
Creditors partly se- Book debts as per list
1200 0 1) cured . . . 1200 " D," viz.
Security held by Good . . . 500
same. . . .800 Doubtful . . 1000
400 0 0 Bad ... 50
Creditors fully se-
1900 0 (1 cured . . .1900 1550 1250 0 0
Security held by
samu. . . . 2400 Stock on hand . 850 750 0 II
Surplus to contra . 500 Estimated worth of lease
of business premises . 180 0 0
Preferential creditors as
per list " B " Surplus from fully se
270 0 0 Landlord's rent 270 cured creditors . . 500 0 0
Deducted per
contra, being six 2710 0 0
months' rent at Deduct preferential cre
240 per annum 120 ditors as per contra-
150 (1 0
150 0 Manager's salary .150 Rent ... 120
Deducted per contra 50 Manager's salary 50
100 (1 1) 170 0 0
Contingent liability in
respect to a contract 2540 0 0
300 0 0 not completed . . 300 0 0 Contingent assets
(memo).
Contingent liability
(memo). Deficiency .... 1010 0 0
6420 0 o 3550 o 0 3550 0 0

Trustees' Accounts
Certain stringent rules of the Board of Trade compel the
trustee in bankruptcy to keep and render accounts, and to pay
all cash into the Bankruptcy Estates Account at the Bank of
England (unless a local account has been authorized by the
Board of Trade). The accounts must be audited every six
months, first by the committee of inspection, if such has been
formed, and then by the Board of Trade. The accounts required
at audit are
 RECJ

Particulars. Total. Drawn from bai

Date.

s. d. .
To deposit on creditor's petition 5 U 0
sale of jewellery surrendered ly
10 0 0
sale of shares in public com-
736 10 0Q
Bankruptcy Estates Account
being auctioneer's charges 18 s
amount received from Thomas
230 10 0
Bankruptcy Estates Account .
Board of Trade, ad valorem fee . 10 0
 BANKRUPTCY 329
The Record Book, containing the minutes and other business
dealt with at the meetings of the committee of inspection.
A report on the position of the estate.
The verified copy of the Estate Cash Book.
The instructions for keeping the Estate Cash Book are as
follows :
" Particulars of each receipt and payment should be so fully
entered in this book as sufficiently to explain its nature, and in
case of payments for rent, rates, taxes, and wages, the period for
which the payment is made should be clearly stated.
" All bank transactions, whether with local banks or Bank
ruptcy Estates Account, should be duly entered in bank columns,
save only when local banks are used for purposes of transmis
sion to the Bankruptcy Estates Account, in which case the pay
ments to the latter account alone should appear in the bank
columns.
" When a business is carried on, a Trading Account should
be kept as a distinct account, and the weekly totals of receipts
and payments respectively should alone be entered in this book.
" Distinct accounts are to be kept and rendered of the joint
and separate estates."
At the first audit, the trustee also sends a copy of the front
sheet and schedules of the Statement of Affairs.
The annexed is a specimen page of an Estate Cash Book.
At the date of declaring each dividend a statement showing
the position of the estate is forwarded to the creditors with
notice of dividend. An example is given on pp. 330, 381.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

179. Give an example of a full statement of affaire of an insolvent debtor for
a meeting of creditors.
180. Prepare an imaginary Deficiency Account for inclusion in a bankrupt's
statement of affairs, and as nearly as may be in the statutory form.
181. Give a ruling of an Estate Cash Book kept by a trustee in bankruptcy. '
182. Samuel Hobson, in business in the city, finds himself insolvent. From
the various books and papers in his possession the following particulars as to his
financial position are forthcoming. Prepare the statement of affairs for sub
mission to his creditors, and a Deficiency Account in the ordinary form :

Sundry debtorsGood, 1280; doubtful, 2800 (esti
mated to produce 1000); bad, 700 4,780
Sundry freehold houses, etc. (estimated to produce, 2000) 3,300
33 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

55

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 BANKRUPTCY

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332 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Shares 1000 ordinary shares in the Cable Telegraph Co.,
valued at par 1,000
Mining and railway shares (2500 aro held as security by
partly secured creditors, and the balance by fully
secured creditors) 9,450
Loss through the unsuccessful defence of an action at law 5,420
Business expenses 3,200
Creditorsunsecured 16,740
partly secured 5,420
fully secured 3,110
Preferential claims for salaries and rent 500
Private drawings 1,200
Samuel Hobson Capital Account 3,800
Cash at bank 420
Bills receivable, good 800
183. Frederick Milnthorpe, of Corporation Street, Manchester, commenced
business on January 1, 1905, as an oil merchant, with a capital of 850.
On December 31, 1906, his books showed the following :
Sundry debtors, 675 6s. 3d. ; sundry creditors, 1988 2s. 6d. ; bills pay
able, 550 ; loan owing, 1000 ; stock, 518 7s. 9d. ; office furniture, 74 Is. 1(W. ;
rent owing, 100 ; salaries owing, 25.
Make out a Deficiency Account suggesting how the deficiency has arisen.
184. Prepare from the following figures a statement of affairs of A. B. and
Co., to be presented at a meeting of creditors. The date is March 15, 1904.
i : d.
Debtors as per Schedule 1 14,045 16 11
Creditors unsecured, as per Schedule II 6,841 3 10
Creditors secured
J. Jones 2,048 0 0
Security2810 preference shares in the Z.
Company, Ltd., valued at 2,810 0 0
T.Robinson 17,148 9 2
Securities6500 preference shares in the Q.
Company, valued at 6,500 0 0
Debt due from D. Clyte, valued at 6,262 11 2
Debt due from H. Johns, valued at 1,494 17 11
7350 shares in the Patent Engine Co., Ltd.,
valued at 3,509 0 0
Creditors partly secured
Bank 332 14 4
A. Brown 8,893 11 2
Securities (three debts) valued at 182 1 2
Landlord for rent 345 19 6
Furniture and fixtures 254 6 9
Interest in company to be formed, valued by A. B.
at 5,000 0 0
185. Green and Smart are in partnership as drapers, and find they are
 BANKRUPTCY 333
unable to meet their liabilities. You are instructed to examine their books, and
you find that the liabilities are as follows :

Trade creditors 3000
Cash creditorsMrs. Green 500
Miss Smart 300
(It is expected that Mrs. Green will not press her claim.)
James Jones, secured by mortgage on premises, the esti
mated value of which is 1250 1000
Creditors
Wages 50
Bates and taxes 30
Rent (distrainable) 100
And the assets (in addition to the property mortgaged to
Jones)
Sundry debtors
Good 600
Doubtful 300 estimated to produce 100
Bad 200
Stock 1000 700
Fixtures and fittings . . 300 150
Cash in hand .... 20
Prepare a statement of affairs to be presented to the creditors.
 CHAPTER XXIII

LIQUIDATIONS, RECONSTRUCTIONS, AND

AMALGAMA TIONS

Statement of Affairs ContributoriesExamples of Statement of Affairs and

Deficiency AccountsStatement of Realization of the EstateExamples
of Reconstruction and of Amalgamation.

The first point to be considered in liquidations is how to com

mence the proceedings. If the company is insolvent, the creditors
will probably arrange the preliminary details by presenting a
petition against it, with the result that the court will make a
winding-up order for compulsory liquidation after hearing the
petition.
However, cases will more frequently happen where the
company takes the first step, in which case voluntary liquida
tion will probably be decided upon; though in this case any
creditors or contributories (as the shareholders are called at
this stage) may apply to the court that the liquidation shall
continue either as a compulsory one, or under the supervision
of the court.
For a company to put itself into liquidation on the achieve
ment of its object, or the expiration of time or happening of the
event prescribed for its dissolution, an ordinary resolution to
that effect only is necessary. If the company cannot carry on
its business owing to its liabilities, an extraordinary resolution
will suffice, whilst in other cases a special resolution is necessary.
The first point in the accounts of a liquidation matter is the
preparation of a statement of affairs, which in a compulsory
liquidation is very similar to that prepared in bankruptcy, and
is filed with the court in the prescribed form.
If the company is insolvent, but the statement is being sub
mitted to the shareholders only for a voluntary liquidation, no
334
 LIQUIDATIONS, RECONSTRUCTIONS, ETC. 335
^ao o 0 0 00 ON CD CM CM
0 0 0 OS Oi r-t
2 00 10 00 02 2000 2700
w
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336 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
set form is provided, but something similar to a statement of
affairs for a compulsory liquidation will probably be prepared.
In preparing this statement we must put aside our general
notions of bookkeeping, for we are no longer dealing with the
book-value of the assets of a going concern, but are required to
deal with the actual value of the assets belonging to a business
which will, in all probability, shortly be broken up at such a
price as a forced realization will fetch, and that very likely
under the hammer.
Company liquidation accounts and forms correspond so
closely with those in bankruptcy that we need only mention
the special features.
In the statement just given, the shares were fully paid, and
therefore no further claim can be made by the creditors on the
shareholders, as would have been the case had the shares been
only partly paid.
Should the shares be but partly paid, and the assets be
insufficient to meet the liabilities of the company, then the
liquidator would make a call to the extent of the uncalled
amount, or as much as would enable him to settle the company's
obligations.
One of the first duties of a liquidator in the winding up of a
company is to settle the lists of contributories, i.e. persons liable
to contribute to the settlement of the debts and liabilities of the
company being wound up. Two lists are prepared, A and B.
On the A list all present members are entered, and on the B
list all persons who have been shareholders at any time within
twelve months prior to the winding up.
Only in the event of the contributions from those on the A
list being insufficient to discharge the liabilities of the company
will resort be made to those on the B list ; and the liability of
the B contributory is limited to the amount unpaid on his
shares by the corresponding A contributories, and if on the
winding up there are debts which were incurred while he was
a member.
On our front page of the statement of affairs we have, in
addition to the particulars furnished in a bankruptcy statement,
particulars of share capital set out in Schedules L, M, and N,
which consist of founders' shares, ordinary shares, and pre
ference shares respectively, and giving consecutive number,
 LIQUIDATIONS, RECONSTRUCTIONS, ETC. 337
register number, name, address, nominal amount of shares held,
number of shares held, amount per shares called up, total amount
called up ; and the deficiency explained in Schedule 0.
Such officials of the company as may be required to prepare
the statement must sign each sheet, and on the front page
appears their affidavit to say that they "make oath and say
that the foregoing statement and the several lists hereunto
annexed are to the best of my knowledge and belief a full, true
and complete statement of the affairs of the above-named
company on the day of (the date of the winding-up
order)."
To thoroughly explain the method of preparing the statement
of affairs, let us assume that we are instructed to prepare such
an account for a company against whom a winding-up order
was made on June 30, which happens to be the company's year
end. The books are duly balanced, and the following is the
trial balance at that date :

Example I
Trial Balance
June 30, 190
Dr. Cr.
Capital Account t
Ordinary shares t
5,000
Preference shares 3,000
Calls in arrear 100
Creditors 6,340
Mortgages 4,000
Debentures 5,000
Bank overdraft 1,760
Agent's commission 40
Preferential creditors 900
Debtors 5,631
Stock 8,620
Land and buildings 5,000
Machinery and plant 3,720
Profit and Loss Account .... 2,369
25,440 25,440
The inquiries which we make show that the calls in arrear
are expected to realize 70, the stock at a forced realization
6400, and of this the agents hold as samples and for small
deliveries about 60, and the machinery is estimated to produce
z
338 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

OS
Ti-T CO
-a o
'woo
>tsiors)0
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a 1G00
ig
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00 if i 1
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OI (notholders) Estima I3
9 < Balanc
11
aI

1
T3=<

O
e
1
 LIQUIDATIONS, RECONSTRUCTIONS, ETC. 339
o o |j j | I -2
 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
340
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the
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are,
stmaatemeynt
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190
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inding-up

oath
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Signature.

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bsheetalance nhboguinr*
 LIQUIDATIONS, RECONSTRUCTIONS, ETC. 343
1500. Of the book debts 3961 are considered good, 483 are
bad, and the remaining debts are doubtful, and are estimated
to produce 295.
The land and buildings are, of course, subject to the mortgage,
and the bank hold after that is satisfied a second charge as
partial security for their overdraft. The various particulars
required for the Deficiency Account are not set out in detail
here, but reference to the statement will show how these items
have been obtained.
This form of Deficiency Account is used when the company
has been trading for upwards of three years ; in other cases an
amended form is substituted, showing in similar detail the
entire transactions of the company since its flotation. The
amendment, in fact, is merely the omission of the opening
item on each side, which, of course, is not applicable to a new
company.
Separate meetings are called of the creditors and the con-
tributories, presided over by the official receiver, and the
appointment of a liquidator is discussed, and nominations for
the position are given. The court, after hearing the result of
the meetings, appoints the liquidator, who then has to give
security to the Board of Trade, who have the right to object
to the appointment.
Supposing that no such objection is made, and the security
is satisfactory, the liquidator must notify the registrar of joint
stock companies, and is then in a position to act.
The liquidator having been appointed, the accounts which
he keeps take the simple form of a Receipts and Payments
Account; which, however, is a formidable-looking book, on
account of the numerous analysis columns provided to show at
a glance the full receipts or payments under every conceivable
heading. The form is as follows :
344 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Of icial receiver forre munera

tion.

XE
llll!
Law costs after order.

III
%
Bofoard Trade Candourt
fe s.

Paid into bank.

lij,

17
s
 LIQUIDATIONS, RECONSTRUCTIONS, ETC. 345
The liquidator, in addition, where he has carried on the
business, must keep a Trading Account, which is also a state
ment of receipts and payments only

Dr. Or.
Date. Receipts. Date. Payments.

This Trading Account must be audited at least once a month

by the committee, or by one of them specially deputed by the
others to do this work, and the weekly totals are incorporated
with the company's Cash Book in the " other receipts " columns.
The Cash Book is audited at least once every three months by
the committee, and every six months by the Board of Trade.
For the latter, two copies of the Cash Book must be sent to the
inspector-general in bankruptcy, one a facsimile of that kept by
the liquidator as given above, and the other omitting the various
analysis columns on each side, consisting therefore of the first
four columns on the receipts side, and the first five on the pay
ments side. This smaller copy, after audit, is placed on the file
of proceedings. With these copies the following documents are
sent : All vouchers, all allocaturs (certificates as to costs required
by law to be taxed by the court), the Record Book (which corre
sponds to the Minute Book, but contains additional information
as to the progress of the proceedings), certain pages of the state
ment of affairs (only necessary at the first audit), Pass Book
(if local bank is authorized), etc.
The entries in the Cash Book will proceed on the ordinary
lines, but the following points should be borne in mind: all
receipts are to be paid gross into the bank (a local bank if
specially authorized, otherwise the Bank of England, Law
Courts Branch, Companies Liquidation Account), and the
dividends as and when paid appear in one item only in the
accounts for each dividend.
The next item involving accounts is in connection with the
346 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
statement of the realization of the estate when a dividend is
paid, or the liquidator applies for his release. This statement
appears in the form shown on p. 847.
This statement is, of course, the natural conclusion of a
liquidation, and our accounts, so far as compulsory liquidation
is concerned, end here. The accounts relating to voluntary
liquidation vary, inasmuch as it is not necessary for them to
prepare the statement of affairs, Deficiency Account, Cash Book,
nor final statement of realization in the official forms given
above, although, as a matter of practice, the principle under
lying these forms is usually followed.
In all classes of liquidation, if the winding up is not con
cluded within one year from its commencement, the liquidator
must file with the registrar of joint stock companies, under
sect. 15 of the Companies (Winding-up) Act, 1890, a statement
in the prescribed form, showing the position of affairs at date,
and such statement may be inspected by any person stating
himself in writing to be a creditor or contributory or his agent,
and such person may take extracts therefrom, or may demand
a copy of it, subject to the payment of a reasonable fee.
Under the same section, any moneys appearing from such
statement to have been in the hands of the liquidator for six
months, representing unclaimed dividends or undistributed
assets, must forthwith be paid into the Companies Liquidation
Account at the Bank of England. These amounts are repayable
to the true owner on the certificate of the Board of Trade that
he is entitled to the money.
After the first statement has been rendered, future statements
are to be made up at such intervals as may be prescribed, which
is at present every six months, until the conclusion of the
liquidation.
Having dealt with the liquidation of those companies whose
losses have been such as to make reconstruction hopeless, we
may now consider companies which, despite records of satisfactory
profits and being in a fairly sound position, are compelled, by
the force of circumstances, to resort to liquidation.
In order to contrast fully the two methods we will again set
out the statement of affairs of the company referred to on p.
887, and deal with it by means of a reconstruction. Finding
that they are becoming pressed for money, and the accounts
 Payments.
806 0l 316 01 l l3 0 7 00 070 0360

d. 0 0 0 0 state
of
pin
ato
rPpse raoisaosntisoend
. 0 0 0 0
00
160 00 01 and
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of
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000

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u00 aThe
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eto
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refer.ential
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SBTEACTI3Z6AETNITON din
ividend the
610
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Receipts.
1,000 000 30030 060 1000 000 0060 10 0360

cduce.opermpany's
Etostproimated
0
700-
ccalls
from
ronAetrmonciobeutionvritesd
1006,10 3061 00 000
1p10

wind
date
from
of
rtotal
To
eceipts sred'm
eto
pLess
cauryimtiensts
Trading
ABceper
ouenitpts
APcaper
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oyum.netnts
Total.
plant
and
Machinery
Doubt.fu.l bLand
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rOther
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ing-up debts
Book realiza.tions
Net
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Stock
34 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
coming out unfavourably, the directors, calling a general meeting
of the company, give notice of the resolution to be submitted,
which is to the effect that the company shall be wound up on
account of being unable to meet its liabilities.

Example II
Statement of Affairs
June 30. 1906
Liabilities. Assets.
Book Estimated
Unsecured creditors (trade) . . 6340 v&lae. to realize.
t i
Machinery and plant . 3720 1,500
Creditors fully secured . 4040 Stock 8560 6,340
Less value of security 5060 Book debts
Good 3,961
1020 Doubtful and bad,
Transferred to partly 1670 .... 295
secured creditor 1000 Calls in arrears . . . 100 70
Surplus from creditors
Balance to contra . 20 fully secured . . .
Bank overdraft . . . 1760
Less security . . . 1000 12,186
760 Less preferential cre
Preferential creditors ditors 300
For wages .... 300
Debenture holders 5000 11,886
Less debenture holders 5,000
Deducted contra
6,886
Deficiency 214
7100 7,100
A meeting of shareholders is held, at which the above state
ment is submitted, and as a result of the directors' activity, the
unsecured creditors finally accept the following scheme : that
they shall receive promissory notes for the amount of their
debts from the company, carrying interest at 6 per cent. per
annum, and one-tenth of the capital to be paid back each year.
Any creditor may, however, elect, instead of the foregoing
arrangement, to accept twelve shillings and sixpence in the
pound, payable within three months. The present shareholders
agree to subscribe for at least 8000 additional capital.
The various secured and preferential creditors had, of course,
to be arranged with, the former agreeing to let their loans to the
 LIQUIDATIONS, RECONSTRUCTIONS, ETC. 349
company stand and hold their present security ; whilst the latter,
of course, had to be paid in full at once.
The preference shares were preferential as to capital as well as
to dividend, and therefore were in a strong position ; but when
the creditors had been arranged with on the basis given above,
further meetings were held to settle the terms as between the
various classes of shareholders. Assets were to be acquired at
their book values, except the book debts, which appeared at
their realizable value, and the estimated cost of reconstruction
amounted to 256. Under these circumstances the preference
shareholders agreed to sacrifice 1000, and for each share of
their present holding to receive one share in a new company, to
be formed to take over the assets as above, such shares to have
the same rights and privileges as the present preference shares,
and to be issued as fully paid up, the nominal value being
thirteen shillings and fourpence per share. The ordinary
shareholders were to receive an ordinary share of eight shillings
in the new company for each pound share in the old company.
To raise the additional capital it was agreed that 4000
should be taken up by all the shareholders proportionately to
their present holding, and that such shares should be of the
nominal value of eight shillings, and should rank equally with
the ordinary shares already issued. These shares were duly
applied for and allotted, and a call of six shillings a share was
made on them and duly paid up by all the shareholders.
Creditors amounting to 4900 elected to take promissory
notes, whilst the remainder, amounting to 1440, took their
dividend, which equalled, of course, 900.
The problem set before us is to show the accounts as they
will appear up to this stage in the books of our new company,
and the following Journal entries are accordingly made, as the
business was agreed to be taken over from July 1.
350 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Dr. Cr.
*
July 1. Sundry assets
To sundry liabilities
Machinery and plant 3720
Stock 8620
Land and buildings 5000
Book debts 5631
Calls in arrears 100
To Sundry Creditors Account . . 6340
mortgagee 4000
debenture holders .... 5000
bank 1760
agent 40
preferential creditors . . . 300
reserve for bad and doubtful
debts 1375
Vendors' Account .... 4000
liquidation expenses .... 256
Being sundry assets and sundry liabilities
taken over as per purchase agreement,
dated August 15, and adopted Minute
Book, folio 7.
Aug. 15. Vendors 4000
To Preference Share Capital Account . 2000
Ordinary Share Capital Account . 2000
Being 3000 preference shares of 13s. id.
each, fully paid up, and 5000 ordinary
shares of 8s. each, fully paid up, allotted
to shareholders in old company per
terms of agreement.
Application and Allotment Account . . 3000
To Ordinary Share Capital Account . 3000
Being Is. on application and 5s. on allot
ment, making 6s. per share payable on
10,000 shares of 8s. each allotted this
day per minute book, folio 8.
Aug. 31. Sundry creditors 540
To Capital Reserve Account .... 540
Being amount written off the claims of
creditors accepting the composition of
12s. 64. in the (equals 7s. 6d. in the
on 1440).
Sundry creditors 4900
To loan creditors 4900
Being creditors accepting promissory
notes carrying 6 per cent. per annum
interest on old debtCapital repayable
490 per annum.
 LIQUIDATIONS, RECONSTRUCTIONS, ETC. 351

Cash Account
Dr. Cr.
Aug. 15. To Application Ac July 1. By balance .... 1760
count 500 Aug. 28. agent 40
18. To Allotment Account 2500 preferential credi-
19. To Calls in Arrear tors 300
Account .... 100 ,, liquidation expenses 256
31. To balance .... 156 sundry creditors . 900
3250 3256
Aug. 31. By balance . 150
The various Ledger Accounts are not particularized, as they
follow the ordinary company work, but the students should post
them for practice to see the manner in which the accounts are
dealt with. It will be noticed in the Cash Account the opening
item is the overdraft owing by the old company, as it was
arranged that the stock and book debts would provide sufficient
working capital, and the company did not wish to pay at the
rate of 6 per cent. on an overdraft they did not require ; but the
bank undertook with the new company and the other creditors
to allow an overdraft if required, on the understanding that such
overdraft should be reduced proportionately with the liability
to the other creditors who held the company's promissory notes.
The mortgagee and debenture holders agreed, as before
stated, to allow the transfer of the ownership of the assets
covered by their security to the new company, whilst the other
secured and the preferential creditors were at once paid off, so
as to fully release the assets of the company at once and enable
them to commence, or rather continue, business with free hands.
Before the passing of the Memorandum of Association Act,
1890, a company frequently went into liquidation to enlarge its
powers with regard to the " objects " of the company ; but since
this Act such a necessity does not often arise, because by that Act,
with the sanction of a special resolution and the leave of the
court, this may now be done without the formalities and expense
of liquidation. Such cases, however, when they do arise do not
call for very special comment, as the new company will usually
allot identical holdings to the old shareholders, and the opening
entries in the books of the new company do not vary from that
of any other company which takes over a going concern.
352 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
There is, however, another form of liquidation which arises
from the absorption of one successful company by another, in
which the closing entries of the liquidating company and the
corresponding entries in the books of the new company are
required either for examination or for practical purposes.

Example III
In this example the A. Company agrees to purchase the
business as a going concern of the B. Company on the under
standing that for each share of the nominal value of 10 in
the B. Company the shareholders shall receive three shares
of 1 each in the A. Company, the market value of which
is 8 each, and 6 in cash. The A. Company also agrees
to redeem the debenture debt at 110 per cent. and pay the
liquidation expenses, which amount to 500.
The Balance Sheet of the B. Company at June 80 last, when
the business is taken over, was certified as follows :

THE B. COMPANY, LIMITED

Balance Sheet
June 30
Liabilities. Assets.

Capital issued and paid up, Land and buildings . . . 51,000
10,000 shares of 10 each 100,000 Machinery and plant . . . 48,400
Debenture stock redeemable Stock 38,340
at option of company at Sundry debtors 72,702
110 per cent.. .. .. 50,000 Bank 8,200
Sundry creditors .... 48,642
Reserve Account .... 15,000
Profit and Loss Account . . 5,000
218,642 218,642
The closing entries in the books of the B. Company will be
Cash Book
Dr. Cr.

June 30. To balance . . . 8,200 July 3. By Realization Ac-
count. . . . 8,200
July 3. A. Co., Ltd. . 115,000
A. Co., Ltd., for ,,4. liquidation expenses 500
liquidation ex- debenture holders. 55,000
penses . . . 500 ,, shareholders . . 60,000
115,500 115,500
 LIQUIDATIONS, RECONSTRUCTIONS, ETC. 353

Journal
July 3. Realization Account. Dr 218,642
To land and buildings 51,000
machinery and plant 48,400
stock 38,340
sundry debtors 72,702
bank 8,200
Being assets transferred to purchasers.
Sundries. Dr.
To Realization Account 68,642
creditors 48,642
Reserve Account 15,000
,, Profit and Loss Account 5,000
Being liabilities taken over by purchasers.
Realization Account. Dr 5,000
To Debentures Account 5,000
Being agreed premiums on redemption.
A. Company, Ltd. Dr 205,000
To Realization Account 205,000
Being agreed purchase price.
Shares Account (A. Company, Ltd.). Dr. 90,000
To A. Company, Ltd 90,000
Being 30,000 shares of 1 each, valued at
3 each, allotted to our nominees per
agreement.
Shareholders. Dr 90,000
To Shares Account 90,000
Being transfer to them of above shares.
Capital Account. Dr. 100,000
Realization Account. Dr 50,000
To shareholders 150,000
To close the company's books

Realization Account

July 3. To sundry assets . 218,642 July 3. By liabilities . . . 68,642

Debentures Ac- A. Company, Ltd. 205,000
count premium
on redemption . 5,000
,, Shareholders Ac
count for profit
on realization . 50,000
273,642 273,642
2 A
354 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
A. Company, Limited

July 3. To purchase price . 205,000 July 3. By cash .... 115,000
shares .... 90,000
205,000 205,000

The Journal entries on the same day in the books of the

A. Company are also given.

July 3. Sundry assets (specifying them). Dr. . . 218,642
To Purchase Account (B. Company, Ltd.) 218,642
Purchase Account (B. Company, Ltd.) Dr. 48,642
To sundry liabilities 48,642
Purchase Account (B. Company, Ltd.). Dr. 205,000
To liquidator of B. Company, Ltd. . . . 205,000
Liquidator of B. Company, Ltd. Dr. . . 205,000
To cash 115,000
Ordinary Shares Account 30,000
Purchase Account (being profit on issue
of shares in part payment) . . . 60,000
For cash and 30,000 ordinary shares of 1
each issued in payment for net assets per
agreement, Minute Book, folio
Purchase Account (B. Company, Ltd.). Dr. 500
To cash for liquidation expenses agreed
to be paid 500
Purchase Account (B. Company, Ltd. Dr. . 24,500
To Capital Reserve Account (or premium
on Shares Account) 24,500
Being excess of net assets acquired over lia
bilities and nominal purchase consideration.

If the actual value of the assets acquired had not been the
amount shown by the books, the purchasing company should
have them revalued and shown at the corrected figure. It will
be noticed that in the selling company's books the outstanding
assets and liabilities which are handed over to the purchasers
are dealt with at the book figure, whilst the purchase considera
tion is stated at its actual or market value. On the other hand,
the purchasers in their books state the consideration at its
nominal figure, and deal with the assets and liabilities taken
over only at the actual amount at which the assets are valued,
or the amount which will have to be paid to an outside creditor.
Thus to balance the books, the vendors credit their Realization
Account with the credit balance of their revenue accounts ; whilst,
 LIQUIDATIONS, RECONSTRUCTIONS, ETC. 355
as it has not to be paid to any one, the purchasers do not debit
their account with this figure.
The question with regard to amalgamation raises many
issues already dealt with, but as they hold some points peculiar
to themselves we give below an example of this class of work.

Example IV
Let us suppose that three companies which carry on a
similar business, in order to reduce competition and cost of
production, agree to amalgamate.
Then- balance sheets on September 80 were drawn up and
showed the following figures.

A. and Company, Ltd.

Liabilities. Assets.

Capital 2000 shares of 10 Land and building .... 5,000
each 20,000 Machinery and plant . . . 15,640
4 per cent, debentures redeem- Debtors 22,450
able at 110 per cent. . . 10,000 Stock 8,920
Creditors 17,800 Bank balance 3,630
Profit and Loss Account . . 7,840
55,640 55,640

B. Company, Ltd.
Liabilities. Assets.
t
Capital 6000 shares of 5 each 30,000 Land and building .... 2,100
Creditors 17,640 Machinery and plant . . . 14,550
Profit and Loss Account . . 6,220 Debtors 20,315
Stock 16,020
Bank 875
53,860 53,860

C. Bros., Ltd.
Liabilities. Assets.

Capital Account (25,000 shares Land and buildings .... 6,500
of 1 each) 25,000 Machinery and plant . . . 20,034
5 per cent. debentures re- Debtors 18 620
deemable at 120 per cent. . 15,000 Stock 14 010
Creditors 18,060 Bank 2*846
Profit and Loss Account . . 3,950
62,010 62,010
356 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
The following adjustments were made on the balance sheet
A.'s land on valuation was increased to 8000, B.'s stock
had been valued on a different basis to the others, and was
reduced by 2000, whilst the goodwill of the companies
was valued by agreement at 4160, 1780, and 1050, re
spectively.
The trade creditors were taken over by the new company,
but the vendors were left to make their own arrangements with
their shareholders and debenture holders. From these figures
it will be seen that the purchase prices worked out to
A. 45,000, B. 36,000, C. 45,000, which was paid by the
allotment of shares and 4 per cent. debentures redeemable at
par in the new company in the proportion of two to one, except
C. who received 5000 in cash instead of the full quantity of
shares, out of which they had to pay their liquidation expenses,
which amounted to 125 ; the other concerns who received no
cash being allowed 100 each for the expenses, which covered
the cost of the same.
A. and Co. arranged with their debenture holders to issue
to them debentures in the new concern to the nominal value
of 110 per cent. of their present holding, which left them 80,000
shares of 1 each, and 4000 debenture stock to be divided
amongst their present shareholders, which was equal to 15
shares and 2 debenture stock for each share of 10 held in
the present company.
The B. Company's shareholders received 4 shares of 1 each,
and 2 debenture stock for each 5 share, amounting to 24,000
shares, and 12,000 debenture stock in all.
C. Bros., Ltd., received 25,000 shares, 15,000 debenture
stock, and 5000 cash. Their debentures were redeemable
at 120 per cent., and the holders took in settlement an allot
ment of the stock for the nominal amount of their holding
in C. Bros. and cash 3000. The shareholders were allotted
one share in the new company for each share they held
in the old concern and one shilling and sixpence in cash,
which absorbed 1875 and left 125 cash for expenses of
liquidation.
The entries set out in the Journal for the purpose of closing
the accounts will appear as follows in the books of A. and Co.
Ltd. :
 LIQUIDATIONS, RECONSTRUCTIONS, ETC. 357
t
Realization Account Dr 55,640
To sundry assets (set out in detail) . . 55,640
For assets taken over by purchasers.
Sundry liabilities. Dr 25,640
To Realization Account 25,640
For liabilities written off to realization.
Purchase Account. Dr. 45,000
To Realization Account 45,000
Being agreed purchase price.
Shares (new company). Dr. 30,000
Debenture (new company) 15,000
To Purchase Account 45,000
Realization Account. Dr 15,000
To debentures (being premium payable
on same)' 1,000
To Shareholders Account 14,000
For profit on realization.
Debentures (old company). Dr. . . . 11,000
To debentures (new company) . . . 11,000
For stock transferred.
Capital. Dr 20,000
To shareholders 20,000
Shareholders. Dr 34,000
To shares (new company) 30,000
debentures (new company) . . . 4,000
For securities given in exchange, 15 ordinary shares and 2 debenture
allotted for each share in A. and Co., Ltd.

The liquidation expenses of 100 might be debited and

credited to Realization Account from the Cash Book as they are
paid by the new company.
From the examples given in this chapter the closing entries
of the other two companies may be worked out for practice by
the reader.
The opening entries of the new company will largely depend
on the manner in which it is intended to keep the accounts for
the future. If it is proposed to give full departmental trading
accounts, the fixed assets of each branch will probably be kept
distinct, in which case the following entries will appear in the
Journal.
358 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Sept. 30. Sundry assets. Dr.
To sundry liabilities t i
Land and buildings (Branch A.). Dr. 8,000
Machinery and plant (Branch A.). 15,640
Debtors . 22,450
Stock (Branch A) 8,920
Bank 3,630
Goodwill (Branch A) 4,160
To creditors 17,800
A. and Co., Ltd. Purchase Account 45,000
Being assets and liabilities taken over
per agreement, dated October 29, con
firmed Minute Book, folio
A. and Co., Ltd. Dr 45,000
To ordinary share capital 30,000
,, 4 per cent. mortgage debenture stock 15,000
Being shares and stock issued to nomi
nees in satisfaction of purchase price
per Minute Book, folio
Sundry assets. Dr
To sundry liabilities
Land and buildings (Branch B) . . . 2,100
Machinery and plant ... 14,550
Debtors 20,315
Stock (Branch B) 14,020
Bank 875
Goodwill (Branch B) 1,780
To creditors 17,640
B. Co., Ltd. (Purchase Account) . 36,000
Being assets and liabilities, etc.
B. Company, Ltd. Dr 36,000
To ordinary share capital 24,000
4 per cent. mortgage debenture stock 12,000
Being shares and stock, etc.
Sundry assets. Dr.
To sundry liabilities
Land and buildings (Branch C). Dr. 6,500
Machinery and plant 20,034
Debtors , 18,620
Stock (Branch C) 14,010
Bank 2,846
Goodwill (Branch C) 1,050
To creditors 18,060
C. Bros., Ltd. (Purchase Account) 45,000
Being assets and liabilities, etc.
C. Bros., Ltd. Dr 45,000
To ordinary share capital 25,000
4 per cent, mortgage debenture stock 15,000
cash 5,000
Being share and stock, etc.
 LIQUIDATIONS, RECONSTRUCTIONS, ETC. 359
In addition to the above, the two items of 100 each liquida
tion expenses of the A. and B. Companies will, of course, require
to be paid through the Cash Book, and will be posted probably
to Preliminary Expenses Account.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

186. What is meant by B. contributories ? What is their liability?
187. Mention the particulars furnished on Schedules L, M, and N.
188. Outline a Deficiency Account in the case of the winding up of a
company.
189. In January, 1901, Brown sold a holding of 500 1 shares, 10. paid, in
the X., Y., Z. Co., Ltd., to Jones. In November, 1901, the company, having in
the meantime called up a further 5s. per share, went into liquidation. What
would Brown's position bo ?
190. On December 31, 1900, the trial balance of the books of the A. B. Co.,
Ltd., after adjustment, was as follows :

Furniture and plant . . . 6,174 Capital 33,334
Stock 14,305 Creditors-
Debtors 3,384 Unsecured 24,082
for rent 28 Preferential
Calls in arrear 216 For wages, rents, rates
Cash 340 and taxes 1,716
Goodwill 9,642
Preliminary expenses . . . 2,296
Leasehold premises .... 4,224
Profit and loss 18,523
59,132 59,132
The financial position being unsatisfactory, you are required to compile a
comprehensive statement of affairs to submit to a meeting of creditors, and are
given the following additional information :
(a) The contingent liability (not included in the above) in respect of the
unexpired period of the lease is estimated at 2400.
(6) Valuations of the following hare been obtained, in view of a sale, either
as a going concern or by auction :
Going concern. Breaking-up.
t . d. ltd.
Stock 9536 0 0 7200 0 0
Furniture and plant .... 5370 0 0 3600 0 0
Goodwill 4000 0 0
Leasehold premises .... 500 0 0
Debtors 3069 0 0 2800 0 0
The liquidator of the A. B. Company, Ltd., prepared a scheme of recon
struction based on the book values as at December 31, 1900 (particulars of which
360 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
are set out in the preceding question), which was submitted to and approved by
shareholders and creditors. Dates may be disregarded.
The following is an outline of the Reconstruction Scheme adopted :
(a) New company to be formed under the style of the A. B. Company, 1901,
Ltd., and to acquire the assets and goodwill of the old company on the basis of
the book values.
(b) Nominal capital, 50,000, viz.: Ordinary shares, 33,332 at 10.,
16,666 ; preference shares, 33,334 at 1, 33,334.
(c) For each share in the old company the holders to apply for one preference
share in the new company, and to receive also (as nearly as possible) one ordi
nary share, credited as fully paid.
N.B.33,334 preference shares were allotted and paid for, and 33,332 ordi
nary shares were distributed.
(d) Unsecured creditors of the old company have offered to them a compo
sition of 10s. in the , payable on the formation of the new company, or a
debenture for the full amount of their debts bearing interest at 5 per cent., and
repayable in ten years. One half in value accepted the cash composition, the
other half agreed to take debentures.
(e) The lease of the premises to be taken over by the new company with the
consent of the landlord.
(f) The liquidation and standing charges, amounting to 500, and all other
preferential claims to be satisfied by the new company, to whom the liquidator
will hand over all assets, none of which, with the exception of the calls in arrear
(which have been paid), it is to be assumed have been realized.
You are requested to draft the Journal entries necessary to open the books
of the new company, and record the allotment of capital ; and to compile a
Balance Sheet setting forth the position as at the date of the allotment of
shares.
 CHAPTER XXIV

INSURANCE
RegistersAgentsAdvances on PoliciesRevenue ReceiptsBooks
Schedules

The accounts of companies of this class are exceedingly

interesting by reason of the many special points arising in
connection with them. In one respect they resemble banks
and similar financial houses inasmuch as their dealings
consist almost entirely of cash and securities of the class known
as "gilt-edged." The accounts are governed chiefly by the
Life Assurance Companies Act, 1870. This Act provides for
a special form of Balance Sheet, and also requires an actuarial
valuation of the net liabilities of the company every ten years
if established before the Act, otherwise every five years. Some
of the larger companies, however, now make a valuation on
their own account annually, or at any rate more frequently than
their statutory obligation.
Every company must also publish a Balance Sheet and
Revenue Account in the form set forth in the schedules of the
Life Assurance Companies Act of 1870; and supply a printed
copy of same to every shareholder and policy holder on request
being made.
A special feature in the accounts is the use made of " regis
ters " in which are recorded particulars of policies and renewals ;
such ledgers being, in fact, tabular ledgers for policy holders'
premiums.
Policies and Premiums
Perhaps the simplest manner of showing the method of
dealing with the accounts is to commence with the issue of a
new policy and follow the course of the dealings relating to it
through the books.
361
362 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Let us assume that on March 25 a proposal form from
Mr. Smith (whose age next birthday is thirty) for an insurance
of 1000 and profits payable at death has been accepted at a rate
of 2 10s. per cent. per annum. An entry is forthwith made in the
New Policies Book to show particulars of the policy, the amount
of the present premium and the future premiums, the amount
of the present payments being analysed into " Office policies "
and "Agents policies," and further columns are also provided in
which the date and Cash Book folio for the payments made to
the office are entered up, and an Agents Ledger folio for the
entries posted to the agents column.
This book thus forms a self-balancing ledger as well as a
tabular ledger since the totals of the premiums payable on
" New policies (Office) " will be posted to a special account in
the Nominal Ledger, debiting a " Sundry Debtors for New
Policies," and crediting " Premiums Account."
When Mr. Smith pays his premium the receipt of it will be
recorded in the special Cash Book known as the Premiums
Cash Book which records the date, policy number, and name
of the person from whom it is received, and special money
columns for f ' New policies " and " Renewals," the totals of
which are carried each day into the General Cash Book, from
which they are posted periodically to the totals accounts for
" New policies " and " Renewals " respectively.
If the insurance had been effected through an agent, the
premium would have been debited to the Agents' Account in
the Agents Ledger, which is itself a subsidiary, self-balancing
ledger, details of which we shall see later, and the policy would
have been forwarded at once to the agent, who, when he
forwarded the remittance, would have deducted his commission
and expenses, and such receipt would appear in the Agents'
Remittances Book.
In future years Mr. Smith's premium would be entered in
the Renewals Book, which is ruled to show the particulars of
the policy and the amounts of the premiums for a number of
years, each of which would be provided with a date column for
the date of payment, and also a remarks column to set out
particulars of any policy extinguished with reference to the
" Policies Extinguished Book."
The total for each year will be added and posted to the debit
 INSURANCE 363
of a totals account for " Debtors for Renewals," and credited
to the " Premiums Account."
The cash received on all renewals will be entered in the
Premiums Cash Book before referred to, carried to the General
Cash Book, and posted from there to the credit of the " Debtors
Account."
The "Policies Extinguished Book" will contain particulars
of any policies lapsed or matured, together with the amount of
the premiums which had been previously charged out, and have
now to be written back. The total of these will be debited to
Premiums Account and credited to the " Debtors for Renewals."
The balance of this latter account agreeing with those items
in the Renewals Book which had not been entered as paid,
and also agreeing with the receipts which have not been used.
As a check on the cashier's department, all items for renewals
have formal receipts written out for them by another department
which are given to the cashier, and these receipts are handed,
when paid, to the policy-holders. All premiums for renewals
payable at the office which are not entered as received will,
therefore, require to be vouched by the production of these
receipts, which are, of course, not countersigned, and will be
duly cancelled and recorded in the Policies Extinguished
Book.
We have already alluded to the Agents' Remittances Book,
which is used to record all items of this nature. The book is
ruled to show the date, name of agent, counterfoil receipt
number, commission deducted, allowances, amount of remit
tance, and a total column with a posting folio to the Agents
Ledger. The total cash is entered in the General Cash Book,
from which it is credited to the " Agents' Account " in total ;
the commission and allowances being posted direct to the
Nominal Ledger.
Special books are provided with the ruling already described
to record the " renewals " and "extinguished policies " which
have been issued through agents only, of course, in this case
whilst the nominal posting still goes to Premium Account, the
contra in the Personal Account appears in " agents " instead of
" debtors for renewals." The same routine with regard to
receipts is observed with the agents as with the cashier. Formal
receipts being issued to him for each renewal debited against
 364 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
him, which he must countersign and issue in exchange for the
premium ; any policy not renewed must be reported on and the
receipt returned with his list.

Investments
We have now to consider the other items of revenue which
concern Insurance Companies, the chief of which is the interest
or income received from their investments. The investments
may for our purposes be broadly divided into three classes.
The first of these is the advances which they make on the
security of their own policies, which advance, of course, will
never exceed the surrender value, and is therefore fully secured.
The second class is formed by the freehold and similar property
held by them, occupied frequently by their own offices, but also
usually containing other suites of offices which are let to various
occupiers. The third class consists of other investments, which
in the case of an old-established and thoroughly sound concern
will consist of securities of the best class, the income from which
may be regarded as thoroughly safe and regular in its pay
ment. This latter class is subdivided in the accounts required
by law under various headings, such as mortgages within the
United Kingdom, investments in British Government securities,
railway and other debentures, and debenture stocks, etc.
A special set of books will be used for the first class, setting
out, by means of a self-balancing ledger, the advance made on
every policy. The interests on these loans are usually arranged
to fall on the same day as the premium on the particular policy ;
but such interests are not recorded in this book, all appearing
in a similar book to that provided for renewals, and thus being
a tabular and self-balancing system in itself. If the interest is
paid always at the same time as the policy, the receipt of it may
be conveniently recorded by means of a separate column in the
Premiums Cash Book. The total of this column will be credited
to the " Debtors for interest on loans on policies," which is an
account of the totals only, and worked in a similar manner to
that adopted for the "Debtors for renewals."
The lodger itself dealing with the capital accounts of the
loans is particularly easy to balance separately, as by reference
to the General Cash Book it will be seen that special columns
 INSURANCE 365
are provided for loans on policies granted and repaid, and in
the general system these columns are posted in total only to
a " Loans on Policies Account ; " the balance of this account
must, of course, agree with the balances extracted in detail from
the special ledger.
The income from the second class of investment does not
call for any special comment, as rental accounts are very much
the same whoever the proprietor may be. They can be kept as
an entirely separate set of books, and if desired a distinct bank
account may be opened, the balance of which is transferred
quarterly to the General Account, to cover the income for the
period.
The income arising from the other investments is treated in
the manner with which our readers should be quite familiar. It
is recorded in a special book or books, which are usually sub
divided to correspond with the dates when the income will be
received. As the return from some of these investments is
variable, all cannot be priced out before the dividend or interest
warrant is actually received, as in the case of premiums or loan
interest, but otherwise the procedure is the same. The " Divi
dends Book " will contain columns to show the number in the
Investment Ledger, particulars of the investment, including name
and nature of the security, nominal amount of security, rate of
interest or dividend, if fixed, when due (all of which can be
filled in periodically), date when received, Cash Book folio, gross
amount, deduction for income tax, net amount received. In
this book it is best to debit the " Sundry Debtors for Dividend "
with the gross income, and credit them with cash paid and the
income tax deducted, debiting the Commissioners of Inland
Revenue with this latter amount.
The investments themselves will, of course, appear in the
special ledger, which is self-balancing, on the " loan principle,"
though in this case adjustments are frequently necessary on the
realization of the various securities as and when they may be
realized or changed. It is the invariable practice of insurance
companies to build up a very substantial reserve to deal with
fluctuations in the money market, which, of course, affect very
largely the value of their investments. In this ledger also the
company may record the capital value of their land and build
ing investments as well as their other securities.
366 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Annuities
The consideration for annuities is another heading in the
accounts which calls for attention, though this is with many
companies a very small figure compared with the other items
which we have been discussing. Here, of course, the nature of
the transaction is quite different to other transactions of an
insurance company. Usually a substantial amount is paid to
the company, which in return pays to the annuitant an annual
sum during his or her lifetime. When the amount is received
it is entered into the General Cash Book, in the column for
special posting, whilst the payments are made through a separate
book ruled with columns to cover a number of years. The
annuities will be classified so that all the items payable on the
same date can be easily added and entered in one figure in the
Cash Book as and when paid.
We have now dealt with the various subsidiary sections and
come to the general system, into which it is necessary to collect
the various accounts from the numerous details which we have
before us.

Accounts
The first book of this system is the General Cash Book,
which is a specially arranged book to minimize the posting as
far as possible. A specimen ruling for this important book is
given on p. 867.
Additional columns may be added if desired, to deal with
the question of bonuses, whether commuted for cash, or paid on
the maturing or surrender of the policy. The folio columns
show which items require to be separately posted, except in the
case of investments and loans on policies, in which cases the
reference is to the subsidiary ledger.
A Petty Cash Book will be kept to deal with all the ordinary
items of expenditure paid in cash, which amount to a fairly sub
stantial figure, and which, by means of analysis, are periodically
transferred to the appropriate nominal account.
A Journal is also used to record the various transfers, adjust
ments, and reserves necessary from time to time, and from
these books the final accounts are prepared, together with certain
 INSURANCE 367
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368 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
items entered from the subsidiary books, which have been
already particularized, such as income tax and agents' com
mission.
The forms of these final accounts are, as previously stated,
incorporated as a schedule to the Life Assurance Companies Act,
1870 ; and as these have been made the subject of questions in
many examinations, a well-prepared candidate should study the
forms and understand them. With the notes included in this
chapter, it is hoped that the examples which follow will be
readily understood by him.
Every five years a valuation must be made of the company's
liabilities and assets, including specially the liability to policy
holders and annuitants, after taking into account the premiums
which will be received from holders of current policies. This is
made up by means of tables showing the expectation of life of
the various policy-holders, and after that by mathematical cal
culation. As, however, this is an actuarial and not an account
ing problem, it is not proposed in this volume to go more deeply
into the subject. It will, of course, be understood that the
actual position of an insurance company can only be ascertained
by a statement of this description, and the ordinary accounts
are more in the nature of interim statements.
Before leaving the subject of life assurance companies, it
may be interesting to note that by special Acts they are
required to deposit with the Chancery Court, before they com
mence business, 20,000, which amount carries interest, and is
returnable to the company when the insurance fund, accumulated
out of premiums, amounts to not less than 40,000. It is also
necessary for any company dealing in other classes of insurance,
as well as life insurance, to keep their Life Accounts distinct,
and the funds raised by life insurance are only applicable to
the requirements of the policy-holders and other creditors of
the life department until they have received twenty shillings
in the pound.
It will be noticed that in the foregoing notes, life insurance
only has been treated, but it is the most important branch of
the work, added to which the receipts form the principal part
of the insurance company's system, and that is very similar for
all classes of insurance.
The question of claims, on account of its greater detail,
 INSURANCE 369

FIRST SCHEDULE
Keyenub Account 0? the Insurance Company for the Yeab ended Dec. 31

Amount of funds at the d. Claims under policies s. d.

beginning of the year 1,137,856 0 0 (after deduction of
Premiums (less reassur- sums reassured) . . 70,822 0 0
92,486 0 0 Surrenders .... 16,805 0 0
Consideration for annui Annuities .... 6,211 0 0
ties granted . . . 3,422 0 0 Commission .... 3,822 0 0
Interest and dividends . 45,736 0 (1 Expenses ofmanagement 6,880 0 0
Other receipts, viz. Dividends and bonuses
Assignment fees . . 43 0 (1 to shareholders . . ; 2,500 0 0
Amount of fnnds at end
of year, as per second
schedule 1,172.503 0 0
1,279,543 0 0 1,279,543 0

SECOND SCHEDULE
Balance Sheet of the Inbubance Company on Decembeb 31

Liabilities. . <l. AineU. d.

Share capital paid up . 100,000 0 II Mortgage on property
Assurance fund . . . 1,172,503 0 II within the United
Profit and Loss Account 34,620 0 0 Kingdom .... 317,620 11 0
Mortgages on property
Total funds as per first out of the United
schedule .... 1,307,123 0 II Kingdom .... 294,115 11 0
Claims admitted but not Loans on the company's
8,500 0 II 46,110 0 0
Other sums owing by the Invertmentt
company In British Government
Outstanding expenses 1,420 0 II securities .... 110,067 0 0
Outstanding reassur In Indian and Colonial
ance premiums . . 3,000 0 (1 Government securities 33,642 0 0
In foreign Government
securities .... 48,220 0 0
In railway and other
debentures and deben
ture stocks 150,314 0 0
In railway shares (ord.
and pref.) .... 106,590 0 0
In house property . 84,601 0 0
In other investments
municipal stocks . 80,000 0 0
Loans on personal sc-
300 0 II
Agents' balance . . . 15,020 0 0
Outstanding premiums 3,843 0 II
Outstanding interest . 10,692 II II
Cash on deposit . 10,000 0 II
In hand and on current
account .... 8,849 II 0
1,320,043 0 0 1,320,043 0 0
2 B
 370 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
necessarily requires more particular attention in other classes of
insurance, which it should be remembered are merely contracts
of indemnitythat is to say, on a fire happening, an assured
should not receive more than he has actually lost. For example,
if a man has insured his stock for 2000, but at the time a fire
took place, which completely destroyed it, his stock was only
worth 1500, he would only receive the lower figure. On the
other hand, the law of average applies, so that if a man held
stock worth 2000, but was only insured for 1500, and a fire
occurred which destroyed one-half of his stock, he would receive
from the insurance company 750 only, and not 1000, as the
law would presume that he had accepted the risk for the remain
ing 500 himself, and that he therefore must bear a proportionate
part of the loss.
When a claim occurred it would be duly entered in the
Claims Book, which would record particulars of the policy and
claim, and further columns would be added to show the amount
or manner in which it was finally settled, and the date of the
payment of the claim.
The development of insurance in all directions within recent
years is a most interesting subject, and now there seems to be
no business risk which cannot be insured against.
At this point we may call attention to the fact that allowance
will be made by the income tax authorities for the amount
paid for life assurance premiums up to, but not exceeding,
one-sixth of the net personal income. This deduction was until
recently only allowed on the premiums paid to British offices ;
but, under the Finance Act of 1906, the allowance extends to
premiums paid to any insurance company if lawfully carrying
on business in Great Britain or Ireland, and this may bring in
American offices which transact considerable business in this
country.
Further, it may be noticed that life policies are frequently
used as securities for advances from bankers and others, or
from the insurance company itself. The value of the security
mainly depends upon the surrender value, which is of slight
amount until, say, three or four years' premiums have been
paid.
 INSURANCE 371
Example I
After closing the Revenue Account, the trial balance of the
Reliable Assurance Society, as on December 81, 1904, was as
follows :
Dr. Or.

Funds at the end of the year .... 305,292
Cash at the bank 11,346
Mortgages on property within the United
Kingdom 86,146
British Government securities .... 46,450
Loans on reversions 10,000
Foreign Government securities . . . 25,723
Railway companies' debentures . . . 15,014
Sundry creditors 3,089
Railway companies' shares 40,827
House property 28,519
Loans on society's policies 21,861
Agents' balances 4,117
Claims admitted but not paid .... 1,000
Outstanding premiums 13, 114
Outstanding interest 1,964
Furniture 4,300
309,381 309,381
Let us now prepare the Balance Sheet in the form prescribed
by the Life Assurance Companies Act, 1870, which is as here
under :
Balance Shebt of the Reliance Assurance Society on December 31, 1904
Liabilities. Assets.

Assurance Fund .... 305,292 Mortgages on property within
Claims admitted but not paid 1,000 the United Kingdom . . 86,146
Sundry creditors .... 3,089 Loans on societies' policies . 21,861
Investments
In British Government se
curities 46,450
Foreign Government securi
ties 25,723
Railway debentures . . . 15,014
Railway shares .... 40,827
House property .... 28,519
Furniture 4,300
Loans on reversions .... 10,000
Agents' balances 4,117
Outstanding premiums . . . 13,114
interest . . . 1,964
Cash at bankers 11,346
309,381 309,381
372 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Example II
REVENUE ACCOUNT FOE THE
. d.
Reserve for unexpired risks brought forward from 1903 . 489,066 11
1,306,180 1 4
Income from investments (less income tax) 91,444 11 8

1,886,691 4 2

PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT FOR THE

d.
349,859 4
Deduct
Dividend paid January, 1904 .... 54,000 0 0
Dividend paid July, 1904 ... . 60,000 0 0
114,000 0 0
235,859 9 4
117,909 5 3
46 17 6
| 353,815 12 1

BALANCE SHEET AT
Liabilities. .. . A
Capital2,400,000.
240,000 shares of 10 each, 10. per share paid . . . 120,000 0 0
N.B.2,500 of these shares are held by the office but
are not inclnded among the investments.
General reserve 1,350.000 0
Special reserve 120,000 ii
Dividend reserve 120,000 0
Investment reserve 42,134 11
Reserved for risks not yet expired, being 40 per center of
the premium income for the year 522,472 6
Tension fund 44,496 11
Balance at credit of Profit and Loss Account 243,941 9
2,563,044 1
Outstanding 1 123,432 2
Agents' balances 13,016 5
Amounts due to other offices for re-insurances . 47,251
Bills payable 1,312 3
Reserve for outstanding commission and charges 10,500 0
Clerks deposit fund 8,965 4
Dividend warrants uncleared 2 0

2,767,525
 INSURANCE 373

YEAR ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1904

. d.
Commission 214,228 6 11 797,976 14 6
General expenses 234,104 17 0
448,333 3 11
Reserve for unexpired risks at December 31, 1904, being
40 per cent, of premium income 522,472 0 6
Balance carried to Profit and Loss Account 117,909 5 3
1,886,691 4 2
YEAR ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1904
1 t. d.
Income tax on profits 4,332 9 9
Loss on exchange .... 1,510 5 4
Bad debts 31 13 3
Carried to general reserve 100,000 0 0
Carried to pension fund . 4,000 0 0
Balance carried to Balance Sheet 243,941 3 9

353,815 12 1
DECEMBER 31, 1904
. ou.
Investments :
Mortgages on property within the
181,595 1!) (i
Mortgages on property outside the
United Kingdom 10,000 tl 0
British Government securities . 71,250 0 0
Indian and Colonial Government se
curities 51,019 10 1
Foreign Government securities 131,026 19 ;i
Railway and other guaranteed, prefer
ence, and ordinary shares and stocks 291,980 19 3
Railway debentures and debenture
stocks 420,447 9 1 1
Other debentures and debenture stocks
and municipal bonds 268,997 10 I
House property, including premises
occupied by the office .... 868,254 7 0
_ i corps premises .... 19,143 12 11
Other investments 6,254 Ki (1
Deposits with colonial banks . 23,550 0 0
2,343,521 4 0
Branch and agency balances . . , 217,332 6 9
Due by other offices 8,583 8 4
Outstanding premiums (since received) . 38,797 18 7
Bills receivable 9,040 14 0
Cash on deposit and at bankers, and in hand 150,249 8 7
2,767,525 0 9
 a7alleatof7caa.alaftfun.u0thohtoprbe3o0ryavel0

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 INSURANCE 375
The example given on pp. 872, 878 of the annual accounts
of one of the oldest companies in the country is of interest as
illustrating the provision of a reserve of 40 per cent. of premium
income for unexpired risks ; and also as including in the Balance
Sheet special reserves in addition to the general reserve.
In our third example we give the accounts of a company with
accident and fire departments ; these may profitably be examined
and contrasted with those of a life office, previously given.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

191. Describe the entries made in the accounts for premiums received.
192. What particulars are given in the Agents' Remittance book?
193. State the sources from which an insurance company derives its revenue.
194. State the classes of securities in which investments are made by an
insurance company.
195. Give a form of General Cash Book suitable for an insurance company.
196. The Steadfast Insurance Company, Ltd., was registered in 1900, and
during that year the whole of the share capital (consisting of 100,000 shares of
1 each) was paid up in full. Submit pro forma accounts for the year ended
December 31, 1905, in accordance with the provisions of the Life Assurance
Companies Act, 1870, and point out wherein the form of prescribed accounts
varies from that usually employed by companies registered under the Companies'
Acts, 1862-1900.
197. Give a pro forma example of the Revenue Account of an insurance
company.
198. What is the average clause in a fire insurance policy?
199. On December 31, 1900, the balances of the General Ledger of the Hold
fast Assurance Company were as follows : Funds as on December 31, 1899,
1,557,060; Premium Account, 142,000 ; Claims Account, 70,050 ; annuities
paid, 1,260 ; Commission Account, 6,032 ; Interest and Dividends Account,
51,000 ; Transfer Fees Account, 105 ; Surrenders Account, 11,201 ; Manage
ment Expenses Account, 18,670 ; Shareholders' Dividends Account, 2,500 ;
Claims admitted but not paid Account, 7,200; Sundry Creditors Account,
3,980 ; mortgages in the United Kingdom, 1,201,450 ; loans on policies,
50,060. Investments: Government stocks, 204,000; British railways,
138,200; house property, 7,500; agents' balances, 12,200; outstanding
premiums, 9,200; outstanding interest, 12,040; cash at bank, 16,982.
Prepare Revenue Account and Balance Sheet as on December 31, 1900.
200. An insurance company, having a paid-up capital of 80,000 in 80,000
fully paid-up I shares, and a reserve of equal amount, invested in securities to
the amount of 150,000, and outstanding balances and cash, 10,000, is
absorbed by another company ; the consideration being 65,000 in cash, and
the allotment of one share of 25 (2 10s. paid, and standing in the market at
19 per share in the purchasing company) for every sixteen shares of their own
company.
Close the books of the vendor company, and show how the transactions will
appear in those of the purchasing company.
 CHAPTER XXV

COLLIERIES

Capital ExpenditureRoyaltiesMinimum or Dead Rent and their Treatment

in the AccountsWaggons and the Hire-Purchase SystemCost Accounts.

In this chapter it is proposed to deal with some peculiarities of

this class of accounts, and to do this it will perhaps be of
assistance to briefly consider the whole circumstances of the
business.
The proprietor presumably has obtained either the freehold
or a lease of the land and has agreed to pay to the owner
of the mineral rights a royalty of so much a ton for the coal
removed, and has also spent a considerable amount by way of
capital expenditure in sinking the mine and putting it in a
position of yielding coal.
This capital expenditure will consist mainly of two classes :
the one represented by ordinary tools and machinery, which,
on the expiration of the lease, or the giving out of the mineral,
could be removed practically without damage or expense, and
which, if properly depreciated, should realize a very considerable
percentage of the figure at which it appears in the books. This
will also include engines, boilers, machinery, pumps, weigh
bridges, waggons, locomotives, etc., all of which are depreciated
in the ordinary manner by a process fixed on their estimated life.
The second class of capital expenditure is that on equip
ment and plant, which, if it could be removed, would scarcely
pay for the expenses connected with such an operation. To
this latter class will belong the cost of the mine itself, sinking,
ventilating and shafting, pit frames, cages and gear, all the
colliery buildings (including probably the majority of the cot
tages built for the miners), any private tram-lines or railway-
lines laid down for the purpose of working the colliery.
376
 COLLIERIES 377
The depreciation of this section may be treated in many
different ways. Firstly, following the usual construction put
on the judgment in Lee v. Neuchatel Asphalte Company, it is
probably not necessary, legally, to write anything at all off
expenditure of this nature ; secondly, if the property is lease
hold, it may be written off over the period of the lease if the
mine is expected to be in full working order for such period ;
thirdly, an estimate may be made of the mineral obtainable
during the lease (if leasehold), or total estimated output of the
mines (if freehold), and such expenditure may then be written
off by means of a royalty of so much per ton charged to a
depreciation fund, so that by means of this royalty on the
estimated output, the total amount originally sunk is written
off on the closing of the mine.
It is most essential that all charges in the nature of revenue
or replacements should be debited direct to the Profit and Loss
Account, and not be treated as a capital addition. This includes
the development of the underground working to replace such
portions of the mine as are becoming useless, as well as renewals
to machinery, etc.

RoyaltiesMinimum Rent

Let us now turn to the agreement with the owner of the

mine, and see how and when we are to pay our rent. This
agreement follows the lines of many such agreements, and
provides that for the whole term a minimum or " dead rent "
of 750 per annum shall be paid. It also provides for a royalty
of 8d. in the ton on all coal raised, with the proviso that such
royalty shall " merge " the dead rent, that is, the royalty or
the rent shall be paid to the landlord each year, whichever is
the greater; and, further, that if in the earlier years, owing
to the mine not being in full producing order, the minimum
rent has to be paid, that any amount paid in excess of what
the royalty should have been, may be deducted from future
royalties payable in excess of the minimum rent during the first
ten years of the company's existence.
The following is the number of tons raised during the earlier
years of the colliery :
378 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

1906 . . 6,000 tons equals 200 royalty for the year.
1907 . . 18,000 600
1908 . . 30,000 1,000
1909 . . 31,500 1,050
1910 . . 30,000 1,000
As previously mentioned, for the year 1906 the minimum
rent of 750 must be paid, but at the year's end, when it is
found that the royalty amounts to 200 only, the difference of
550 will be transferred to a " Minimum Rent Redeemable "
Account, and will stand as an asset in the books, and any
future royalties payable in excess of the minimum of 750 will
be credited here instead of to the landlord, whilst any balance
remains.
The entries to record the above facts are set out below in
Journal form
1906. t
Dec. 31. Minimum rent. Dr 750
To landlord 750
Royalties Account. Dr 200
Minimum rent redeemable. Dr. . . 550
To minimum rent 750
Profit and Loss Account. Dr. . . . 200
To royalty 200
(Asset in Balance Sheet of December 31, 1905"Minimum rent redeem
able, 550.")
1907. t
Dec. 31. Minimum rent. Dr 750
To landlord 750
Royalties Account. Dr 600
Minimum rent redeemable. Dr. . . 150
To minimum rent 750
In 1907, therefore, 600 will be debited to Profit and Loss
Account, and the " Minimum rent redeemable " in the Balance
Sheet will appear at 700. In each subsequent year the entry
of the minimum rent, the credit to the landlord, and the transfer
of the royalty to profit and loss will be similar, and are therefore
not repeated. The other entries are
1908. t
Dec. 31. Royalties Account. Dr 1000
To minimum rent 750
minimum rent redeemable . . 250
(Leaving asset of 450.)
 COLLIERIES 379
1909.
Dec. 31. Royalties Account. Dr. . . 1050
To minimum rent 750
minimum rent redeemable . . 300
(Leaving asset of 150.)
1910v
Dec. 31. Royalties Account. Dr. 1000
To minimum rent 750
minimum rent redeemable (clos
ing the account) .... 150
landlord (to whom the surplus
of royalties in this and all
future years must be paid) . 100

Wages.The arrangement with the workmen will, in the

case of the colliers and much of the underground labour, be
piecework, and to save the labour involved in the calculations,
the wages are generally made up for a fortnight at a time, the
men being allowed to draw a certain amount on account at the
alternate week-end. The amount to be paid is ascertained by
a weigher on behalf of the owners, and a " check weighman " on
behalf of the men, the latter receiving his weekly wage from the
miners themselves, a column being provided in the Wage Book,
by means of which his wages are deducted from the individual
wages at the time of their payment in agreed proportions. For
purposes of costing, the wages are analyzed under various head
ings, the three chief divisions being colliers (subdivided into
cutting, timbering, deadwork, etc.), underground labour (sub
divided into overmen, roadmen, trammers, doorboys, etc.), and
above-ground labour (subdivided into storekeepers, black
smiths, etc.).
The example on p. 880 is a simple form of Wages Book.
Sales.The sales of a colliery are usually entered, in weights
only until the month end, in a book sometimes called a " Ledger
Journal," in which one page is kept for each of the principal
customers, who are charged so much per ton loaded at the pit
head. At the end of the month a statement is made out showing
the various quantities and qualities purchased, and the monthly
total of each quality charged out in money for the first time,
together with the charge made by the railway company for
carriage, and if the coal was sent in the colliery's waggon, an
agreed charge per ton for waggon hire.
These will be press copied, and a summary is made in the
3o ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
i
S3
Tota .
*i
s
o6
i
Deductions. (Aa
Check welgh0 men. R'.
M
' *

Total.

offl |
.oa

Caforonlaumynsis. ia

*ia

3151
'3artV,0

Time for others.

forpie7e workers.

wont.

V
1
K
 COLLIERIES 38i
Sales Book, which is in its turn posted to the Ledger. The Sales
Book will contain columns for reference to the press copies and
to the Ledger, total columns for weights and money, and
analysis columns for coal, railway carriage, and waggon hire,
the totals of these being posted to the credit of the respective
accounts.

Hire Purchase of Waggons

The next point to consider is that of waggons obtained
under the "hire-purchase system," and their treatment in the
accounts. The agreements usually provide that the purchaser
shall pay a fixed sum for the hiring of a waggon for an agreed
period, at the end of which time he has the right to purchase it
for a nominal sum, the waggon in the mean time remaining the
property of the manufacturer.
It will be seen that the instalments paid by the purchaser
will include a certain amount of interest, and that the balance
of each instalment is really a payment on account of capital.
These instalments must, therefore, be apportioned each year as
between capital and interest, and the latter must, of course, be
written off against the Profit and Loss Account. There will be
a further charge against revenue in respect of depreciation,
which as a matter of sound finance should be written off each
year from the cash value of the waggons.
As waggons, when kept in good repair, have a long life, and
those supplied by standard makers consist of interchangeable
parts constantly being renewed, the waggons may remain good
working plant even though not one scrap remains of the original.
On the other hand, railway companies often withdraw waggons
of an obsolete type, and also put a limit to the extent of repairs.
This varying treatment makes the question of depreciation one
on which no hard and fast rules can be laid down. The de
sirability of providing for depreciation may, however, be taken
for granted ; and therefore we say that the agreed rate should be
written off the cash value and not from the balance of the
waggon account. It must be noted that in a short period
ownership is obtained of the waggons, and that the additional
rate paid under this purchase method as compared with simple
hiring would be forfeited on failure to keep up the agreed
382 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
payments ; further, that after charging interest and depreciation
against revenue there will soon be a considerable sum repre
senting the cash payment value of the waggon.
To show how these items may be treated in the books let us
take the following example : A. agrees with the Railway Waggon
Company to acquire from them one of their 50 waggons on
the hire-purchase system, paying 10 per annum for six years,
and then having the right to purchase it for the sum of one
shilling. The first instalment is payable on December 81, 1906,
being just twelve months after he first obtains possession of it,
and he covenants to keep the said waggon in full repair until
all the payments under the agreement have been made. Interest
is charged at the rate of five and a half per centum on the unpaid
balance of capital.
On December 81 A. will receive from the Waggon Company
a debit note for the sum of 10, which will be treated with the
other invoices through the Purchase Analysis Book, by means
of which the " Waggons on Hire-Purchase Account " will be
debited and the Railway Waggon Company credited with that
amount. As set out above, this figure will include interest for
the year on the balance still unpaid of the cash price (50),
which therefore for the first year equals 2 15s., and the
remainder, viz. 7 5s., goes towards the capital, which therefore
leaves unpaid on January 1, 1907, capital 42 15s. Depre
ciation will then require to be dealt with, and has for the purpose
of this example been charged at the rate of 12 per cent, on the
diminishing value, and therefore for the first year will amount
to 6 5s.
The interest and depreciation each year will be credited to
the Waggon Account and debited to Profit and Loss Account,
and the balance of the former account will then appear on the
Balance Sheet as an asset under some such heading as
Waggon on Hire-Purchase Account 1
(Subject to payment of balance of instalments 50 It.)

For 1907 the annual debit note will come on December 31,
and be treated as before. Interest will be charged on the
balance of capital for the year (42 15s.) and will equal 2 7s.
for the year, leaving owing on January 1, 1908, 35 2s. on
capital account. Depreciation for the year will be charged at
 COLLIERIES 383
5 9s. 4d., being 12 J per cent, on the cash price 50, less 6 5s.
written off for 1906.
In the Balance Sheet at December 81, 1907, this asset will
therefore stand at 8 8s. 8d.
The student can work out each year's interest and depre
ciation for his own satisfaction until the purchase is completed,
when the balance of the "Hire-Purchase Account" will be
transferred to the ordinary Waggon Account, since it is then the
absolute property of the hirer.
The following entries show in Journal form the full trans
actions for the first two years and the interest and depreciation
figures for the whole period, together with the Ledger Account
of the " Waggon on Hire-Purchase."

1906. i s. d. t. (/.
Dec. 31. Waggon Hire-Purchase Account. Dr. . 10 0 0
To Railway Waggon Company, Ltd. . 10 0 0
(Being first instalment of purchase of
waggon under the hire agreement of
Jan. 1, 1906.)
Interest Account. Dr 2 15 0
To Waggon Hire-Purchase Account . 2 15 0
(Being interest at 5 per cent. per annum
on cash price of waggon.)
Depreciation Account. Dr 6 5 0
To Waggon Hire-Purchase Account . 6 5 0
(Being depreciation for year at 12 per
cent, per annum on waggon under
agreement of Jan. 1, 1906, costing
50 cash.)
Profit and Loss Account. Dr. ... 900
To Interest Account 2 15 0
Depreciation Account .... 650
(For balance of the latter written oil'.)

1907.
Dec. 31. Waggon Hire-Purchase Account. Dr. . 10 0 0
To Railway Waggon Company, Ltd. . 10 0 0
(Being second instalment of purchase of
waggon under hire agreement of Jan.
1, 1906.)
Interest Account. Dr 2 7 0
To Waggon Hire-Purchase Account . 2 7 0
(Being interest at 51 per cent, per annum
on balance of capital still unpaid under
above agreement, viz. 42 15s.)
384 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
1907 {continued). i. d. s. d.
Dec. 31. Depreciation Account. Dr 5 9 4
To Waggon Hire-Purchase Account . 5 9 4
(Being depreciation at 12 per cent, per
annum (diminishing value) on waggon
under agreement of Jan. 1, 1906.)
Profit and Loss Account. Dr. ... 7 16 4
To Interest Account 2 7 0
Depreciation Account .... 594
(For balance of the latter accounts
written off.)

The Balance Sheet value of the waggon at date will be

'd 8s. 8d., subject to the payment of further instalments equal
to 40 Is.
SUMMARY OF FURTHER ENTRIES

Balance of cash Value of

Unpaid balance Interest for waggons on hire-
value after Depreciation purchase
of capital on year. depreciation on account
for year. per balance
January 1. January l. sheet
December 31.

. d. . d. . d. t. d. *. <t
Deo. 31, 1908 35 2 0 1 18 6 38 , 5 8 4 15 8 6 9 6
1909 27 0 6 1 9 8 33 10 0 4 3 9 10 16 1
1910 18 10 2 1 0 4 29 6 3 3 13 3 16 2 6
1911 9 10 6 0 10 6 25 13 0 3 4 2 22 8 10
i
It is very essential for the proper working of a colliery that
store accounts shall be carefully and accurately kept, and that
they shall be periodically balanced and checked with the actual
stock on hand ; but as this presents no special features and the
general subject of stores is dealt with in another chapter, it is
not necessary to enlarge upon this here.
Nowadays no system of accounting for any trade is con
sidered complete without some reference to Cost Accounts and
cost sheets, and the managers of collieries were among the first
to realize the usefulness of this branch of work and to prepare
statistical returns frequently and periodically to show how
much each ton of coal raised was costing, and how that cost
was distributed. In collieries these statements are also used
as a check on the payment of the wages, since, as previously
stated, a very large portion of the wages is paid on the output
of coal, and a schedule maintains a check on the opening
stock and coal raised as per the wage sheets. Against this is
 COLLIERIES 385
WAGGON ON HIRE-PURCHASE ACCOUNT Or.
1906. t. 1906. . </.
Doo. 31 To Railway Waggon Dec. 31 By interest . . . | 2 15 II
Co., Ltd. . . . 10 11 0 depreciation . 6 5 0
balance ... 1 0 0
10 0 0 10 0 0
balance . . . 1 o| 0
1907. 1907.
Deo. 31 Railway Waggon Dec. 31 interest . 2 7 0
Co., Ltd.Instal J depreciation . . 5 9 t
ment .... 10 0 0 n balance . . . 3 3 8
11 0 0 11 0 0
n balance 3 3 8
1908. 1908.
Deo. 31 Railway Waggon Dec. 31 interest . . . 1 18 6
Co., Ltd.Instal depreciation . 4 15 8
ment .... 10 0 0 balance 6 9 6
13 3 8 13 3 8
balance . . . 6 9 6
1909. 1909.
Dec. 31 Railway Waggon Dec. 31 interest . . 1 9 8
Co., Ltd.Instal n ,. depreciation . 4 3 9
ment .... 10 0 0 balance . . . 10 16 1
16 9 6 16 9 6
ii balance . . . 10 16 1
1910. 1910.
Deo. 31 ., Railway Waggon Dec. 31 interest . 1 0 4
Co, Ltd.Instal depreciation . 3 i:: 3
ment .... 10 0 0 < balance . . . 16 2 6
20 16 1 20 16 1
M balance . . . 16 2 6
1911. 1911.
Deo. 31 Railway Waggon Deo. 31 interest . 0 10 6
Co, Ltd.Instal ., depredation . 3 4 2
ment .... 10 0 0 3 Waggon Account,
Purchase price . 0 1 0 being balance
transferred . . 22 8 10
(Value of waggon
acquired, less de
preciation to.date)
26 3 6 26 3 6

set the amount of coal sold, for which a column is provided in

the Sales Book, and a note made of the deficiency which will
invariably exist, owing to an allowance usually made to the
married men engaged in the colliery, and to the coal consumed
by the concern itself. The percentage which this deficiency
2 c
386 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
bears to the output is carefully noted, and often a certain
margin is fixed which is never exceeded without a full inquiry
being made. Such maximum will vary from 4 to 7 per cent.,
according to the circumstances of each case.
Probably the best termination to this chapter will be a form
of a Colliery Cost Account which we think is self-explanatory.

SUMMARY OF COST SHEET FOR THE FOUE WEEKS ENDING SePTEMBEE 30

THE BLANK COLLIERY COMPANY
Average per too of
Tons. net production.
Salescoal and slack . 18,600 6045 0. Od, 6. IV/.
Coal stockdecrease . 200 65 0s. Od.
Total credits 18,400 5980 0. Od.

Per cent,
sgeperton
Average " "r-
of net p?oLt>on.
duction.
t. d. d.
Wages: colliers 1562 0 0 837 26 12
underground 830 0 0 10-83 1388
surface 740 0 0 965 1238
3132 485
Timber used 420 0 0 5-47 7-03
Rails 24 0 0 031 040
Stores : ropes . 30 0 0 0-39 0-50
oil ... . 18 0 0 024 0 30
sundry 17 0 0 0-22 0-29
509 663
Repnirs and renewals ex
clusive of wages 110 0 0 1 43 1-84
Horse keep and stables . 137 0 0 1-79 230
247 3-22
Royalty freehold and
leasehold .... 515 0 0 672 8-60
Depreciation fund . 207 0 0 2-70 346
Other rents, rates, and taxes 410 0 0 535 686
1132 2-77
5020 0 0
Management expenses 150 0 0 ii i in; 250
Salaries and travelling 162 0 0 212 271
Office expenses 70 0 0 092 1-16
,, rent and insurance 80 0 0 104 1-34
Discounts and bad debts 76 0 0 100 1-27
538 0 0
Apparent profit 422 I 0 0 5-49 706
1 0-53 1
5980 6 6 I 100-00
 COLLIERIES 387

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

201. Discuss the question of depreciation in the case of a colliery.
202. Explain the meaning of minimum or dead rent.
203. How would a minimum rent in excess of royalties be treated in the
accounts ?
204. Discuss the treatment in the accounts of waggons obtained under the
hire-purchase system.
205. Give an example of a colliery cost sheet.
 CHAPTER XXVI

BUILDING SOCIETIES1

PermanentTerminating SocietiesRights and Liabilities of MembersMort

gagesAnnual StatementAuditor's ReportTermination, Dissolution,
and Winding upAccountsCash Book, Ledgers, Final Accounts and
Statement.

Classes.Building societies are of two kinds: 1. Terminating;

2. Permanent. A terminating society is one which, by its rules,
is to terminate at a fixed date, or when a result specified in its
rules is attained.
The scheme of a terminating society is somewhat as
follows :
The society is constituted by several persons, each sub
scribing for a certain number of shares. Upon each of these
shares a fixed sum is made payable so long as the society lasts,
the object being to continue the society until the subscriptions,
with the interest that has arisen from their investment, shall
have produced such an amount per share as may have been
fixed by the rules. As soon as there are sufficient funds in
hand it may be noted that advances are made to such members
as may desire them, in anticipation of the shares which would
be payable to them on the termination of the society; the
sum advanced being the amount of the member's share or
shares, less a discount for such member's portion of the work
ing expenses. The member who receives the advance executes
a mortgage of real or leasehold estate to the society for secur
ing the due payment by him of his subscriptions to the funds
of the society. The Starr-Bowkett and Bowkett Societies are
both varieties of this class.

1 For a fuller treatment we would refer students to the standard work by

Wurtzburg on building societies, to which, by the courtesy of Messrs. Stevens
and Sons, the publishers, we are indebted for the introductory notes of this chapter.
388
 BUILDING SOCIETIES 389
It frequently happens that the winner of a ballot does not
at the time desire to exercise his rights, and he has the power
to offer up his privilege by auction, and sell to the highest
bidder, thereby realizing a profit, a portion of which profit the
society receives, as stated in its rules.
A permanent society, on the other hand, is a society which
has not by its rules any fixed date or specified result at which
it shall terminate.
Permanent societies are constructed by the agreement of
several persons to take shares of a certain fixed value, on
which payment has to be made, either in a lump sum or by
instalments, until the full amounts of the shares have been paid
up ; and the sums so paid generally carry interest. Advances are
made to members from time to time, as the funds will permit,
on the security of lands or buildings, the money advanced being
at a higher rate of interest than that received by investing
members or depositors, and usually made payable by equal
instalments, composed of principal and interest and spread
over a fixed period.
Building societies are classed under the heads of incorporated
and unincorporated societies.
The chief difference between an unincorporated and an
incorporated society is that in the case of the former loans to
the society were really made to the appointed trustees of
the society, for which loans the said trustees gave promissory
notes, making themselves personally liable for the repayment ;
whereas in incorporated societies the loans are made to the
society itself, the society giving a certificate for the amounts
under its seal, giving the lender a claim on its funds.
Also in the case of mortgages to an unincorporated society,
they are made to the trustees of the society; but in incor
porated societies they are made to the society as a corporate
body under its seal. Unincorporated societies are dying out.
The Rights and Liabilities of Members.The members of a
building society are of two classesthose who simply pay their
contributions to the society, generally receiving interest in some
shape on the amount so paid, and those who borrow money
from the society on mortgage. The former are called un-
advanced or investing members, and the latter advanced or
borrowing members, and their rights and liabilities depend not
39Q ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
only on the rules of the society, but also on the contract of
mortgage into which they have entered.
For the purpose of raising the funds necessary for carrying
on its business, an incorporated society is empowered to issue
shares of one or more denominations, either paid up in full, or
to be paid by periodical or other subscriptions, and with or
without accumulating interest, and to repay such funds when
no longer required for its purposes; and it may also issue
preference shares. But in the case of every society established,
or substituting a new set of rules for its existing rules, since
August 25, 1894, the following particulars must be set forth
in the rules of the society : the manner in which the stock or
funds is or are to be raised ; the terms upon which unadvanced
subscription shares are to be issued ; the manner in which the
contributions are to be paid to the society, and withdrawn by
the members, with tables where applicable, showing the amount
due by the society for principal and interest separately; the
terms upon which paid-up shares, if any, are to be issued and
withdrawn, with tables, where applicable, showing the amount
due by the society for principal and interest separately ; whether
preferential are to be issued, and if so, within what limits ; the
manner in which advances are to be made and repaid ; the
deductions, if any, for premiums, and the conditions upon
which a borrower can redeem the amount due from him before
the expiration of the period for which the advance was made,
with tables, where applicable, showing the amount due from
the borrower after each stipulated payment; the manner in
which losses are to be ascertained and provided for, and the
manner in which membership is to cease. It is obvious, there
fore, that the society may raise its funds in a number of different
ways, and the rights of the members will vary accordingly.
There is no fixed capital as in the case of a company under
the Companies Acts, but shares are issued from time to time
as persons are found ready to take them ; and, unless so
provided by the rules, there is no limit to the number that may
be issued. In the case of terminating societies, however, it is
unusual for any one to join after the first few months of the
society's existence, owing to the number of back payments that
will be required in order to place him on an equality with those
members who joined at the commencement of the society.
 BUILDING SOCIETIES 391
Mortgages to Building Societies.The principal business of
every building society, whether terminating or permanent, is to
make advances to its members out of the funds on the security
of real or leasehold estate. The form of the mortgage given
to secure such an advance depends mainly upon the constitution
of the society. It is, in the case of a terminating society, to
secure not the repayment of the money advanced with interest,
but the due payment by the member of his subscriptions and
other contributions to the funds of the society until the full
amount of the shares of the unadvanced or investing members
is realized according to the rules ; and as an advanced member
receives by anticipation what the investing members will only
receive on the termination of the society, he pays from the time
he receives his advance an increased or additional subscription
which is called redemption money, but ia in reality interest.
The mortgage must, therefore, be framed in such a way as to
secure the due payment by the advanced member of all his
contributions until the termination of the society.
In permanent societies, on the other hand, a mortgage for
an advance to a member is usually in the nature of a security
for repayment of the advance by equal instalments, composed
of principal and interest combined. If the society is incor
porated the mortgage is made to the society itself, under its
seal ; if it is unincorporated the security must be taken in the
names of trustees, and it will vest in the society's trustees for
the time being without any conveyance or transfer.
The right to receive an advance from an incorporated society
cannot now be made to depend on the result of a ballot or any
chance or lot, except in the case of societies established before
August 25, 1894.
The security for an advance must always consist of real or
leasehold estate, whether the society is incorporated or not ; an
advance on the security of the members' shares in the society is
illegal, and directors who make such an advance will be liable for
any loss that may be sustained by the society in consequence ;
and though an advance may be collaterally secured by the per
sonal covenant of the member, or by a charge on property of an
unauthorized description, e.g. pure personal estate, the validity
of the transaction must be estimated as if no such ingredient
entered into it.
392 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Speaking generally, and subject to such variations as
necessarily result from the special nature of these securities,
the ordinary law of mortgage applies in the case of a mortgage
to a building society by one of its members. At the same time
the position of an advanced member of a building society is not
quite the same as that of an ordinary mortgagor, and his rights
are affected to the same extent, at least, by the contract of
membership as well as by the contract of mortgage ; and there
are, moreover, certain statutory provisions such, for instance,
as the right to reconvey by endorsed receipt instead of by deed
which, of course, have no application to the case of an ordinary
mortgage.
An advanced member of a building society has the right to
redeem his security, the terms of redemption depending on the
rules of the society and the provisions of the mortgage deed ;
but questions of difficulty have sometimes arisen on this point,
owing to the want of care shown in framing the rules.
In the case of a permanent society it is easy to ascertain
how much must be paid by an advanced member who wishes to
redeem his security ; but in the case of a terminating society,
owing to the impossibility of saying exactly how long the society
will last, the calculation is one of some difficulty, and in fact
can scarcely be made with perfect accuracy.
A member of a building society, who has executed a
mortgage to the society in the usual form to secure an advance,
is entitled to deduct income tax on so much of each periodical
instalment as is in fact payment of interest ; but not on such
portion as is payment of principal.
The right to deduct income tax from time to time, as and
when mortgage interest is paid, is absolute ; and a mortgagor
so deducting income tax is acquitted and discharged by statute
of so much money as the deduction shall amount to as if the
amount had actually been paid to a person to whom the
interest was due and payable. The tax should be deducted
from each instalment before it is paid, and if this is not done
the amount cannot afterwards be deducted from the future
instalments. This is the law on the subject, and though the
privilege is rarely exercised by mortgagors, refusal to allow
this deduction carries a penalty of 50.
A society under the Building Societies Acts cannot advance
 BUILDING SOCIETIES 393
money on the security of any freehold, copyhold, or leasehold
estate which is subject to a prior mortgage, unless the prior
mortgagee is in favour of the society making the advance, and
agrees to become second mortgagee, the society having the
prior claim.
In a permanent society the total amount received on deposit
or loan, and not repaid by the society, shall not at any time
exceed two-thirds of the amount for the time being secured to
the society by mortgages from its members. An overdraft at
a bank would be considered borrowed money.
In a terminating society the total amount so received and
not repaid may either be a sum not exceeding such two-thirds,
or a sum not exceeding twelve months' subscriptions on the
shares for the time being in force.
Annual Statement. The secretary or other officer of every
society must, once in every year at least, prepare an account
of all the receipts and expenditure of the society since the pre
ceding statement, and a general statement of its funds and
effects, liabilities and assets, showing the amounts due to the
holders of the various classes of shares respectively, to depositors
and creditors for loans, and also the balance due and outstand
ing on the mortgage securities(not including prospective interest),
and the amount invested in the funds or other securities ; and
every such account and statement shall be attested by an auditor
who publicly practises as an accountant, to whom the mortgage
deeds and other securities belonging to the society shall be pro
duced, and such account and statement shall be countersigned
by the secretary or other officer ; and every member, depositor,
and creditor for loans shall be entitled to receive from the
society a copy of such account and statement, and a copy must
be sent to the Registrar within fourteen days after the annual
or other general meeting at which it is presented, and another
copy is to be suspended in a conspicuous place in every office of
the society.
Auditor's Report.Every auditor, in attesting any such
account or statement, must either certify that it is correct, duly
vouched, and in accordance with law, or specially report to the
society in what respect he finds it incorrect, unvouched, or not
in accordance with law, and shall also certify that he has at
that audit actually inspected the mortgage deeds and other
394 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
securities belonging to the society, and shall state the number
of properties with respect to which deeds have been produced to
and actually inspected by him.
Termination, Dissolution, and Winding up.There appear to be
six different ways in which a building society may come to an
end : (1) termination ; (2) dissolution, in manner prescribed by
the rules; (3) dissolution by an instrument of dissolution;
(4) dissolution by award of the Registrar ; (5) dissolution under
sect. 26 of the Act of Geo. 4, c. 56, assuming this section to be
applicable to the case of a building society; (6) winding up
under the Companies Acts. Of these the first and last apply to
both incorporated and unincorporated societies ; the second,
third, and fourth apply only to incorporated societies ; the fifth
applies, if at all, only to incorporated societies.
Any incorporated society may also unite with or transfer its
engagements to another incorporated society, and come to an
end in this way.
The manner in which any incorporated society, whether ter
minating or permanent, is to be terminated or dissolved must
be set forth in its rules.
The object of a terminating society is, as we have seen, to
accumulate by the subscriptions of its members and the interest
derived from their investment, an amount sufficient to give a
stipulated sum to each member, and then to divide the whole
amongst them. The length of time required to accomplish this
result varies according to the rate of subscription and the degree
of success or non-success that attends the societies' operations ;
but twelve or fourteen years may be taken as about the average
period. When the agreed amount has been realized, the accounts
of the different members, some of whom will have received
their shares in advance, are made up; the fund is divided
amongst the members according to their several rights and
interests, and the society is at an end.
The rules may of course provide that the society shall ter
minate on a given date, and the assets be then divided and
the society dissolved. But this is not usual ; it is much more
common for the rules to provide for the society continuing its
operations until a certain amount per share has been realized.
In the case of an incorporated society, the Act expressly pro
vides that the society may terminate " upon the happening of
 BUILDING SOCIETIES 395
any event declared by its rules to be the termination of the
society ; " and it defines a terminating society as one which,
by its rules, is to terminate at a fixed date, or when a result
specified in its rules is attained.
The Act of 1874 provides that an incorporated society may
be dissolved in manner prescribed by its rules, and whatever
course they point out for effecting the dissolution must be
strictly pursued.
The provisions of the Building Societies Acts will, during
the dissolution, continue to apply in the case of the society as
if the liquidators or other persons conducting the dissolution
'were the board of directors or committee of management of the
society.
The society, if incorporated, may be dissolved by instrument
of dissolution with the consent of three-fourths of the members,
holding not less than two-thirds of the number of shares in the
society, testified by their signatures to the instrument. The
instrument of dissolution must set forth
(a) The liabilities and assets of the society in detail ;
(b) The number of members and the amount standing to
their credit in the books of the society ;
(c) The claims of depositors and other creditors, and the
provisions to be made for their payment ;
(rf) The intended appropriation or division of the funds and
property of the society ;
(e) The names of one or more persons to be appointed
trustees for the special purpose, and their remuneration.
It must be registered in the manner provided for the regis
tration of rules, and will be binding on all the members of the
society.
The remaining method of putting an end to a building
society is by winding up under the Companies Acts.
When a society under the Building Societies Acts is being
dissolved or wound up, a member to whom an advance has been
made under any mortgage or other security, or under the rules
of the society, shall not be liable to pay the amount payable
under the mortgage or other security or rules, except at the
time and subject to the conditions therein expressed.
A building society, though it may be wound up under the
Companies Acts, is neither a joint-stock company nor a
396 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
common-law partnership. It is an association of a special kind,
formed and regulated under particular Acts of Parliament for
special purposes, and the rights and liabilities of the members
are to be determined by the particular contract into which
they have entered, and which is to be found in the rules of
the society.
Unadvanced or investing members are only liable as between
the different classes of members themselves to contribute to the
assets of the society, to the extent (if any) to which the pay
ments due in respect of their shares are in arrear at the com
mencement of the winding up. If, however, the society is
unincorporated they will be liable to ordinary creditors without
limitation of liability, and to loan creditors to the extent of the
amounts payable by the unadvanced members under the rules,
and they may in some cases be under special liability to pre
ference shareholders. In the absence of special contract,
advanced members are entitled to redeem, and so put an end to
their connection with the society, by paying up the balances
remaining owing on their securities, and are not bound to
remain members for the purpose of bearing a share of any
losses that may have been sustained by the society. If it is
unincorporated, and there are outside creditors, the liability is
more extensive.
Members who have given notices to withdraw, which have
expired before the commencement of the winding up, and
members whose shares are realized or completed at the com
mencement of the winding up, will, if the rules so provide, be
entitled to be paid out of the assets after satisfaction of the
outside creditors, and in priority to members who have not
given such notice or whose shares are not realized.
After payment of debts and making due provision for priori
ties of withdrawn and realized shares, the surplus assets are
divisible among the unadvanced members according to the
interests which existed at the commencement of the wind
ing up.
The Registrar having powers of registering matters in
connection with building societies is the chief registrar of
friendly societies, and his assistants, any of whom can act.
Their headquarters are Central Office, Abingdon St., West
minster.
 BUILDING SOCIETIES 397

Accounts and Statutory Statements

The following specimens of accounts and the somewhat
complicated statements, which are necessary to be kept and
returned by building societies, will require the careful study
of the students interested in this branch of accounting. The
accounts and forms, with the help of the notes, are self-
explanatory, and therefore need no further description.

BUILDING SOCIETIES' BOOKS.

Advanced Members Ledger . . . pp. 400-1
Cash Book 398-9
Deposit Ledger 402
Preference Shares Members Ledger .. 400-1
Investment Members Ledger . . . .. 400-1
Nominal Ledger ., 402-4
Profit and Loss Account . . . . 105
Subscription Book 406
Sundry Books 406
 398 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Dr. CAsn
No. of Deductions
Date. Name. Nature of sundries. Ledger shares Sundries.
folio. paid
off.

1901 . d.
Jan. To balance in
bank . .
bank . . Bank interest G.L. 21 18 11
sundry persons
(detailed dur
ing year) . .
InvestmentA/c Interest . G.L. 600 0 0
to sundry persons Rules, fines, etc. G.L. 20 10 3
Income from pro
perties in pos
session, viz. 304 1 1
Interest received
from borrowers 5618 4 0
Insurance pre
Dec. miums . . . G.L. 225 0 G
6789 14 9 5 I 1

(a) The items in the sundries column whioh appear in

General Ledger (oredit side). the columns of whioh are added
or to Nominal Accounts at the end of the financial year.
(6) The totals of these columns are carried to the Profit
(c) From Subscription Books.
CONTRA
Number
Date. Name. Nature of sundries. Ledger ofshareB Sundries. Shares
folio. ad advanced.
vanced.

1901
Jan. By bank . . . Commission . G.L. 30
sundry persons Management ex
penses . G.L. 580
Rent, rates, and
taxes G.L. 287
Income tax G.L. 91
Subscriptions to
to Building Socie
ties' Association G.L. 2
Blank Inaur-
ance Co. . Insurances G.L. 225
sundry persons
(detailed dur
ing year) . 35,794
Dee. balance in bank
1166 16 4 35,794 4|0
00
(a) As above.
 BUILDING SOCIETIES 399

Deductions on Preference shares Deposits Advanced shares Subscriptions. Total.

advances. received. received. paid off.

t. d. . d. s. d. . d. . d. t. d.
3,329 16 3
21 18 11

590 15 0 13,400 0 0 35,348 5 1 12,241 19 10 61,586 1 3

600 0 0
20 10 3

304 1 1
5,618 4 0
225 0 6
590 I 15 I 0 II 13,400 I 0 I 0 II I I II 35,348 I 5 I 1 II 12,241 <_19 10 71,705 12 3
(6) (c) (c) (<) (o)
detail thronghoat the year, are posted to an analytical
and the totals posted direct to the Profit and Loss Account,
and Loss Account.

Cr.

Investment Interest on Preference Interest on Deposits interest on

shares investment shares preference withdrawn. deposits. Total.
withdrawn. shares. withdrawn. shares.

t. d . d.u i t. </. d. d. . J. t. d.
30 5 6
530 18 4
287 4 4
91 5 8

2 2 0
225 0 6

15,463 s 9 3807 0 11 4130 0 0 969 17 0 5215 0 0 1392 12 5 66,772 3 1

3,766 12 10
15,463 7 3807 T 4130 969 17 0 5215 0 1392 12 5 71,705 12 3
 4oo ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
ADVANCED
Or. No. in Society.

Date. Shares. Folio. Grant. Interest. Total.

i
1901 s. d. i. d. i I. 1
Jan. 1 To balances . 118,952 1 3 4,886 10 9
cash (further ad
vances during 11
to year) . . . 35,794 4 0
interest on ad Int.
vances . book. 5,618 4 0 1
Deo. 31 (Detailed in No. 1
Interest Book
No. 1). i
154,746 5 3 10,504 14 9
1902
Jan. 1 To balances . . . 119,093 19 1 4,886 10 9

INVESTMENT
Dr. No. in Society.

Date. Folio. Interest. Subscription*.

1901
Jan. To cash . . . 3,807 15,463 8
to
Dec. balances down 6,490 5 1 57,628 1

10,297 4 73,091 10

PREFERENCE SHAKES
Dr. No. in Society.

Date. FoUo. Interest. Subscriptions.

1901 . d. . ,1.
Jan. 1 969 17 0 4,130 0 0
to
Dec. 31 balances down. . . . 594 5 11 35,150 0 0

1,564 2 11 39,280 0
i 3
! i !
 BUILDING SOCIETIES 401
MEMBERS LEDGER
Cr.
0hares. FoUo.
| Share of Subscriptions.
Date. Fines. prof3. Interest. Total.

1901 . . a. I .1. s. <f. d.

Jan. 1 By cash. 35,348 5 1
1 n .. (from pro
to perties in
possession) 304 1 1
cash .... 5,618 i 0
Dec. 31 balances down . 119,093 19 1 4,886 10 9

154,746 5 3 10,504 14 9

MEMBERS LEDGER
Cr.

Date. Folio. Interest. Subscriptions.

1
1901 d. . d.
Jan. 1 7,805 1 4 60,849 10 4
to cash 12,241 19 10
Dec. 31 ., interest (detailed in in
terest Book No. 2) . . 2,492 7 0
10,297 8 4 73,091 10 2
1902
Jan. 1 6,490 7 5 57,628 1 5

MEMBERS LEDGEB
Or.'

Date. Folio. Interest. Subscriptions.

1901 . d. i. d.
Jan. 1 439 3 4 35,880 0 0
to 13,400 0 0
Dec. 31 interest (detailed in In
terest Book No. 3) . . 1,124 19 7
1,564 2 11 39,280 0 0
1902
Jan. 1 594 5 11 35,150 o

2 D
402 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

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 404 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
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BUILDING SOCIETIES
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Bto
nialdin
ntexpenses and
taxes. . . -*p
depiositsinvestmi preferen7

wg jsfl
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I OS Q eS u
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H
406 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
The following books are in use in addition to the ledgers
shown in the detailed accounts :
1. Office Counter Book, giving details of money paid into the society during
the month.
2. Subscription Books. These sums are posted individually from the Counter
Book, to the various Subscription Books (Deposits, Preference Shares,
Investment Shares, and Advances) (specimen as under).

January. 11 months follow.

a.

! i
i
Ii
i
* !
The separate amounts are postod to the credit of the members.
* Those columns are totalled and posted to Dr. of Cash Account monthly.
3. General Ledger or Analysis Book.
4. Insurance Premium Book.
5. Petty Cash Book.
C. Rent Ledger.
7. Invoice Guard Book.
8. Interest on Advances (No. 1).
9. Investments (No. 2).
10. ,, ,, Preference Shares (No. 3).
11. Deposits (No. 4).
 BUILDING SOCIETIES 407
Form of Annual Account and Statement to be made by a
society under the Building Societies Acts prescribed for general
use by the Chief Registrar of Friendly Societies, with the
approval of the Secretary of State.

Statement of Accounts of the Building Society

(incorporated 1 , and having its registered chief office or
place of meeting at , in the County of )
for its th year, ending the day of
19
The number of members of the society is
 408 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Dr. LIABILITIES AND ASSETS
.. d.
To liabilities to holders of shares, viz.-

Principal. Interest.

. d. $. d.
Investment shares . f,7,628 1 5 6,490 7 6
Preferential shares . . . 35,150 0 0 594 5 11
Total . . 92,778 1 5 7,084 13 4

To liabilities to depositors and other creditors, viz.-

For deposits payable upon i
various times of notice,
viz. 34,447 607 1 10
L8 35,055
To undivided profit (including reserve funds, but not including
prospective interest), viz 7,889

142,806 15
 BUILDING SOCIETIES 409
ACCOUNT (Stock Aoootot) Cr.

By balance dne or outstanding on mortgago securities, not including

prospective interest, viz.

Principal. Interest accrued (not

prospective).
Mortgages from members where
the repayments are not upwards
of twelve months in arrears and
the property has not been up
wards of twelve months in pos
session of the society
On 68 mortgages where the
debt does not exceed 500 . 18,098 8 660
On 37 mortgages where the
debt exceeds 500 and docs
not exceed 1000. . . . 26,057 is ; 1 1,122
On 34 mortgages where the
debt exceeds 1000 and does
not exceed 3000. . . . 48,537 18 2 1,896
On 4 mortgages where the
debt exceeds 3000 and does
not exceed 5000. . . . 14,792 12 I 2 669
On 2 mortgages where the
debt exceeds 5000 as shown
by Part I. of the schedule . 10,390 10 468
Total of mortgages available
under sect. 14 of the Act of
1894 117,877 4,812
On 1 mortgage on property of
which the society has been
upwards of twelve months in
possession, as shown by Part
II. of the Schedule . . . 1,216 12 74
On mortgages where the
repayments are upwards of
twelve months in arrear, and
the property has not been
upwards of twelve months
in possession of the society
as shown by Part III. of the
Schedule Nil m
Total number of properties
mortgaged to the sooiety
146.
Total . . . 119,093 19 4,886 10
123,980
By other 1
Amount invested in the Funds 1 Nil
Amount invested in freehold property at 4 %. 15,000 0 0
Deed and book safes 20 0 0
Office furniture 30 0 0
Copies of rules 9 13 0
Cash in bank 3,766 12 10

142,806 15
4io ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

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 BUILDING SOCIETIES 411

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412 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

206. Distinguish between terminating and permanent building societies.
207. State the main difference between an incorporated and an unincorpo
rated society.
208. Discuss the rights and liabilities of investing members and borrowing
members.
209. What is the position of a society in regard to advancing on second
mortgages ?
210. What particulars are to be supplied in the annual statement?
211. Name the various ways in which a building society may come to
an end.
212. Name the books suitable for a building society's transactions.
213. Describe the final accounts and statements prepared to show the
society's operations for the year.
 CHAPTER XXVII

EXECUTORSHIP ACCOUNTS

Estate Duty AccountEstate DutyAccountsLegaciesDistribution

Example of AccountsDefinitions.

The great importance of Executorship Accounts arises from the

fact that in these cases the legal owner of the property is very
seldom the beneficial owner, and therefore being in the position
of a trustee must always be ready to account to those entitled
to the property, and if he fails to do so after a reasonable
request, may be liable personally for the costs of preparing such
accounts and the action in Chancery which may have been
taken to obtain them. Another point to bear in mind is, that
very frequently there are various interests given to different
people under the will, and these interests require to be carefully
watched to see that one party does not benefit at the expense of
the others. To ensure this a certain knowledge of executorship
law is necessary. A familiar example of these conflicting inte
rests is provided by the respective rights of a life tenant (who is
entitled to the income only from a certain property for life) and
the remainderman, who, after the death of the life tenant, is
entitled to the total property as it stands.
An executor is the person appointed by the will to carry out
the trusts and provisions of such will. His authority therefore
begins at death, but when he is endeavouring to collect the
assets, he will find it necessary to have his title endorsed by
the court, which is known as "proving the will;" this, indeed,
is legally imposed on him, in order that the State may receive
the duties to which it is by law entitled on all property
passing at the death.
With regard to accounts, then, the first duty of the executor
is to prepare his " Estate Duty Account " and submit it to the
43
414 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Probate Division of the High Court. This is a document for
which an official form is provided, setting out the full amount of
property passing at death on which duty is payable. The form
itself must be carefully studied, and should be filled according
to the following directions.
Government stocks, and stocks and shares of public com
panies which are quoted " officially " on the Stock Exchange,
are valued at the closing price of the day of death. Usually
two prices are given, 100-102, in which case the price for our
present purpose is the lower one, plus one-quarter of the
difference, that is, 100.
Other stocks and shares must be valued, usually by the
secretary of the company in which the shares are held, and are
entered at that price.
Interest and dividends declared or accrued due on such in
vestments are valued at the actual amount payable. In con
nection with this, it should be noted that when securities are
sold on the Stock Exchange, unless quoted " ex div.," the rights
to any dividend or interest accruing pass to the purchaser,
so for this purpose no apportionment is made of any interest
accruing only as it is included in the price quoted above.
Other assets are accompanied by valuations when the actual
figures cannot be entered, and any interest accruing on money
lent must also be included as accruing from day to day.
When we come to deal with the business belonging to the
deceased ; if he were a partner in a firm, the Balance Sheet is
produced, and his share therein is entered in one figure, whilst
if he is a sole trader, his assets are split up under the various
headings of book debts, stock-in-trade, goodwill, etc.
Assets in the colonies and in foreign countries, and any
donationes mortis causa must also be included, and, in fact, all
property real and personal passing at the death.
In subsequent schedules come the deductions, which consist
of creditors and funeral expenses.
A summary is then made of all property real and personal,
together with the deductions allowed, in order to ascertain the
total capital value of the estate upon which duty must be paid.
The estate duty itself is a graduated stamp duty, varying
with the value of the estate, and payable at the following
rates :
 EXECUTORSHIP ACCOUNTS 415
Estates under 100 nil.
Estates exceeding 100, but not exceeding 500, 1 per cent.
500, 99 1000, 2
1000, ti ft 10,000, 3 99
10,000, M 99 25,000, 4 99
25,000, 99 99 50,000, 4 ,,
50,000, 11 99 75,000, 5 11
75,000, 99 19 100,000, &h 9t
100,000, u 99 150,000, 6 tt
150,000, < 99 250,000, 7 99
250,000, n 99 500,000, 8 99
500,000, ti 99 750,000, 9 99
750,000, 99 99 1,000,000, 10 99
1,000,000 are at the rate of 10 per cent, on
the first 1,000,000, 11 per cent. on the next 500,000, 12 per
cent, on the next 500,000, and so on, with a limit of 15 per
cent.

In addition to this, the following concessions are made to

small estates. Where the gross value of an estate does not
exceed 300 or 500, a fixed charge of 80s. or 50s. respectively
will clear the estate of all duties of. every description, and in
the case of estates where the net value of an estate (excluding
property settled otherwise than by the deceased's will) does not
exceed 1000, such other property is not aggregated with the
deceased's estate for the purpose of ascertaining the rate
of duty.
This estate duty is payable by the estate, and is chargeable
on real and personal estate proportionately, together with
interest, as far as duty on personal property, at 8 per cent.
from date of death until the payment of the duty. This account
must be presented within six months of the death, but in the
case of real estate it may be paid by eight yearly or sixteen
half-yearly instalments, provided that such real estate is not to
be sold, the first instalment to be paid within one year from the
death, and the other instalments carrying interest at 8 per cent.
per annum from that date.
Having, therefore, delivered this account and paid the duty,
we are now able to open the Executorship Books of Account,
and the first point to consider is, what books are to be kept.
416 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
A Cash Book and Ledger are always necessary, and special
books relating to Property Accounts (that is, rentals, etc.), and
a Journal may also be used. The Rentals Accounts are indeed
desirable where considerable property exists of this nature, in
order to avoid unnecessary detail in the main books of account ;
but the present practice is rather to discard the Journal, since
it is admitted on all hands that the full particulars of each
transaction should appear in the Ledger, and if these details
have already appeared in the Journal, it means extra work,
and rather savours of vain repetition.
It is the usual practice to bank all receipts, and make all
payments by cheque, and therefore the Cash Book becomes
merely a detailed Bank Account. In trust matters, the two
columns in the Cash Book are usually reserved, therefore, for
income and capital ; but in simple executorship matters, where
no life interests are involved, they may be treated as " details "
and " totals " columns, which method is adopted in this chapter.
With regard to the Ledger, the following accounts should
be opened if applicable to any particular case :
(1) "Capital," "Corpus" or "Estate" Account, all of these
terms being used in this connection.
(2) Income Account.
(3) An Account for each Investment or Asset.
(4) An Account for each Residuary Legatee.
(5) An Account for each Annuitant or Life Tenant.
(6) An Executorship Expenses Account.
(7) A Funeral Expenses Account.
(8) A Testamentary Expenses and Death Duties Account.
(9) A Legacies Account.
(10) An Account for Creditors.
The Ledger will then be commenced from the particulars
supplied by the Estate Duty Account, and here again the
practice varies according to the circumstances of the case. If
the estate has to be realized immediately, either for pur
poses of distribution, or on account of the investments not
being in authorized securities, many people prefer to enter the
valuation appearing in the account as memoranda only in the
books until actually realized ; but where a trust is concerned,
and many of the assets will be kept in their present form for
any length of time, it is better to enter the valuations at once,
 EXECUTORSHIP ACCOUNTS
and deal with any variations which occur on realization in the
ordinary way. This method is frequently used, even where the
assets will be promptly realized.
The estate should be realized within twelve months of
the death, and the instructions of the will carried out. It must
be remembered that in addition to estate duty, which is borne
by the estate, there are other duties payable by the beneficiaries
out of their own portion of the estate ; or, rather, the executor
is bound by law to pay these duties before he hands over the
legacy, etc., to the legatee. These duties are known as legacy
duty and succession duty, the former being charged on all
legacies of personal property except leaseholds, whilst the latter
is charged on real estate and leaseholds. The rate of duty is
the same in each case, and varies with the relationship between
the deceased and the recipient.
Husbands and wives pay no legacy or succession duty, nor
do lineal ancestors or descendants where estate duty has been
paid ; where it has not been paid, ancestors or descendants have
to pay 1 per cent. The other rates are

Brother or sister, or their descendants ... 3 per cent.

Uncle or aunt, or their descendants .... 5
Great-uncle or great-aunt, or their descendants 6
Other relations, and strangers in blood ... 10 ,,

The remaining death duty paid is known as settlement

estate duty, and is a duty of 1 per cent, imposed on all settle
ments made, whereby the property settled passes to certain
beneficiaries only after the life interest of other or others.
Presuming the estate to be solvent, the debts, expenses, and
legacies will all be paid, and then the residue will be handed
over to those entitled. If the residuary legatees, or any of
them, are liable for legacy duty, a statement of account
must be made up in an official form, known as the " Residuary
Account" (No. 3), to enable the commissioners to assess the
legacy duty, and after payment of the duty the executor will
probably arrange to receive a release under seal from the said
legatees.
The following is an example of a simple executorship matter,
where no trust or settlement is created by the will.
2 E
418 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
John Smith dies on June 80, leaving the following estate :

Cash at bank 120
Loan to the firm of John Smith & Co., of which his son
is proprietorinterest paid to date, and not to be
charged after the death of John Smith, provided the
estate is wound np in six months ' 10,000
Salford Corporation (interest paid to date)4000 3 per
cent0 stock valued at par 4,000
Liabilities 600
His will directed that after payment of his just debts and
funeral expenses, the sum of 1000 shall be paid to his cousin,
William Smith, an annuity of 50 a year for life to be paid to
his housekeeper, now aged sixty-five, free of tax, and the residue
of his estate shall be divided between his son, James Smith, who
takes three-quarters of it, whilst the remaining quarter is to pass
to his niece, Emma Smith.
His funeral expenses were 120, and the executors accord
ingly paid duty on July 81 on 18,400, which, at the appropriate
rate of 4 per cent., amounted to 586, together with interest for
one month at 8 per cent., 1 6. 10d., the bank granting an
overdraft to pay the same.
The executorship expenses came to 78 18s. Id., and early
in August the corporation stock was sold for 4040, less 20
commission. Out of this money the debts and legacy and
expenses were paid, and the annuity was purchased from the
Government for the sum of 540.
On September 80, James Smith paid 3000 capital, retaining
the remaining 7000 as part of his share, whilst on the same
day the Residuary Account was prepared, and after legacy duty
was paid upon it on behalf of Emma Smith, the estate was
duly divided in the proportions named.
The entries in the books appeared as follows :
EXECUTORSHIP ACCOUNTS

o o o o o

; o (D o o

O 5O
O
fH
O
00 00

1|0
a o .
fi 3 M

5 5
420 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Dr. ESTATE
Estimate for probate. Actual.
i. d. . a.
June 30 To sundry creditors .... 600 0 0 6OO 0 0
funeral expenses .... 120 0 0 120 0 0
Oct. 5 Estate Duty Account . 537 6 10
n Legacies Account .... 1,594 0 o
executorship expenses . 78 13 2
Residuary Account 11,210 0 o
14,140 0 I)

JOHN SMITH
Estimate lor probate.

Juno 3(1 To Estate Account Loan (no in- i

| 10,000 0 0
Oct. 5 1 10,000 0 0
1
1 1
SALFORD
Estimate for probate.
i11. .
June 30 To Estate Account i
4000 3% stock at par . . 4,000 0 0
er' 4,020 0 0
i:
SPNDBY

Aug. 31 600 0 0
1
i
FUNERAL EXPENSES

1
Aug. 31 120 0 0
!
ESTATE DUTY

July 31 To cashDuty
Interest
 EXECUTORSHIP ACCOUNTS
ACCOUNT Cr.
Estimate for probate. Actual.
s. d. t . d.
Juno 30 By balance in bank .... 120 0 0 120 0 0
John Smith and Co. . . . 10,000 0 0 10,000 0 0
M Salford Corporation . . . 4,000 0 0 4,020 0 0

14,140 0 0

AND CO.

1
Sept. 30 By Cash 3,000 0 0
Oct. 5 James Smith, for debt taken over on account of
7,000 0 0
10,000 0 | 0

CORPORATION

! S
1
Aug. 10 By cash-
4040
4,020 0 0

CREDITORS
Estimate for probate.

June 30 By Estate Account .... 600 0 | 0

Aog. 31 <t i< .... 600 o 0

ACCOUNT
Estimate for
probate.
I
June 30 By Estate Account . . . . 120 0 | 0
Aug. 31 w ,< n . . . 120 0 0

ACCOUNT

Oct. 5 537 6 10
422 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Dr. LEGACIES ACCOUNT

AstuL
. d.
Aug. 31 To oat 950 0 0
50 0 0
Sept. 10 n 540 0 0
54 0 0
1594 0

EXECUTORSHIP

| 1
Sept. 30
78 ! 13 I !

JAMES

Oct 5 To Transfer to John Smith and Co. for debt taken

7000 0 0
1407 10 0
8407 10 0

EMMA

1 i
Leas duty 84 1 6 !
1 2718 8 6
84 1 6
2802 10 j 0
i

RESIDUAEY

. . !1 8,407 0
Oct. 5 To James Smith, three-fourths of residue . . 10
h Emma Smith, one-fourth of residue . . . . 2,802 10 0
11,210 0 0
 EXECUTORSHIP ACCOUNTS

(including Annuity Pubohased) Cr.

ActuaL
. ((.
Oct. 5 1591 0 0

1594 0 0

EXPENSES

Oct. 5 78 IS 2

SMITH

8107 10 0

8107 10 0

SMITH

Oct. 5 2802 10 0

2802 10 0

ACCOUNT

Oct. 5 By Estate Account, being residue available for dis- 1

11,210 0 | 0
11,210 0 0
424 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
In cases where it is at all doubtful whether or not the
estate is solvent, the executor should be careful to see that he
only pays the debts due by the deceased in their proper order,
which is after funeral, testamentary, and executorship expenses
of realization and preservation.
1. Crown debts.
2. Debts having priority by statute, e.g. debt due to a
friendly society from the officer responsible.
8. Judgments obtained against the deceased and debts due
to the court.
4. Specialty debts.
5. Simple contract debts.
6. Voluntary bonds.
The assets must be marshalled to pay these debts in the
following order :
1. General balance of personal estate.
2. Real estate devised for the purpose.
3. Real estate not devised or where devise has lapsed.
4. Eeal estate devised subject to payment of debts.
5. General legacies.
6. Specific legacies or devises.
7. Personalty over which testator has exercised by will a
general power of appointment.
8. Paraphernalia of the widow.
Another variation exists when the deceased has died without
a will. In this case the law provides that the court shall
appoint an " Administrator " whose position corresponds with
that of the executor, and that the real estate shall pass to the
heir-at-law, whilst the personal estate is divided in accordance
with the statute of distributions, that is
Where the deceased leaves :

Widow and children . . Widow takes one-third, rest to

children.
Widow only Widow takes the first 500 by the
Intestates Act, 1890, and one-half
the remainder, rest to next of kin.
Children only .... All to them equally.
Husband All to him.
Otherwise to next-of-kin or if dead to their representatives.
 EXECUTORSHIP ACCOUNTS 425
An administrator is also appointed if the sole executor is
dead, renounces probate, is insane, abroad, or by error none
is named in the will. In this case the administrator will
distribute the estate as directed by the will.
The following simple definitions will assist those unfamiliar
with this class of accounts.
Administrator.One appointed by the court to administer
the estate of a deceased person dying without a will, or where
the appointment of an executor has failed.
Devise.Gift of real estate by will.
Executor.One appointed by the will to administer the
estate of the testator.
Legacy or Bequest.Gift of personal estate by the will.
(a) Generala pecuniary legacy.
(b) Specific a particular article ; " my gold watch."
(c) Demonstrativeone directed to be paid from a particular
fund.
Personal Estate.All assets of the deceased passing in case
of intestacy to the next of kin, and including book debts, stock-
in-trade, shares, leaseholds, cash, etc.
Probate. Parchment copy of the will with the certificate of
the court attached.
Real Estate.Assets passing in cases of intestacy to the
heir-at-law, and including land of a freehold or copyhold tenure,
certain shares, e.g. those in the New River Company, Aire and
Calder Canal, etc., and certain other assets attached to the
land such as forests, animals in a state of nature, etc.
Residue.Balance of estate after payment of debts, legacies,
and expenses.
Testator.A deceased person who has left a will as opposed
to an " Intestate " who has not left a will.
Will.The legal declaration of a person's wishes as to the
disposal of his property after his death.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

214. Give definitions of life tenant, remainder-man, executor, administrator.
215. State bow a trustee should value the assets for the Estate Duty
Account.
426 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
216. Enumerate the rates of estate duty on estates from 100 to 25,000.
217. What concessions are allowed on small estates?
218. Name the books you would advise an executor to keep.
219. Give a list of ledger accounts you consider it necessary to keep.
220. State the rates of legacy duty.
221. Distinguish between the various forms of legacies.
222. S. Watson died on November 18, 1903, leaving property as follows :
. d.
Policy of insurance and bonus 339 18 0
Cash at bank 24 12 9
Cash in hand 10 0 0
Club insurance 20 17 6
Consols 461 15 9
Household furniture (valued for probate at 20).
The policy of insurance was left to his daughter Mary, and the remainder to
his widow, Amelia Jane.
The executor pays :
s. d.
Undertaker's and burial fees 15 2 6
Stone over grave 700
Medical fees 610
Probate, estate duty, etc 19 13 10
The insurance less proportion of probate duty, etc., was paid over to the
daughter, and of the remainder, consols and cash at bank were transferred to the
widow's name, the brokerage on the consols being 6s. 3d.
Draw up the executor's accounts, showing the balance of cash paid over to
the residuary legatee. No other expenses.
 CHAPTER XXVIII

TRUST ACCOUNTS

ApportionmentsInvestmentsLife InterestsExamples of Accounts

In this chapter it is proposed to treat of those points arising

in Executorship Accounts which were not dealt with in the last
chapter, and more particularly of those estates where the
deceased has left a life interest to one person with remainder to
another.
The first difference arising in cases like this is the absolute
necessity for the careful apportionment of every penny of
income accruing at death between capital and revenue. The
Apportionment Act, 1870, provides " that all rents, annuities,
dividends, and other periodical payments in the nature of
income " shall be regarded as accruing from day to day, and
that that portion which has accrued prior to death is capital and
that the remainder is income. In practice these calculations
should be made on the basis of the respective number of days
belonging to each division; but usually in examinations the
questions are arranged to allow of monthly apportionments.
The next point to remember is that the entire estate which
is made the subject of a settlement or a trust of this nature
must be invested as soon as possible in those investments
authorized for such estates. These are, firstly, any investments
authorized by the will for the particular trust ; secondly, in the
absence of such directions certain securities set out by law for
this purpose.
The law at present in force with respect to these is set out
in various Acts, notably the Trustee Acts of 1898 and 1894,
and the Colonial Stock Act of 1900.
Amongst the authorized securities are
Government securities of the United Kingdom ; and
427
 428 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Securities the interest on which is guaranteed by Parliament.
Indian Government stocks ; and
Indian railway securities, the interest on which is guaranteed
by the Indian Government.
Stock of the Bank of England and of the Bank of Ireland.
Preference, guaranteed, or debenture stock of British rail
ways which have paid at least 3 per cent. on their ordinary
stock for each of the last ten years.
Preference, guaranteed, or debenture stock of British water
companies which have paid at least 5 per cent on their ordinary
stock for the last ten years.
The stock of any municipal borough having, according to the
last census, returns over 50,000 inhabitants.
Provided that in the case of any redeemable stock, such
stock shall not be purchased by a trustee within 15 years of
the time it is redeemable at a premium, nor shall a redeemable
stock ever be purchased at a premium exceeding 15 per cent.
of its redeemable price. It is also declared that a trustee is
not liable for any loss by reason only of continuing to hold a
stock which is not authorized as a trust investment, provided
that it was so authorized when he purchased it.
The Colonial Stock Act provides that the trustee may invest
in any Colonial stocks registered in the United Kingdom accord
ing to the Acts of 1877 and 1892, which further comply with any
order the Treasury may see fit to make in the London Gazette
for the purposes under this Act.
To return to the question of apportionments, let us take some
examples of how this will work out in actual practice. Suppose
that William Jones died on September 80, leaving amongst other
assets debentures in the South British Railway Company 2000
valued at 110, and bearing interest at the rate of 4 per cent.
per annum payable June 80 and December 81 ; and also 100
shares of 10 each in the International Trading Company, Ltd.,
quoted at 20 per share. This company makes up its accounts '
annually at December 81, but is in the habit of paying interim
dividends, and has indeed, on August 31 preceding the death,
paid an interim dividend to William Jones of 50 on his holding
in the company.
Probate is duly registered with the companies in question,
and on January 1 the executors received their debenture
 TRUST ACCOUNTS 429
interest on the former security for the half year of 40 (ignoring
income tax), and on March 8 a final dividend for the year from
the trading company of 70.
The apportionment of the interest in the first case is, of
course, quite simple. The deceased lived 92 days of the half-year,
and that proportion is capital, and a further 92 days (October 1
to December 81) is credited to income, so that exactly one-half
of the 40 is capital and the other half is income. In the other
case, however, it is not quite so simple. For the entire year a
dividend of 120 was paid, and the deceased lived for 278 days
of the period (say 9 months), so that three-fourths of the entire
dividend must be credited to capital, say 90, of which the
deceased himself received 50 paid in August as an interim
dividend, and which had therefore already gone to capital by
swelling the bank balance at death. Therefore, of the 70
received by the executors 40 is capital (that is three-fourths
of 120 less 50) and 30 is income, being one-quarter of the
total dividend for the year.
The next point to be borne in mind is the realization of assets
which are not authorized investments, and though the railway
company has paid rates of dividend on its ordinary stock varying
from 8 per cent. to 4j per cent. for the last ten years, and is there
fore a trust investment, the ordinary stock of a trading company
is not authorized, and so on April 80 the executors sell the
shares for a net figure of 19 10s. per share, and invest the
money in a further purchase of the debenture stock of the South
British Railway, of which they obtain 1500 nominal value, at
110 per cent. plus charges, keeping the balance in hand for the
general purposes of the estate. On this conversion of stock
arises the point settled in re Duff, deceased, Muttlebury v. Mut-
tlebury. This case decided that where any stock or shares were
sold in a trust estate, the purchase price was not to be appor
tioned between capital and income ; so that although the 19 10s.
undoubtedly carried with it the right to a share of the profits
earned between January 1 and April 80, the entire 19 10s.
must be treated as capital ; but, on the other hand, the interest
on the debenture stock, when it is received, will all be credited
to income, although on June 80 six months' interest will be paid
on a stock which has only been held for two months.
Needless to say the will must be carefully studied to see the
43o ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
exact terms of the life interest. Such interest may, of course,
be a fixed sum per annum, or an annuity, or it may be the right to
the entire net income, either till death, or for a term of years, or
until the happening of a certain event.
If the interest given is by way of annuity, the executors
have the option of buying the beneficiary an annuity from an
insurance company, or of paying the same out of the estate. If
they adopt the former course, the entry will simply be made in
the same way as a legacy, cash being credited and annuities
account debited for the cost, which is subsequently transferred
from the latter account to the debit of Estate Account. This is
probably the best method of dealing with the matter, where
the beneficiary is not old, and where no other long trusts are
involved which would necessitate the estate being kept open in
any case. Where other life interests are given very frequently
the annuitant is paid from the general estate, in which case,
though not always done, the payment should be apportioned
between capital and income.
Very frequently in trust matters the testator allows the
trustees to keep his capital in their present investments, and in
particular authorizes them to carry on his business. In view of
the personal liabilities that he might incur, the trustee cannot
be compelled to do this ; he should, therefore, carefully consider
the position before he finally decides his course of action. He
will probably elect to carry it on if it is a very profitable concern,
especially if the deceased has left sons to whom he is authorized
to sell it when they come of age. He must not, however, use
more capital in the business than was in the concern at the
time of the testator's death, unless a different amount is men
tioned in the will. He is also personally liable to the creditors
for any goods he may order, but he is entitled to reimburse
himself out of the estate for any payments he may have made
up to the amount authorized to be invested in the business.
Another important rule to be borne in mind by the trustee
in his apportionment of capital and income, is that by which it
is laid down that assets of a wasting or reversionary character
must be realized, or treated as realized, for the purposes of
the trust {Howe v. Lord Dartmouth). Where an asset of this
description exists, the best course is to have it accurately
valued in the first instance, and charge interest at 3 per cent.
 TRUST ACCOUNTS 43i
on the value and credit it to income, and charge the difference
between that figure and the receipts itself as received on account
of capital.
In writing up trust accounts, it is necessary to remember
that only cash received must be treated as income, the amount
accruing due at the date of making up the accounts must never
be credited to income account, as would be done in an ordinary
commercial business. For the first year, therefore, a bene
ficiary would never receive the full income, since it must be
apportioned as accrued at the time of death, whilst the income
which is accruing at the year end is not taken into account.
After the first year, of course, it has worked itself straight
because, since there was no apportionment in the opening
balances, a full year's receipts appear without any diminution.
To illustrate the principles involved, we will take the estate
of William Jones, previously mentioned, and set out in full the
dealings of his estate for the year.
His will provided that the furniture was to be left to his
sister, Mrs. S. Robinson, free of legacy duty, and subject to this
and legacies of 100 each to his executors A. B. and C. D., who
were strangers in blood, the whole of the estate was to be held
in trust for his sister for life, and after her death to her son
William Jones Robinson absolutely.
The estate consisted of the following assets and liabilities,
as set out by the Estate Duty Account :

Furniture 500
2000 4 per cent, debenture stock of the South British
Railway Company at 110 per cent 2200
Prudential Insurance Co. life policy 1000
100 shares of 10 each in the International Trading Co. at
20 per share 2000
H. SmithLoan on mortgage at 4 per cent 3000
Interest accrued on same 30

8730
Liabilities 200
Funeral expenses 80
280
8450
Estate duty at 3 per cent. 253 10s.
One month's interest on same 12s. 8<7.
432 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
The following show the executors' transactions on behalf of
the estate :
1906. '.
Oct. 31. Pay the duty and interest and obtain probate.
Nov. 5. Receive claim under the insurance policy.
30. Pay legacy duty on the furniture at 3 per cent.
Dec. 31. the executors' legacies and duty on same.
liabilities which amount to 224 0
funeral expenses, 80, and testamentary expenses ... 50 0
1907.
Jan. 1. Receive interest warrant from the South British Railway Co.
for half-year to December 31 less tax 38 0
10. Receive interest from 11. Smith to December 31 less tax . . 57 0
Mch. 3. Receive final dividend for year ending December 31 from
the International Trading Co. free of tax 70 0
(The Company paid an interim dividend of 50 on August
31 last.)
Apr. 30. Receive proceeds of sale of shares in International Trading
Co., sold at 19 10s. per share net 1950 0
May 5. Pay for 1500 debenture stock in the South British Railway
Co., bought at 110 per cent. plus charges, 11 7s. &d.
16. Pay Mrs. Robinson on account of income 75 0
27. Pay for 400 Preference stock in the White Sea Gas Works
Co. at 125 per cent. Charges 3 7s. 6rf.
July 1. Receive interest from the South British Debenture Stock.
10. H. Smith.
Sept. 30. Pay Mrs. Robinson on account of income 100 0
Pay charges for managing the estate 5 5
,, Prepare statement of accounts at date.
 TRUST ACCOUNTS 433

ESTATE OF THE LATE WILLIAM JONES

EXECUTORS' ACCOUNTS FOR THE YEAR ENDING SEPTEM

BER 30, 1907

PAOK
Cash Account 434-5
Estate Account 436-7
Income Account n
Furniture Account n
Prudential Insurance Co n
Sundry creditors
Funeral expenses >
II. Smith. Loan on Mortgage 438-9
International Trading Co., Ltd
Estate Duty Account . . . n
Legacies Account. ,
Testamentary expenses 440-1
Mrs. Robinson
White Sea Gas Works Company ,
South British Railway Company
Balance Sheet, September 30, 1907 ..
434 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Dr. CASH

Income. Capital.
1906 t /. t s. <!.
Nov. 5 To Prudential Insurance Company 1000 0 n
1907
Jan. 1 South British Railway Company
Half-year's interest at 4% on 2000
Less income tax . . . 2
38

Capital (say 3 months) .... 19 0 0

Income (say 3 months) .... 19 0 0
.,10 H. Smith, interest on mortgage of 1
3000 at 4/0 for half-year ending
Less tux at 1s. . . . 3
57

28 10 II
28 10 0
March 3 International Trading Co., Ltd.
Final dividend for year ending
Interim paid Aug. 31 . . 50
Total for year ... 120

Proportion capital (9 months) 90

Less reoeived by testator. 50
40 0 1)
30 0 0
April 30 International Trading Co., Ltd.
Sale of 100 shares at 19 lOe.
each net ....... 1950 0 0
July 1 South British Railway Company
Interest at 4% on 3500 for half-
year ending June 30 . 70 0
Less income tax . . . 3 10
66 10 0
10 H. Smith, mortgage interest on
3000 at 4% for six months end-
Less income tax . . . 3
57 0 (1
201 0 0 3037 10 II
1
Sept. 30 20 2 4 50 5 0
 TRUST ACCOUNTS 435
ACCOUNT Cr.
Income. Capital.
1906 .
Oct. 31 By Estate Duty on 8450 at 8% . . 253
interest on same 12
Nov. 30 Legacies Account, dutv on furniture
500 at 3% 15
Dec. 31 Legacies Account
A. B 100
CD 100
200
Less legacy duty . 20
180
Legacies Account Duty on same . 20
sundry creditors 224
funeral expenses 80
testamentary expenses .... 50
1907
May 5 ., South British Railway Company
Purchase of 1500 stock (4% de
benture) at 110% 1050 0 0
Charges on same . . 11 7 6
1661
10 Mrs. Robinson on account of income
27 White Sea Gas Works Company
400 preference stock (5%) at
125 500 0 0
Charges on same . . 3 7 6
503
(Dividend payable : April
and October)
Sept. 30 Mrs. Robinson on account of income ion
Z. and Co., charge for managing
the estate 5
balance 20 50

3037
436 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Dr. ESTATE
1906 f. .!.
Sept. 80 To liabilities ; 200 0 0
funeral expenses 80 (i 0
1907
Sept. 30 H. Smith, income tax deducted from mortgage
interest 1 10 0
International Trading Co., Ltd.
Loss on realization 10 0 0
additional creditors 24 0 0
Estate Duty 253 10 0
Legacies Account
Furniture 500, and duty 15 515 0 0
A. B., and C. D 180 0 II
Duty 20 0 II
testamentary expenses 50 0 11
., balance 7396 (1 (1
8730 0 II

INCOME
1907 ..!*
Sept. 30 ! 12 8
II 5 5 0
<) Mrs. Robinson, net income transferred .... 195 2 4

201 0.1 0
1
FURNITURE
1906 1
Sept. 30 0 | 0

PRUDENTIAL LNSUR
1906 II
Sept. 30 0 0
i 1 A
SUNDRY
1906
Dec. 31 224 0 1)

FUNERAL
i
1906
Deo. 31 80 0 0
 TRUST ACCOUNTS
ACCOUNT Or.
1906 s. i.
Sept. 30 500 0 0
n South British Railway Co., debenture stock 2000 2200 0 0
1000 0 0
H International Trading Co., Ltd., 100 ordinary
2000 ii0
I 3000 0
H 30 0 0

8730 0
') 7396 0 0

ACCOUNT
1907 d.
Sept. 30 By income to date
85 10 0
30 0 0
M 85 10 0
201 0 0
ACCOUNT
1906
Nov. 30 500 0 0

ANCE COMPANY
1906
Nov. 5 1000 0 0

CREDITORS
1906 i
Sept. 30 200 0 [ 0
1907
Sept. 30 excess of creditors over estimate . 24 0 0

EXPENSES
1906
Sept. 30 By Estate Account 80 0 0
438 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Dr. H. 8MITH. LOAN ON
Income. Capital.
. <L
To Estate Account. Mortgage of 3000
at 4% payable June and December 3000 O 0
,. Estate Account interest accrued to
date 80 0 0
Income Account 85 : 10

85 110 3030 0 0
3000 0 0

INTERNATIONAL
Income. Capital.

To Estate Account for 100 ordinary

shares of 10 each at 20 . . . 2000 0 0
Income Account 30

30 0 2000 0 0

ESTATE DUTY
1906 ' 1 II
Oct. 31 To cash, for duty at 3 per cent. . 253 10 0
" interest on same .... 12 8
!' i 1

LEGACIES
1906 1
Nov. 30
1 500
15 00 ' 00
Doc" 31 cash, A. B. 100, less duty . . 90 0 1 0
90 0 1 0
" 20 o I 0
715 0 0
 TRUST ACCOUNTS 439
MORTGAGE OF " WOODLEA ' Cr.
Income. Cap3al.

1907 .. d.
Jan. 10 By cash, interest on same for half-year
ending Deo. 31 .... 60

57
28 10 0
28 10 0
July 10 cash, half-year's interest to June
57 0 0
11 Estate Acoount transfer .... 1 10 0
n 3000 0 0
85 10 0 3030 0 0

TRADIKG CO., LTD.

Income. Capital.

1907 . d. . d.
March 3 By cash, final dividend for year end
ing Deo. 31, 1906 ... 70
tt Interim paid August 31 . 50
Total. ... 120
Capital, 9 months .... 90
Less received 50
40 0 0
30 0 0
April 30 cash, proceeds of shares at 19 10. 1950 0 0
n Estate Acoount, loss on realization 10 0 0
30 0 0 2000 0 (1

ACCOUNT
1907
Sept. 30 253 10 0
n 12 8

ACCOUNT
1907
Sept. 30 1 715 0 0
i

715 0
440 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
Dr. TE8TAMENTARY
1906 1 t. d.
Deo. 31 ! M
0 j0
MRS.
1907
May 16 75 0 o
Sept. 80 1 100
20 02 o
4
195 2 4

I |
WHITE SEA GAS
1907
May 27 To cash, purchase of 400 5% preference

6 503 7
i
1
SOUTH BRITISH
Income. Capital.
1906 i t s. d. t. <*.
Sept. 30 To Estate Account for 2000 debenture
stock 4%, payable June and De-
2200 0 0
1907
May 5 cash, purchase of 1500 4% deben
ture stook at 110% . 1650 0 0
Charges on same . . 11 7 6
1661 71 6
Income Account, transfer of income 1
85 10 0
1
85 10 0 3861 7 6
i
balance, 3500 stock at 110 and I
3812 7 6

BALANCE SHEET,

Liabilities.
7396 0 0
Mra. Robinson. Balance of income not drawn . 20 2 1

7416 4
 TRUST ACCOUNTS 441
EXPENSES Cr.
1907 9. ./.
Sept. 30 50 0 0

ROBINSON
1907
Sept. 30 By Income Account, being net income to date . . . 195 2 4

195 2 4
20 2 4

WORKS COMPANY

RAILWAY COMPANY
Income. Cap3al.
1907
Jan. 1 By cash, half-year's interest to De
cember 31 40
Less tax 2
88
capital (92 days) 19
incomo (92 ) 19
July 1 ., cash, half-year's interest to Juno
30 70 0 0
Less tax .... 3 10 0
6O in
Sept. 30 balance 3842
85 M( 3861

SEPTEMBER 30, 1907

Auett.
By South British Railway Co. 3500 4% debenture stock at 110
and charges 3842 7 6
White Sea Gas Works Company. 400 5% preference stock at
125 and charges 503 7 6
H. Smith. Loan on mortgage 3000 0 0
,, bank 70 7 4
7416 ; 2 4
442 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

223. What is meant by apportionment, and how is it calculated ?
224. Mention a few authorized securities ?
225. What is the duty of the trustee in regard to assets of a wasting or rever
sionary character ?
226. Give an example of an Estate Account.
227. Explain, by giving details of each, how the duties of an executor differ
from those of a trustee under a will.
228. Prepare from the following particulars, supplying the figures yourself,
an Estate Account to be presented to the executors and trustees of the late
X. Y. Z. :
Debts due at death by testator.
Debts due at death to testator.
Testamentary expensescosts.
duty.
Mortgages on properties.
Cash in house.
at bank.
Leasehold properties.
Freehold
Rents due to testator.
Investments.
Household goods, furniture, etc.
Cost of sale of licensed premises.
Proceeds of sale of
229. Construct from the following figures a set of executorial accounts, at
December 31, 1904, the testator having died on June 30 previous :

Madras railway annuities, 170 paid to March 31 last,

worth 5800
Household furniture (bequeathed to widow) .... 400
Cash in bank 780
Cash in house 10
Testator's interest in partnership business .... 9000
(This was paid out with 4 per cent, interest on August
31, and invested in 3 per cent. Consols at 92).
1000 Great Central Railway 5 per cent. guaranteed stock at 136 (interest
received to March 31).
500 J. & P. Coats 1 ordinary at 5. (Twenty-five per cent, dividend for
he year ended June 30 is received on September 30.)
Assume all interest has been received to end of year, and provide annuities
of 300 for widow, and 100 for testator's daughter, Mary, the balance of
income being divisible between two sons, John and James. 120 has been paid
for testamentary expenses.
 APPENDIX

TABLE A OF THE COMPANIES ACTS

As REVISED 1906

Preliminary
1. In these regulations, unless the context otherwise requires, ex
pressions defined in the Companies Acts, 1862 to 1900, or any statutory
modification thereof in force at the date at which these regulations
become binding on the company, shall have the meanings so defined ;
and words importing the singular number only shall include the plural
number, and vice versa; and words importing the masculine gender
shall include the feminine ; and words importing persons shall include
corporations.

Business
2. The directors shall have regard to the restrictions on the com
mencement of business imposed by sect. 6 of the Companies Act, 1900,
if and so far as such restrictions shall be binding upon the company.

Shares
3. Subject to the provisions (if any) in that behalf of the memo
randum of association of the company, and without prejudice to any
special rights previously conferred on the holders of existing shares in
the company, any share in the company may be issued with such pre
ferred, deferred, or other special rights, or such restrictions, whether
in regard to dividend, voting, return of capital, or otherwise, as the
company may, from time to time, by special resolution determine.
4. If at any time the capital is divided into different classes of
shares, the rights attached to any class (unless otherwise provided by
the terms of issue of the shares of that class) may be varied, with the
consent, in writing, of the holders of three-fourths of the issued shares
443
444 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
of that class, or with the sanction of an extraordinary resolution,
passed at a separate general meeting of the holders of the shares of
the class. To every such separate general meeting the provisions of
these regulations relating to general meetings shall, mutatis mutandis,
apply, but so that the necessary quorum shall be two persons at least,
holding, or representing by proxy, one-third of the issued shares of
the class.
5. No share shall be offered to the public for subscription, except
upon the terms that the amount payable on application shall be at
least five per cent0 of the nominal amount of the share ; and the
directors shall, as regards any allotment of shares, duly comply with
such of the provisions of the Companies Act, 1900, sects, i and 7, as
may be applicable thereto.
6. Every person whose name is entered as a member in the register
of members shall, without payment, be entitled to a certificate under
the common seal of the company, specifying the share or shares held
by him and the amount paid up thereon, provided that in respect of a
share or shares held jointly by several persons, the company shall not
be bound to issue more than one certificate, and delivery of a cer
tificate for a share to one of several joint holders shall be sufficient
delivery to all.
7. If a share certificate is defaced, lost, or destroyed, it may be
renewed on payment of such fee (if any), not exceeding one shilling,
and on such terms (if any) as to evidence and indemnity as the
directors think fit.
8. No part of the funds of the company shall be employed in the
purchase of, or in loans upon, the security of the company's shares.

Lien
!). The company shall have a lien on every share (not being a fully-
paid share) for all monies (whether presently payable or not) called or
payable at a fixed time in respect of such share, and the company shall
also have a lien on all shares (other than fully-paid shares) standing
registered in the name of a single person, for all monies presently
payable by him or his estate to the company ; but the directors may at
any time declare any share to be wholly, or in part, exempt from the
provisions of this clause. The company's lien (if any) on a share shall
extend to all dividends payable thereon.
10. The company may sell, in such manner as the directors think
fit, any shares on which the company has a lien, but no sale shall be
made unless some sum in respect of which the lien exists is presently
payable, nor until the expiration of fourteen days after a notice in
 APPENDIX 445
writing, stating and demanding payment of such part of the amount
in respect of which the lien exists as is presently payable, has been
given to the registered holder, for the time being, of the share, or the
person entitled, by reason of his death or bankruptcy, to the share.
11. The proceeds of the sale shall be applied in payment of such
part of the amount in respect of which the lien exists as is presently
payable, and the residue shall (subject to a like lien for sums not pre
sently payable as existed upon the shares prior to the sale) be paid to
the person entitled to the shares at the date of the sale. The purchaser
shall be registered as the holder of the shares, and he shall not be bound
to see to the application of the purchase money, nor shall his title to
the shares be affected by any irregularity or invalidity in the proceed
ings in reference to the sale.

Calls on Shakes
12. The directors may from time to time make calls upon the
members in respect of any monies unpaid on their shares, provided
that no call shall exceed one-fourth of the nominal amount of the share,
or be payable at less than one month from the last call ; and each
member shall (subject to receiving at least fourteen days' notice, specify
ing the time or times of payment) pay to the company, at the time or
times so specified, the amount called on his shares.
13. The joint holders of a share shall be jointly and severally liable
to pay all calls in respect thereof.
14. If a sum called in respect of a share is not paid before or on the
day appointed for payment thereof, the person from whom the sum is
due shall pay interest upon the sum at the rate of 5 per cent, per
annum from the day appointed for the payment thereof to the time of
the actual payment ; but the directors shall be at liberty to waive pay
ment of such interest wholly or in part.
15. The provisions of these regulations as to payment of interest
shall apply in the case of non-payment of any sum which, by the terms
of issue of a share, becomes payable at a fixed time, whether on account
of the amount of a share, or by way of premium, as if the same had
become payable by virtue of a call duly made and notified.
16. The directors may make arrangements on the issue of shares for
a difference between the holders in the amount of calls to be paid and
in the times of payment.
17. The directors may, if they think fit, receive from any member
willing to advance the same all or any part of the monies uncalled and
unpaid upon any shares held by him ; and upon all or any of the
monies so advanced may (until the same would, but for such advance,
446 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
become presently payable) pay interest at such rate (not exceeding,
without the sanction of the company in general meeting, 6 per cent.)
as may be agreed upon between the member paying the sum in advance
and the directors.

Transfer and Transmission of Shares

18. The instrument of transfer of any share in the company shall
be executed both by the transferor and transferee, and the transferor
shall be deemed to remain a holder of the share until the name of the
transferee is entered in the register of members in respect thereof.
19. Shares in the company shall be transferred in the following
form, or in any usual or common form which the directors shall
approve :
I, A. B., of , in consideration of the sum of
pounds paid to me by C. D., of
(hereinafter called " the said transferee "), do hereby transfer to
the said transferee the share [or shares] numbered
in the undertaking called The Company, Limited,
to hold unto the said transferee, his executors, administrators
and assigns, subject to the several conditions on which I held
the same at the time of the execution hereof ; and I, the said
transferee, do hereby agree to take the said share [or shares]
subject to the conditions aforesaid.
As witness our hands the day of
Witness to the signatures of, etc.

20. The directors may decline to register any transfer of shares (not
being fully-paid shares) to a person of whom they do not approve, and
may also decline to register any transfer of shares on which the company
has a lien. The directors may also suspend the registration of transfers
during the 14 days immediately preceding the ordinary general meeting
in each year. The directors may decline to recognize any instrument
of transfer, unless (a) a fee not exceeding 2s. Qd. is paid to the company
in respect thereof, and (b) the instrument of transfer is accompanied by
the certificate of the shares to which it relates, and such other evidence
as the directors may reasonably require to show the right of the transferor
to make the transfer.
21. The executors or administrators of a deceased sole holder of a
share shall be the only persons recognized by the company as having
any title to the share. In the case of a share registered in the names
of two or more holders, the survivors or survivor, or the executors or
 APPENDIX 447
administrators of the deceased survivor, shall be the only persons
recognized by the company as having any title to the share.
22. Any person becoming entitled to a share in consequence of the
death or bankruptcy of a member shall, upon such evidence being
produced as may from time to time be required by the directors, have
the right either to be registered as a member in respect of the share,
or, instead of being registered himself, to make such transfer of the
share as the deceased or bankrupt person could have made ; but
the directors shall, in either case, have the same right to decline or
suspend registration as they would have had in the case of a transfer of
the share by the deceased or bankrupt person before the death or
bankruptcy.
23. A person becoming entitled to a share by reason of the death
or bankruptcy of the holder shall be entitled to the same dividends and
other advantages to which he would be entitled if he were the registered
holder of the share, except that he shall not, before being registered as
a member in respect of the share, be entitled in respect of it to exercise
any right conferred by membership in relation to meetings of the
company.

FORFEITUEE OF SHARES
24. If a member fails to pay any call or instalment of a call on the
day appointed for payment thereof, the directors may, at any time
thereafter during such time as any part of such call or instalment
remain unpaid, serve a notice on him requiring payment of so much of
the call or instalment as is unpaid, together with any interest which
may have accrued.
25. The notice shall name a further day (not earlier than the
expiration of 14 days from the date of the notice) on or before which
the payment required by the notice is to be made, and shall state that,
in the event of non-payment at or before the time appointed, the shares
in respect of which the call was made will be liable to be forfeited.
26. If the requisitions of any such notice as aforesaid are not
complied with, any share in respect of which the notice has been given
may, at any time thereafter before the payment required by the notice
has been made, be forfeited by a resolution of the directors to that
effect.
27. A forfeited share may be sold or otherwise disposed of on such
terms and in such manner as the directors think fit, and at any time
before a sale or disposition the forfeiture may be cancelled on such
terms as the directors think fit.
28. A person whose shares have been forfeited shall cease to be a
member in respect of the forfeited shares, but shall, notwithstanding,
448 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
remain liable to pay to the company all monies which, at the date of
forfeiture, were presently payable by him to the company in respect
of the shares, but his liability shall cease if and when the company
shall have received payment in full of the nominal amount of the
shares.
29. A statutory declaration in writing that the declarant is a
director of the company, and that a share in the company has been duly
forfeited on a date stated in the declaration, shall be conclusive evidence
of the facts therein stated as against all persons claiming to be entitled
to the share, and such declaration, and the receipt of the company for
the consideration (if any) given for the share on the sale or disposition
thereof, shall constitute a good title to such share, and the person to
whom the share is sold or disposed of shall be registered as the holder
of the share, and shall not be bound to see to the application of the
purchase money (if any), nor shall his title to the share be affected by
any irregularity or invalidity in the proceedings in reference to the
forfeiture, sale or disposal of the share.
30. The provisions of these regulations as to forfeiture shall apply
in the case of non-payment of any sum which, by the terms of issue of
a share, becomes payable at a fixed time, whether on account of the
amount of the share, or by way of premium, as if the same had been
payable by virtue of a call duly made and notified.

Conversion of Sharks into Stock

81. The directors may, with the sanction of the company previously
given in general meeting, convert any paid-up shares into stock, and
may, with the like sanction, re-convert any stock into paid-up shares
of any denomination.
32. The holders of stock may transfer the same, or any part thereof,
in the same manner and subject to the same regulations as and subject
to which the shares from which the stock arose might, previously to
conversion, have been transferred, or as near thereto as circumstances
admit ; but the directors may from time to time fix the minimum
amount of stock transferable, and restrict or forbid the transfer of
fractions of such minimum, but the minimum shall not exceed the
nominal amount of the shares from which the stock arose.
33. The holders of stock shall, according to the amount of the
stock held by them, have the same rights, privileges and advantages as
regards dividends, voting at meetings of the company and other matters,
as if they held the shares from which the stock arose, but no such
privilege or advantage (except participation in the dividends and prohts
of the company) shall be conferred by any such aliquot part of stock
 APPENDIX 449
as would not, if existing in shares, have conferred such privilege or
advantage.
34. Such of the regulations of the company (other than those
relating to share warrants) as are applicable to paid-up shares shall
apply to stock ; and the words " share " and " shareholder " therein
shall include " stock " and " stockholder."

Share Warrants
35. The company may issue share warrants, and accordingly the
directors may, in their discretion, with respect to any share which is
fully paid-up, on application in writing, signed by the person registered
as holder of the share, and authenticated by such evidence (if any) as
the directors may from time to time require as to the identity of the
person signing the request, and on receiving the certificate (if any) of
the share and the amount of the stamp duty on the warrant, and such
fee as the directors may from time to time require, issue, under the
company's seal, a warrant, duly stamped, stating that the bearer of the
warrant is entitled to the shares therein specified, and may provide, by
coupons or otherwise, for the payment of dividends or other monies on
the shares included in the warrant.
36. A share warrant shall entitle the bearer to the shares included
in it, and the shares shall be transferred by the delivery of the share
warrant, and the provisions of the regulations of the company, with
respect to transfer and transmission of shares, shall not apply thereto.
37. The bearer of a share warrant shall, on surrender of the warrant
to the company for cancellation, and on payment of such sum as the
directors may from time to time prescribe, be entitled to have his name
entered as a member in the register of members in respect of the shares
included in the warrant.
38. The bearer of a share warrant may at any time deposit the
warrant at the office of the company, and so long as the warrant
remains so deposited, the depositor shall have the same right of signing
a requisition for calling a meeting of the company and of attending and
voting and exercising the other privileges of a member at any meeting
held after the expiration of two clear days from the time of deposit, as
if his name were inserted in the register of members as the holder of
the shares included in the deposited warrant. Not more than one person
shall be recognized as depositor of the share warrant. The company
shall on two days' written notice return the deposited share warrant
to the depositor.
39. Subject as herein otherwise expressly provided, no person shall,
as bearer of a share warrant, sign a requisition for calling a meeting of
2 a
450 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
the company, or attend, or vote, or exercise any other privilege of a
member at a meeting of the company, or be entitled to receive any
notices from the company ; but the bearer of a share warrant shall be
entitled, in all other respects, to the same privileges and advantages, as
if he were named in the register of members as the holder of the shares
included in the warrant, and he shall be a member of the company.
40. The directors may, from time to time, make rules as to the
terms on which, if they shall think fit, a new share warrant or coupon
may be issued, by way of renewal in case of defacement, loss, or
destruction.

Alteration ok Capital
41. The directors may, with the sanction of an extraordinary
resolution of the company, increase the capital by such sum, to be
divided into shares of such amount, as the resolution shall prescribe.
42. Subject to any direction to the contrary that may be given by
the resolution sanctioning the increase of capital, all new shares shall,
before issue, be offered to such persons as, at the date of the offer, are
entitled to receive notices from the company of general meetings in
proportion, as nearly as the circumstances admit, to the amount of the
existing shares to which they are entitled. Such offer shall be made by
notice, specifying the number of shares offered, and limiting a time
within which the offer, if not accepted, will be deemed to be declined,
and after the expiration of such time, or on the receipt of an intimation
from the person to whom the offer is made that he declines to accept
the shares offered, the directors may dispose of the same in such manner
as they think most beneficial to the company. The directors may like
wise so dispose of any new shares which (by reason of the ratio which
the new shares bear to shares held by persons entitled to an offer of new
shares) cannot, in the opinion of the directors, be conveniently offered
under this clause.
48. The new shares shall be subject to the same provisions with
reference to the payment of calls, lien, transfer, transmission, forfeiture
and otherwise, as the shares in the original capital.
44. The company may, by special resolution
(a) Consolidate and divide its capital into shares of larger amount
than its existing shares.
(J) By subdivision of its existing shares, or any of them, divide the
whole or any part of its capital into shares of smaller amount
than is fixed by the memorandum of association, subject,
nevertheless, to the proviso contained in the Companies Act,
1867, sect. 21.
(e) Cancel any shares which, at the date of the passing of the
 APPENDIX 4Si
resolution, have not been taken or agreed to be taken by any
person.
(d) Reduce its capital in any manner, and with and subject to any
incident authorized and consent required by law.

General Meetings
45. The statutory general meeting of the company shall be held
within the period required by the Companies Act, 1900, sect. 12.
46. A general meeting shall be held once in every year at such time
and place as may be prescribed by the company in general meeting, or,
in default, at such time in the month following that in which the anni
versary of the company's incorporation occurs, and at such place as the
directors shall appoint. In default of a general meeting being so held,
a general meeting shall be held in the month next following, and may
be convened by any two members in the same manner as nearly as
possible as that in which meetings are to be convened by the directors.
47. The above-mentioned general meetings shall bewailed ordinary
meetings. All other general meetings shall be called extraordinary.
48. The directors may, whenever they think fit, convene an extra
ordinary general meeting, and extraordinary general meetings shall also
be convened on such requisition, or, in default, may be convened by
such requisitionists as provided by the Companies Act, 1900, sect. 13.
If at any time there shall not be within the United Kingdom sufficient
directors capable of acting to form a quorum, any director or any two
members of the company may convene an extraordinary general meet
ing in the same manner as nearly as possible as that in which meetings
may be convened by the directors.

Proceedings at General Meetings

49. Seven days' notice at the least (exclusive of the day on which
the notice is served or deemed to be served, but inclusive of the day for
which notice is given), specifying the place, the day and the hour of
meeting, and in case of special business the general nature of such
business, shall be given in manner hereinafter mentioned, or in such
other manner (if any) as may be prescribed by the company in general
meeting, to such persons as are, under the regulations of the company,
entitled to receive such notices from the company ; but the non-receipt
of such notice by any member shall not invalidate the proceedings at
any general meeting.
50. All business shall be deemed special that is transacted at an
452 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
extraordinary meeting, and all that is transacted at an ordinary meet
ing, with the exception of sanctioning a dividend, the consideration of
the accounts, balance sheets, and the ordinary report of the directors
and auditors, the election of directors and other officers in the place of
those retiring by rotation, and the fixing of the remuneration of the
auditors.
51. No business shall be transacted at any general meeting unless a
quorum of members is present at the time when the meeting proceeds
to business. Save as herein otherwise provided, three members per
sonally present shall be a quorum.
52. If within half an hour from the time appointed for the meeting
a quorum is not present, the meeting, if convened upon the requisition
of members, shall be dissolved. In any other case it shall stand
adjourned to the same day in the next week, at the same time and
place, and if at such adjourned meeting a quorum is not present within
half an hour from the time appointed for the meeting, the members
present shall be a quorum.
53. The chairman (if any) of the board of directors shall preside as
chairman at e^ry general meeting of the company.
54. If there is no such chairman, or if at any meeting he is not
present within 15 minutes after the time appointed for holding the
meeting, or is unwilling to act as chairman, the members present shall
choose some one of their number to be chairman.
55. The chairman may, with the consent of any meeting at which a
quorum is present (and shall, if so directed by the meeting), adjourn
the meeting from time to time, and from place to place, but no business
shall be transacted at any adjourned meeting other than the business
left unfinished at the meeting from which the adjournment took place.
When a meeting is adjourned for ten days or more, notice of the
adjourned meeting shall be given as in the case of an original meeting.
Save as aforesaid, it shall not be necessary to give any notice of an
adjournment or of the business to be transacted at an adjourned
meeting.
56. At any general meeting a resolution put to the vote of the
meeting shall be decided on a show of hands, unless a poll is (before or
on the declaration of the result of the show of hands) demanded in case
the resolution be proposed as a special or extraordinary resolution by at
least five members, or in any other case by at least two members ; and,
unless a poll is so demanded, a declaration by the chairman that a
resolution has, on a show of hands, been carried, or carried unanimously,
or by a particular majority, or lost, and an entry to that effect in the
book of proceedings of the company, shall be conclusive evidence of the
fact, without proof of the number or proportion of the votes recorded
in favour of or against such resolution.
 APPENDIX 453
57. If a poll is duly demanded, it shall be taken in such manner as
the chairman directs, and the result of the poll shall be deemed to be the
resolution of the meeting at which the poll was demanded.
58. In the case of an equality of votes, whether on a show of hands
or on a poll, the chairman of the meeting at which the show of hands
takes place or at which the poll is demanded shall be entitled to a second
or casting vote.
59. A poll demanded on the election of a chairman or on a question
of adjournment shall be taken forthwith. A poll demanded on any
other question shall be taken at such time as the chairman of the
meeting directs.

Votes of Members
60. On a show of hands every member present in person shall have
one vote. On a poll every member shall have one vote for each share
of which he is the holder.
61. In the case of joint holders, the vote of the senior who tenders
a vote, whether in person or by proxy, shall be accepted to the exclusion
of the votes of the other joint holders, and for this purpose seniority
shall be determined by the order in which the names stand in the register
of members.
62. A member of unsound mind, or in respect of whom an order has
been made by any Court having jurisdiction in lunacy, may vote, whether
on a show of hands or on a poll, by his committee, curator bonis, or other
person in the nature of a committee or curator bonis, appointed by such
Court, and such committee, curator bonis, or other person may, on a
poll, vote by proxy.
63. No member shall be entitled to vote at any general meeting
unless all calls or other sums presently payable by him in respect of
shares in the company have been paid.
64. On a poll, votes may be given either personally or by proxy.
65. The instrument appointing a proxy shall be in writing under the
hand of the appointor or of his attorney duly authorized in writing, or,
if the appointor is a corporation, either under the common seal or under
the hand of an officer or attorney so authorized. No person shall act as
a proxy unless either he is entitled on his own behalf to be present and
vote at the meeting at which he acts as proxy, or he is appointed to act
at that meeting as proxy for a corporation.
66. The instrument appointing a proxy, and the power of attorney
or other authority (if any) under which it is signed or a notarially
certified copy of such power or authority, shall be deposited at the
registered office of the company not less than forty-eight hours before
the time for holding the meeting at which the person named in the
454 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
instrument proposes to vote, and in default the instrument of proxy
shall not be treated as valid.
07. An instrument appointing a proxy may be in the following
form, or in any other form which the directors shall approve :

The Company, Limited.

I, , of , in the county
of , being a member of The
Company, Limited, hereby appoint , of
as my proxy to vote for me and on my behalf at the
ordinary [or extraordinary as (he case may be] general meeting
of the company to be held on the day of , and at
any adjournment thereof.
Signed this day of

DIRECTORS
(58. The number of the directors and the names of the first directors
shall be determined in writing by a majority of the subscribers of the
memorandum of association.
69. The remuneration of the directors shall from time to time be
determined by the company in general meeting.
70. The qualification of a director shall be the holding of at least
one share in the company, and it shall be his duty to comply with the
provisions of The Companies Act, 1900, sect. 8.

Powers and Duties of Directors

71. The business of the company shall be managed by the directors,
who may pay all expenses incurred in getting up and registering the
company, and may exercise all such powers of the company as are not
by The Companies Acts, 1802 to 1900, or any statutory modification
thereof for the time being in force, or by these articles, required to be
exercised by the company in general meeting, subject, nevertheless, to
any regulations of these articles, to the provisions of the said Acts, and
to such regulations, being not inconsistent with the aforesaid regulations
or provisions, as may be prescribed by the company in general meeting ;
but no regulations made by the company in general meeting shall
invalidate any prior act of the directors which would have been valid
if such regulation had not been made.
72. The directors may, from time to time, appoint one or more of
their body to the office of managing director or manager, for such term
 APPENDIX 455
and at such remuneration (whether by way of salary or commission, or
participation in profits, or partly in one way and partly in another) as
they may think fit, and a director so appointed shall not, while holding
such office, be subject to retirement by rotation, or taken into account
in determining the rotation of retirement of directors ; but his appoint
ment shall be subject to determination, ipso facto, if he shall cease, from
any cause, to be a director, or if the company in general meeting shall
resolve that his tenure of the office of managing director or manager be
determined.
73. The amount, for the time being, remaining undischarged of
monies borrowed or raised by the directors for the purposes of the
company (otherwise than by the issue of share capital), shall not at any
time exceed the issued capital of the company without the sanction of
the company in general meeting.
74. The directors shall duly comply with the provisions of the
Companies Act, 1862 to 1900, or any statutory modification thereof,
for the time being, in force, and in particular the provisions in regard
to the registration of mortgages and charges affecting the property of,
or created by the company, and to keeping a register of the directors,
and in regard to sending to the Registrar of Joint Stock Companies an
annual list of members, and a summary of particulars relating thereto,
and notice of any consideration or increase of capital, or conversion of
shares into stock, and copies of special resolutions, and a copy of the
register of directors and notifications of any changes therein.
75. The directors shall cause minutes to be made in books provided
for the purpose
(a) Of all appointments of officers made by the directors ;
(b) Of the names of the directors present at each meeting of the
directors and of any committee of the directors ;
(e) Of all resolutions and proceedings at all meetings of the
company, and of directors and of committees of directors ;
and every director present at any meeting of directors or committee of
directors shall sign his name in a book to be kept for that purpose.

The Seal
70. The seal of the company shall not be affixed to any instrument
except by the authority of a resolution of the board of directors, and in
the presence of at least two directors and of the secretary, or such other
person as the directors may appoint for the purpose ; and those two
directors and secretary, or other person as aforesaid, shall sign every
instrument to which the seal of the company is so affixed in their
presence.
456 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Disqualifications of Directors
77. The office of director shall be vacated
If he ceases to be a director by virtue of the Companies Act,
1900, sect. 8.
If he holds any other office of profit under the company except
that of managing director or manager.
If he becomes bankrupt.
If he is found lunatic or becomes of unsound mind.
If he is concerned or participates in the profits of any contract with
the company.
But the above rules shall be subject to the following exceptions :
That no director shall vacate his office by reason of his being a member
of any company which has entered into contracts with, or done any
work for, the company of which he is director : nevertheless, he shall
not vote in respect of such contract or work, and if he does so vote his
vote shall not be counted.

Rotation of Directors
78. At the first ordinary meeting of the company the whole of the
directors shall retire from office, and at the ordinary meeting in every
subsequent year one-third of the directors for the time being, or if their
number is not three or a multiple of three, then the number nearest to
one-third, shall retire from office.
79. The directors to retire in every year shall be those who have
been longest in office since their last election ; but as between persons
who became directors on the same day, those to retire shall (unless they
otherwise agree among themselves) be determined by lot.
80. A retiring director shall be eligible for re-election.
81. The company at the general meeting at which a director retires
in manner aforesaid may fill up the vacated offices by electing a person
thereto.
82. If at any meeting at which an election of directors ought to
take place the places of the vacating directors are not filled up, the
meeting shall stand adjourned till the same day in the next week, at
the same time and place ; and if at such adjourned meeting the places
of the vacating directors are not filled up, the vacating directors, or
such of them as have not had their places filled up, shall be deemed to
have been re-elected at such adjourned meeting.
83. The company may from time to time in general meeting
increase or reduce the number of directors, and may also determine in
what rotation such increased or reduced number is to go out of office.
 APPENDIX 457
84. Any casual vacancy occurring in the board of directors may be
filled up by the directors, but the person so chosen shall be subject to
retirement at the same time as if he had become a director on the day
on which the director in whose place he is appointed was last elected a
director.
85. The directors shall have power at any time and from time to
time to appoint a person as an additional director, who shall retire from
office at the next following ordinary general meeting, but shall be eligible
for election by the company at that meeting as an additional director.
86. The company may by extraordinary resolution remove any
director before the expiration of his period of office, and may by an
ordinary resolution appoint another person in his stead ; the person so
appointed shall be subject to retirement at the same time as if he had
become a director on the day on which the director in whose place he is
appointed was last elected a director.

Proceedings of Directors
87. The directors may meet together for the despatch of business,
adjourn and otherwise regulate their meetings as they think fit.
Questions arising at any meeting shall be decided by a majority of
votes. In case of an equality of votes, the chairman shall have a second
or casting vote. A director may, and the secretary on the requisition of
a director shall, at any time summon a meeting of the directors.
88. The quorum necessary for the transaction of the business of the
directors may be fixed by the directors, and unless so fixed shall (when
the number of directors exceeds three) be three.
89. The continuing directors may act notwithstanding any vacancy
in their body, but if and so long as their number is reduced below the
number fixed by or pursuant to the regulations of the company as the
necessary quorum of directors, the continuing directors may act for
the purpose of increasing the number of directors to that number or of
summoning a general meeting of the company, but for no other purpose.
90. The directors may elect a chairman of their meetings, and deter
mine the period for which he is to hold office ; but if no such chair
man is elected, or if at any meeting the chairman is not present within
five minutes after the time appointed for holding the same, the directors
present may choose one of their number to be chairman of the meeting.
91. The directors may delegate any of their powers to committees,
consisting of such member or members of their body as they think fit.
Any committee so formed shall, in the exercise of the powers so dele
gated, conform to any regulations that may bo imposed on them by the
directors.
458 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING
92. A committee may elect a chairman of their meetings ; if no
such chairman is elected, or if at any meeting the chairman is not
present within five minutes after the time appointed for holding the
same, the members present may choose one of their number to be
chairman of the meeting.
93. A committee may meet and adjourn as they think proper.
Questions arising at any meeting shall be determined by a majority of
votes of the members present, and in case of an equality of votes, the
chairman shall have a second or casting vote.
94. All acta done by any meeting of the directors or of a committee
of directors, or by any person acting as a director, shall, notwithstand
ing that it be afterwards discovered that there was some defect in the
appointment of any such directors or persons acting as aforesaid, or
that they, or any of them, were disqualified, be as valid as if every such
person had been duly appointed and was qualified to be a director.

Dividends and Kesebve

95. The company in general meeting may declare dividends, but no
dividend shall exceed the amount recommended by the directors.
96. The directors may, from time to time, pay to the members such
interim dividends as appear to the directors to be justified by the profits
of the company.
97. No dividend shall be paid otherwise than out of profits.
98. Subject to the rights of persons (if any) entitled to shares with
special rights as to dividend, all dividends shall be declared and paid
according to the amounts paid on the shares ; but if and so long as
nothing is paid up on any of the shares in the company, dividends may
be declared and paid according to the amounts of the shares. No
amount paid on a share in advance of calls shall, while carrying interest,
be treated for the purposes of this clause as paid on the share.
99. The directors may, before recommending any dividend, set
aside out of the profits of the company such sums as they think proper
as a reserve or reserves, which shall, at the discretion of the directors,
be applicable for meeting contingencies, or for equalizing dividends, or
for any other purpose to which the profits of the company may be
properly applied, and, pending such application, may, at the like discre
tion, either be employed in the business of the company, or be invested
in such investments (other than shares of the company) as the directors
may from time to time think fit.
100. If several persons are registered as joint holders of any share,
any one of them may give effectual receipts for any dividend payable
on the share.
 APPENDIX 459
101. Notice of any dividend that may have been declared shall be
given, in manner hereinafter mentioned, to the persons entitled to share
therein.
102. No dividend shall bear interest against the company.

Accounts
103. The directors shall cause true accounts to be kept
Of the sums of money received and expended by the company, and
the matter in respect of which such receipt and expenditure takes
place ; and
Of the assets and liabilities of the company.
104. The books of account shall be kept at the registered office of
the company, or at such other place or places as the directors think fit,
and shall always be open to the inspection of the directors.
105. The directors shall, from time to time, determine whether,
find to what extent, and at what times and places, and under what
conditions or regulations, the accounts and books of the company, or
any of them, shall be open to the inspection of members not being
directors, and no member (not being a director) shall have any right
of inspecting any account, or book, or document of the company,
except as conferred by statute, or authorized by the directors, or by
the company in general meeting.
106. Once at least in every year the directors shall lay before the
company in general meeting a profit and loss account for the period
since the preceding account, or (in the case of the first account) since
the incorporation of the company, made up to a date not more than
six months before such meeting.
107. A balance sheet shall be made out in every year and laid
before the company in general meeting, made up to a date not more
than six months before such meeting. The balance sheet shall be
accompanied by a report of the directors as to the state of the com
pany's affairs, and the amount which they recommend to be paid by
way of dividend, and the amount, if any, which they propose to carry
to a reserve fund.
108. A copy of such balance sheet and report shall seven days
previously to the meeting be sent to the persons entitled to receive
notices of general meetings in the manner in which notices are to be
given hereunder.
Audit
109. Auditors shall be appointed and their duties regulated in
accordance with the Companies Act, 1900, sects. 21, 22, and 23, or any
statutory modification thereof for the time being in force.
460 ACCOUNTING AND BANKING

Notices
110. A notice may be given by the company to any member either
personally or by sending it through the post in a prepaid letter addressed
to such member at his registered address, or (if he has no registered
address in the United Kingdom) at the address, if any, within the
United Kingdom supplied by him to the company for the giving of
notices to him.
111. If a member has no registered address in the United Kingdom,
and has not supplied to the company an address within the United
Kingdom for the giving of notices to him, a notice addressed to him,
and advertised in a newspaper circulating in the neighbourhood of the
registered office of the company, shall be deemed to be duly given to
him on the day on which the advertisement appears.
112. A notice may be given by the company to the joint holders
of a share by giving the notice to the joint holder named firet in the
register in respect of the share.
118. A notice may be given by the company to the persons entitled
to a share in consequence of the death or bankruptcy of a member by
sending it through the post in a prepaid letter addressed to them by
name, or by the title of representatives of the deceased, or trustee of
the bankrupt, or by any like description, at the address, if any, in the
United Kingdom supplied for the purpose by the persons claiming to
be so entitled, or (until such an address has been so supplied) by giving
the notice in any manner in which the same might have been given if
the death or bankruptcy had not occurred.
114. Notice of every general meeting shall be given in some manner
hereinbefore authorized to () every member of the company (including
bearers of share warrants), except those members who (having no
registered address within the United Kingdom) have not supplied to
the company an address within the United Kingdom for the giving of
notices to them ; and also to (b) every person entitled to a share in
consequence of the death or bankruptcy of a member, who, but for his
death or bankruptcy, would be entitled to receive notice of the meeting.
No other persons shall be entitled to receive notices of general meetings.
115. Any notice, if given by post, shall be deemed to have been
served at the time when the letter containing the same is put into the
post-office ; and in proving the giving of the notice it shall be sufficient
to prove that the letter containing the notice was properly addressed
and put into the post-office.
 INDEX

ACCOMMODATION BILLS, 279 AGENCY ACCOUNTS, 149

Example of Journal entries, 287 ALLONGE, 273
ACCOUNTS, AMALGAMATION OF COMPANIES,
Agency, 145 852, 355
Home trade, 149 Entries, 355
Foreign, 149 Journal entries, 357
Amalgamation of Companies, 352, 3J
Bank, 244-256 ANALYSIS OF LEDGER AC
Bankruptcy, 329 COUNTS, 23
Branch, 161-166 Cost Ledger, 214
Building Societies, 398-410 ANNUAL
Card and slip system, 813-317 Return of Company, 76
Classes of, 9 Statement of Building Society, 397
Collieries, 376-386 APPLICATIONS AND ALLOT
Conversion to double entry, 18 MENTS,
Departmental, 143 Book, 78
Double account system, 293-303 Cash Book entries, 89
Double entry, 9 Journal entries, 69, 71, 87
Executorship, 419-423 Ledger Accounts, 88
Foreign branches, 145, 170
Hotel, 305-308 APPORTIONMENT
Income Tax, 133-187 in Executorship Accounts, 414
Institutions and Societies, 179-190 in Trust Account, 427
Insurance, 369-374 of Charges, 11
Joint Stock Company Accounts. of Departmental expenses, 144, 153
See undor Companies of Expenses of Debenture Issue, 105
Liquidators, 344 of Interest on capital, 154
Manufacturing, 193-205 of Profits prior to incorporation of
Organization of, 1 company, 91
Partnership, 33 APPROPRIATION ACCOUNT
Provision and Reserve, 112 of Joint Stock Company, 84
Provisions of Table A, 459 ARRANGEMENT OF ITEMS IN
Kailway Companies, 299 BALANCE SHEET, 14
Realization, 52
Settlement between partners, 47 ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION, 65
Single entry, 16 ASSESSMENTS
Solicitor's Cash Journal, 312 for Income tax, 127
Tramway Companies, 303 ASSETS,
Trust, 434-441 Classes of, 198
ADJUSTMENT ACCOUNTS, 27 Fixed and floating, 14
Head Office, 16J Marshalling of, 424
 462 INDEX
AUDIT, BANKINGcontinued
Preparation for, 7 Overdraft, security for, 229
AUDITOR'S REPORT, Pass Book, 235
Building Society, 393 Profit and Loss Account, 230
Relations of, to oustomer, 227
BAD DEBTS, Services of, 227
Provision for bad and doubtful, 11 Sources of profit, 229
BALANCE SHEET, BANK NOTE ISSUES,
Double Account, 300 Bank of England, 238
Form of, discussed, 14 Joint Stock Banks, 238
of Bank, 5230 Licences, 239
of Joint Stock Company, 83, 94, 125 Private banks, 238
with reduced capital, 108, 109 Scotch and Irish, 238
(See also under separate headings.) BANK OF ENGLAND,
BALANCING BY ANALYSIS OF Bank Return, 237
LEDGER, 23 Issue Department, 239
BANK BOOK.KEEPING, Banking Department, 239
Bills accepted for customers, 257 Bank Rato, 240
Bills section, 249 Distinctive features, 237
Calculation of interest, 252 Functions of, 237
Cash section, 246 History, 236
Customers' Accounts, 251 Note Issues, 238
Journal, 246 Reserve, 240
List of principal books, 244-245 " The Rest," 239
" On the balance," 256 BANK RATE, 240
Profit and Loss section, 253 Causes of advance, 241
Rebate, 257 Chart, 225
Securities and Investments, 250 BANK RECONCILIATION STATE
BANKERS, MENT, 5
and collateral security, 229 BANKRUPTCY,
Charges, 242 Classes of Creditors, 326
Guarantee, form of, 232 Deficiency Account, 325
Issue of debentures to, 105 Estate Cash Book, 329
and payment of foreign bills, 232 of Companies. See Liquidation
Relation of, to customer, 227 Preferential claims, 326
Services of, 227 Landlord's claim, 326
BANKING, Record Book, 329
Accounts of Joint Stock Companies, Form of, 329
235 Statement of Affairs, examples of,
Accounts with Infants, 236 321, 328, 330
Advanoes to Bill Brokers, 234 Trustees Accounts, 323
Balance Sheet, 230 Receipts and Payments, 329
Bankruptcy of Customer, 236 BILLS OF EXCHANGE,
Bill Discounting, 229 Acceptance for Honour, 280
Closing of current account, 236 Accepted for oustomers by banker,
Commission, 235 257
Current Accounts, 235 Acoeptanoe of, 275
Deposit Accounts, 234 General or olean, 275
Foreign Bills, payment of, 232 Qualified, 276
Garnishee order, 286 Accommodation, 279
Interest, 235, 252 Allonge, 273
Lien on Account, 236 Amount of, 275
Loans guaranteed, 232 At sight, 284
 INDEX
BILLS OP EXCHANGEcontinued BOOK-KEEPING,
Bills discounted by Banker, 229 Conversion of single to double ontry,
Case of need, 280 18
Claim on dishonour, 277 Double entry, 9
Crossed Cheques Act, 1906...266 Faulty and neglected, 21
Date, 274 BOOKS OF JOINT STOCK COM
Definition, 272 PANY, 71
Delivery of, on payment, 280 BRANCH ACCOUNTS,
Difference in words and figures, 275 Adjustment Account, 169
Dishonour of, 278, 277 Arrangement of, 161
Notice of, 273 Cash transactions, 161
Sum claimed, 277 Expenses Book, 167
Endorsements, 276 Fixed Assets, 172
Blank, 276 Profit and Loss Account, 165
Forged or unauthorized, 277 Suspense Account, 166
Restrictive, 276 Trial Balance, 173, 174
Special, 276
Without recourse, 277 BUILDING SOCIETIES,
Entry in accounts, 285 Accounts, 397
Accommodation bills' entries, 282- Cash Book, 398
283 Ledger Accounts, 400-404
Foreign bills, 280 Liabilities and Assets Account, 408
Should state consideration, 284 Profit and Loss Account, 405
Characteristics, 284 Statement of operations, 410
Noting and protesting of, 284 Annual statement, 393
Forms of, 272, 281 Auditor's report, 393
Forms of Bill Books, 282, 283 Classos of, 388
Functions of, 271 Incorporated, 389
Holder in due course, 279 Permanent, 389
Inclusion of rate of interest, 275 Terminating, 388
Journal entries, 285, 286 Unincorporated, 389
Lost Bill, 280 Deduction of income tax, 392
Name or address of drawee given in Investing members, liability of, 396
correctly, 275 Mortgages, 390
Negotiation of, 276 Redemption of security, 392
Noting, 278 Rights and Liabilities of members,
On a Sunday or a holiday, 275 889
Parties to, 278 Rules of, 390
The drawer, 278 Second mortgages, 392
The acceptor, 278 Surplus assets, 396
The endorser, 279
Place of issue, 275 CALLS,
Presentation, 277 Journal entries, 87
Protest, 278 on Shares, Table A, 445
Requisites of, 273 Register of, 78
" Retour sans protet," 278 CAPITAL,
Short Bills, entry of, 249 Adjustment Account, 49
Signature, 277 Insurance as provision for with
Spoiled stamps, 274 drawal, 50
Stamping of, 274 Interest on, 11
Supervision of, 3 Reduotion of, 106
Tenor of, 275 Reserve, 123
BILLS PAYABLE BOOK, 282 CAPITAL AND REVENUE,
Receivable Book, 283 | Distinction between, 10
464 INDEX
CARD SYSTEM. See Perpetual CHEQUEScontinued
Ledger Stamping of, 261
CASH BOOK, Statement of amount, 262
Building Societies' form, 398 CIRCULAR NOTES, 267
Hotel, 307 Example of, 268
Sectional form, 26 CLASSES OF ACCOUNTS, 9
of Society, 182
Solicitor's, 812 CLOSING ENTRIES, 11
CASH TRANSACTIONS, in Journal, 12
Building Societies, 308 COLLIERIES,
Insurance Company, 367 Capital expenditure, 376
Journalcolumnar, 26 Cost sheet, 386
Mothod of dealing with, 2 Depreciation, treatment of, 377
Summary of, 220 Hire purchase of waggons, 381
Journal entries, 383
CHARTS, Ledger Account, 385
Bank Rate, 225 Minimum or Dead Rent, 377
Dealings in Debenture Stock, 223 Journal entries for, 378
Monthly Turnover, 223 Royalties, 377
Total turnover, 224 Sales, entries of, 379
Turnover and Expenses, 224 Wages, 379
CHECK JOURNAL, 27 Wages book, form of, 380
CHEQUES, COLUMNAR DAY BOOKS, 25, 144
Accoptanco as payment, 265 COMMISSION,
Alterations of, 262 on Bank Account, 235
Bankers', remarks on, 264
Clearing House system, 267 COMPANIES,
Clearing of, 267 Amalgamation, 352, 355
Crossed, 265 Entries, 355
Account payee, 265 Appropriation Account, 84
Cancellation of crossing, 266 Articles of Association, 65
Double crossing, 266 Balance Sheet, 83
General, 265 Capital details in Balance Sheet, 84
Not negotiable, 266 Conversion of Shares into Stock, 64
Special, 265 Debentures, 96. See Debentures
Crossed Cheques Aot, 1906...266 Forfeited shares, 85
Cut or torn, 264 Journal entries, 357
Dating of, 261 Limited by guarantee, 63
Definition, 260 Limited liability, 62
Dishonour of, 264 Memorandum of Association, 65
Dishonour, in error, 265 Powers and regulations, 65
Endorsements, 263 Premiums on shares, 123
of drunken persons, 264 Profit and Loss Account, 82
of executors, 265 Profit of Company and Partnership,
of trustoos, 265 distinction, 85
Lost, 264 Profits prior to Incorporation, 91
Not negotiable, 266 Prospectus, 65
Payable to, 262 Reconstruction entries, 350
an illiterate, 263 Reduction of oapital, 106
married woman, 263 Register of mortgages, 74
Payee's name spelt incorrectly, 263 Reserves and Reserve Funds, 113
Payment of, 264 Reserve Capital, 123
Post-dated, 261 Section 12, 1900 Aot, 66
 INDEX 465
COMPANIEScontinued | DEBENTUREScontinued
Shares, 63 Classes of
Classes of, 63 Floating, 97
Share capital entries, 68 Mortgage, 97
Sinking Funds, 115 Payable to registered holder, 97
Statistical Books, 71 Payable to bearor, 97
Statutory Meetings, 67 Simple, 96
Table A, Companies Act, as revised, Clause in Memorandum, 96
1906...443-460 Dealings inDiagram, 223
CONSIGNMENT ACCOUNTS, 146 Debentures and debenture stock,
CONTRIBUTORIES, distinction between, 97
A and B list, 336 Debonturo holder and shareholder,
Liability of, 336 distinction between, 97
Statement of affairs as regards, 340 Definition, 96
CONTRACTS, Examples of issue, 98
Form of Cost Sheet, 215 Expenses of issue, 105
in progress, 209 Form of bond, 99
Issue at a discount, 105
CONVERSION OF SHARES INTO Redomption of, 105
STOCK, 66 Entries for, 106
Foreign currencies, 173, 291 To Bankors, 105
COSTING, Stock Certificate, 100
Accounts, 206 DEFERRED SHARES, 63
in relation to financial accounts,207 Example of, 64
as part of Double Entry system, 206
as distinct from Double Entry DEFICIENCY ACCOUNT,
system, 208 in bankruptcy, 325
Capital extensions, 215 in liquidation, 342
Contracts in progress, 209 DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTS, 143
Cost Ledger, 212 Apportionment of Expenses, 144
Cost Ledger Analysis, 214 Day Book, 153
Cost Sheets, 201, 215, 386 Manufacturing, 157
Expenses, 206 Modifications, 144
Machines for Stock, 211 Organisation of, 152
Materials, 205 Profit and Loss Account, 156
On Cost, 209 Sales Journal, 25
Plant, 208 DEPRECIATION,
Stores, 205 Considerations affecting, 198
Wages, 204 Diminution of assets, 199
COURSES OF EXCHANGE, 290 Fund, 120
CROSSED CHEQUES, 265 Hire purchase of waggons, 381
CURRENCIES, FOREIGN, 173, 291 Manufacturing, 198
Methods of dealing with, 198, 199
CURRENT ACCOUNT, 147 Revaluation of Assets, 199
Sinking Fund mothod, 199
DRAWINGS ACCOUNT, 37
DIAGRAMS. See Chabts
DEBENTURES,
Apportionment of expenses, 105 DIRECTORS. Seo Tablk A
Books, 101 DISCOUNT,
Application Book, 103 Issue of Debentures, 105
Ledger, 103 Trade, 2
Numerical List of Issuo of, 102 DIVIDENDS,
Register of Holders, 104 Book, 81
Transfer Register, 104 Table A, 458
2 H
466 INDEX
DOUBLE ACCOUNT SYSTEM, 293 FINANCE ACT, 1907.. .140
Application to classes of account, 302 FINANCIAL STATEMENT, 192
General Balance Sheet, 294 FIXED AND FLOATING ASSETS,
Form of, 300 198
Main differences as compared with FOREIGN EXCHANGE, 170
Single Account system, 294 Arbitrage, 289
Premiums on shares, 295 Assets, 173
Kailway Company Accounts, 295 Bookkeeping, 171
Receipts and Expenditure on Capital Eastern exchange, 290
Account, 294 Explanation of, 287
Single Ship Company, 301 Foreign rates of exchange on London,
Statement of Stock and Share Capital, 290
297 London course of exchange, 290
Tramway Company's Accounts, 303 Mint par of exchange, 288
Treatment of depreciation, 294 Specie points, 288
Water Company and maximum divi Telegraphic transfers, 291
dend, 300 Trial Balance, 173
ENDORSEMENTS, Variation in price of Bills, 289
Bill of Exchange, 276 FOREIGN TRADE,
By Executor or Trustee, 276 Branches, 145
By Infant, 276 Buying Agency, 149
Cheques, 265, 266 Consignments, 146
Sans recours, 277 Consignment Accounts, 148
Current Account, 147
ERRORS OP PRINCIPLE, 21
Correction of, 22 FORFEITURE OF SHARES, 85
Examples, 21 Examples of treatment, 86
Provisions of Table A, 447
ESTATE DUTY ACCOUNT, 413 Reissue of, 86
EXECUTORSHIP ACCOUNTS, FORMS,
Administrator, 425 Accident and Fire Insurance Revenue
Definition, 425 Account and Balance Sheet, 374
Apportionments, 414 Analysis of Cost Ledger, 214
Books of Account, 415 Bank Balance Sheet, 230
Estate Duty Account, 413 Bank guarantee, 232
Estate Duty, rates of, 415 Bank Profit and Loss Account, 230
Payment of, 415 Bills, 281
Example of Accounts, 419-423 Branch Expenses Book, 167
Executor, 413 Building Society's Accounts and
Interests under Will, 413 Statements, 398-411
Ledger Aocounts, 416 Circular Note, 268
Legacy Duties, 417 Columnar Sales Journal, 25, 144
Marshalling of assets, 424 Consignment Accounts, 146, 148
Residuary Account, 422 Cost Ledger, 212
Settlement Estate Duty, 417 Cost Sheet of Colliery, 386
Statute of distribution, 424 Cost Sheet (Manufacturing), 215
Succession Duty, 417 Current Account, 147
Valuation of Intorest and Dividends, Debentures. See Debenture Books
414 Deficiency Account, 325, 342
Valuation of Stocks and Shares, 414 Departmental Profit and Loss Ac
EXPENSES, count, 156
Diagram of, 224 Estate Cash Book in Bankruptcy, 329
Executorship Accounts, 419-423
PEES REGISTER, 180 Foreign Agency Accounts, 150
 INDEX 467
FORMScontinued POUNDERS' SHARES, 63
Gas Company's Tabular Ledger, 309 Example of, 64
Hotel Cash Book, 307
Hotel Purchase Book, 307 GARNISHEE ORDER, 236
Income Tax Accounts, 133, 131 GAS COMPANY'S TABULAR LED
Index Card, 316 GER, 309
Insurance General Cash Book, 367 GOODWILL,
Joint Stock Company Definition, 38
Application and Allotment Book, 78 Methods of dealing with, 38
Balance Sheet, 82, 94 Treatment in Accounts, 39-45
With reduced Capital, 108, 109
Call Book, 78 GUARANTEED SHARES, 63
Debenture Bond, 99 Example of, 64
Debenture Stock Certificate, 100
Dividends, 81 HIRE PURCHASE OP WAGGONS,
List of Directors, 75 381
Register of Members and Share Journal entries, 383
holders' Register, 72 Ledger Account, 385
Register of Mortgages, 74 Treatment of depreciation, 381
Register of Transfers, 78 " HOLDING OUT," 31
Share Capital entries, 69, 71 HOTEL ACCOUNTS, 305-308
Share certificates, 80
Share Ledger, 72 IMPERSONAL ACCOUNTS, 9
Summary of Capital and Shares, 76
Ledger Card, 314 INCOME AND EXPENDITURE
Letter of credit, 269 ACCOUNT, 180
Life Insurance Balance Sheet,371,372 Forms of, 181, 186, 187, 190
Revenue Account, 372 of Hospital, 188
Schedules, 369 INCOME TAX,
Liquidator's Cash Account, 344 Abatement, 132
Trading Account, 845 on earned Income, 140
Petty Cash Book, Columnar, 311 Adjustment Account, 137
Promissory Notes, 285 Amended Accounts, 133
Railway Company's General Balance Assessments, persons liable, 127
Receipts and Expenditure
Sheet, 300 Average, 129
not allowed for less than three
Account, 299 years, 140
Realization Account, 56 Change in Rate, 137
Statement, 347 Charging at source, 131
Register of transfers, 78 Classification of Income, 128
Sectional Cash Journal, 26 Deduction by members of Building
Sinking Funds Schedule, 117 Societies, 392
Solicitor's Cash Journal, 312 Deductions allowed, 129
Statement of Affairs, Deductions not allowed, 130
as regards contributories, 340 Depreciation, 131
as regards creditors, 338 Dividends, free of, 137
in Bankruptcy, 321, 328 Earned Income, 140
in view of reconstruction, 348 Employes, return of, 140
Stock Book, 4 Exemption, 132
Tabular Ledger for Gas Company, Finance Act, 127
309 1907... 140
Tramway Company's Accounts, 303 Life Insurance Premiums, 132, 370
Trust Accounts, 434-441 Of Joint Stock Co., 136
Wages Book of Colliery, Of Partners, 135
468 INDEX
INCOME TAXcontinued INTERESTcontinued
Of Sole Trader, 134, 136 Calculation of Bank interest, 252
Persons liable to, 127 On Bank Account, 235, 251
Refunding of deductions, 138 On capital, 11
Repayment of over-assessment, 138 On estate duty, 415
Rules and Regulations, 129 Treatment of Hire Purchase of wag
Schedules, 128 gons, 381
Illustration of, 132 INVESTMENT
Section, 133, 136-140 of Reserves, 114
Repealod, 140
INFANTS, JOURNAL,
Acceptance of Bills by Infants, in Bank, 256
valid, 275 Columnar, 26
Banking Account, 236 Form of, 27
Endorsement of Bills, 276 Foreign, 171
Sectional Cash, 26
INSOLVENT,
Deficiency of Partner, 57 LEDGER,
INSURANCE, Card, 813
as provision for withdrawal of Checked by Totals, 6
capital, 50 Debenture, 103
Fund, 121 Sectional Balancing, 27
Repayment of debentures, 115 Self balancing, 24
INSURANCE ACCOUNTS, Slip System, 316
Accident and Fire Insurance Revenue LETTERS OF CREDIT, 267
Account and Balance Sheet, 374 Form of, 269
Actuarial Valuation, 361 LIABILITY,
Agents' remittances, 363 Exceptions to Partnership, 49
Annuities, 366 LIFE INSURANCE. See Insubasce
Deposit with Chancery Court, 368 Accounts
Entries in regard to new policy, 361 LIQUIDATIONS,
Fire Insurance Claims, 370 Absorption of Company, 352
General Cash Book, 367 Amalgamations of Companies, 852-
Inoome tax, allowance on life pre 855
miums, 370 Entries, 355
Investments, 364 Journal entries, 357
Life Insuranoe Schedules, 369 Appointment of Liquidator, 343
Balanco Sheet, form of, 871, 372 Compulsory, 334
Revenue Account, 372 Deficiency Account. 342
Life Policies as securities, 370 Liquidator's Cash Account, 344
Policies extinguished, 363 Lists of Contributories, 336
Provisions of Life Assurance Co.'s " A and B " list, 336
Act, 1870...861 Realization Statement, 347
Quinquennial valuation, 368 Reconstruction entries, 350
Renewal Book, 362 Returns to Board of Trade, 345
INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIETIES, Schedules of Share capital, 336
Accounts, 179 Statement of Affairs, 335
Balance Sheet, 183, 189, 190 as regards creditors, 333
Income and Expenditure Account, as regards contributories, 340
186, 190 in view of reconstruction, 348
Revenue Account, 186, 190 Trading Account, 345
INTEREST, Unclaimed dividends, 346
Apportionment of, 429 Voluntary, 384
 INDEX 469
LOCAL AUTHORITIES, PARTNERSHIPcontinued
Sinking Funds Account, 117-120 Classes of, 31
LOST BILL, 280 Deficiency of Insolvent Partner, 57
Cheque, 264 Definition, 31
Dissolution of, 47
MANUFACTURING, Drawings Account, 37
Analysis of cost, 201 Guarantee of Assets, 31
Classes of Accounts, 193 "Holding out," 31
Contracts in progress, 209 Insurance as provision for withdrawal
Cost Accounts, 200, 206 of capital, 50
Ledger, 212, 214 Liability, exceptions to, 49
Depreciation 198 Novation, 32
On cost, 209 Payment of retiring partner's share,-
Patterns, 210 49
Percentage of cost, 202 Profit of Joint Stock Co., and partner
Profit and Loss Account, 202 ship, distinction between, 85
Stores, 196, 205 Profits on ceasing to be partner, 48
Issued Book, 206 Realization of Assets, 52
Ledger, 196 Settlement of Accounts, 47
Terminal Cost Accounts, 204 PATTERNS,
Wages, 194 Treatment in Accounts, 210
Overtime pass, 195 PASS BOOK
" Subs," 195 of Bank, 235
Working Account, 197
PERPETUAL LEDGER SYSTEM,
MEETINGS, Advantages of, 316
General Meeting of Company (Table Alphabetical arrangement, 314
A), 451 Card system, 813
Statutory under Section 12. ..67 Index Card, 316
MEMORANDUM OF ASSOCIATION, Ledger Card, form of, 314
65 Numerical arrangement, 315
MINIMUM RENT, Objections to, 316, 318
Treatment in Accounts, 378 Slip system, 316
MORTGAGES Advantages claimed, 318
of Building Society, 390 Index, 317
Register of Mortgages, 74 Ledger Account, 817
Transfer Ledger, 317
NOT NEGOTIABLE CHEQUES, 266 PERCENTAGE STATEMENTS,
NOVATION, 32 Manufacturing, 202, 221
Tramways, 187
ON COST, 209 PETTY CASH,
ON THE BALANCE, 256 Imprest system, 2
ORDINARY SHARES, 63 PREFERENCE SHARES, 63
ORGANIZATION OF ACCOUNTS, 1 Cumulative, 63
OVERDRAFT, PREFERENTIAL CLAIMS IN
Security for, 229 BANKRUPTCY, 326
OVERDUE ACCOUNTS BOOK, 219 PREMIUMS ON SHARES, 123
Journal entries, 71
PARTNERSHIP, PRODUCTS,
Accounts, 33 Calculation of Interest by, 242
Adjustment of Capital, 49 PROFITS,
Articles, 30 After dissolution of Partnership, 48
Balance Sheet, 36 Of Company prior to Incorporation, 91
470 INDEX
PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT, 8, REGISTER OF TRANSFERS, 78
34 RENEWALS FUND, 121
Adjustment Account, 23 Examples of, 121
Appropriation Account, 34 REPAYMENT OF LOANS BY SINK
Of Bank, 230 ING FUND, 116
Departmental, 156
Form of, 12 RESIDUARY ACCOUNT, 422
Of Joint Stock Co., 82 RETURNS AND ALLOWANCES,
See also under special headings. Method of dealing with, 2
PROMISSORY NOTES, See also Statistical Returns
Definition of, 284 RESERVES AND RESERVE
Forms of, 285 FUNDS, 113
Points of difference as compared with Bank of England, 240
drafts, 284 Distinction between, 113
Stamping of, 284 Distinction between Sinking and
PROPERTY TAX. Soe Income Tax Reserve Fund, 116
PROSPECTUS, 66 Investments, 114
Provisions of table A, 458
PROVISION AND RESERVE AC Reserve Capital, 123
COUNTS, U2 Secret, 114
for charges, 112 Payments from, 115
PROXIES, 454 REVENUE ACCOUNT,
PURCHASES, Insurance Co., 372, 374
Analysis Book, 158 Tramways, 187
Method of dealing with, 1 ROYALTIES RE COLLIERIES, 377
Tabular Purchase Book, 307
QUINQUENNIAL VALUATION, SALES,
Life insurance, 368 Method of dealing with, 2
RAILWAY ACCOUNTS, 295 JournalColumnar, 25
Balance Sheet, 300 SECTION 12 OF COMPANIES ACT,
Capital Receipts and Expenditure 1900...66
Account, 299 133, Income Tax Acts, 138
Statement of Stock, 297 SELF-BALANCLNG LEDGERS, 5, 24
REALIZATION ACCOUNTS, Modification of Books, 24
Bankruptcy, 330 SHARE CERTIFICATE, 80
Liquidations, 347
Partnership, 52 SHARES,
Reconstructions, 353 Calls on, Provision of Table A, 445
Classes of, 63
REBATE Conversion into Stock, 64, 448
on Bank Accounts, 257 Forfeiture of Shares, 85, 447
RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS AC Ledger, 72
COUNT, 179 Lien on (Table A), 449
RECONCILIATION, Premiums on, 123, 295
Bank and Cash, 5 Transfer of, 444
Profit and Loss, 23 Warrants (Table A), 449
RECONSTRUCTION OF COMPANY, SINGLE ENTRY,
Journal entries, 350 Conversion to Double Entry, 18
See Liquidations Distinction between Double Entry, 9
REDEMPTION OF DEBENTURES, Example of Accounts, 16
Entries for, 100 Statements, 17
REDUCTION OF CAPITAL, 106 SINGLE SHIP CO., 301
 INDEX 47i
SINKING FUNDS, TABLE A, COMPANIES ACTS, AS
Accumulative and non-accumulative, REVISED, 1906continued
117 Dividends, 458
Calculations for, 119 Meetings, 451
Distinguished from Reserve Fund, General, 451
116 Proceedings at, 451
for Depreciation, 199 Proxies, 454
Illustration of, 116, 117 Votes of members, 453
Objects of, 116 Notices, 460
of Local Authorities, 116 Reserve, 458
Schedule, 117 Shares,
Surplus Account, 119 Calls on, 445
SOLICITORS' ACCOUNTS, 313 Conversion into stock, 448
STATEMENT OF AFFAIRS, Forfeiture of, 447
Company, 338 Lien on, 444
in Bankruptcy, 322, 328, 330 Transfer of, 446
in Insolvency, 321 Warrants, 449
in Single entry, 17 The seal, 455 .
STATISTICAL RETURNS, TABULAR ACCOUNTS, 305
Approximate Trading Account, 221 Cash Book, 307
Cash Summary, 220 for Gas Co., 309
Overdue Accounts, 219 Form of, 805
References and customers 225 Petty Cash Book, 311
Statistical Book, 219 Purchase Book, 307
Use of Charts, 222 Solicitors' Cash Journal, 811
TRAMWAY COMPANIES,
STOCK, Balance Sheet, 803
Conversion of shares into, 64 Capital Account, 303
Provisions of Tablo A, 448 Revenue Account, 187
STOCK BOOK, 3 TERMINAL COST ACCOUNTS, 204
Form of, 4 TRADE DISCOUNT, 2
Valuation of, 200
TRADING ACCOUNT, 9
STORES, 205 Approximate, 221
Issued Book, 206 TRANSFER
SUBSCRIPTION REGISTER, 181 of shares (Table A), 446
SUMMARY OF CAPITAL AND Register of, 78
SHARES, 76 TRIAL BALANCE, 8
SUSPENSE ACCOUNT, 122 by analysis, 23
for Sales, 166 Disagreement of, 23
Foreign form, 171, 173
TABLE A, COMPANIES ACTS, AS TRUST ACCOUNTS,
REVISED, 1906...443- 460 Annuities, 430
Accounts, 459 Apportionment,
Alteration of Capital, 450 Example, 428
Audit, 459 Apportionment Act, 1870.. .427
Directors, 454 Authorized securities, 427, 428
Disqualification of, 454 Carrying on the business, 430
Powers and duties of, 454 Examples of Trust Accounts, 434-441
Proceedings of, 457 Wasting Assets, 430
Qualification of, 454 TRUSTEES,
Remuneration of, 454 Receipts and Payments Account in
Rotation of, 456 Bankruptcy, 329
472 INDEX
TURNOVER, WAGEScontinued
and Expenses, diagram of, 224 Manufacturing, 194, 204
Diagram of, 223, 224 " On cost," 195
Overtime, 194
UNDERWRITING ACCOUNT, 122 Prevention of collusion in payment,
194
WAGES, " Subs," 195
Book, 195 WORKING ACCOUNT, 197
Of colliery, 380 Question on, 216

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