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Contents
Comparative and Analytical Study of the Political Systems ................... 3
Features of US Constitution ........................................................................................................ 3
Checks and Balances ................................................................................................................... 4
Powers and Functions of American Senate ................................................................................ 4
Power of the President ............................................................................................................... 6
The election of the American President. .................................................................................... 7
Features of British Constitution .................................................................................................. 7
British Cabinet ............................................................................................................................. 9
Dictatorship of the Cabinet ......................................................................................................... 9
The British Prime Minister ........................................................................................................ 10
Political Parties US vs UK ........................................................................................................... 11
Functions of House of Commons .............................................................................................. 12
Political System of France ......................................................................................................... 13
Executive Powers of French President ...................................................................................... 14
German Political System ........................................................................................................... 15
Global and Regional Integration ............................................................. 16
Organizational structure of the European Union ..................................................................... 16
The Organizational Structure of SAARC .................................................................................... 17
The Organizational Structure of ECO ........................................................................................ 18
IMF............................................................................................................................................. 19
World Bank ................................................................................................................................ 20
Comparative and Analytical Study of the Political Systems ................. 21
Constitution of India.................................................................................................................. 21
Indian President ........................................................................................................................ 21
Indian Federation ...................................................................................................................... 22
Indian Secularism ...................................................................................................................... 23
Natio al Peoples Co g ess ....................................................................................................... 26

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Communist Party ....................................................................................................................... 27

Impact of Deng Xiaoping's reforms on China ............................................................................ 27
Reforms of Ataturk (Kamalism) ................................................................................................. 28
Turkish Constitution .................................................................................................................. 29
Grand National Assembly .......................................................................................................... 30
I a s Politi al Quag i e ........................................................................................................... 31
Malaysia .................................................................................................................................... 33
Government and Politics in Pakistan ..................................................... 34
Constitution making from 1947 -1956 ...................................................................................... 34
Constitution of 1956.................................................................................................................. 34
The Islamic provisions of the Constitution (1956) .................................................................... 35
Causes of Failure of Constitution of 1956 ................................................................................. 36
Constitution of 1962.................................................................................................................. 36
Failure of the Constitution of 1962 ........................................................................................... 37
Constitution of 1973.................................................................................................................. 37
Islamic Provisions of 1973 Constitution of Pakistan ................................................................. 38
The Senate ................................................................................................................................. 39
Constitutional Amendments up-to-date ................................................................................... 40
Federalism in Pakistan and 18th Amendment ........................................................................... 43
Supreme Court Of Pakistan ....................................................................................................... 45
Success of democracy in India and failure in Pakistan .............................................................. 46
Variables by which political culture has not developed in Pakistan ......................................... 47
International Relations ........................................................................... 49
International Relations: Post World War-II............................................................................... 49
Foreign Policy of Pakistan ......................................................................................................... 51
Rise of Muslim Nationalism in South Asia and Pakistan Movement ..... 56
Role of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan .................................................................................................... 56
Quaid-i-Azam ............................................................................................................................. 57
Iqbal ........................................................................................................................................... 58

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Comparative and Analytical Study of the Political Systems

Features of US Constitution

Preamble:
The Preamble of the constitution signifies the theory of Popular Sovereignty, as it is not granted by
any person rather American people are regarded as the source of all authority

Written Constitution:

Rigidity: The constitution is rigid one and the framers prescribed a very difficult and cumbersome
procedure of its amendment so that any government may not alter it easily

Separation of Powers: demarcated the jurisdiction of all the three branches of government

Federal System: It was not a matter of choice at the time of drafting the constitution to opt for any
other system than the federal one, as the components states were not willing at all to surrender their
autonomous status

Presidential Form: The president is indirectly elected by the people for four years and is accountable to
them. The Congress can remove him from his office only through impeachment. The president appoints
his ministers who are individually accountable to him and they are not the members of the Congress.

Bi-Cameralism: American Congress consists of two chambers. Senate is the upper House while the
name of the lower House is the House of Representatives.

Judicial Review: The constitution stands paramount over the whole state apparatus, while the Supreme
Court exercises the authority to interpret it. It is the duty of the Supreme Court to see that all
institutions perform their respective functions within the constitutional limits.

Impeachment: Public officials and persons holding any political office can be removed from office on
the conviction of treason, bribery or other high crimes and misdemeanors. The House of
Representatives brings charges of misconduct by voting a bill of impeachment. The accused official is
tried in the Senate, with the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presiding at the trial.

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Checks and Balances

The most prominent feature of American Political System is its mechanism of Checks and Balances.
Discuss its functioning

The constitution has specified separate identity of each branch of government; and for that purpose
details have been laid down. For example, President is elected by the people and is accountable to
them. The Congress can remove him only by impeachment. The President appoints all his Cabinet
Ministers with the approval of Senate and is authorized to remove them at his own discretion. The
Ministers are neither the members of Congress nor they attend its sessions.

The Congress on the other hand has full control over federal legislation. The President can neither
summon the Congress nor can prorogue or dissolve it.

The Supreme Court exercises supreme judicial authority and its independence from undue interference
by other two departments, has been fully ensured under the constitution. The President appoints
federal judges but he can not remove them.

Areas of Cooperation: All the three branches of government extend mutual cooperation. The President
has some legislative and judicial powers. The Congress too has certain powers regarding the
organization and formation of the executive and judiciary.

Legislative role of the President: The President has also been given certain legislative powers. He can
send messages to the Congress, suggesting proposals for legislation. These messages cannot be
overlooked in the legislative process. He can summon extra ordinary sessions of the Congress and
veto the bills passed by the Congress.

Congress and the Executive: The Congress also shares some administrative powers with President. The
Senate approves all Presidential appointments of federal officials and the treaties made with foreign
governments. Being guardian of the purse of the nation, the Congress can affect the formulation of
administrative and foreign policies. It can also impeach the President.

Role of the Judiciary: The Chief executive and the Congress, both have some judicial powers as well.
The President appoints federal judges with the approval of the Senate. He can also grant pardon,
reprieve and clemency. Congress can affect the organization of judiciary through its control of
exchequer. The Congress determines the exclusive jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and can also
remove the judges through impeachment. The Supreme Court, on the other hand, can declare void
such laws of the Congress and orders of the President which are found against the Constitution.

Powers and Functions of American Senate

The American Senate today is the most powerful legislative body in the world.

The American Senate is like "the saucer in which the boiling tea of the House is cooled".

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American Congress, which is the repository of legislative authority in the federation, consists of two
chambers: Senate which is the upper chamber and the House of Representatives is the lower one.

The members of lower House are elected for a period of two years, which is, too short to get full
knowledge of the procedural rules of the House. Moreover, the members have to start thinking and
preparing for new elections very soon. That accounts for the comparatively low quality of its
membership. The House can also initiate impeachment for the removal of the President, Vice-
President and other higher federal officials. For this purpose the House prepares a list of allegations
against the concerned persons and pleads the case before the Senate. It can propose amendment to
the constitution in collaboration with the Senate

Long tenure and Representative The Senate has been organized on the basis of parity of
representation to all states i-e. two seats are allocated to each state. No state, according to
constitution, can be deprived of its equal representation without its consent. Senators are elected for a
period of six years but one-thirds of them retire after every two years. Hence after every two years

Presiding officer American Vice President is legally the President of the Senate as well, but due to
his pre-occupation in administrative matters, a President Protemporo, who is a member of the
majority party, performs this duty

Most of the work of the Senate is done by its committees consisting of its members. All parties
are given representation in these committees in proportion to their numerical strength in the House

Legislation and Seniority The Senate shares, in contrast to British House of Lords, with the lower
chamber equal legislative powers. It does not merely revise the bills rather most of the bills originate
in the upper chamber. The Senators are the senior party members and the members of the House of
Representatives pay full respect to the verdict of their party leaders.

All the Presidential appointments of the senior federal officials got to be approved by the Senate
by a two-thirds majority vote.

Foreign Treaties The President is empowered to negotiate treaties with foreign countries, but these
got to be ratified by the Senate by a two-thirds majority.

Removal of the public officials through impeachment was a method adopted as a legacy of
British rule. The President, Vice-President, judges and civil officials can be impeached while
Congressmen are exempted. Such a session of the Senate is presided over by the Chief Justice

The Senators are mostly seasoned politicians due to the long tenure of the Chamber and the
special privileges and powers it enjoys. They are regarded party leaders in their respective states.

They enjoy maximum freedom of expression on the floor of the chamber so much that they can
obstruct the passage of undesired laws by delivering long speeches

Senatorial courtesy is an unwritten political custom (or constitutional convention) in the United
States whereby the president consults the senior U.S. Senator of his political party of a
given state before nominating any person to a federal vacancy within that Senator's state.[1] It is strictly
observed in connection with the appointments of federal district court judges, U.S. attorneys,
and federal marshals.

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Power of the President

Examine critically the power of the President in the US Constitution.

The President is elected for a period of four years. He can resign prior to the completion of his term or
can be removed through impeachment. A president can be re-elected for a second term and invariably
the President in office is elected for a second term. Being the head of state, the President enjoys
certain privileges. He cannot be arrested on the basis of any charge nor can be summoned in a court
as a witness. He can only be impeached by the Congress, but is given full opportunity of defence to
plead his case.

1. Executive Powers:

a) Enforcement of Law:Being the head of the executive, the President is responsible In the collective
interest of nation, he can use armed forces under federal laws.

b) Presidential Appointments: The President appoints all higher federal officials

c) Powers of Removal: The Constitution does not throw light on the issue of the removal of federal
officials. But the Supreme Court declared that the President is fully authorized to remove

d) Diplomatic Powers: American President has exercised enormous powers in foreign affairs right from
the early period. He has been regarded as the chief spokesman of America in its relations with foreign
.appointment of ambassadors, consuls and other members of diplomatic corpse, subject to the
confirmation by the Senate.

e) Role in Defence: The President is responsible for the defence of the country. He is the Supreme
Commander of the armed forces and as such appoints a number of higher military officials. To declare
war is, no doubt, a matter which falls within the domain of the Congress, but the President can create
such a situation that declaration of war becomes inevitable.

2. Legislative Powers:

a) Extraordinary Sessions: The President cant summon ordinary sessions of the Congress but can
summon its extraordinary sessions under special conditions.

b) Messages: the chief executive sends messages to the Congress conveying his proposals on
important issues of lrgislation

c) Indirect involvement: certain bills are prepared under the exclusive supervision of the executive
branch and the president gets these introduced in the Congress through his party men.

d) Presidential Veto: President can veto the bills passed by the Congress, and every bill passed by the

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legislative branch got to be signed by the President. When the bill is sent for presidential approval, the
latter shall either approve it within ten days or withhold his assent. But if he fails to do any of the
things within ten days, the bill shall deem to have been passed without Presidential assent.

In case the session of the Congress adjourns before the expiry of ten days while the bill has not been
approved by that time, it will die, termed as Pocket Veto.

3. Financial Powers: Federal budget is prepared by the Bureau of the Budget under the supervision of
the President and the Director of the Bureau remains in constant touch with the President during this
time. It is submitted in the Congress for approval on behalf of the President. The latter can effectively
shape financial legislation through his party men in the Congress.

4. Judicial Powers: American President appoints federal judges with the approval of the Senate. He can
grant pardon, reprieve and clemency, with the exception of sentences given through impeachment

With a President of higher intellectual caliber and political sagacity, the head of the state can expand
his constitutional role and expert powers even in those spheres, an ordinary office holder cannot even
think.

The election of the American President.

election of the President and the Vice President of the United States is an indirect vote in which citizens
cast ballots for a slate of members of the U.S. Electoral College; these electors in turn directly elect
the President and Vice President.

The process is regulated by a combination of both federal and state laws. Each state is allocated a
number of Electoral College electors equal to the number of its Senators and Representatives in the U.S.
Congress.[2] Additionally,Washington, D.C. is given a number of electors equal to the number held by the
smallest state.[3] U.S. territories are not represented in the Electoral College.

Under the U.S. Constitution, each state legislature is allowed to designate a way of choosing
electors.[2] Thus, the popular vote on Election Day is conducted by the various states and not directly by
the federal government. Once chosen, the electors can vote for anyone, but with rare exceptions like
an unpledged electoror faithless elector they vote for their designated candidates and their votes are
certified by Congress, who is the final judge of electors, in early January.

Features of British Constitution

Examine the fundamental Principles of British Constitution

The British constitution can be classified into two main parts:

1. Constitutional Law It signifies the body of rules recognized and enforced through the courts.

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2. Conventions of the constitution These, though most imperative to the working of British political
system, are not enforced by the courts

Evolutionary Growth:
The British constitution has never been reduced to writing in a documentary form at a particular time;
it has rather an evolutionary growth. Conscious efforts as well as needs of times shaped its
spontaneous growth. Important acts of the Parliament and judicial decisions fall under the first
category, while unwritten sources such as conventions, also played their due role in the development
of the constitutional law.

2. Unwritten:
Unwritten nature of the English constitution does not imply that all of its parts are unwritten. It means
that it has not been reduced to writing, as already explained, in a single documentary form. Some of
its components are found explicitly in written form such as historic documents, important acts of the
Parliament and Common Law.

3. Flexibility: British constitution is flexible in the sense that the Parliament can amend the constitution
like alterations in statutory laws, just by a simple majority. .

4. Limited Separation of Powers: Limited separation of powers operates in the working of the
governmental system.

5. Unitary System:
Central government is the exclusive source of all governmental authority in Britain. It demarcates the
powers and functions of local institutions and makes rules regarding their organization.

6. Bicameral Legislature: The lower house, House of Commons, is a popular chamber whose members
are directly elected by the electorate while the upper chamber, House of Lords, is basically a
hereditary chamber and its members are nominated by the Queen. House of Commons being a
popular chamber, is comparatively more powerful while in the past it performed a subordinate role.

7. Supremacy of the Parliament: in the phrase of De Loeme, a French writer, can do every thing
except to make a man into a woman or vice versa. Secondly, no law enacted by the Parliament can be
challenged in the court on the plea that it is against the constitution

8. Constitutional Monarchy: From constitutional point of view, the Crown is the repository of the
entire governmental authority in Britain. The powers of the Crown are not, however, exercised by the
Queen in person, but these are wielded by different branches of the government, of course, on behalf
of the Queen

9. Parliamentary System: British political system is pioneer in introducing and developing

parliamentary democracy. Cabinet, which is the real executive, is in fact, an integral part of the
Parliament. All the members of the Cabinet are the members of either of the chambers of the
Parliament.

10. Two Party System: Hence two major political parties, whatsoever their names, remained active in
the political arena. In the present century, Labour Party has taken the place of Liberal Party while the
latter has lost its political significance.

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British Cabinet
The Cabinet is the "steering wheel of the ship of the state. It sets the direction of national policy Do
you agree that British Political System is known for the cabinets dictatorship?
Do you agree in cabinets dictatorship in UK has undermined the supremacy of the parliament?
Explain.

Also discuss the nature, Powers and functions of the British Cabinet.

The Cabinet in Britain is the real executive authority which enjoys decision-making powers not only in
administrative matters but over legislation as well. Theoretically, it is merely a committee of the
Parliament, in practice, it wields almost dictatorial powers. English governmental system is
characterized by political homogeneity due to its Parliamentary set up and the absence of Separation
of Powers. According to Sir John Marriot, it is a pivot around which the whole machinery of
the state revolves. While Lowell said, the Cabinet is the Keystone of the political arch.

The Cabinet consists of those ministers who are incharge of different portfolios and belong to the
majority party in the Parliament. The ministers remain in power so long as they command the
confidence of the Parliament, otherwise they have to resign.

1. Membership of the Parliament: All the members of the Cabinet are supposed to be the members of
either House of the Parliament.

2. Political Homogeneity: As the Cabinet has to work as a team, normally like-minded persons are
included in it so as to preserve political homogeneity.

3. Coordination between Government Branches:

Close cooperation between cabinet and parliamentary majority is inevitable. Hence the Cabinet
controls not only administrative policy-making but also has firm grip over legislation.

4. Quee s e lusio fro Ca i et Meeti gs: According to long-standing convention established in

1714, the Monarch does not participate in Cabinet meetings and these are presided over by the PM

5. Responsibility of the Cabinet: All ministers are legally accountable to the Queen and as such they
remain in power at the pleasure of the Ruler.

6. Collective Responsibility: The Cabinet is collectively accountable to the Parliament. It means that
every minister is responsible for all the decisions taken in Cabinet meetings and every minister shares
this responsibility.

7. Secrecy in Meetings: All the proceedings of the Cabinet meetings are kept secret and the
differences within the Cabinet are not let known to the people.

Dictatorship of the Cabinet

It is a general impression that the Cabinet has assumed almost dictatorial powers in British political
system on account of its firm grip over executive and legislative decision-making. Instead of

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accountability to the Parliament, it actually guides and controls the parent body.

1. Party Discipline: Under a parliamentary setup, the life of a Cabinet depends on the discretion of the
Parliament. Ministers remain present on the floors of chambers of the Parliament to defend their
policies. The legislators control the executive through different techniques such as asking questions,
moving adjournment motions and resolutions and through criticizing the policies. But the members of
the majority party always support the Cabinet due to strict party discipline.

2. Rules of Procedure: The rules of procedure within the House enable the Cabinet to consume most
of its time and control the agenda even at the cost of private members initiatives. Most of the bills
which are transformed into laws come from government side.

3. Fiscal Control: Control over finance is the most effective weapon by virtue of which Cabinet can
implement its policies effectively.

4. Delegated Legislation: Legislative role of the Cabinet is not confined within the Parliament only; it
rather makes rules and regulations necessary for the enforcement of statutes. Hence through its
power of Delegated Legislation, the Cabinet can interpret statutes according to its own liking.

5. Increased State Activity: Modern welfare state has increased sphere of its activities, which has
indirectly resulted in enhancing the role of the Cabinet. Administrative heads of departments have
been given certain quasi-judicial powers in Britain.

Control of the Parliament over the executive branch has actually become ineffective since the former
can advise the Queen to dissolve the Parliament and hold fresh elections. According to Bagehot, The
Cabinet is such a creature which can destroy its creator.

The British Prime Minister

The British Prime Minister is the "shining moon among the stars". Discuss.

The Prime Minister holds pivotal position rights from its formation till its ultimate fall in a Cabinet form
of government. Theoretically all Ministers stand equal but in practice, the Prime Minister is most
effective and powerful as he can ask any Minister to resign. According to Sir William Harkot, Prime
Minister is foundation stone of the Cabinet arch.

1. As Cabinet Chief:

2. As Leader of the House: .

3. As a National Leader: .

4. Link between the Queen and Cabinet:

5. Conduct of Foreign Affairs:

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Political Parties US vs UK
Discuss the characteristics of the American Political Party System. How it differs from the Britain

1. Emergence of political parties was completely ruled out at the time of constitution making, hence
the constitution remained silent on this issue. Parties had their growth after the enforcement of the
constitution.

2. The level of rigidity in party discipline found generally in a parliamentary democracy does not exist
to that extent, in the Congress due to Presidential form of government. Congressmen enjoy more
freedom of speech within the chambers. The members of the Congress also give much importance to
safeguarding their respective regional interests and talk little about a coherent and uniform policy. As
a result, the organization of both parties is characterized by decentralization.

3. American parties are not ideologically divided into two opposite camps nor do both differ
diametrically on basic national issues. They have differences only on the details of the national issues
and on plan of action. As a matter of fact, both parties draw up their programs and line of action at
the time of election, keeping in view the contemporary requirements

4. Both American political parties have nation-wide organization and they actively participate at
different levels in governmental activity. They take part in federal election as well as in state and local
elections.

5. Two party system has been retained as a legacy of British rule. Apart from two big parties, there
exist a number of smaller ones but these are not very effective.

UK
1. Two Party System:.

2. Centralism in Party Organization: Before the emergence of Labour Party, the organization of
political parties was not well-knit and sound. The central party leadership has firm control over all
party units at lower levels.

3. Ideological Basis: Before the emergence of Labour Party, British political parties were neither
organized on ideological basis, nor did they develop sharp differences in respect of their programs.
Labour Party believes in introducing socialistic model of economy within, of course, a democratic
framework, while, the Conservative want to preserve the old order with certain progressive reforms.

4. Organization: Each party has its own program, Manifesto, rules and regulations and organization
that bears a close resemblance to governmental structure.

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5. Party Discipline: British parties have a glorious tradition of maintaining party discipline. Very few
members change their political affiliations, an over whelming majority adheres to party decision and
its programs.

6. Cooperation and Accommodation: The presence of fraternal feelings and sense of cooperation
among the members of political parties is not merely due to strict party discipline, it is rather deeply
planted in their political culture.

Functions of House of Commons

The House of Commons enjoys superior powers of legislation and Supremacy of Parliament, practically
implies the supremacy of the House. House of Commons performs the following functions:

Legislation:

Control over the Executive: .

Control over Finance:

Selective Functions:

Public Education:

Role of Opposition

1. Substitute Leadership:

2. Check on the Government:

3. Positive Role:

why kingship is not abolished in England

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Political System of France

The French Constitution: France is a republic; the institutions of governance of France are defined by
the Constitution, more specifically by the current constitution, being that of the Fifth Republic. The
Constitution has been modified several times since the start of the Fifth Republic, most recently in July
2008

The executive branch: The head of state and head of the executive is the President, elected by universal
suffrage. Since May 2012, France's president is Franois Hollande. Originally, a president of the Fifth
Republic was elected for a 7-year term ( The President, who is also supreme commander of the military,
determines policy with the aid of his Council of Ministers (Conseil des ministres).

The President appoints a prime minister , who forms agovernment. In theory ministers are chosen by
the PM; in practice unless the President and the PM are from different sides of the political spectrum (a
system known as la cohabitation), PM and president work together to form a government. The

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President must approve the appointment of government ministers.

The French parliament is made up of two houses or chambers. The lower and principal house of
parliament is the Assemble nationale, or national assembly; the second chamber is the Snat or
Senate. Members of Parliament, called Dputs, are elected by universal suffrage, in general
elections that take place every five years. Senators are elected by "grand electors", who are mostly
other local elected representatives.

The judicial branch:While the Minister of Justice has powers over the running of the justice system and
public prosecutors, the judiciary is strongly independent of the executive and legislative branches. The
official handbook of French civil law is the Code Civil.

Promulgation of laws: New bills (projets de loi), proposed by government, and new pivate members
bills (propositions de loi) must be approved by both chambers, before becoming law. However, by
virtue of Article 49.3 of the French constitution, a government can override parliamentary opposition
and pass a law without a parilimentary vote. This does not happen frequently, and in the framework of
constitutional amendments

The Constitutional Council The Constitutional Council , le Conseil constitutionnel, exists to determine
the constitutionality of new legislation or decrees. It has powers to strike down a bill before it passes
into law, if it is deemed unconstitutional, or to demand the withdrawal of decrees even after
promulgation. The Council is made up of nine members, appointed (three each) by the President of the
Republic, the leader of the National Assembly, and the leader of the Senate, plus all surviving former
heads of state

Executive Powers of French President

Consequently the Presidency is easily the most powerful position in the French political system.

Heading the armed forces

Appointment of the Prime Minister,

Power to dismiss the National Assembly,

Chairing the Council of Ministers (equivalent to the Cabinet in Britain),

Appointing the members of the highest appellate court and the Constitutional Court,

Chairing the Higher Council of the Judiciary,

Negotiating all foreign treaties,

The power to call referenda,

But all domestic decisions must be approved by the Prime Minister.

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German Political System

Germany is a federal, democratic republic comprised of sixteen states (Lnder or Laender). Power is
distributed between the federal and state governments.

At the federal level, the German constitution divides power between the executive branch, the
legislative branch, and the judiciary.

Distribution of Power Within the executive branch, the most powerful official is the Federal Chancellor,
who acts as head of state, controls the federal government, and appoints Federal Ministers. In addition
to the Chancellor, the German government elects a Federal President who acts in a mainly ceremonial
capacity.

Legislature The highest bodies in the legislative branch are the two chambers of parliament, the
Bundestag (Federal Assembly) and Bundesrat (Federal Council).

The lower house in the German political system is the Bundestag. Its members are elected for four-year
terms. The method of election is known as mixed member proportional representation (MMPR), The
upper house members are not elected, neither by popular vote nor by the state parliaments, but are
members of the state cabinets which appoint them and can remove them at any time.

Chancellor Every four years, after national elections and the convocation of the newly elected members
of the Bundestag, the chancellor is elected by a majority of the members of the Bundestag upon the
proposal of the President.

Cabinet As in Britain or France, day to day government is carried out by a Cabinet, the members of
which are formally appointed by the President but in practice chosen by the Chancellor.

Since Germany has a system of proportional representation for the election of its lower house, no one
party wins an absolute majority of the seats and all German governments are therefore coalitions.

Political Parties Like many countries - including Britain, France, and the USA - Germany has two major
party groupings, one Centre-Right and the other Centre-Left

Germany's supreme court is called the Federal Constitutional Court and its role is essentially as guardian
of the constitution. There are 16 judges divided between two panels called Senates, each holding office
for a non-renewable term of 12 years. Half the judges are elected by the Bundestag and half by the
Bundesrat, in both cases by a two-thirds majority. Once appointed, a judge can only be removed by the
Court itself.

BASIC LAW for the Federal Republic of Germany (Promulgated by the Parliamentary Council on 23
May 1949)

(as Amended by the Unification Treaty of 31 August 1990 and Federal Statute of 23 September
1990)

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Global and Regional Integration

Regional integration is a process in which neighboring states enter into an agreement in order to
upgrade cooperation through common institutions and rules. The objectives of the agreement could
range from economic to political to environmental, although it has typically taken the form of a political
economy initiative where commercial interests are the focus for achieving broader socio-political and
security objectives, as defined by national governments. Regional integration has been organized either
viasupranational institutional structures or throughintergovernmental decision-making, or a combination of
both.

Past efforts at regional integration have often focused on removing barriers to free trade in the region,
increasing the free movement of people, labour, goods, and capital across national borders, reducing the
possibility of regional armed conflict (for example, through Confidence and Security-Building Measures),
and adopting cohesive regional stances on policy issues, such as the environment, climate change and
migration

Organizational structure of the European Union

European Union (EU) is a politico-economic union of 28 member statesthat are located

primarily in Europe. The EU operates through a system of supranational
institutions and intergovernmental-negotiated decisions by the member states. The institutions
are: the European Commission, theCouncil of the European Union, the European Council,
the Court of Justice of the European Union, the European Central Bank, the European Court of
Auditors, and the European Parliament. The European Parliament is elected every five years
by EU citizens

ive primary institutions comprise the government of the EU. Its overall structure embraces the
three-branch democratic model of government, with executive, legislative, and judicial bodies.
The European Commission is the primary institution of the executive branch. Members are
elected or appointed by the European Parliament. The Council of the Union is composed of
representatives from the governments of the member states. The Council governs the EU as a
collective, requiring majority support to set or endorse policy.

The European Parliament, the legislative body, is elected by the people of the member states.
Committees within the European Parliament address specific concerns, such as health care,
preservation of the environment, and trade regulation. The Court of Auditors, the committee
responsible for overseeing and managing the EU budget, remains separate from every branch of

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the EU government, but works closely with the Parliament to appropriately allocate funds and
resources.

The EU judiciary is the Court of Justice. The jurisdiction of the European court is somewhat
dubious, and member states recognize its authority to varying degrees. The court is similar in
structure and function to those of the United Nations, but is permitted to pursue only cases that
affect member states.

A myriad of committees and support institutions comprise the rest of the EU government. The
EU maintains its own central finance system, including the European Central Bank and the
European Investment Bank. These contain funds used by the EU or granted to individual
member states for various joint projects. In 1999, nine nations adopted a standard European
currency, the Euro which has now 19 members. Official Languages = 24

The Organizational Structure of SAARC

The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is

aneconomic and geopolitical organisation of eight countries that are primarily located in South
Asia or the Indian subcontinent. The SAARC Secretariat is based in Kathmandu, Nepal. The
combined economy of SAARC is the 3rd largest in the world in the terms of GDP(PPP) after the
United States and China

The SAARC comprises five leayers of organizational structure

1. Council: At the top, there is the Council represented by the heads of the government of the member countries.
The council the apex policy making body. It meets once in 2 years time.

2. Council of Minister: It is to assist the council. It is represented by the foreign ministe of the member
countries. Its functions include:

1. Formulation of policies
2. Review of functioning
3. Deciding new areas of cooperation
4. Chalk our additional mechanism
5. Decide about general issues of common of interest of the SAARC member.

3. Standing Committee: It is comprised by the foreign secretarian of the member government. Its major
functions are:

1. To monitor and co-ordinate the programmes

2. To determine inter-sectored priorities

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3. To mobilise cooperation within and outside the region

4. To deal with the modalities of financing.

4. Programming Committee: It consist of the senior official of the member governments. Its functions include:

1. Scrutinizing the budget of the secretarials

2. Finalizing the annual schedule
3. External activities assigned by the standing committee
4. Analyses the respects of the technical committee.

5. Technical Committee: It consist of the represented of the member nations. Its function are:

1. To formulate project and programmer

2. To monitor and execute the projects
3. To submit reports.

The Technical Committee convers the areas such as: Aqriculture, Communication, Environment, Rural
Development, Health and Population, Science and Technology, Tourism and Transport.

6. Secretarial: The SAARC secretarials is located in Nepal. Its fuction include:

1. Coordination, execution and monetaring of SAARC activities

2. Servicing the SAARC meetings

3. Work as communication link between the SAARC and other international forume.

The secretarials is headed by the secretary-General appointed by the Council of Ministers. These are 7 Director
(One from each member nation) and the general service staff . Offical Language is English

The Organizational Structure of ECO

is a Eurasian political and economic intergovernmental organization which was founded in 1985
in Tehran by the leaders of Iran, Pakistan andTurkey. It provides a platform to discuss ways to improve
development and promote trade and investment opportunities. The common objective is to establish a single
market for goods and services, much like the European Union. ECO's secretariat and cultural department
are located in Tehran, its economic bureau is in Turkey and its scientific bureau is situated in Pakistan

it has 10 members Islamic State of Afghanistan, Azerbaijan Republic, Islamic Republic of Iran, Republic of
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Islamic Republic of Pakistan, Republic of Tajikistan, Republic of Turkey,
Turkmenistan and Republic of Uzbekistan and one observer Northern Cyprus

ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE:

Language: English.

Key Executive: Secretary General

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THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS:

The Council of Ministers ( COM ) is the highest policy and decision-making body and is composed of
Ministers of Foreign Affairs or such other representatives of the Ministerial rank as may be designated
by the Government. The council of Ministers meets at least once a year by rotation among the
Member States.

THE COUNCIL OF PERMANENT REPRESENTATIVES:

The Council of Permanent Representatives (CPR) is consisting of the Permanent

Representatives/Ambassadors of the Member States accredited to the Islamic Republic of Iran as well
as to the ECO and the Director General for ECO Affairs of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic
Republic of Iran.

THE REGIONAL PLANNING COUNCIL:

The Regional Planning Council (RPC) is composed of the Head of the Planning Organization of the
Member States or such other representatives of corresponding authorities.

THE GENERAL SECRETARIAT:

The General Secretariat consists of six Directorates under the supervision of the Secretary General
and his Deputies. Two Specialized Agencies and six Regional Institutes are acting under the
supervision of the General Secretariat.

IMF
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization headquartered in Washington, DC, of
"188 countries working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international
trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world

Resources IMF is a pool of central bank reserves and national currencies that are available to member
countries under specified conditions.

The capital of the IMF consists of the aggregate of the quotas allotted to the member countries member
can pay its quota in its national currency.

The IMF utilizes its gold holdings to acquire dollars and other currencies for its operations.

Structure

The Board of Governors is the highest decision-making body of the IMF. It consists of one governor and
one alternate governor for each member country. The governor is appointed by the member country
and is usually the minister of finance or the head of the central bank.

While the Board of Governors has delegated most of its powers to the IMF's Executive Board, it retains
the right to approve quota increases, special drawing right (SDR) allocations, the admittance of new

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members, compulsory withdrawal of members, and amendments to theArticles of Agreement and By-
Laws

The IMF Board of Governors is advised by two ministerial committees, the International Monetary and
Financial Committee (IMFC) and theDevelopment Committee.

The IMF's 24-member Executive Board takes care of the daily business of the IMF. Together, these 24
board members represent all 188 countries. Large economies, such as the United States and China, have
their own seat at the table but most countries are grouped in constituencies representing 4 or more
countries. The largest constituency includes 24 countries.

World Bank
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing
countries for capital programs. It comprises two institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development (IBRD) 188 countries and the International Development Association(IDA) 172. The
World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty. According to its Articles of Agreement, all its
decisions must be guided by a commitment to the promotion of foreign investment and international
trade and to the facilitation of Capital investment.

Resources IDA collects funds through donations from rich members of the World Bank. USA being the largest
donor. It is replenished by an agreement among donors every three years. IDA has two types of members. Part I
members consisting of 22 developed countries contribute 95 per cent of its funds. Part II members consisting of
112 developing countries subscribe to the balance 5 per cent funds.

Management IDA is a separate legal entity but is managed by the staff of the World Bank. It has a Board of
Governors, Executive Directors and a President. All of them are employed in the World Bank and hold ex-
official positions in the IDA.

The Bank and the IMF remain distinct. The fundamental difference is this: the Bank is primarily a
development institution; the IMF is a cooperative institution that seeks to maintain an orderly system of
payments and receipts between nations.

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Comparative and Analytical Study of the Political Systems

Constitution of India

1. Written, Lengthy and Detailed:. Even those matters which are subject of conventions in other
countries have been put down in black and white.

2. Rigid and Flexible: The Indian constitution is partly rigid and partly flexible. The procedure laid down
by the constitution for its amendment is neither very easy, as in England nor very difficult as in US

3. Sovereign Democratic Republic: The Preamble to the constitution declares India to be a Sovereign
Socialist Secualr Democratic Republic.

4. Partly Federal and Partly Unitary: The constitution declares that India shall be a Union of States. It
possesses double set of Governments.

5. Parliamentary System of Government:

The Constitution establishes Parliamentary type of Government both at the Center and the Units..

6. Single citizenship: All the Indians irrespective of their domicile enjoy a single citizenship of India
whereas in United States all the citizens enjoy the right of double citizenship.

9. Official Language: Hindi in Devanagri script as the official language of the country.

10. Compromise between Judicial Supremacy and Parliamentary Sovereignty:

The Indian constitution strikes a golden mean by avoiding Judicial Supremacy of the American type
and Parliamentary Sovereignty of the British type. The constitution provides that the Supreme Court
of India can declare an Act of Parliament or State Legislature null and void only if it contravenes a
specific provision of the constitution or Fundamental Rights of the people etc. the Supreme Court does
not have any power of Judicial review and cannot stand in judgment over the Sovereignty will of the
Parliament representing the will of the entire community.

Indian President
The President of India is merely a figure head. How far do you agree?

Indian President enjoys no powers but he can exercise a lot of influence (Jawahar Lal
Nehru)

1. Executive Powers:

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President is head of Indian Union. All executive action is taken in his name. he is the supreme
commander of the Defence Forces of the Union. He has the power to take any military action in case
of danger in anticipation of its subsequent approval by Parliament. He makes all important
appointments such as Governors of the States, ambassadors and other diplomatic representatives,

2. Legislative Powers:
The President is thus an integral part of Parliament. He summons, adjourns and prorogues both the
Houses of Parliament and dissolves the Lok Sabha on the advice of the Prime Minister. All Bills passed
by Parliament receive his assent before becoming laws. The President may issue ordinances at any
time, when Parliament is not in session.

3. Financial Powers: No Money Bill can be introduced in Parliament without his prior recommendation.

4. Judicial Powers:
The President enjoys the power to grant pardon, reprieve or remission of punishment to any convict,
particularly in all cases involving punishment with death. He appoints judges of the High Courts and
Supreme Court

5. Legal Immunities: The President enjoys certain legal immunities. He is not answerable to any court
of law .No criminal action can be taken against him in any court in India during the term of his office.

6. Emergency Powers: The President has been given wide powers to meet emergencies.

Indian Federation
The Indian Federation is rightly said to be a quasi-Federation having many elements of a unitary
state. Discuss

The Constitution of India declares India to be a Union of States. The Constitution draws up three lists
of subjects i-e the Union List, State List and Concurrent List. The center is competent to administer all
the subjects contained in the Union List. The States are authorized to deal with the subjects placed in
the State List. The concurrent subjects are under the joint jurisdiction of both the center and states.

Unitary Biasness
The foregoing account of the federal aspect of Indian constitution proves beyond doubt that India has
got a federal form of government. But the Indian federation is a class by itself. It has certain special
features which make the centre strong against the federating units.

a) Single Citizenship: in a federation like that of America, each citizen enjoys double citizenship,
citizenship of the state where in one is domiciled and citizenship of the federation as a whole. But the
Republican Constitution of India establishes a dual polity with a single citizenship..

b) Excessive authority of the Center: A weak Central Government is the essence of federalism. But out
constitution has created a very strong constitution. The powers are distributed between the Union and
the States in such a way as to make the Center very powerful.

c) Residuary Powers: In a federation like that of America, the residuary powers are enjoyed by the

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states but in the Indian federation, the residuary powers are vested in Parliament. This tends to
increase the powers of the Center.

d) Emergency Powers of the Center: The strength of the center can be immensely increased during the
times of war and other national emergencies. Under such contingencies, the President of the Indian
Union can assume extraordinary powers which may amount to suspension of the autonomy of the
States.

e) Flexibility of the Constitution:The Indian federal system is not so rigid as is the case with most
other federations of the world. The method of amending the Constitution is rather simple. Major part
of the constitution can be amended by the Union Parliament itself without the approval of the State
Legislatures. This fact also emphasizes the strength of the Center.

f) Inequality of Representation: In the Indian Union, however, the principle of equality of

representation of the units in the upper chamber has not been followed as the states are represented
in the Rajya Sabha on the basis of their populations. This fact again proves the inherent unitary nature
of Indian Polity.

g) Single Judiciary and Uniform System of Civil and Criminal Law: The Constitution provides for a single
integrated judicial system for the whole country.

Dr. K. P. Mukherjee was of the view that the Union of India does not satisfy any one of the
conditions enshrined in the federal principles. On the contrary, Indian constitution in its
first four chapters makes it amply clear that it is a unitary constitution and whatever
categorization of the units of the Union and distribution of power between the Center and
States has been done is all for the sake of administrative convenience and these may be
withdrawn at any time.

Indian Secularism
India is a Secular state critically examine and comment

"There is no such thing as Indian Secularism",Discuss.

The Meaning of Secularism

Oxford English Dictionary (OED Vol.IX 1978), which states that secularism is the doctrine that morality
should be based solely on regard to the well-being of mankind in the present life to the exclusion of all
considerations drawn on belief in God or in a future State

Characteristics of Secularism

Science as the true guide of man,

Morality as secular, not religious, in origin,

Reason as the only authority,

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Freedom of thought and speech

Secular Amendment Halted The following amendment, moved as Amendment No.366, was defeated on
3rd December 1948.

"The State in India being secular shall have no concern with any religion, creed or profession of faith;
and shall observe an attitude of absolute neutrality in all matters relating to the religion of any class of
its itize s o othe pe so s i the U io .

it would have put a brake upon the State functionaries freely using the State finance and the machinery
fo pilg i ages a d othe eligious a ti ities. P of. hahs a e dment would have also prevented the
State media, especially radio and television, from broadcasting bhajans, prayers, religious discourses etc

If we examine broadly all the features of the Indian Constitution it is possible to say that India is a
secular state in the sense that

(i) No particular religion is prescribed as the state-religion;

(ii) No preferential treatment is envisaged to any religion or to people professing any particular religion;

(iii) The right of worship is given to persons professing all religions.

Article 27 mentions that no person shall be compelled to pay any taxes the proceeds of which are
specifically appropriated in payment of expenses for the promotion or maintenance of any particular
religion or religious denomination. This article therefore is only a ban against the State from collecting
taxes part or whole of which could be utilized for the promotion or maintenance of any particular
religion. In any case, State fund can be utilised for promoting religious teachings. In so far as there is no
total prohibition against the use of the funds of the State for the promotion of religion the Constitution
cannot be said to be secular.

Article 28 In America there is a total prohibition of religious instruction in any educational institution
supported by the State funds. On the other hand, underour Constitution as per Article 28 it is only that
educational institution, which is wholly maintained out at State funds that is prohibited from providing
religious instruction. In other words, all those denominational schools which receive grants-in-aid from
the State are not prohibited from giving religious instruction.

From what has been said so far it must be clear that there is no wall of separation between the State
and religion in India as it is there in the United States of America. On the other hand, there is a marked
reluctance to bring about such a separation. Take for example Article 290A. This specifically mentions
that certain sums shall be paid over every year for the maintenance of Hindu temples which were
formerly in the States of Travancore and Cochin.

Mentioning in the preamble that India is a secular State will not make it a secular State any more than
mentioning that India is a paradise will make it a paradise.

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After the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, Deng Xiao Peng emerged as the supreme leader. He
immediately announced that his priority was to modernize China. The new constitution was approved
in December 1982, by 5th National Peoples Congress.

Chinese Constitution
Discuss the salient features of Chinese Constitution (1982)

1. Preamble: The new constitution like the previous documents signifies and eulogizes the memorable
sacrifices and unparalleled services rendered by the Communist leadership for the attainment of
independence and bringing Socialist Revolution. The old definition of China as a Dictatorship of the
Proletariat has been replaced with Peoples Democratic Dictatorship.

2. Nature of Constitution:
Constitution of 1982 is a brief document comprising only few chapters. It has closer affinity in letter
and spirit, with the constitution of the former Soviet Union. It is neither too rigid nor too flexible.

3. Basic Principles:
Under the constitution, Peoples Republic of China is a Socialist State established in the name of
Peoples Democratic dictatorship, whereas Communist Party performs the leadership role to guide the
people. People are declared as fountain of power and authority and they will exercise it through
National Peoples Congress.

4. Economic System: The constitution signifies two kinds of property, socialist property of the people
and the other form is collective ownership of the workers. The assets created through individual
earnings within the orbit of law, are also declared legal. All socio-cultural activities, according to a
constitutional requirement, are supposed to be subservient to Socialistic values, as interpreted by the
teachings of Marx, Lenin and Mao.

5. Unitary System: A strong central government exists while regional governments, as distinct entities,
have not been created under the constitution. The central government has delegated much authority
and powers to the regional and local administrative units.

6. Democratic Centralism: Like the political system of former Soviet Union, the principle of
Democratic Centralism prevails in Peoples Republic of China as well. Keeping in view democratic
norms, elective principle has been introduced at all levels not only within the governmental institutions
but also within the Party organization. All the citizens have been secured the right to vote on the basis
of adult suffrage.

7. One Party System: Communist party enjoys almost dictatorial powers within the constitutional
framework and has been regarded as the sole source of political authority for all practical purposes.

8. Legislative Branch: National Peoples Congress holds important position as law-making body. it also
elects the members of various government departments. State Council, which stands as the most
superior administrative institution, is accountable to the Congress. The appointment of the President
of the Republic and that of the Vice President is on the discretion of the Congress.

Congress consists of one chamber and unlike its Western counterpart; it does not enjoy the status of a
powerful law-making body. The real function of the Congress is to transform the aspirations of the
Party leadership into law. Importance of the Congress lies in the fact that most of the important
members of the Chinese Communist Party are also the members of the Congress.

9. Nature of the Executive:

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by the Prime Minister and all its members are elected by the Congress and accountable to it.
Enforcement of law, formation and execution of the administrative policy is the major function of the
council. The Premier performs very important role as head of the administration and holds pivotal
position within the administrative set up.

President of the Republic is regarded as head of the state who is elected by the Congress for a period
of five years. The President enjoys the most prestigious position in the administrative setup.

10. Nature of the Judiciary: Chinese law never been codified in a systematic form. Most of the disputes
and controversies are settled in quasi-judicial institutions. Chinese juridical system has been held
together more by the conventions rather than by the laws.

11. Rights
All citizens at least of 18 years of age are secured right to vote and they enjoy also the right to
contest the elections. Right to secrecy of all correspondence, freedom of expression, freedom to join
or form association, and right to hold public meetings even to the extent of staging demonstration or
resort to strike for articulation of demands, have been secured under the constitution. Moreover, all
the citizens have right to religion.

Obligations:. It is the first and foremost obligation on the citizens to cooperate with the Socialist
leadership in every respect, abide by the constitution and all other state laws. They are required to
protect public property and extend a helping hand in the maintenance of law and order.

National Peoples Congress

Duration:The Congressmen are elected for a period of five years but the Congress can be dissolved
before the expiry of its term and it can be extended as well.

Sessions: Sessions of the Congress is held once a year in Beijing. Standing Committee of the Congress
normally summons its session.

Powers: National Peoples Congress is the supreme law-making body, which is fully authorized to
enact laws, alter or repeal the existing ones.

1. Enactment of Laws: During its sessions, the Congress enacts new laws and makes necessary
alterations in the existing ones, if circumstances so demand.

2. Executive Powers: National Peoples Congress is also empowered under the constitution, to
supervise the execution of constitutional laws and the statutes.

3. Elective functions: Congress holds a pivotal position within governmental structure by virtue of its
power to elect the top-notch occupants of the governmental authority.

Role Analysis: Rather its position, considering from democratic view-point, as a free law-making body
is merely in theory. Its major reason lies in the fact that rarely its sessions are held on regular basis.

Standing Committee The Standing Committee of the Congress is an effective and active body, as it
exercises, in practice, most of the congressional powers. It is outwardly a subordinate body to the
Congress, as a matter of principle. It is accountable to the parent body and is bound to present
regularly reports of its working. All the members of the Committee are elected by the Congress and
liable to be removed on its discretion.The Standing Committee of the Congress is responsible to make
proper arrangements for holding fresh elections prior to the completion of its term.

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Communist Party
Discuss the organization and the role of the communist part in the Chinese political system.

How political Parties are organized in China? Discuss the organization and function of Chinese
Communist party?

Ideological Foundations: Ideology of Chinese Communist Party had been shaped by the teachings of
Marx and Lenin right from its inception. It developed deep linkage with the global Communist
Movement at its early phase. Mao performed pivotal role in the whole socialist struggle of the Chinese

The Post Revolutionary Phase of Cultural Revolution (1966-76) is known as a period full of turmoil and
turbulence as the country had to undergo through many crisis. Even the expected successors of Mao
were also maltreated.

Party Organization: Chinese Communist Party has been organized on a wider scale and it lays too
much stress on the maintenance of strict discipline, education and training of the members. The
candidate aspiring for membership has to undergo a long process, full of trials and hardships.

Democratic Centralism: Democratic Centralism operates as an important principle within the party
organization. Accordingly all office bearers of the Party are elected. On the other hand, strict party
discipline is maintained and strong centralism operates in the decision-making process.

Politburo: The Politburo has been regarded as the most powerful body in the decision-making process
as it makes all important decisions; so much that it summons the sessions of the Central Committee.
It also has a standing committee consisting of seven members.

Central Committee: The Congress holds its sessions once a year which extends to few days only. The
Central Executive Committee, comprising limited membership exercises the power of the Congress
during the interval the latter is not in session. The powers of the Central Executive Committee are also
exercised in practice, by its Politburo as the former rarely holds its meetings..

Other Parties and Groups: Hence China is a multi-national and multi-party country. In China, the term
democratic parties refer to the eight other parties apart from the Chinese Communist Party. These
have developed cooperation with Chinese Communist Party on different levels since the inception of
the new order.

Communist Party enjoys political monopoly in China while other parties have merely dejure existence.

Impact of Deng Xiaoping's reforms on China

Deng Xiaoping served as the paramount leader of People's Republic of China from 1979 to 1992.
Deng was a controversial figure during his time in power, and his legacy is a subject of continued
debate even after his death in 1997, according to San Jose State University.

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Economic Liberalization During his time in power, he established free trade areas throughout the country and
encouraged foreign investment. Although his reforms seemed to contradict the communist ideology of the state, they
sparked a major economic revolution in China. CNN reports that economic liberalization lifted almost 200 million
Chinese peasants out of poverty. China's current status as an economic superpower is due largely to Deng's
economic policies.

Political Reforms Before Deng's rise to power, a "cult of personality" dominated Chinese politics. The shadow of
Chairman Mao had created a system of government in which a single, charismatic individual controlled virtually
every aspect of the state. Although Deng refused to institute democratic reforms and kept power within the ruling
Communist Party, he decreased the importance of his own office. This move set the stage for a more efficient,
responsive and technocratic Chinese government.

Moderate Foreign Policy Deng's leadership also helped China to raise its profile as a global power while avoiding
conflict with other states. During his first year in power, he established full diplomatic relations with the United
States for the first time in a generation. He also worked to enhance diplomatic ties with neighboring countries like
Japan, the Soviet Union, and industrialized European nations like France. This diplomatic offensive encouraged
foreign investment, helping China's economy to grow. However, Deng maintained China's aggressive stance
towards Tibet, Taiwan and other disputed territories.

Brutal Suppression of Protestors Although Deng earned widespread praise for his economic reforms, he also
ruthlessly suppressed pro-democracy movements in China. Deng used the country's armed forces to violently
disperse protesters from Tiananmen Square in 1989. Successor regimes continue to arrest and imprison political
opponents.

Reforms of Ataturk (Kamalism)

Discuss ideological foundations of Political System of Turkish Republic?

Discuss SIX principles of kamalism as the basis of Turkish political system.
Analyze the role of Mustafa Kamal Ata-Turk as the first President of Turkish Republic with special
reference to "six principles of kamalism" to modernize turkey on western pattern.

1. Secularization: Anti-religious activities were encouraged during the Secularization of the society
.Turkey was declared a secular state and Islam discarded as state religion in 1928. The long-standing
traditional institution of Khilafat was also abolished which symbolized the unity of Muslim Ummah.
Arabic script got substituted by Latin One in 1928 while many constraints were put on the promotion
and publication of Arabic literature.

2. Changes in Legal System: In his drive for Europeanization of the society, Ataturk abolished the whole
system of Shariat Courts and replaced Shariat laws with European code.Family law etc

3. Direction of Social Change: The cultural patterns and lifestyle of the Turkish Society was remodeled.
Women folk were ensured equal rights in all walks of life with men and their active participation in
public life encouraged. They were recruited in civil services on large scale. All the government
servants were ordered to wear European dress along with hat. European calendar replaced Qamri
calendar.

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4. Economic Development: Economic system, under Malukiat, of course, remained stagnant, hence
resulting in unfair distribution of wealth and economic backwardness. Ataturk paid special attention to
the issue of economic uplift of the society and introduced reforms in industry and agriculture. A
comprehensive economic planning was launched aiming at the improvement ion the commercial and
agricultural output. Mineral resources were exploited and divergent schemes, attracting investments in
industry floated. Certain big industries were put under state ownership.

5. Administrative Reforms: For administrative convenience, the whole territory was divided into new
provinces, districts and in other small administrative units. The role of civil-military bureaucracy was
imperative in promoting administrative output. This class vehemently executed all reforms in letter
and spirit with a missionary zeal.

6. Changes in Foreign Policy: In foreign affairs, he acted on the principle of Peaceful Coexistence. His
main concern was the promotion of internal peace and advancement in all directions. Turkey under
Ataturk, strengthened ties of friendship even with those Western European countries who has been its
enemies during World War I

Political system remained autocratic under Ataturk as he ruled arbitrarily. The opponents were crushed
and their political activities banned. Religious elements, specifically became the target of brutality of
the ruling Junta, as they were deprived even of their fundamental rights.

Turkish Constitution
Discuss the salient features of 1982 Constitution of Turkey.

1. Supremacy of the Constitution: The constitution recognizes the sovereignty of the popular will. The
constitution of 1982 is a lengthy document comprising 177 articles divided into seven chapters.

2. Amendment in the Constitution: The constitution is partly flexible and partly rigid in the sense that
different procedure is required for constitutional amendment, than the one adopted for alterations in
statutes.

3. Balanced Separation of Powers: The constitution stands paramount hence it is the source of all
authority. Grand National Assembly is the supreme legislative organ while executive powers belong to
the President and the Council of Ministers. All judicial powers are assigned to the courts

4. Parliamentary System: The system of government in one sense can be termed parliamentary as the
Prime Minister and other ministers are taken from the National Assembly and are held accountable to
it and to the President. The latter is fully authorized to remove any of the ministers.

5. Unicameral Legislature: Turkish Grand National Assembly has been indefeasible part of its political
legacy.

8. Right to form Political Parties: The constitution recognizes the right of all citizens of 21 years or
above to form political parties and join or leave their membership no party can be formed on the
basis of religion.

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9. Proclamation of Emergency:The Council of Ministers can make as announcement to this effect

10. Imposition of Martial Law:. Turkish constitution provides that under extraordinary circumstances
beyond the control of the civil government, Martial Law may be imposed.

Grand National Assembly

How Grand National Assembly in turkey is elected > Discus its Powers and Functions

Grand National Assembly is a unicameral legislature consisting of 550 members. All members are
directly elected by the people by secret ballot on the basis of adult suffrage. Duration of Grand
National Assembly is five years subject to alteration under extra ordinary conditions..

1. Legislative Powers: The primary function of the Grand National Assembly is to enact new laws and
make alterations, whenever required, in the existing laws. The ministers introduce most of the bills on
the floor of the assembly and actively participate in the process of law-making

2. Control over the Executive:

All the members of the Council of Ministers participate in the deliberations of the Assembly. They have
to answer the questions asked by the members. The Assembly can effectively control policy process
by asking questions, moving resolutions and different motions.

All the treaties made with foreign countries and declaration of war, got to be ratified by the Assembly.
The Assembly is competent to allow the stay of foreign troops in Turkey or give them free passage in
Turkish territories. In pursuance of the fulfillment of international treaty obligations, Turkish National
Assembly shall be competent to depute army troops in a foreign country.

3. Control over Finance: It is due to its control over financial legislation that the National Assembly can
indirectly shape public policies. The Assembly enacts finance Act and appropriation Act on the basis of
estimates of expenditure and proposals for raising funds.

4. Judicial Powers: Though its legislative powers and fiscal control, National Assembly can indirectly
affect organization of judiciary and its working. It can also grant general amnesty .National Assembly
exercises the right to confirm death sentences given by the courts.

5. Redressal of Grievances: Being a popular chamber, Grand National Assembly performs an important
role to redress public grievances. During exhaustive deliberations on the floor of the House

6. Parliamentary Enquiries: Request for holding parliamentary enquiry can be made with the support
of one tenths of the total membership of National Assembly, against the conduct of any minister or
even against the Prime Minister.

Political Parties:
The constitution recognizes the right of all citizens of 21 years or above to form political parties and
join or leave their membership. Nevertheless, only such political parties can be formed as pledge to
adhere to secular ideology and promote national solidarity. Formation of a new political party is
subject to the permission granted within the limits of law. Parties are required to observe rules and
norms provided in the Political Parties Act, hence no party can be formed on the basis of religion.
Every political party is registered entity which is not permitted to give financial help nor receive from

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any trade union or interest group. The constitutional court is fully competent to make decision
regarding banning any political party

Irans Political Quagmire

Role of "Leader" in the 1979 Constitution of Iran .

Rahbar in Iran's Constitution.

Explain the salient features of Iran's Political system

The Iranian political system is a combination of unelected powerful institutions, controlled by the
Supreme Leader, and elected officials such as the president and members of parliament. Cabinet and
Assembly of Assembly of expert are elected rest are unelected.

Supreme Leader

The Supreme Leader holds the ultimate political and religious authority.He appoints the heads of several
influential organisations in the military, the government, and the judiciary. Although the president is
elected by the public, the president-ele ts i to ust e e do sed the sup e e leade .

The Supreme Leader appoints/dismisses:

- the chief of Staff of the Armed Forces

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- the head of the judicial system

- the head of the radio and television network

- six members of the powerful 12-member Guardian Council

- the members of the Expediency Discernment Council

He has authority to:

- set major domestic and foreign policies

- dismiss the president

- pa do o edu e o i ts se te es

- declare war and peace

- issue decrees for referendums

resident

The President is the head of government and the highest publicly elected official. unlike many other
ou t ies, the p eside ts ole is o e ad i ist ati e tha e e uti e. The p eside t does ot ha e full
authority over foreign policy, the armed forces or national security matters including the nuclear issue.

The president is elected for a four-year term, limited to two consecutive terms, by direct public vote of
the public, but presidential candidates are vetted by the Guardian Council.The president selects Cabinet
members but they must be approved by parliament.

Guardian CouncilIt is made up of twelve members. The Supreme Leader appoints six and the Parliament
appoints the other half. The Council has to approve all bills passed by parliament and it has vetoing
power over the bills passed by the parliament. It is charged with approving candidates for presidential,
parliamentary. and the Assembly of Experts elections.

Parliament

Members of parliament are elected every four years by direct popular vote. The candidates must be
vetted by the powerful Guardian Council. Ironically, half of the council members must be approved by
the parliament.

Members of parliament propose and pass legislation to be approved by the Guardian Council.

Members can summon or impeach ministers or the president. The ministers have to be approved by
members of parliament through confidence votes.

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Assembly of Experts:

The Assembly of Experts is in fact the assembly of high clerics whose members are elected by direct
popular vote every eight years.

Member of this assembly are supposed to monitor the performance of the supreme leader and to
remove him if he is deemed incapable or corrupted. However, in reality it has been proven to be very
unlikely as their half-yearly meetings are more ceremonial than anything else.

Another twist of power exists in the election process for this assembly. While, its main duty is
supervising the Supreme Leader, the candidates for this assembly are vetted by the Guardian Council,
half of whose members are appointed by the Supreme Leader.

Expediency Council:

It is an administrative assembly set up to resolve deadlocks and conflicts between the Parliament and
the Guardian Council.

The majority of its members are appointed by the Supreme Leader. Other members include some
officials such as president, speaker of parliament, and judiciary chief.

The council also acts as an advisory body for the Supreme Leader on domestic and foreign policies.

Malaysia
Malaysia is a federal parliamentary monarchy, the Prime Minister of Malaysia is the head of government, and
there is multi-party system The Constitution came into force on August 27, 1957

King Malaysia, a federal constitutional elective monarchy, is nominally headed by the Paramount Ruler
commonly referred to as the King of Malaysia. Selected for a term of five-years from among the nine Sultans of
the Malay states, the king also is the leader of the Islamic faith in Malaysia. The other four states, which have
titular Governors, do not participate in the selection. The political system of Malaysia is closely modeled on that
of Westminster parliamentary system, a legacy of British colonial rule.

Prime Minister is chosen from the lower house of parliament. The Executive power is vested in the cabinet led
by the prime minister. The members of the cabinet are all chosen from among members of both houses of
Parliament and are responsible to that body.

Legislative Branch Malaysia has a bicameral Parliament consisting of the Senate or Dewan Negara with 70
seats; 44 appointed by the paramount ruler, 26 appointed by the state legislatures and the House of
Representatives or Dewan Rakyat with 219 seats; members of which are elected by popular vote to serve a
term of five-years. The legislative power of the political system of Malaysia is divided between the federal and
the state legislatures.

Judicial Branch

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The Malaysian legal system is based on English common law and most of the laws and the constitution are
adapted from Indian law . The judges of the Federal Court are appointed by the paramount ruler on the advice
of the prime minister.

The federal government has authority over external affairs, defense, internal security, justice, federal
citizenship, finance, commerce, industry, communications, transportation, and other matters.

State GovernmentsThe state governments are led by chief ministers , nominated by the state assemblies and
advising their respective sultans or governors. Nine of these states have hereditary rulers, generally titled
'sultans', while the remaining four have appointed governors in counterpart positions.

Government and Politics in Pakistan

Constitution making from 1947 -1956

The first and most difficult problem was the exact character that the state should take. Secular,
Democratic or theocratic?

Representation between East and West Pakistan in the federal legislature was the problem which, more
than any other, delayed the framing of a constitution

The third problem was that of the distribution of powers between the federal and the provincial
governments. While there was general agreement over the federal form of government, conflicts
developed between those who wanted maximum autonomy for the provinces with a weak center and
those who favored a strong federal central government with limited provincial autonomy.

The last hurdle in the way of constitution-making in Pakistan was the language controversy. Pakistan is a
multilingual state. The East speaks Bengali and in the West there are a number of different languages,
such as Punjabi, Sindhi, Pushtu, and Baluchi. Urdu, however, is regarded as the common tongue

Urdu and Bengali were recognised as national languages in 1956 and 1962 constitution

Constitution of 1956

Federation: Under the constitution, there existed division of powers between the central and provincial
governments in the form of three lists. One of the lists included the affairs on which central
government was authorized to legislate, the second list dealt with provincial governments jurisdiction,
while the third one included all concurrent affairs on which both central as well as provincial

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governments could legislate.

Parliamentary System: The form of government was modeled on parliamentary lines which had closer
resemblance to the system as worked under 1935 Act of India. The Cabinet was collectively
accountable to the National Assembly.

Uni-Cameral Legislature: only one Chamber of the Parliament in which parity of representation was
secured to both the federating units i.e. East and West Pakistan.

Independence of Judiciary: The constitution ensured necessary safeguards to secure independence of

judiciary. The judges of the superior courts were to be appointed by the head of the State

7. Fundamental Rights:Fundamental rights were made the part of the constitution and were to be
enforced by the Supreme Court.

The Islamic provisions of the Constitution (1956)

1. Countrys name Islamic Republic of Pakistan.

2. Sovereignty of Allah Sovereignty over the whole world belongs to Allah

3. Islamic ways of living Islamic ways of livings will be introduced in the country
.
4. Muslim President president of the country will be a Muslim.

5. Islamic Values Islamic values will be implemented un-Islamic values will be banned

6. Islamic laws No law will be enforced, which is repugnant to the teachings of Islam.

7. System of Zakat and Aquaf System of Zakat and Aquaf will be introduced

8. Organization of Islamic Research which will do research for the legislation

9. Protection to Minorities Rights of Minorities will be protected in the country.

10. Elimination of Riba (Usury) will eliminated from the country as soon as possible.

11. Relation with Muslim Countries for the Unity of Muslim World.

12. Compulsory Teachings of Holy Quran government should take steps.

13. Separate Electorate would be provided to the minorities.

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Causes of Failure of Constitution of 1956

The parliamentary system created by the constitution needed disciplined political parties, and the
nascent democracy of Pakistan had no such institutions. The sole political party that could serve as a
model,the Muslim League de li ed a d f ag e ted. A Brief History Of Pakistan: James Wynbrandt

Lack of Leadership

Lack of Political Training

.
Unicameralism
.
Delay in Elections

Non Existence of Economic Equality

Lack of democratic culture

Lack of Education

Role of President
After enforcement of constitution of 1956, role of President remained very authoritative. His undue interference with political parties
and ministers kept Pakistan away from constitutional development

Role of Army and Bureaucracy

The intervention of the army which played havoc with democratic process. Bureaucracy played a very important role for the failure of
the constitution 1956.

Constitution of 1962
Ayub Khans 1962 constitution was highly centralized and therefore ultimately responsible for creating
political turmoil in the country. Discuss.

Main feature of this set was the introduction of the Presidential system and more consolidated powers
to the President. No further changes were carried out to oppose the 1956 document

Ammendment National Assembly was authorized to amend the constitution by a two thirds majority
with the concurrence of the president.

2. Federal System: the powers of the central government are enumerated and expressed in a list while
all residuary powers belong to the provinces.

3. Presidential System: in order to overcome political instability and enforce a firm socio-economic and
political order.

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4. Unicameral Legislature: seats in each of the provinces were allocated according to the ratio of
population.

5. Indirect Election: Constitution envisaged indirect method of election for the Presidency and for the
legislative assemblies. The Electoral College formed by not less than 80,000 Basic Democrats

Islamic Provisions: All Islamic provision of 1956 constitution plus one more addition Advisory Council of
Islamic Ideology' to be appointed by the President. The functions of the Council was to make recommendations
to the Government as to means which would enable and encourage the Muslims of Pakistan to order their lives
in accordance with the principles and concepts of Islam and to examine all laws in force with a view to bring
them into conformity with the teachings and requirements of Islam as set out in the Qur'an and Sunnah.

Failure of the Constitution of 1962

Constitution given by one man

Absence of Check and Balance

Indirect Elections

Lack of Provincial Autonomy

1965 War

Increase of Political Crises.

Unpopular Presidential System

Presidential Dictatorship
.
Policy of Suppression of Fundamental Rights

Negation of Islamic Ideology

The 1962 constitution promised to propagate an Islamic way of life in Pakistan so that Muslim couldproceed with their lives
according to Holy Quran and Sunnah but practically it was failed.

Constitution of 1973

1. Preamble: Islamic ideology was given de-jure recognition preliminary in the form of Objectives
Resolution of 1949 and later incorporated in the Preambles of all the Constitutions of the Republic.

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2. Nature of the Constitution: The Constitution of the 3rd Republic, like its previous counterparts, is
written as its major part has been reduced to writing. It consists of 280 Articles classified into 12
chapters and six schedules. The constitution is partly flexible and partly rigid. The proposal to amend
it can be initiated in any of the Houses of the Parliament. If ratified by two-thirds majority of both the
Houses and later assented to by the President, the constitution stands amended.

3. Federal System: According to the pattern of division of powers among centre and provinces

4. Parliamentary Form: predominant position of Prime Minister. The position of the president was that
of a titular head

5. Bi-Cameralism: lower house is constituted on popular basis while the upper one represents the
federating units on parity basis.

6. Independence of Judiciary: Independence of Judiciary has been regarded indispensable

7. Fundamental Rights: incorporates almost all the fundamental rights

8. Direct Method of Election: But indirect method of election has been retained for the elections to the
Senate.

9. Economic Justice: It has been reaffirmed in the constitution to implement a balanced economic
system so as to eradicate all economic ills.

10. Official Language:. It has been made obligatory on the government to take proper steps for the
introduction of Urdu as official language within fifteen years from the date of the commencement of
the constitution.

11. Single Citizenship: all the citizens of Pakistan enjoy same rights and

12. Holding of the Referendum:

The President is authorized to order for holding a referendum on any issue of national importance on
his own initiative or on the advice of the Prime Minister.

Election Of president The President is to be elected by both Houses of the Parliament in a joint
session and by the members of all the Provincial Assemblies. Hence, the method of election is indirect
while the legislative bodies are to act as Electoral College.

Islamic Provisions of 1973 Constitution of Pakistan

1. Sovereignty of Allah

2. Countrys Name

The ou t s a e ill e Islamic Republic of Pakistan.

3. Official Religion of the State

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The official religion of the country will be Islam.

4. Muslim President and Prime Minister:

5. Definition of a Muslim

For the first time, the definition of a Muslim was included in the Constitution of 1973. A person who
does believe in oneness of Allah, the absolute finality of Prophet Hood of Muhammad (PBUH), the day
of Judg e t a d di i e Books of Allah, is a Musli .

6. Protection of Islamic Laws

All the existing laws will be brought into conformity with Islamic principles andno law will be enforced,
which is repugnant to the teachings of Islam.

7. Compulsory Islamic Teachings & Quran

8. Teaching of Arabic and printing of Quran

The teaching of Arabic will be compulsory from 6 to 8 classes in schools andprinting of Quran will be
made error free.

9. Islamic Values.

10. Islamic Society

11. Zakat and Usher government will establish the Zakat & Usher Councils.

12. Elimination of Riba (Usury or Interest)

13. Islamic Ideology Council

The Islamic Ideology Council will be established, which will guide thelegislature to make the laws in
accordance with Islamic teachings and bring the existing.

14. Unity of Islamic World:

15. Protection to Minorities

The Senate

Senate is a permanent Chamber which cannot be dissolved. Half of its members shall be
replaced after every three years, after having completed their six years term. Complete
change in the total membership, occurs at no stage; rather continuity in the membership is
its novel feature.

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Chairman and Deputy Chairman are elected by the Senate for three years from amongst its
members. In the absence of both the office bearers, new one shall be elected. It is to be
noted, that both are elected after every three years at the time of the reconstitution of the
Senate.

The presence of an upper chamber has been regarded as an effective safeguard to protect
the interests of the smaller federating units against the encroachment on their rights by the
bigger ones.

1. Legislative Powers According to the Eighth Amendment of the Constitution, both the Houses
of Parliament have almost equal powers. Hence, bills can be initiated in any of the Houses
with the exception of money bills which originate in National Assembly exclusively.

2. Financial Legislation Senators can exert indirect influence in shaping financial legislation by
passing resolutions or through criticizing the policies of the government.

3. Control over the Executive According to a constitutional requirement, at least one-fourths of

the ministers are to be taken from the Senate. The ministers remain present in this
Chamber and the Senators can ask questions concerning their respective portfolios.

4. Judicial Powers The Senate, along with National Assembly, can legislate on all matters
relating to the organization of judiciary. It also shares with National Assembly the power to
impeach the President.

Election Under Article 59 of the Constitution, Pakistans each province sends 23 members to
the Senate including 14 on general seats, four technocrats, four women and one minority
member. The National Assembly elects four members on behalf of Islamabad including two
on general seats, while one each for women and technocrats.FATA sends 8 on general
seat. Tenure of senator is 6 years

Constitutional Amendments up-to-date

First Amendment
May 4, 1974
The amendment to Article 1 redefined the boundaries of Pakistan and removed references to East
Pakistan after the recognition of Bangladesh by Pakistan.

Second Amendment
September 21, 1974
A person who does not believe in the absolute and unqualified finality of the Prophethood of Holy
Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) the last of the Prophets or claims to be a Prophet, in any sense of the word
or of any description whatsoever, after Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), or recognises such a claimant
as a Prophet or a religious reformer, is not a Muslim for the purposes of the Constitution or law.

Seventh Amendment

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May 16, 1977

Insertion of new Article 96-A, in the Constitution.
Referendum as to confidence in Prime Minister:

Enables the Prime Minister to obtain a vote of confidence of the people of Pakistan.

Eighth Amendment
November 11, 1985
Changed Pakistan's government from a Parliamentary system to a Semi-presidential system by giving the
President a number of additional powers

Article 58 2(b), which granted the discretionary power to dissolve the National Assembly, was invoked
three times in the 1990s:-
- by President Ghulam Ishaq Khan against Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto on August 6, 1990,

- by President Ghulam Ishaq Khan against Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif in 1993 and

- by President Farooq Ahmad Khan Leghari against Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto in November 1996.

The use of Article 58 2(b) was almost exclusively justified by the President as necessary, for the removal
of corrupt governments that, it was asserted, had lost the confidence of the people.

Twelfth Amendment
July 28, 1991
Addition of new Article 212-B in the Constitution.
Establishment of Special Court and Supreme Appellate Courts for trial of heinous offences:

In order to ensure speedy trial of cases of persons accused of such of the heinous offences specified

Thirteenth Amendment
April 4, 1997
The 13th Amendment stripped the President of the power to dissolve the National Assembly and call for
new elections, effectively reducing the Presidency to a ceremonial figurehead.

Fourteenth Amendment
July 4, 1997
Addition of new Article 63A in the Constitution.
Allowed members of parliament to be dismissed if they defect

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Seventeenth Amendment
December 2003
This amendment made many changes to the Constitution. Many of these changes dealt with the office
of the President and the reversal of the effects of the 13th Amendment.

Important points of this amendment are:

P eside t Musha af's Legal F a e o k O de LFO as la gel i o po ated i to the o stitutio ,
with a few changes.

hould the P eside t i a ajo it i a ote of o fide e in the electoral college within 30 days of
the passage of this amendment, he shall be deemed to be elected to the office of President. (On January
1, 2004, Musharraf won 658 out of 1,170 electoral-college votes - a 56 per cent majority - and was
thereby deemed to be elected president.)

Eighteenth Amendment
April 19, 2010
Removed the power of President of Pakistan to dissolve the Parliament unilaterally

The 'historic' bill reverses many infringements on Constitution over several decades by its military
rulers.

19th Amendment December 22, 2010 Provided for the appointment of the Judges of the Supreme
Court of Pakistan and made amendments in the number of members of the parliamentary committee
for the appointment of Chief Electoral Officers at Election Commission of Pakistan.

2oth Amendment For Free and Fair Elections February 14, 2012

21st Amendment For Speedy Trial Military Courts to deal with terrorism. shall remain in force for a
period of two years from the date of its commencement and shall cease to form part of the Constitution
January 7, 2015

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Federalism in Pakistan and 18th Amendment

Federalism is one of the most important institutions that is considered to be central to the management
of ethnic conflict in any modern state. For post-colonial divided societies like Pakistan, federalism
presents great potential in helping to manage conflict between various ethnic groups and their relations
with the state

But the history of Pakistani federalism and ethnic politics presents a different picture. Since its creation,
Pakistan existed as a centralized state where the state managers persistently refused to accept the
demands for autonomy made by various ethnic communities. From the beginning, Pakistan saw the
expression of discontent from the majority Bengali and minority Sindhi, Balochi and Pushtun
communities who felt marginalized at the hands of a Muhajir- Punjabi (migrant-Punjabi) dominated
power structure. Unlike the neighboring state India, where the Nehru government conceded to the
demands of ethnic leaders by engaging in linguistic re-organization of the state, the Pakistani state made

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no such efforts to reach out to the alienated ethnic groups. In Pakistan, religion was used as a building
block of state nationalism and any demands made through ethno-linguistic mobilization were
suppressed

Such 2 centralizing policies brought out strong reactions from ethnic majority and minority communities
across the country resulting in the emergence of new ethno-nationalist parties, agitational politics and
militarized violence. For the ethnic communities demanding autonomy and decentralization, their
inspiration was drawn from the 1940 Lahore Resolution with its declaration to establish 'independent
and autonomous states in Muslim majority provinces' as promise of confederation-like arrangements in
the future state of Pakistan. But the Pakistani 2 state remained extremely centralized with the adoption
of administrative measures such as the 'One Unit'. Such measures of centralization failed to manage the
ethnonationalist mobilization by the Bengali nationalist Awami League as it evolved from a movement
demanding autonomy to separatism within the span of two decades leading to the dismemberment of
Pakistan in 1971

The post-civil war constitution of 1973 established dejure ('concerning law') federalism in Pakistan. It led
to the acceptance of de-facto linguistic identification of territorial units as Punjab, Sindh, North West
Frontier Province (NWFP) and Balochistan were identified with their respective dominant ethnic
communities. However, beyond dejure recognition of provincial autonomy, the 1973 constitution failed
to change the centralized character of the state. There was no transfer of powers to the provinces. Even
in the presence of federalism-enhancing institutions like the Senate and Council of Common Interests
(CCI), the Pakistani state continued to operate in a centralized fashion. All of this has finally begun to
change with the 2010 18th amendment,

A crucial consequence of the process of devolution that followed the passage of the 1 8th amendment
has been the empowerment of local ethnic majorities within their respective provinces. The ethnic
majorities within each province welcomed the transfer of powers connected with the 18th amendment.
But this had the negative effect of alienating ethnic minorities in these provinces. After the passage of
the 18th amendment, the ethnic minorities in three provinces, i.e. Hindko-speakers in Khyber
Pakhtunkhawa (re-named from North Western Frontier Province through the 18th amendment), Seraikis
in Punjab, Muhajirs in Sindh and Pushtuns in Balochistan all expressed a variety of responses displaying
their discomfort at the empowerment of provincial governments dominated by ethnic majorities

The passage of the 18th amendment has been followed by demands to create three new provinces out
of Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhawa (KP). In addition, the Balochi Pushtun parties such as
Pakhtunkhawa Milli Awami Party (PKMAP) lobbied for the creation of a new Pushtun province made up
of areas in Balochistan and KP during the negotiations for the finalization of the 18th amendment

There has been less than ideal progress in terms of transferring powers to provinces. The bureaucracy
still retains its centralized character and remains very powerful. Financially, generation of revenues by
provincial governments remains a big problem. The 7th NFC Award transferred large responsibilities to
provinces who are struggling to generate revenues. The provinces are also suffering from a lack of
trained personnel to take over responsibilities from the center. It will take 4 time, effort and willingness

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from the central and provincial governments to carry this process of decentralization and devolution of
power to its logical conclusion. The federalization of Pakistan started by the 18th amendment will go a
long way in peacefully managing ethnic conflicts in Pakistan.

The 1 th a e d e t eli i ates the Co u e t List, i.e. the e u e atio of a eas he e oth fede al
and provincial governments may legislate but federal law prevails. Laws governing marriage, contracts,
firearms possession, labor, educational curriculums, environmental pollution, bankruptcy, and in 40
other diverse areas the provinces would have exclusive jurisdiction and each provincial assembly will be
responsible for drafting its own laws on the issues.

National Finance Commission agreementswhich set the distribution of national revenues

between the central government and the provincescannot reduce the provinces share
beyond that given in the previous agreement (Article 160). Provincial governments also now
have greater authority to raise domestic and international loans and give guarantees on the
security of Provincial Consolidated.

Taxation, Health, Education, Agriculture, Law and order, Power Generation, Commerce and
trade etc has been decentralized to great extent.

Supreme Court Of Pakistan

It has the appellate jurisdiction over all high courts (including provincial high courts, district courts,
and special courts) and federal courts, as well as original jurisdiction over a few types of cases. The
Supreme Court is made up of a chief justice and a number of senior justices who are nominated by
the President after consulting the Prime minister. Once appointed justices are expected to complete a
designated term and then retire, unless they are removed by the Supreme Judicial Council after
receiving a presidential reference regarding misconduct of judge(s)

The first case that actually has cast its shadow over the years of democratic evolvement came forth on
th
24 October, 1954. Governor General, Ghulam Muhammad dissolved the first constituent assembly by
deeming it that it had lost the confidence of masses and unable to work accurately. The speaker of that
very assembly, Maulvi Tamizuddin Khan filed a petition against the action of, Ghulam Muhammad to
dissolve the constituent assembly. The Sindh Chief Court issue a writ of mandamus to the appellants and
order for the restoration of it by equating its dissolution as illegal. The Governor General than filed an
appeal before the federal court against the verdict of Sindh high court . The apex court relied on the
Doctrine of tate Necessity in order to avert the legal and political gap. That was how doctrine of state
necessity crop up in the Constitutional and Political History of Pakistan. Unfortunately after this, the
country could not relinquish this doctrine of state necessity for giving validity to what was illegal.

Since then SC has validated every military coup of Pakistan including PCO of Gen Musharaf.After
Musharaf Removed CJP and then He was restored Pakistan witnessed judicial activism. Concurrently
judiciary is free to large extent

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Need of a Federal constitutional court In democracies worth their salt

violations/disagreements on constitutional matters are addressed through
established institutions like federal constitutional courts. In more than 60 countries
constitutional courts play the role of umpire as well as guardians of the rights of
institutions and individuals to discourage any adventurism by the state. The supreme
court is highly Burdened to do such task. Moreover its an international norm

Understanding the political need for reform in Pakistan's inflexible state structure,
the PPP and PML-N jointly signed the Charter of Democracy in 2006 clearly
envisioned the establishment of a federal constitutional court to resolve
constitutional issues, giving equal representation to each federating unit, members
of which could be judges or persons who qualified to be judges of the Supreme
Court. The deed redefined the role of the Supreme Court and the high courts and
also mentioned that existing courts would hear regular civil and criminal cases

Had Pakistan had a constitution spelling out the mandate of a constitutional court in
conflict resolution, the country would not have been in the political turmoil it faces
today. For decades the manner in which constitutional issues have been dealt with
has changed the course of history and paved the way for the powerful, and not the
legitimate, to rule the country.The absence of unambiguous institutions that can
resolve various legal and constitutional disputes and keep a check on government
bodies has resulted in the misuse and abuse of authority.

Success of democracy in India and failure in Pakistan

The first and most important effect of Partition was that Pakistan, upon creation, had to build a new
central government from scratch. Unlike India, who already possessed a long standing central power
structure which the Congress Party could continue on with.Pakistan built strong centre owing to
opportunist regional politicians etc thus alienated Mass

Another reason for this is because they are (BJP and Congress) national parties they need to attract a wide
diversity of voters. This leads us to the next point, which is political representation. The Congress had a
long tradition of successfully attracting a large cross-section of voters across India, which it continued
after Partition. But, as stated before, the League had little across-the-board representation before
Partition

Since the early demise of charismatic leadership in Pakistan No leader could fill the void but in india there
was Nehru

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The 1958 coup was a defining event for Pakistan; General Ayub Khans over-arching
domination in state-affairs and the civil-governments malfunction led President Iskander
Mirza to dissolve the constitution and welcome the coup.

But it would be rather unjust to ignore the shortcomings of Mirzas government that
galvanised the militarys intervention in 1958.

A vicious cycle of military coups has resulted in a dysfunctional government. As the military
has continued to become involved with state administration it has weakened it.

t is but true that the security crisis for Pakistan has been dominated by concerns of national
defense. Border troubles from India and Afghanistan have merited huge defense budgets for
the army and established it as the most preponderant state institution. Party-politics are
bound to take a back-seat when national security is a burning issue.

The domination (and exaggeration) of defense issues widens the militarys sphere of
influence cause it to penetrate into every realm of the states governance, further
incapacitating the non-military regime.

Politicians too havent done favor to democracy when they were given a chance. Either they
wasted their time in leg pulling or corruption hence failed to deliver and win the Hearts

Moreover there is inherent tendency in Pakistanis to search for Massiah instead of

institution probably because of religion

Variables by which political culture has not developed in Pakistan

Political Culture of Pakistan Political culture is a linkage between culture and politics of
a state or a society. Political culture may be defined as to how people participate, and how
much they participate in the political process. Political culture is a system of beliefs upon
which a large majority of people agree. It also defines the nature of government and citizens
roles within government. The idea of political culture therefore attempts to explain that why
people behave the way they do in terms not so much of their explicit desires, but rather in
terms of what they believe about what government should be like and how it should be run

caste/baraderi colonial legacy While examining the political culture of Pakistan, one feels difficulty in
defining it and to come up with concrete set of rules due to its heterogeneous orientation of the
individuals and society. Pakistan is a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural and multi-linguistic country inhabited by
mix of rural and urban populations. In rural areas, the caste/baraderi colonial legacy has played into the
hands of politicians who have always conveniently used it totheir advantage and further their own

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agendas rather than playing their role in developing a national identity and a consensual national
political culture.

Provinces With Sindh and Balochistan dominated by the landowning classes, and masses being their
subjects on a large scale, the political culture in these areas has remained autocratic. At the same time
in Punjab the caste/biradarism still dictates the political orientations of the people in choosing the
candidates who can secure their interests as a group. Additionally, in Khyber pukhtunkhwa people see
politics through the prisms of religion and tribal affiliations

Factors Shaping Political Culture in Pakistan

Muslim League comprised of Landlords/Pirs Weak esses i Pakista s politi al ultu e ha e its oots i
the way in which the Muslim League had won power in the main centers of Muslim population. It had
mainly functioned there as a grand coalition of the leading landlord factions, pirs, sajjadanashins and the
sort. These feudals, pirs, sajjadanashins and landlords were empowered by the British for their own
strategic and commercial reasons in the western India and once Pakistan had been achieved, their
traditional rivalries surfaced once more. This led to the Muslim League's rapid decline as it was also
handicapped by the lack of popular powerbase in these areas.

The bureaucratic control over the state affairs, instead of supremacy of political actors, centralized the
system thus giving more powers to the bureaucracy. Civil Service of Pakistan became even a more
centralized bureaucracy than its predecessor, the Indian Civil Service.19 The enhanced role of bureaucracy
in state building made the task of nation building very difficult if not impossible

Military Another factor which contributed in the evolution of an undemocratic political culture in
Pakistan was an institutional imbalance right from the beginning. This was characterized by strong and
organized civil and military bureaucracies but weak political institutions and non-democratic political
parties. The military governed, the bureaucracy ruled and the political parties and their leadership
shunned On one hand this situation was promoting a political culture with anti-democratic atmosphere
devoid of democratic values on the national level, whilst at the grass root level it was becoming a cause
of polarization among the people.

Ethnic Exploitation These groups unable to find any national identity began to attach themselves with
different groups defined by ethnicity, biradari, clans, varied interest and pressure groups. This group-
based political socialization made masses vulnerable to the opportunists who inevitably exploited
people on the basis of their diverse regional and linguistic loyalties. This facilitated non-political powers
and subsequent martial laws weakened whatever political parties that existed, and the people
increasingly started depending on groups.

Sectarian Card The military and civilian rulers in order to strengthen their power base exploited the
differences among different religious groups. Religious leaders themselves failed to bring the people
into a common fold as they were also divided on sectarian lines. Shia, Sunni differences are one of the

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many hurdles in the nation building and in the attainment of a truly religious state with a common
religious ideology. General )ia Ul Ha s o t o e sial Isla i efo s eated o fli ts a o g the hia
and Sunni

Recommendations
Ethnic Representation Moreover, national integration is a continuous process and it can only be kept
going if all ethnic groups are given adequate representation according to the constitution. Besides giving
constitutional rights, the ethnic groups/segments of society should be given economic opportunities so
that they feel involved and integrated into the national fold and do not become source of ethnic
divergence

Abolish Sectarianism The menace of sectarianism has emerged as an existential threat to the internal
security of the state. In an ethnically heterogeneous but religiously homogeneous society, Islam could
have played a significant role in striking balance among different ethnic groups. The Pakistani state
should find a workable solution to bring all the religious groups on one page.

Land Reforms In order to break the colony like political structure of feudalism and lordism in the
backward rural areas, it is imperative that rural population should be empowered by introducing land
reforms as was done by India within two years of its independence

Education in the long run can help change this political culture of exploitation and deceit, and it can
liberate people, both in mind and spirit, to contribute toward a political culture which is more
participatory and responsive in nature.

The institutional development is another factor that contributes to create a consensual political culture.
All institutions including military establishment, civil bureaucracy, parliament and judiciary should work
in their respective constitutional ambits to create more harmonious political culture at the top.

Similarly, mass media in Pakista a pla a i st u e tal ole i ote s edu atio a d help voter
make an informed rational decision

International Relations
International Relations: Post World War-II

IR: A branch of political science concerned with relations between nations and primarily with
foreign policies

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After the Second World War, a great change in the concept of sovereignty, nature of conflict among
nations, concept of national interest, and means to achieving it has occurred. This change has come
about in international relations due to the following factors

1. Politico-geographic setting:

The politico-geographic setting of the world has changed considerably after the end of the Second
World War. With decolonization, a number of new nations have developed that want to assert
themselves in the community of nations.

There is an increase in population but not evenly. Although colonization has come to an end
formally, the exploitation of the poor by the richer and developed countries still continues. The over-
populated countries will exert undue pressure on the less populated countries who would naturally
resent resulting in tension and conflict in international politics.

2. Mad race for Modernisation and Development:

All the new emergent States of the world are trying to modernise and develop themselves. They have
placed before themselves the Western models of development

3. Nation-State today:

So every nation today exists depended on other with the establishment of international
organizations with truly world-wide scope The regional organizations like European Common
Market, NATO etc., have also worked in the same direction.

Complete independence is thus hard to think and realize. Consequently, it is groups rather than
individual States that deal with one another. The State system has thus been replaced by
International System.

(4) Democratization of International Politics:

Democratisation has led to what is sometimes called the 'socialisation of foreign policy' also. It
means no State can afford to pursue a foreign policy that goes against the ideals of peace.

That is, no State can afford to ignore the material welfare of its people. Foreign policy thus serves an
instrument through which standard of living of the people and overall economic development is
secured.

This is especially so in the case of developing countries who have become independent only recently.
Foreign policy is no longer the sole concern of the Ministry of External Affairs. It also deals with
defense, trade and commerce, culture, economic affairs etc.

(5) The Four Revolutions:

(a) Social Revolution; Struggle for gender and racial equality

(b) National Revolution; Freedom from clutches of foreign/Dictator

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(c) Information Revolution; Enhanced awareness and connectivity

(d) Technological Revolution. Tech Warfare and Tech Solutions

(6) Emergence of Bipolarity

US and USSR

(7) End of Bipolarity

Emergence of China, BRICS, ASEAN, EU etc

Economics not politics is key to success

Foreign Policy of Pakistan

A critical analysis of the foreign policy pursued i the last half of a e tu t a spi es that Pakista s Fo eig Poli
has largely revolved around a triangle of India , China and the U.S with the objectives to counter India, befriend
China (an enemy of India), and serving the U.S interests as in the 1960, 1971, 1980s in addition to it vying for
st ategi depth i Afgha ista . The futu e st ateg of Pakista i its fo eig poli ust e a shift f o t aditio al
diplomacy to economic diplomacy as well as cultural diplomacy.

1947- 1953 independent foreign policy :Fo eig Affai s i e i depe de e Pakista s fo eig poli has
been based on a perceived need to defend itself against its larger, richer, and better militarily equipped
neighbor and rival, India. This has required large budgetary expenditures for defense, impinging on the
atio s a ilit to ake p og ess i othe ke do esti a eas, su h as health a d edu atio . Du i g his
brief tenure Jinnah had no real opportunity to put his stamp on foreign affairs. As prime minister,
Liaquat Ali Khan pursued a policy of nonalignment. He tried to keep the nation neutral in the cold war
between the Soviet Union and the United States

Alliances with the West 1953-65 In 1953 the United States offered economic and military assistance in
retur for Pakista s agreement to join an alliance designed to check the spread of communism. In
1954 Pakistan signed the Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement and became a member of the
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). Pakistan saw an alliance as a form of protection against
India, though the agreement provided no guarantee that the United States would assist Pakistan in the
event of aggression from India. But it obligated Pakistan to join in mutual defense against communist
aggression.

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From 1954 to 1965 Pakistan received more than $1.3 billion in U.S. military assistance (Noor, n.p.).
Defe se i iste A u Kha pla ed a ke ole i egotiati g Pakista s e t i to its ilita allia es.
India reacted strongly and negatively to the pact. Nehru reneged on his promise to support a plebiscite
in Kashmir. The So iet U io thre its support ehi d I dias renouncement of a referendum.
Continuing its quest for international allies, in 1955 Pakistan joined Iraq, Turkey, and Iran in the Baghdad
Pact. Pakistan leased military installations to the United States as well, posts used for gathering
intelligence and communications

A New Foreign Policy and the 1965 Indo-Pakistan In fall 1962 a long-standing border dispute between
India and China turned into open warfare. India used the border war with China, an archenemy of the
United States, to leverage more military assistance from the United States.. Relations deteriorated when
leaders in Islamabad began to feel a U.S. tilt toward India; to address the military disparity Pakistan
began to explore relations with China and the Soviet Union. Zulfi kar Ali Bhutto (192879), then Ayub
Kha s i iste of fuel, po e , a d atu al esou es, as the fi st go e e t offi ial to turn Pakistan
toward the Soviet axis.

1965 The United Nations arranged a cease-fi re, which took effect on September 23, 1965. Afterward,
the Soviet Union sponsored a peace conference at Tashkent, in what is today Uzbekistan. The
agreement, which favored neither nation, stunned many Pakistanis, who felt they were winning the war

The Simla Agreement 1972 In the immediate aftermath of the war, India held some 93,000 Pakistani
troops and civilians as prisoners of war. To win their release, Bhutto met Indian prime minister Indira
Gandhi, in late June 1972 and agreed to recognize Bangladesh. India dropped plans to try some 200
soldiers accused of war crimes. The parties signed the Simla Agreement in early July, pledging to use
peaceful means to settle differences between the two nations in the future. Both countries also agreed
to pull back their troops in Jammu and Kashmir to their respective sides of the internationally
recognized border and withdraw from other occupied territories seized in the war
Bhutto pursued a policy of bilateralism, maintaining good relations with all nations by eschewing
allia es ith a . The poli s pu pose as to fa ilitate elatio s ith the th ee o peti g ajo
powers: China, the Soviet Union, and the United States. Early in 1972 he visited China and the Soviet
Union; the United States, concerned about his policies of nationalization of private industries, was less
welcoming to Bhutto when he visited in September 1973.

Nuclear Program In May 1974 India became a nuclear power when it detonated a nuclear device the
de elop e t as p ofou dl distu i g to Pakista . Afte I dias u lea test, Pakista p oposed to
India that South Asia be declared a nuclear weaponsfree zone, but India declined. As the minister of
power, fuel, and natural resources, Zulfi kar Bhutto instituted a nuclear weapons development program
in response. Pakistan was found in violation of the Symington Amendment by U.S. president Jimmy
Carter for clandestinely building a uranium-enrichment plant. U.S. assistance was cut off.

Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan In late December Pakistan became a major ally of the United States as
money and matriel were routed through Pakistan to support the mujahideen Pakistan, for its support
of U.S. efforts, received most-favored-nation trading status. .. The assistance from the United States
helped Pakista s e o o , e o i g the fi a ial p o le s that had eset ea lie egi es. The
Pakistani army was also able to modernize with a $3.2 billion military-assistance package and U.S.-
supplied weapons and training.

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Impact of disastrous foreign policy Pakistan was beset by the drug trafficking and gunrunning that had
helped fund the resistance to the Soviet occupation. The number of heroin addicts went from fewer
than 10,000 to 12,000 in 1979 to more than 500,000 by the mid-1980s and as many as 3 million to 4
million by 1999. Many refugees from the war resettled in urban areas of Pakistan, particularly in Karachi.
The cycle of guns, addiction, and violence took root here too. By the late 1980s, Karachi and Hyderabad
were being compared to Beirut for their level of violence

Ba Nazeer Bhuttos Foreig Policy The end of the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan Pakistan had lost
its strategic importance at the end of cold war. she atte pted to stre gthe the ou tr s allia e
with the United States.. I Ju e 1 Bhutto isited the U ited tates to alla fea s of Pakista s u lea
capabilities. She told the administration that Pakistan had no nuclear weapons, but defended her
atio s right to pursue its u lear progra .

I a address to a joi t sessio of Co gress she pro lai ed Pakista s illi g ess to ake a pa t ith
India declaring the subcontinent a nuclear-free zone. Bhutto tried to ease tensions with India while
seeking solutions to the disputesprimarily Kashmirthat had bedeviled relations since the birth of the
two nations. In 1 Raji Ga dhi I dias pri e i ister, isited Bhutto i Isla a ad. Bhutto
succeeded in gaining readmission to the Commonwealth in 1989, making Pakistan eligible for trading
privileges with other dominions, which the country desperately needed.

Na z Sharifs Foreig Poli I fo eig affai s Na az ha if st e gthe ed elatio s ith Ce t al Asias

Muslim repu li s that had fo ed i the ake of the o iet U io s ollapse i 1 1. Pakista also
joined the international coalition to drive Iraq out of Kuwait during the Gulf War (199091), Afghanistan
was disintegrating into chaos.. Nawaz Sharif attempted to broker a peace among the competing
factions with the Islamabad Accord, negotiated under his direction, but the violence continued

Bhutto second term Relationship with the United States Throughout the late 1980s Pakistani officials
made statements indicating the country had achieved a nuclear capability, as intelligence reports
continued to describe advances in its weapons program, thereby triggering an aid embargo. Relations
between Pakistan and the United States deteriorated sharply from 1990 through 1993, as issues of
weapons development, terrorism, and narcotics caused a growing rift between Islamabad and
Washington. In 1992 the United States almost declared Pakistan a state sponsor of terrorism, primarily
due to its support for Kashmiri militants. In the summer of 1993 the United States placed more
sanctions on Pakistan, charging it with receiving prohibited missile technology from China.

Benazir Bhutto traveled to Washington, D.C., in April, and in early 1996 the Brown Amendment was
passed. President Clinton authorized the release of some $368 million in military equipment. Though the
F-16s were not among the approved items, International investment i Pakista i reased. Bhuttos
Ce tral Asia Poli Be azir Bhutto o ti ued to pursue the ou tr s lo g-standing policy of seeking
infl uence and power in Afghanistan to balance the threat felt from India. The goal, many observers
believed, was to maintain an army of jihadists who could be deployed to wage proxy wars against
Pakista s ri als i Kash ir a d Ce tral Asia

The Kargil Conflict After the two countries tested nuclear devices, tensions between India and Pakistan
steadily increased. In February 1999 Sharif and Vajpayee attempted to de-escalate the situation.

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Vajpayee traveled to Lahore by bus and was met by Sharif issued the Lahore Declaration, However,
Kashmir remained a fl ashpoint between Pakistan and India, ever threatening to plunge the two
countries back into war.

In April 1999, before Indian troops returned to their high-altitude garrisons, Kashmiri guerrillas
captured posts along mountain ridges near the Indian-occupied towns of Kargil and Drass. Bowing to
international pressure, Sharif withdrew all Pakistani troops from Indian-held territory to the Line of
Control. The guerrillas left the captured territory by August 1999. The withdrawal of Pakistani forces
fu the i eased ha ifs u popula it at ho e.

Musharafs Era:
Until the events of September 11 Musharraf had continued the Central Asia policy of his predecessors.
He supported the Taliban government in Afghanistan, seeking stability in the region, improved access to
Central Asia, and an ally in Kashmir against India

Musharraf gained e o o i a d ilita assista e i e ha ge fo Pakista s pa t e ship i the U..-led

War on Terror. But Musharraf faced bitter opposition to the alliance from Pakistanis who did not want
to see fellow Muslims branded as enemies or terrorists. Yet there e e hopeful sig s fo the atio s
future as well. Relations between Pakistan and India eased, and progress on the Kashmir issue was made

July 2001 Musharraf met with Indian prime minister Atal Behari Vajpayee at Agra, India, to pursue a
settlement on the Kashmir issue. Nonetheless, the two expressed the need to forge a peaceful
relationship, rejecting the venom of the past, and tensions between the two nations were eased by the
meetings. However, on December 13, 2001, the relationship took a turn for the worse. Pakistani
terrorists disguised as tourists planned to attack the Indian parliament and hold the legislators
hostage until they agreed to settle the Kashmir dispute

The U ited tates also used the isis p o oked the atta k o I dias pa lia e t to demand that
Pakistan crack down on the rogue nuclear scientist Abdul Qadeer .Pakistan placed him under house
arrest. A subsequent U.S. investigation discovered that a network created by Khan and the Pakistani
military had funneled nuclear weapons technology to Iran, Libya, and North Korea

Composite Dialogue were halted due to Mumbai Attacks

Basic Goals of Pakistan's Foreign Policy

Maintenance of territorial integrity.

Maintenance of its political independence.
Acceleration of social and economic development.
Strengthening its place on the globe. 5. Keeping cordial and friendly relations with all
countries

DETERMINANTS OF PAKISTANS FOREIGN POLICY .

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1. Security, 2. Ideology 3. National Interests 4. Diplomacy 5. Public Opinion 6. Decision

making

Challenges

Bettering Pak image in the international community.

Coping with the situation in Afghanistan.
Kashmir issue
Arms race in South Asia
To take into account the domestic constraints

. Options with Pakistan.

Pak must not meddle with Afghan affairs and it must support the reconstruction process of
Afghanistan.
Good relations with India.
Pakistan needs to establish Good relations with China and other countries and should not only
stick only to the U.S.
Strong fo eig poli is possi le o l he Paks e o o is st o g, a d the e is politi al
stability and good governance in the country.
Pakistan should not go the extreme extent of assisting U.S.
No infiltration into Kashmir from Pakistan side.. Instead Pak should opt diplomatic and political
support of Kashmiris.

Our object should be peace within, and peace without. We want to live peacefully and maintain cordial
friendly relations with our immediate neighbours and with the world at large. (Lahore, August 15th,
1947.)

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Rise of Muslim Nationalism in South Asia and Pakistan Movement

Role of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

Objectives of Aligarh Movement:

Aligarh Movement was established to fulfill the following targets:

1. To build confidence between the government and the Muslims.

2. To persuade the Muslims to acquire Modern knowledge

3.To hold back the Muslim from the politics.

Reforms

1. School in Muradabad
2. School in Ghazi Pur
3. Scientific Society:
4. M.A.O. School Aligarh
5. Muhammadan Educational Conference:
6. Risala Tehzib-ul-lkhlaq:
7. Tafseer-ul-Quran
8. Loyal Muhammadan of India
9. Asbab-e-Baghawat Hind
10. Government Jobs for the Muslims
11. Orphanages
12. .Quota in services
13. Behaviour towards Indian National Congress

Philosoph ill e i ou ight ha d, atu al s ie e i ou left hand and the crown

of Isla i ideolog ill e o ou head e e the thoughts of i ed Ah ed Kha

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Quaid-i-Azam

1. Resignation from Congress:

2. Quaid-e-Azam and Delhi Proposals:
3. Quaid-e-Azam and Nehru Report:
4. Fourteen Points of Quaid-e-Azam:
5. Quaid-e-Azam and Round Table Conferences:
6. Quaid-e-Azam as a President of Muslim League:
7. Role of Quaid-e-Azam during Congress Ministeries (1937):
8. The Day of Deliverance:
9. Quaid-e-Azam and Lahore Resolution:
10. Quaid-e-Azam and Cripps Mission:
11. Gandhi Jinnah Talks (1944):
12. Quaid-e-Azam and Simla Conference:
13. Quaid-e-Azam and Elections 1945-46:
14. Quaid-e-Azam and the Interim Government:
15. Quaid-e-Azam and 3 June Plan:
16. . Quaid-e-Azam and The Creation of Pakistan:

" Pakistan was created the day the first Indian National entrerd the field of Islam".

"The mussalmans are not a minority.They are a nation by any definition.By all canons of International
lwa we are a nation".

"Hindus and Muslims through living in the same town and villages,had never been blended into one
nation.They were always two separate entities."

"India is not a nation,nor a country.It is a Sub Continent of nationalities.Hindus and Muslims being the
two major nations.The hindus and Muslims belongs to two different religions,Philosphies,social customs
and literature.They neither intermarry nor interdine and they belong to two different civilization which
are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions.Their aspects on life and of are different.It is quite
clear that Hindus and Muslims derive their inspiration from different sources of history."

Fe i di iduals sig ifi a tl alte the ou se of histo . Fe e still odif the ap of the o ld. Ha dl
anyone can be credited with creating a nation-state. Moha ad Ali Ji ah did all th ee.

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Iqbal

I would like to see the Punjab, NWFP, Sindh and Balochistan

amalgamated into a single state, self-government within or without the British
Empire. Consolidated formation of north-west Indian Muslim state appears to
be the final destiny of Muslims, at least of north-west India.

India is not a country, it is a Sub-continent of human beings

belonging to different languages and practicing different religions.
Muslim nation has its own religious and cultural identity.

Concept of nation and homeland is confusing the Muslims. That

is why Islamic humane objects are becoming dim. It is also
possible that these concepts may destroy the real concepts of
Islam.

Islam does not consider matter and soul separate from each other.
Allah, Universe and state all are the basic elements of single unit. Man
is not so alien that he should leave worldly affairs for the sake of
religion.

Islam is not the name of some beliefs and customs but it is a compete
code of life. In, Europe, religion is every ones personal matter which
divides the human oneness into two opposite parts i.e. body and soul.
In contrast to that in Islam, God, Universe, soul, matter, sate and
religions are bound to each other or in other words Muslims are one
nation

Islam is a lively power which frees human mind from thoughts

country and race. If we understand this thing then we can be the
leaders of prominent Indian civilization.

I am opposed to nationalism, not because if it is allowed to

develop in India. It is likely to bring less material gain to Muslims.
I am opposed to it because I see in it the germs of atheistic
materialism which I look upon as the greatest danger to modern
humanity

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