LANDSCAPE

AND
URBAN PLANNING

ELSEVIER Landscapeand Urban Planning 33 (1995) 47-64

From greenbelt to greenways: four Canadian case studies

James Taylor *, Cecelia Paine, John FitzGibbon
School of Landscape Architecture, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ont. NIG 2W1, Canada

Abstract

Greenways have played a significant role in the development of urban areas in Canada over the past 40 years. This paper
presents case studies of urban greenway systems located in four metropolitan areas in Canada: the National Capital Region in
Ottawa, Ontario; Calgary, Alberta; Saskatoon, Saskatchewan; Toronto, Ontario. A profile of each greenway is presented
describing the background of the project and its geographic context, the planning approach used, the concept underlying the
development plan, the adopted administrative framework, the structure of land use control mechanisms, and a discussion of the
outcomes of the implementation of each plan. These four case studies represent significant examples of urban greenway planning
in Canada. Although the scope, planning methods, form, and administrative framework for each greenway differ, they have
common characteristics of linearity, open space conservation, and connectivity of urban areas to natural and rural environments.
Collectively these examples demonstrate an evolution from an urban design approach that attempted to impose both landscape
form and land use function, to an ecologically based planning approach that addresses natural factors, connections between
natural and urban systems, public participation and support, and innovative government involvement.

Keywords: Greenways;Open space planning; Urban open space;Canadianlandscapeplanning

1. Introduction

The concept of linked parks or greenways in North

America dates back to the nineteenth century (Little,
1990). In Canada, the most tangible examples of green-
ways in urban areas have been developed in the past
40 years. This paper presents case studies of urban
greenway systems located in four metropolitan areas in
Canada that have been developed from 1950 to the
present. The systems included are in Ottawa, Ontario;
Calgary, Alberta; Saskatoon, Saskatchewan; Toronto,
Ontario (Fig. 1).
The Ottawa, Calgary, and Saskatoon systems have
been generally realized as originally envisioned and the

* Correspondingauthor. Telephone: (519) 824-4120, ext. 3352.

Fax: (519) 767-1686. Fig. 1. Location map.

0169-2046/95/$09.50 0 1995Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

SsDrO169-2046(94)02013-2
48 J. Taylor et al. /Landscape and Urban Planning 33 (1995) 47-44

which to observe trends in planning and to develop an

understanding of the factors contributing to both the
successes and failures of Canadian greenway systems.

2. The National Capital Greenbelt

2.1. Project context

q Existing Urban Areas Rideau _

In the late 194Os, Prime Minister Mackenzie King
F3arrtlaven IO directed his attention to formalizing a comprehensive
q Greenbelt SC.:, Km
plan for the Capital of Canada, Ottawa-Hull. Jacques
Fig. 2. National Capital Greenbelt, Ottawa, Ont. Greber, a well-known French architect-planner, was
commissioned to undertake the project. Working with
professional staff of the Federal District Commission,
Greber completed the plan for the Capital in 1950.
One of the most significant elements of the Greber
plan was the proposal to establish a green zone around
the Ottawa portion of the National Capital Region
(NCR). This area, commonly referred to as the Green-
belt, is 20 000 ha (50 000 acres) in size, has an aver-
age width of 4 km (2.5 miles), and is over 40 km (25
miles) in length (Figs. 2,3 and 4). Parts of the Green-
belt are only 8 km (5 miles) from Parliament Hill, the
geographic center of the metropolitan region, and
almost 500 000 people at present live within its limits
(Scott, 1992).
Fig. 3. Aerial view of the National Capital Greenbelt. Photo credit: The Ottawa Greenbelt is situated within the Great
National Capital Commission. Lakes-St. Lawrence bioregion on relatively flat land
that was once part of the Champlain Sea. Soils are
composed of clay and sand, with imperfect drainage
and bedrock close to the surface. Although parts of the
present Greenbelt have been reforested with introduced
species, native forest cover remains in some areas, con-
sisting of mixed hardwoods and conifers on better-
drained soils, with cedar (Thuja occidentalis), spruce
(Picea glauca) and tamarack (Z.&X laricina) in the
poorly drained areas.

2.2. Planning approach

Planning for the NCR used a comprehensive

approach based on population projections, analysis of
Fig. 4. Agricultural land use in the National Capital Greenbelt. Photo existing urban development and associated infrastruc-
credit: National Capital Commission. ture, and assessment of the biophysical landscape (Gre-
ber, 1950,b). The form and intent of the Ottawa
Toronto example is being implemented at present. Greenbelt was similar to the belt of green concept as
These examples provide an excellent resource from proposed by Ebenezer Howard (Howard, 1898) and
 J. Taylor et al. /Landscape and Urban Planning 33 (1995) 47-64 49

as subsequently developed surrounding London and tural and historical facilities including multi-purpose
other communities in England. The final boundaries for trails, an equestrian center, a campground, golf courses,
the Greenbelt reflected Grebers vision of urban form. allotment gardens, interpretation facilities and a pio-
Although fragments of natural areas were included, neer farm.
natural systems did not provide the framework or define
the shape of the Greenbelt. 2.4. Administrativeframework and land use control
The specific purposes of the Ottawa Greenbelt were
threefold. First, the Greenbelt was intended to prevent The Ottawa Greenbelt is administered by the federal
further urban sprawl and to protect adjacent agricultural government through the National Capital Commission
lands from being developed. Second, the Greenbelt was (NCC), a federal agency charged with promoting
intended to provide a reserve of building sites for future national interests through development and manage-
government and public institutional use, once the cen- ment of the NCR. The NCC has been responsible for
tral area of Ottawa was built up. Third, the Greenbelt the development of Greenbelt visitor facilities includ-
was intended to place a practical and economic limit ing trail systems, nature interpretation centers, and rec-
on the growth of the Capital by confining development reational areas. Some of these facilities are now being
to an area that could be provided with municipal serv- managed by local municipalities. Approximately 60
ices at a reasonable cost (National Capital Commis- farms encompassing 5000 ha ( 12 400 acres) of pro-
sion, 1973). ductive agricultural land are leased to local farmers.
Other non-agricultural land uses are managed in con-
2.3. Development concept and implementation junction with federal and provincial ministries, local
municipalities, and private corporations.
The Greenbelt was proposed to provide a defined It was intended that the Greenbelt would be created
outer limit to the Ottawa portion of the NCR with through municipal zoning, but from 1948 to 1958 local
boundaries based on property ownership. It was Gre- municipalities opposed this approach (National Capital
bers intent that by surrounding the future urban area Commission, 1973). By 1958, development pressures
with open space, orderly growth would be achieved were beginning to threaten the scheme and the federal
and urban residents would have access to protected government provided the NCC with the power of
countryside resources, including farms and natural expropriation for the purposes of establishing the
areas (Greber, 1950a,b). It was envisaged that once Greenbelt. Approximately 15 000 ha (37 000 acres) of
the area inside the Greenbelt was developed to capacity, land were eventually purchased between 1958 and
additional growth would occur through the expansion 1966, at a cost of 40 million dollars (Scott, 1992). The
of existing communities located outside the Greenbelt, balance of the 20 000 ha (50 000 acres) was already
some 50 km (30 miles) away. in federal ownership.
From the outset the Greenbelt was intended to incor-
porate a variety of land uses within its boundaries, 2.5. Discussion
including federal facilities, natural areas, recreation
facilities, farmland and land held in reserve to meet In assessing the Ottawa Greenbelt concept some 40
future needs of the federal capital. A system of trails years later, a number of observations can be made. The
and scenic driveways were proposed to provide access Greenbelts considerable successes in achieving Gre-
to facilities within the Greenbelt and to connect the bers original goals have been those of providing a land
Greenbelt to other urban and rural transportation routes. reserve for government and institutional buildings, lim-
At present, the Greenbelt landscape is generally rural iting urban sprawl on the outer edge of Ottawa, and
in character, incorporating farmland (25%), reforested making natural environments and rural open space
and sensitive natural areas ( 15%), government accessible to urban residents.
research centers and the Ottawa airport (30%), and However, concerns about the Greenbelt have existed
other urban uses such as developed open space, schools, since its inception. Rezoning of developable municipal
private sector research facilities, and hospitals (30%). land to a federal land reserve designation was not
The Greenbelt accommodates various recreational, cul- acceptable to local governments in a period of rapid
50 .I. Taylor et al. /Landscape and Urban Planning 33 (1995) 47-64

growth and rising land prices. Federal expropriation of The Greenbelt has not had widespread public support
the Greenbelt lands proved unpopular to local residents in part because it has had poor visibility and lacks a
and has had long-term effects on the tax base of area consistent identity. Only recently, with expanded
municipalities. Leasing back expropriated land to local urbanization outside the Greenbelt, has the outer
farmers has served to maintain a level of agricultural boundary become evident to the general public. The
use, but short-term leases in combination with non- presence of seemingly unrelated facilities (an airport
ownership has resulted in a lack of investment in farm and an interpretative center, for example) has contrib-
buildings and a lack of incentive to employ innovative uted to a lack of identity. A continuous scenic drive or
farm management practices. trail system throughout the length of the Greenbelt, as
The Greenbelt influenced adjacent urban form, but proposed in the Greber plan, would have contributed
has been ineffective in controlling urban growth out- significantly toward creating visibility and identity for
side the Greenbelt. During the 1970s and 198Os, the Greenbelt. Unfortunately, this important connect-
increasing growth pressures resulted in the expansion ing element was never completed.
of three satellite communities immediately adjacent to As a result of these concerns and shortcomings, the
the outer limits of the Greenbelt. This development did Greenbelt is at present undergoing a major planning
not respect Grebers intention that distinct hamlets review to redefine its role and its form in the future.
some distance from the Greenbelt should serve as the Although progressive for its time, the greenbelt
focus for regional expansion. The political boundary approach used in Ottawa lacks many of the features
for the Greenbelt imposed on the region did not respond inherent in more contemporary greenways. The evo-
to ecological systems. The results of the imposed lution toward a more holistic greenway planning
approach in Canada is clearly illustrated in the follow-
boundary have been that portions of significant natural
ing three examples.
areas such as the Mer Bleue Bog and the Stony Swamp
Conservation Area were excluded and have since been
lost to development. Only portions of stream and wild-
3. Fish Creek Provincial Park
life corridors running through the Greenbelt have been
protected as a result of the imposed form that defined
3.1. Project context
the inner and outer boundaries.
The ecological principle of maintaining connectivity
The Fish Creek basin traverses Calgary, Alberta, a
by providing spatially continuous corridors (Forman
city of 600 000 inhabitants. This stream corridor was
and Godron, 1986) was not employed in the Ottawa
first proposed to be retained as an open space by the
Greenbelt. As previously mentioned, only segments of
City in 1966. At that time, the Calgary region was
stream and wildlife corridors were protected through
experiencing rapid growth and the Fish Creek area was
the form of the Greenbelt. Land uses within the Green-
being considered for urban development. The Province
belt, such as the Ottawa Airport, Agriculture Canada of Alberta, in response to requests from local interest
research lands and numerous transportation and utility groups, offered to purchase the land in 1972 to provide
corridors, present significant barriers to connectivity. for the protection and recreational use of this natural
Major open space components within the NCR, includ- corridor.
ing the Greenbelt, the Ottawa River corridor and Gat- The Calgary urban greenway includes over 1200 ha
ineau Park (across the Ottawa River, north of Hull), (3000 acres) of land that is defined by the valley walls
remain isolated from each other. Although a compre- of Fish Creek and a segment of the Bow River within
hensive system of continuous pedestrian and vehicular the city limits (Figs. 5, 6 and 7). The total length of
routes was incorporated into Grebers original design, the greenway is approximately 13 km (8 miles), with
only parts of this system have been completed. The an average width of 0.8 km (0.5 mile). The Fish Creek
planning and implementation approach to the Ottawa watershed drains an area of approximately 470 km2
Greenbelt has resulted in isolation of natural, recrea- ( 180 square miles) and is approximately 70 km (44
tional and institutional land uses within its boundaries miles) in total length. The majority of the watershed is
and within the greater region, forested, consisting primarily of mixed forest domi-
 J. Taylor et al. /Landscape and Urban Planning 33 (1995) 4764 51

nated by poplar (Populus balsamifera) and conifers

(primarily Picea glauca species).
The Fish Creek urban greenway area is located in a
region where three biogeographic zones meet. The
western part of the site is an extension of the montane
zone, characterized by coniferousdeciduous forest.
The mixed-grass prairie zone extends into the area from
the south and the east, and aspen parkland extends into
the site from the north. The floodplain environment of
the Fish Creek and Bow River Valleys include prairie
riverine vegetation that is predominantly balsam poplar
(Populus balsamifera) and willow (Salk species). In
addition to the natural resources of the area, the Fish
Creek area incorporates a number of prehistoric sites
(camps and buffalo kill areas) and historic sites (Bow
Valley Ranch and Shaw Woollen Mill) that provide
evidence of human occupation for the past 8000 years.

Fish Creek
3.2. Planning approach

Following the announcement in 1973 that the Prov-

f3 Existing Urban Areas ince would fund the establishment of a provincial park
q Greenway to facilitate the Fish Creek urban greenway, a multi-
phase planning process was initiated that emphasized
Fig. 5. Fish Creek, Calgary. Alta. public participation and ecological planning. A citi-
zens advisory committee was appointed to review the
context for the park, undertake a public participation
program, formulate a conceptual framework for devel-
opment, and hold a public hearing. This phase of plan-
ning was followed by the establishment of a
management committee that included representatives

Fig. 6. Aerial view of the Fish Creek valley illustrating the trail Fig. 7. View of one.of the Fish Creek greenway access nodes. Photo
systems and the urban interface. Photo credit: Lombard North Group. credit: Lombard North Group.
52 J. Taylor et al. /Landscape and Urban Planning 33 (1995) 47-64

from the Province of Alberta and from the City of Edmonton, Fish Creek was a forerunner of the Urban
Calgary. This bi-level steering committee selected a Parks Program, which promoted urban greenway
consultant, Lombard North Group Ltd., landscape development in several Alberta communities. Fish
architects and environmental planners, to undertake a Creek, however, was unique in Canada because it was
comprehensive planning study of the proposed green- intended to function as a greenway within a major city
way area (Lombard North Group Ltd., 1976a). while being funded and administered by a provincial
An ecological planning approach was used by Lom- government.
bard North Group that identified facility constraint The operation and management of Fish Creek Pro-
areas (terrain sensitivity and flood plain areas), envi- vincial Park is oriented toward the following goals: ( 1)
ronmentally sensitive areas (vegetation, wildlife hab- facilitating park use, enjoyment and expansion of rec-
itat and movement), cultural heritage features and reational opportunities; (2) accommodating and opti-
zones (prehistoric and historic), and areas of suitability mizing public use of facilities and park natural
for recreational use (based on soils, access, microcli- resources; (3) preserving and protecting significant
mate, and visual resources). Landscape analysis was natural and cultural resources; (4) providing cost-effi-
undertaken using a map overlay method as developed cient and consistent administration to achieve prede-
by McHarg and others (McHarg, 1969). This method, termined standards of services; (5) organizing a
based upon natural features and resource capability, delivery system of programs to maintain client satis-
represents a significant departure from the imposed faction (Lombard North Group Ltd., 1985).
greenbelt approach used in Ottawa. Land use control was accomplished by acquiring all
lands through purchase or expropriation. Prior to ini-
3.3. Development concept and implementation tiating the acquisition program, a development freeze
was placed upon all lands within the Fish Creek valley.
The goal of the Fish Creek plan was to provide for A survey of the upper limits of the valley landform
the conservation of significant natural and cultural val- (top-of-bank) was conducted to establish the legal
ues of the greenway area, while accommodating appro- boundary of the Fish Creek area.
priate levels of regional use (Lombard North Group
Ltd., 1976b). A concept that focused on development 3.5. Discussion
of nodes and links was proposed. This conceptual
approach concentrated facilities in areas of special Fish Creek Provincial Park has been successful in
landscape interest and suitable carrying capacity, based achieving the original goals of establishing an urban
on the biophysical analysis. External access was pro- greenway that serves regional recreational needs, while
vided to each of the development nodes and a trail conserving natural and cultural landscape values. Trail
system was proposed to link the nodes within the val- connections have been made from the Fish Creek
ley. greenway to community development areas and to the
Over the past 15 years, implementation of the plan city-wide trail system along the Bow River (Figs. 6
has been undertaken, with approximately 900 ha (2200 and 7). A range of recreational uses have been accom-
acres) of the total 1200 ha (3000 acre) greenway modated within the development areas along the trail
retained in its natural state. A trail system 70 km (44 system. The initial public support for the greenway
miles) in length has been completed, accommodating development has been sustained over the past 20 years.
hiking, cycling, and equestrian uses. Other develop- User counts have shown that the original projected
ment has included picnic areas, an artificial swimming figures of 8000 to 10 000 expected visitors on peak
lake, and a major interpretive facility that serves both days, and 200 000-340 000 for annual visitations have
the general public and school groups. been exceeded in recent years.
Natural and cultural site resources have been suc-
3.4. Administrative framework and land use controls cessfully protected and managed, one of the primary
intents of the original plan. The ecological planning
Fish Creek was established as the first urban provin- approach used for Fish Creek was advanced for its time,
cial park in Alberta. Along with Capital City Park in and established appropriate levels of use and locations
 J. Taylor et al. /Lana!wape and Urban Pkmning 33 (1995) 47-64 53

The cost of acquiring land for the Fish Creek green-

way was high as a result of the expropriation process.
Fiscal constraints in the 1990s would probably prevent
exercising land use control through outright purchase
of extensive blocks of land for greenway use. However,
innovative measures such as securing easements, coop-
erative agreements with private landowners, and coor-
dination with local municipal planning authorities are
contemporary techniques that might be applied instead
of land purchase. In conclusion, Fish Creek represents
a successful example of greenway planning in Canada
that demonstrates the importance of comprehensive
ecological planning methods and extensive public
involvement in the development process.

4. The Meewasin Valley

4.1. Project context

The Meewasin Valley greenway incorporates the

valley and adjacent lands of the South Saskatchewan
River which is located within the Saskatchewan city of
Saskatoon and the surrounding rural municipality of
q Existing Urban Areas Corman Park. The city and region have a total popu-
q Greenway lation of 160 000. Rapid urban development in the
1970s and increasing encroachment on the rivers edge
had resulted in loss of public access and degradation of
Fig. 8. Meewasin Valley, Saskatoon, Sask.

for facility development that have provided a good fit

with natural systems. Educational values of the green-
way corridor have been exploited by using the data
derived from site research and the spatial analysis of
biophysical and cultural occurrences. Interpretive pro-
grams have been developed that support regional envi-
ronmental educational needs within the school systems
and the needs of the general public. Stormwater man-
agement techniques have been applied within the
immediate area of the greenway to mitigate the impact
of urbanization. The need to extend controls over the
entire watershed to protect the integrity of the creek
was identified in the plan, but has not been fully real-
ized. The node and link development concept has been
largely successful in minimizing intensive use in envi-
ronmentally sensitive areas. However, a blue heron col-
ony located in the valley has migrated out of the area, Fig. 9. Aerial view of the rural character of the northern sector of the.
apparently because of increased human use and insuf- Meewasin Valley greenway. Photo credit: Meewasin Valley Author-
ficient buffer zones. ity.
54 J. Taylor et al. /L.undscape and Urban Planning 33 (1995) 47-64

process used in creating the conceptual master plan for

the Meewasin greenway included analysis of the areas
natural and human history based primarily on an exist-
ing atlas of resources, identification of site opportuni-
ties and constraints, and development and refinement
of plan alternatives. The plan was developed with input
from community and university groups, residents and
community leaders, elected representatives and staff of
local, regional and provincial bodies.

4.3. Development concept and implementation

The broad concept underlying the plan for the Mee-

wasin Valley greenway was described as that of health
and fit (Raymond Moriyama, 1979). Health was
Fig. 10. Meewasin Valley greenway trail through aresidential district defined as a state of complete physical, mental and
within the City of Saskatoon. Photo credit: Meewasin Valley Author-
social well being, and fit as the harmony between
ity.
natural processes and people. The Meewasin green-
this natural amenity. The citizens of Saskatoon and way was to provide for the health of both the place and
local councils had for many years promoted the long- the people of the area through appropriate use of the
range planning and control of this river valley. valley. The conceptual plan also stressed a need for
The Meewasin Valley includes a 70 000 ha ( 170 000 balance, particularly a balance of facilities along the
acre) area that is approximately 80 km (50 miles) in length of the Valley so as to disperse users and prevent
length as measured along the river corridor (Figs. 8,9 over-utilization of certain areas. The conceptual ideas
and 10). The valley landscape is complex, consisting were to be realized through the development of eight
in the south of sandy meander plains, and in the north nodes located along the length of the valley, each cap-
of more erosion-resistant glacial till with defined drain- italizing on unique site features. The more rural nodes,
age courses and associated terraces, ravines, aquifers, especially those with unique physical or cultural fea-
and wetland areas. These two landscape types meet tures, were dedicated to conservation and public edu-
within the boundaries of the City of Saskatoon. cation. The nodes in the city core area were identified
for development of cultural, commercial (retail space,
open-air markets) and business facilities (office space,
4.2. Planning approach
hotels), as well as recreational uses (board walks,
parks). Linkage of the rural and urban nodes was pro-
In 1978, the firm Raymond Moriyama Architects and
posed to be achieved by three means: physical (trails,
Planners was retained to assist in the preparation of a
green space, and roadways), temporal (historical sites,
100 year conceptual plan to direct the management and
restorations) and spiritual (socio-cultural events).
development of the river environment referred to as
Over the past 20 years the sensitive natural environ-
Meewasin Valley. Moriyama assembled a multi-disci-
ments have been protected and interpretation centers
plinary team of planners, architects, and geotechnical
have been built. Urban development nodes now link
consultants with input from resource scientists from the
the core of the city to the greenway. An integrated trail
University of Saskatchewan and individuals from other
system has been developed, making it possible to walk,
local agencies. The objectives of the plan were to direct
hike, cycle or ski between all of the nodes within the
development and management which would maintain
greenway.
and upgrade the health of the river and the river valley
system; to identify opportunities within and around the 4.4. Administrativeframework and land use control
river valley system that were capable of supporting
human use; to provide direction for realizing the plan The need for an independent control authority was
recommendations (Raymond Moriyama, 1979). The expressed in the conceptual plan report. Development
 J. Taylor et al. /Landscape and Urban Planning 33 (1995) 47-64 55

pressures and the sensitive nature of the landform, veg- relaxed, and the area under the control of the MVA was
etation cover, and wildlife habitat within the valley reduced. (In Canada, development rights are not rec-
called for firm land use and development controls. It ognized under the Constitution. Land use rights are
was felt that education and goodwill alone would be prescribed through comprehensive zoning bylaws and
insufficient to provide adequate protection for the area. development controls, and are subject to appeal. Rig-
A greenway authority was proposed to coordinate more orous application of zoning and development controls
effectively the many jurisdictions and interests, and to often meets with widespread public opposition.)
provide for the orderly implementation of the plan. A major problem for the Authority is that the green-
The Meewasin Valley Authority (MVA) was way area is only a small part of a larger river system.
empowered in 198 1 by the legislature of the Saskatch- As a result, management decisions beyond the control
ewan to serve as a regulatory, planning and manage- of the MVA have significant impacts on the valley. A
ment body. The MVA is composed of representatives response to this has been the establishment of a center
appointed by the Province, the City of Saskatoon, and for the management of the entire lower Saskatchewan
the University of Saskatchewan. Professional staff and River system, created under the auspices of the MVA.
technical advisors are responsible for implementation The Meewasin Valley greenway came about because
and management of the greenway. The objectives of of broad public support, and indications are that con-
the MVA are to co-ordinate or control the use, devel- tinued public support is essential for the greenways
opment, conservation, maintenance and improvement long-term success. To develop such support, continual
of public land in accordance with the development communication of the benefits that arise from greenway
plan (Saskatchewan, 1981). Conservation as used development is necessary. The Meewasin greenway
here means the maintenance of vegetation and land experience suggests that popular, visible projects such
forms, as well as protection of the river edge habitat. as the trail system and interpretive facilities are neces-
Within the Meewasin greenway, two types of zones sary to build and sustain such support.
are managed by the MVA. The control zones are those The concept upon which the Meewasin Valley
land areas that directly affect the river or are affected greenway is based reflects many of the principles cur-
by it, including flood-prone areas, wetlands, ravines, rently proposed for urban greenways in the 1990s.
creeks, unstable slopes and river terraces. The buffer Health and fit reflects a sustainable approach to devel-
zones are those land areas that indirectly affect the opment of a greenway. Uses under this definition are
river, including those that may cause aesthetic or aimed at maintaining the physical, social and mental
physical infringement on secondary watercourses harmony of people and place. Although not described
(Raymond Moriyama, 1979). The MVA powers as such, the ideas enunciated in the Meewasin concept
include control over land use changes as well as suggest a trend toward the principles of planning for
approval authority regarding building standards and sustainable development. In more tangible terms, the
site plans. development nodes provided throughout the valley
have resulted in dispersing use, as evidenced through
4.5. Discussion periodic user surveys undertaken by the MVA. The
comprehensive trail system provides for pedestrian
The initial reaction to the conceptual master plan was access from adjacent neighborhoods and enhanced
extreme, either that of unconditional enthusiasm or linkage within the corridor, although private land hold-
vehement opposition. The City of Saskatoon supported ings result in diversion of the trail away from the river
the greenway, whereas the rural municipality and prop- in some locations. Continuing measures to protect and
erty holders in the designatedcontrol area were in oppo- manage natural systems within the valley corridor con-
sition. The key issues were the proposed control of the tribute to the potential long-term success of this green-
MVA regarding the location and extent of develop- way project. Overall, the implementation of the
ment, and the stringent design controls placed on prop- Meewasin Valley greenway plan has brought wide-
erty. As a result of this controversy, the initial act spread support from both the city and the rural town-
empowering the MVA was modified to include an ship, resulting in achievement of many of the original
appeals process, property development standards were planning objectives.
56 J. Taylor et al. /Landscape and Urban Planning 33 (1995) 47-64

5. Greater Toronto Bioregion greenway concept The limits of the study were extended beyond the
immediate Lake Ontario waterfront area to cover the
entire Greater Toronto Bioregion (Figs. 11,12 and 13).
5.1. Project context
This 10 000 km2 (4ooO square mile) area is defined by
natural features of the region: Lake Ontario on the
This most recent Canadian greenway proposal is a south, the Niagara Escarpment on the west, and the Oak
broadly based strategy to develop a greenway system Ridges Moraine on the north and east. The Bioregion
for the entire Greater Toronto Bioregion. The concept includes 15 river or stream systems. The total area is
has grown out of the Royal Commission on the Future approximately 200 km (125 miles) in length and
of the Toronto Waterfront. This commission was estab- includes all or parts of nine regional jurisdictions.
lished by the federal government in cooperation with The Greater Toronto Region is resident to over four
the Province of Ontario and Metropolitan Toronto to million people, with a projection of six million resi-
study the future of the Toronto waterfront. The mandate dents by 2020. Rapid growth in the period from 1950
of the 3 year Royal Commission study was to create to 1990 has compromised the integrity of the regions
a unique, world-class waterfront in Toronto by natural systems and limited opportunities for public
exploring means for greater cooperation among the access to significant natural features, such as the Lake
various levels of government, conducting a full con- Ontario waterfront.
sultation with the interested public, exploring issues
affecting the protection and renewal of the natural envi- 5.2. Planning approach
ronment, facilitating more effective management of
federal lands, and responding to other emerging issues In developing a planning strategy for the Toronto
(Royal Commission on the Future of the Toronto Waterfront, The Royal Commission adopted an
Waterfront, 1992). approach that included examination of the lakeshore,

c] Regional Government Boundaries

Niagara Escarpment
-

Fig. Il. Greater Toronto Bioregion, Toronto, Ont.

 J. Taylor et al. /Landscape and Urban Planning 33 (1995) 47-64 51

Fig. 12. View of Duffin Creek near Lake Ontario, one of 15 watersheds included in the Greater Toronto Bioregion greenway concept. Photo
credit: Metropolitan Toronto and Region Conservation Authority.

associated watersheds, and urban systems within the

area municipalities. This ecosystem approach as
defined includes the whole system, not just parts of
it; focuses on the interrelationships among resources
and land use; understands that humans are part of
nature, not separate from it; recognizes the dynamic
nature of the ecosystem; incorporates the concepts of
carrying capacity, resilience, and sustainability; uses a
broad definition of environments (natural, physical,
economic, social, and cultural) ; encompasses both
urban and rural activities; is based on natural geo-
graphic units such as watersheds, rather than on polit-
ical boundaries; embraces all levels of activity (local,
regional, national, and international) ; emphasizes the
importance of species other than humans and of gen-
erations other than the present; and is based on an ethic
in which progress is measured by the quality, well-
being, integrity and dignity it accords natural, social,
and economic systems (Royal Commission on the
Future of the Toronto Waterfront, 1992). Fig. 13. The Lake Ontario shoreline trail, a link in the Greater Toronto
As part of this broadly based ecosystems approach, Bioregion greenway system. Photo credit: Metropolitan Toronto and
the Commission employed the greenway concept as an Region Conservation Authority.
58 .I. Tayloret al. /Landscape and UrbanPlanning33 (1995) 47-64

important tool to meet the needs of a burgeoning land. Utilizing abandoned rail lines and utility corri-
human population and to protect a vulnerable ecosys- dors, these connectors are proposed to tie into com-
tem (Royal Commission on the Future of the Toronto munity parks and tributary valleys, providing
Waterfront, 1992). The Greater Toronto greenway recreational trail loops.
planning process recommends that an analysis of In 1992, the Ontario government established a new
resources within each watershed unit be undertaken to agency, the Waterfront Regeneration Trust, to build on
identify the following: significant green nodes and con- the strategic plan as developed by the Royal Commis-
necting corridors; existing and potential recreational sion on the Future of the Toronto Waterfront (Ontario,
attractions; available public lands and opportunities for 1992). A priority project of the Waterfront Regenera-
securing other high-priority lands; visual corridors tion Trust is to proceed with the implementation of the
required to protect the scenic quality and appeal of Lake Ontario Greenway Strategy (LOGS). A proposed
proposed greenways, and to provide community sepa- first phase of LOGS will be the establishment of a
ration where appropriate; significant heritage features; continuous waterfront trail from Burlington at the
opportunities for compatible economic development in southwest to the Trent River at the east of the Bioregion.
or adjacent to greenways. The Trust will also provide an educational role to the
The greenway plans propose to include guidelines public, conveying the benefits of ecosystem planning,
for the safety and security of greenways users and adja- and will complete a strategy to address the management
cent landowners, strategies for enhancing ecological of shorelines, wildlife habitat, water quality, and cul-
and recreational connecting links, and management tural resources.
guidelines for public lands and for compatible private Other dimensions of the greenway systems will be
land uses such as agriculture. Also included are the supported by the application of progressive subwater-
establishment of priorities necessary to create or com- shed planning principles advocated by the Ontario Min-
plete greenways, and the identification of mechanisms istries of Environment, Natural Resources, and
and responsibilities for greenway implementation. Municipal Affairs, and through the provincial conser-
vation authorities that have direct jurisdiction over
5.3. Development concept and implementation watershed areas. An integrated approach to ecosystem-
based environmental and land use planning will be
A comprehensive greenway system was adopted as applied to the preparation of subwatershed plans. In
a principal element for implementing the recommen- addition, enforcement of the Ontario Environmental
dations of the Royal Commissions study. As stated in Protection Act to prevent encroachment in sensitive
the final report of the Commission, the essence of environmental areas will serve to protect the proposed
greenways is connections-not simply connecting rec- greenway system.
reational areas through trails, but connecting wildlife
habitats to each other, human communities to other 5.4. Administrative framework and land use control
human communities, city to country, people to nature
(Royal Commission on the Future of the Toronto The Royal Commission viewed itself as a catalyst,
Waterfront, 1992). working to achieve specific recommendations such as
The Greater Toronto greenway concept proposes a the greenway proposal. In implementing the plan, no
two-tiered system with arterial greenways that establish new jurisdictional body was formed and no new level
an interconnected framework across the region and of administration has been proposed. Rather, it was
local connectors within each community. Arterial recommended that existing agencies, municipalities,
greenways include a waterfront trail along the Lake landowners, and citizen groups be encouraged to coop-
Ontario Lakeshore, connections to the existing Bruce erate in the planning and implementation of the green-
Trail along the Niagara Escarpment, a proposed ridge- way system.
top greenway along the Oak Ridges Moraine, and sys- To administer the greenway plan at the local level,
tems along the river valleys leading to Lake Ontario. Community Greenway Alliances have been proposed,
The local connectors are to be developed according to which would include broad-based representation and
priorities of municipalities and availability of existing would work toward achieving the following goals: ( 1)
 J. Taylor et al. /Landscape and Urban Planning 33 (1995) 47-44 59

to develop a community greenway strategy; (2) to ways in Canada (Fig. 14). Similarities and differences
recommend a greenway implementation plan; (3) to in these examples appear when comparing site char-
coordinate specific mandates and tasks among various acteristics, planning concepts, management structures,
agencies and groups, and to build appropriate partner- and implementation results (Table 1). Six factors
ships; (4) to monitor progress on implementation; (5) emerge that have been influential in the realization of
to set priorities for further action. The work of the these urban greenways. These factors are ( 1) form and
Alliances would also be assisted by provincial policy function, (2) development concept, (3) response to
support, technical advice, and financial assistance. natural factors, (4) principles of sustainability, (5)
Land use control is proposed to be exercised at the public support and use, and (6) implementation strat-
local level through normal planning and zoning, and egy.
through partnerships or agreements with public agen-
cies and private landowners. As discussed in the pre- 6.1. Form and function
vious section, subwatershed plans and environmental
assessment studies will help limit encroachment of The physical forms of the four greenway systems
inappropriate development within greenway corridors. have resulted from either an imposed urban design con-
It is anticipated that an extensive land acquisition pro- cept (Grebers National Capital Greenbelt) or the
gram will not be required under this approach. boundaries of natural systems (Fish Creek and Greater
Toronto Bioregion), or from something in between
5.5. Discussion
(Meewasin) . The National Capital Greenbelt incor-
The concept for the Greater Toronto greenways util- porates many of the principles of nineteenth-century
izes an ecosystems approach to planning and directly planning theory, which prescribed controlled growth
recognizes principles of sustainable development. The and defined urban form (Howard, 1898). The three
strategy for implementation crosses jurisdictional succeeding examples progress from using a natural
boundaries and is based on natural watershed areas. It drainage basin (Fish Creek), to that of a river valley
is intended to serve as a catalyst for protection and (Meewasin) as a spine that integrates natural and urban
development, without creating new layers of bureauc- systems as the determinant of greenway form, to, in the
racy. The provincial government has demonstrated a case of Greater Toronto, encompassing an entire biore-
commitment to the plan in establishing the Waterfront gion.
Regeneration Trust. Urban greenways have been used to provide a buffer
It is important to note that the Greater Toronto Met- or a transition at the urban-rural fringe (National Cap-
ropolitan Region is more extensively urbanized than ital Greenbelt) or to provide a link to the rural areas
the previous three examples. The availability of rela- (Meewasin and Greater Toronto greenway). The
tively low-cost, undeveloped lands for incorporation National Capital Greenbelt has failed to provide an
into greenways that fit the social and the ecological effective treatment at the urban-rural fringe owing to
setting is much more limited. Therefore, the realization the intrinsic development capability of the land within
of the total system will rely to a great extent on inter- and adjacent to the area. This has resulted in continuing
agency cooperation with local authorities to establish pressure to develop land within the Greenbelt. Lands
subwatershed plans that will provide a basis for green- within the Fish Creek and Meewasin corridors, in com-
way development. A high level of public support and parison, were less valuable for urban development and
involvement at the local level will also be essential in have not been as susceptible to urban encroachment.
implementing the plan. Although it is too early to eval- The functional use of greenways has also varied with
uate the results of the Toronto approach to greenway the times. The use of greenways as a land bank for
development, it appears to be the way of the future. institutional, agricultural, and other land uses is no
longer feasible, as proposed in Ottawa, owing to the
high cost of land adjacent to urban areas. Functions that
6. Summary discussion of the four case studies
are now common to greenway development include the
The four case studies illustrate a range of approaches protection of environmentally sensitive areas and cul-
to planning, developing, and managing urban green- tural landscape features, and the connectivity of eco-
 J. Taylor et al. /Lam&cape and Urban Planning 33 (1995) 4744

TYPICAL PROPOSED
SATELLITE COMMUNITY

NATIONAL CAPITAL
GREENBELT

I CALGARY

MEEWASIN
VALLEY

FISH CREEK

NIAGARA ESCARPMENT

WATERSHED CONNECTORS

/
OAK RIDGES MORAINE
GREENWAY
I CONCEPT
_.__- -- .. GREATER
TORONTO
BIOREGION I

TORONTO
LAKE WATERFRONT
ONTARIO

Fig. 14. Conceptual diagrams: four greenway case studies.

 J. Taylor et al. /Landscape and Urban Planning 33 (1995) 47-64 61

Table 1
Case study summary

National Capital Greenbelt Fish Creek Meewasin Valley Greater Toronto Bioregion
Ottawa, Ont. Calgary, Alta. Saskatoon, Sask. Toronto, Ont.

Date of plan 1948-1950 1972-1976 1978-1979 1988-1991

Area 20 000 ha 1200 ha 7ooOOha 1 OOOOOOha
(50 000 acres) (3000 acres) ( 170 000 acres) (2 500 000 acres)
(total study area)
Length 40 km 13km 80 km 200 km
(25 miles) (8 miles) (50 miles) ( 125 miles)
(total study area)
Context Rural-urban fringe Creek valley system River valley system Lakefront, watershed
systems and regional
landform features
Response to natural Form based on political Natural and cultural factors were Form based on both Sustaining ecological
and cultural factors boundaries; limited primary design determinants; political boundaries and systems was basis of plan;
consideration given to resource management river corridor: thematic comprehensive watershed
sensitive features, units or incorporated into plan recognition of significant planning approach to be
systems natural and cultural used in implementation
occurrences phase
Planning approach Comprehensive planning; Ecological planning; overlay Inventory of natural, Bioregion-based ecosystem
urban design approach analysis of natural and cultural cultural historical and approach; public
resources, land capability; user recreational resources; consultation and
surveys and public consultation public consultation participation in the
planning process

Concept Classic greenbelt (land use Nodes and links Health and tit using nodes Connectors: arterial and
buffer) and links local
Administrative National Capital Commission Alberta Recreation, Parks and Meewasin Valley Authority Multi-jurisdictional
framework (federal crown corporation) Wildlife (provincial (special jurisdiction) (federal, provincial,
government) regional and municipal in
cooperation with local
interest groups)

Land use controls Land purchased through Deverlopment freeze; land Zoning, land use controls Proposed partnerships with
expropriation by 1966; purchased partially through and expropriation; landowners; local zoning
federal ownership expropriation by 1979 partnerships with land and land use control
owners

Current status Resources protected; Development completed Major nodes and trails Planning and
development not completed including trail systems, access completed; other implementation in progress
as planned; at present nodes, visitor services, and development in progress (Waterfront Regeneration
undergoing major land use recreational facilities Trust)
and boundary review

logical systems and human use as supported by trail 4.2. Development concept
development. The trend toward using natural systems
as a primary determinate for greenway form is sup- The conceptual structure for each case study pro-
ported by the case studies, as is the fact that the concept vides a basis for understanding the organization of
of a traditional imposed greenbelt is no longer viable human use and physical development for each of these
ecologically, socially, or politically. greenways. The radial, belt-form of the National Cap-
ital Greenbelt includes a mosaic of land use and eco-
62 J. Taylor et al. /Landscape and Urban Planning 33 (1995) 47-64

logical fragments, and to date has little cohesion as a 6.4. Principles of sustainability
system within the urban context. This conceptual
approach has resulted in separation rather than integra- Although the concept of sustainable development
tion of adjacent land uses. The planning for Meewasin has only recently gained popular acceptance (World
and Fish Creek applied a highly structured link and Commission on Environment and Development,
node concept based on biophysical and cultural 1987)) greenway planning in Canada has increasingly
resources and identifiable landscape units. The devel- demonstrated principles of sustainability over the past
oped nodes have proven to be successful in both dis- 40 years. For example, planners of the National Capital
persing human use and limiting the extent of human Greenbelt in the 1940s were concerned with preserving
impact within these two stream-based corridors. natural and rural landscapes for human use and enjoy-
The Greater Toronto example is highly ecological in ment. However, a comprehensive understanding of the
concept, and as a result closely follows natural shore- Greenbelts ecological and economic systems was not
lines, drainage courses and regional landform units. It incorporated into the planning process. The planning
is anticipated that this greenway will evolve as local approach for Fish Creek was based on ecological car-
subwatershed basin plans are completed, and as local rying capacity, environmental sensitivity, watershed
governments and action groups proceed with imple- management, and conservation of both natural and cul-
mentation. The Toronto ecosystems approach is com- tural resources. The principles of sustainable develop-
mendable; however, it could be argued that it has been ment, as defined today, are clearly incorporated in this
early 1970s method. The Meewasin Valley planning
too late in coming and that the extensive development
method suggests future principles of sustainability in a
present in the region has compromised the potential of
philosophical sense, but did not encompass many of
this approach.
the ecological planning techniques used earlier in the
Fish Creek example. Finally, the Greater Toronto
greenways concept attempts to marry human needs,
6.3. Response to natural systems
environmental sustainability, and continued economic
development in the region, with the specified objective
of supporting sustainable development within the eco-
In reviewing the case studies, it appears that meas-
system.
urable success is more evident in those examples that
respond appropriately to the form and processes of the
6.5. Public support and use
natural systems. As discussed above, the National Cap-
ital Greenbelt has been faulted for failing fully to
As greenway planning has evolved in Canada,
accommodate sensitive areas or recognize natural sys-
accommodation of public participation in the planning
tems. As a result, it has been more difficult to defend process has assumed a more important role. In the
as a conservation corridor, less understandable as an National Capital, the greenway was imposed following
urban system by the public, and less useful as a com- limited consultation with the general public or affected
munity resource. Meewasin, although it attempted to jurisdictions. Expropriation was the final means for
respond to the river system, did not base its approach acquiring the land. Meewasin was generally supported
on a comprehensive watershed assessment. The limits, by the public, but the affected landowners and rural
because they were defined largely by political bound- municipalities initially resisted land use controls. Pub-
aries, have been consistently challenged. lic consultation, however, was a key element of the
Both Fish Creek and the Toronto greenway concept planning process for Fish Creek and the concept was
rely on the watershed as a primary framework and are widely accepted, but expropriation was also used to
based on an ecosystem approach to planning. The long- complete the system.
term viability of these two greenways appears greater Public access, use and the comprehension of form
when considering public acceptance and use, ecologi- appear to be major considerations in building support
cal integrity and sustainability, and the feasibility to for greenways. The National Capital Greenbelt, having
implement and manage the areas. no complete integrated system for public access and
 _I.Taylor et al. /Landscape and Urban Planning 33 (1995) 4764 63

providing limited public facilities, has suffered from Each model has been effective in establishing a sig-
lack of visibility and lack of general support. Meewasin nificant urban greenway. However, present fiscal con-
and Fish Creek invited direct input regarding potential straints have resulted in cutbacks within the special
use of these greenways, and early development of vis- agencies such as the National Capital Commission and
ible public facilities garnered increasing support. the Meewasin Valley Authority. Fish Creek is a pro-
The Greater Toronto greenway represents an vincial park and therefore benefits from efficiencies and
approach that encourages full communication and support as part of a larger public system. The Toronto
cooperation among all agencies and landowners. The model builds on cooperation with existing agencies and
implementation of the concept is proposed to be from agreements with private owners to achieve what will
the grass-roots level, with extensive involvement by be the largest urban greenway system in Canada. In
local interest groups and local governments. The fed- todays world, the Toronto administrative model may
eral government has assumed the role of catalyst in be the most achievable.
providing resources and expertise to facilitate the proc-
ess of implementation at the local level. The provincial
government has provided a resource center and infor-
7. Conclusion
mation clearing house, and staff to consult with the
public and promote interest in protecting the environ-
mental integrity of potential greenway lands. In conclusion, the development of urban greenways
Certainly, the trends have been toward greater public in these four Canadian metropolitan areas has evolved
participation in the planning process and in implemen- from a greenbelt approach to a more holistic greenways
tation of greenway plans at the local level. In addition, approach, including greater utilization of ecologically
increased public support is evidenced in those green- based planning recognizing natural systems, incorpo-
way systems where conservation of significant ecolog- ration of principles of sustainability, expansion of pub-
ical systems and cultural features was a primary goal. lic participation, and reduction of government
involvement in funding, administration and direct land
ownership.
6.6. hplementation strategy
A review of the case study findings suggests that
planners of future greenways need to: ( 1) determine
Each case study demonstrates a different administra- their appropriate form, function, and conceptual organ-
tive structure for greenway development and manage- ization with an emphasis on connectivity, and protec-
ment. These include the federal government (National tion of natural systems and cultural features; (2) apply
Capital Commission) for the National Capital Green- principles of sustainability that maintain biodiversity,
belt, a provincial government ministry (Alberta Rec- system function and productivity, and that accommo-
reation and Parks) for Fish Creek, a special date appropriate levels of human use; (3) gather public
jurisdictional authority (Meewasin Valley Authority), support by informing and involving local citizenry; (4)
and a Royal Commission in cooperation with all levels formulate implementation and management strategies
of government and local interest groups for the Greater that are efficient and affordable. The lessons learned
Toronto greenway concept. The first three examples from these four Canadian case studies provide a useful
have resulted in a governmental agency exercising framework for landscape planning and development of
authority over greenway lands and their management. future urban greenways.
The Toronto greenway is broader in scope and proposes
that implementation and management will primarily be
assumed at the local level. The Waterfront Regenera-
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