108

CHARTER IV. y ’

POLITICAL HISTORY

Very little is known of the early history of Kerala. The

earliest reference to the Cheras in history is in the fourth

, - ^

century B.C., as inferred from Megasthenes’ description of-south

India, He mentions that the Southern peoples were ruled hy queens

and names among them the Pandae and the Charmae, who are considered

to he the Pandyas and the Cheras, The second Edict of Emperor

Asoka (B.C. 257)^ refers to the border kingdom of Ketalputa which

' is identified as Kerala by many authors. Pliny refers to the

ruler of Kerala as Caelobothras and mentions Muziris as his

capital in the first century A.dI InPeriplus, ascribed to the

same century, there is a reference to Cerobothras and the land

ruled by them is noticed as Limurike. Then in the second century

A.D., Ptolemy mentions ICaroura as the capital of Limurike where

Cerobothras lives. These are some of the references interpreted

as referring to Kerala found in the classical accounts.

The Early Cheras:

For the reconstruction of the early history of Kerala, the

early Tamil works form one of the important source of information.

The Tamil works of Sangam Age, Patittupattu, the Aganauru, the

Purananuru and the Silapadikaram gives much information regarding

the early history of Kerala, particularly-about the. Chera kings.

The post - Sangam period works called Muthallayiram, Perumal

 103
Thirumozhi and Periyapuranam also gives information for the Chera

history apart from the Sanskrit works called Tapatisamvarana,

Subhadradhananjaya and Sankaranarayaniyam, None of the Malayalam

works give much information about the early Cheras. The Sangam

works are dated to .about 2nd century A.E. Among all the Sangam

- works mentioned, the Patittupattu supplies the most important

evidences for the reconstruction of Chera history. It is an

anthology of hundred poems divided into ten equal sections each

of which was composed by a particular poet in praise of a Chera

king. Of it, the first and the tenth tens have not come to light.

She Cheras seems to have established themselves in Kutanad

which formed parts of the present ^richur and Ernakulam districts,

in the early centuries of Christian Era. Their capital was

Kodungallur, which was also known as Vanchi, Iiruvanchikkulam,

Musiri and Musiripattanam. They had other capitals like Tondi

and Karur. This was due to the expansion of their empire and

the Chera family set up their residence at several places in

their expanded territory. They followed the collateral system

of succession (Kuttuvazcha), according to which, the eldest member

c
of the family, wherever he lived, ascended the throne. The Chera

kingdom at its zenith comprised Venad, Odanad, Kuttanad, Kutanad,

Puzhinad, Porainad and Kongunad including all the areas of the

coastal districts from Cape Comorin to Kasaragod, the inland

districts of Wynad, Palghat, Coimbatore, Salem and Trichinopoly

Kollimalai
 110

It is found that all the princes mentioned in the Patittupattu

did not ascend the throne* Most of them helped the reigning

sovereign as heir-apparents or junior princes in warfare and

administration;7 A brief outline of the history of Chera kings

of the Sangam period is given below as furnished in the Patittupattu.

Utiyan Gheral:-

Utiyan was the first king of the Chera line with his capital
at a place called Kuzhumur in Kuttanad (Agam. 168). He was the y

hero of the. first decad of Patittupattu, which has been lost.

He was victorious against seven crowned kings, reaching the rank

of an adhiraja. He assumed the title -Vanavaramban which means

either "one whose kingdom is bounded by sky" or "the beloved of

Gods". It is interesting to note that the title "the beloved of

Gods" is invariablyrmentioned in Asojsan inscriptions, This title

seem to have influenced these rulers.

Nedum Cheralathan:-

Utiyan Cheral was succeeded by his son. Nedum Cheralathan,

also called "Imayavaramban" (Beloved of Gods or one who had

Himalayas for his boundary). His capital was called Marandai

which is different from that of his fathers'. He i-s described

in the second decad of Patittupattu, as having invaded countries

up to the Himalayas. This might be a poetic exaggeration.1 o He

brought Kudanad also under his reign. He is said to have

Vanquished seven crowned kings.achiving the status of an Adhiraja.

 ill.

He also won a victory over the Havanas’ on the coast, The name
Yavana was used in Kerala not only for the Greeks and the Romanas,

hut also for the Persians and the Arabs, Even the foreigners who
11
are settled down in Kerala were also called Yavanas, In this
respect, ledum Cheralathan might have fought against any one
of these people. During this period, the Romans and the Parthians
were powerful in Western Asia and Eastern Europe, The Parthians
has stopped Roman advance and successfully repelled them. The
Romans were trading by sea with the Indian kingdoms. Does this

fight with Yavanas indicate a maritime engagement with these

merchants? Without more information it is not possible to shown

adequate light on this interesting problem. The most important

battle he fought was with the Kadambas of the Gokarnam - Vanavasi
region.c In the naval battle, Nedum Gheralathan defeated the Kada-
12
mbas and cut down their guardian tree, Kadambu. His last war
was with the contemporary Chola king Velpattadakkai Peruviral-
1 "5
killi in which both the kings lost their lives.

Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttavan & his Yuvara.ja

larmudi Oheral.

Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttavan, the son of Utiyan Cheral and

younger brother of ledum Cheral, is described in 3rd ten of Patt-

ittupattu. He succeeded his elder brother on the throne. He
had mature experience of administration as a Governor of
Puzhinad under his elder brother, ledum Cheralathan. His capital
was Vanchi on the banks of the Periyar,'a change of capital for
unknown reasons from that of his brothers’, Marandai. He expelled
 112

the Pandyas from Kuttanad and later the Ays of Yenad were forced

to submit to him. He carried on a successful invasion of the

Kongu country (Salem - Coimbatore region). He brought under his

reign Porainad also.

In the later years of his life, he retired from the battle

field and devoted himself to the persitit of arts and peace. He
took to religious life and performed’many sacrifices. Unfortuna­
tely the records are silent about his activities for the persuit
of arts and peace.

Harmudi Cheral was the son of Nedum Cheralathan, the hero

of the 4th decad of Patittupattu. He did not ascend the throne,
but was a Yuvaraja for 25 years. He fought a number of wars
with the neighbouring kings. He defeated the Heduman Anchi of
the Athiyaman family, the chieftain of Kuthirai Malail4 Hannan,

the most powerful adversery of Izhimala had a series of battles

with Harmudi. Although Hamnan won the first battle at Fazhi,
in the battle of Yakaiperumkurai^Hannan was defeated and killed.
This victory resulted in the conquest of Ezhimala by Harmudi.

He patronised scholars and poets. His court poet Kappiyattu

Kappiyanar was rewarded with 40 lakhs of gold coins as a token
of recognition ofhis poetic genius.

Yel Kelu Kuttavan.

He was another son of Hedum Cheralathan and the hero of the

 113

5th decad of Patittupattu, ascended the throne on the death of

his father. He is identified as Senkuttavan Chera, the mythical

hero of the Silappadikaram. He was successful in a war against

the chieftian of MogurjPazhaiyan. Mogur was adjacent to Punnad.

He is also have teen described by poets having conquered territo­

ries up to the Himalayas, which has no historical value. He

upheld the claims of his Chola cousin and defeated his nine

rivals at the battle of Nerivag. He is credited with a great

maritime victory also because he had the title ’Kadalpirakottiya’.

15
He was a patron of scholars and poets* The poet Paranar

describes the king’s generous nature and the various presents

and grants made by him to different people.

Of Sel Kelu Kuttavan’s two younger brothers, Atukot Pattu

Cheralathan died before him and Illanko Adikal had becoifie a

monk. Sel Kelu Kuttavan dedicated his only son to a hermits life.

On his death, he was succeeded on the throne by Anthuvan Chorals’

son Selvakatumko. He won a victory over the combined forces of

the Cholas and the Pandyas. The seat of this king was Tondi.

Many rulers who lived there at Tondi used the terms Irumporai

and Poraiyan for unknown reasons. Porai means mountain and

Irumporai means big mountain. This might be due to the reason

that the hilley regions like Uilgiri, the Wynad and Kollimalai

were all under their rule.

 114
Perumcheral Irumporai:~

He is the hero of the 8th decad of the Patittupattu and

was the son of Selvakatumko. He defeated the ruler of Takadur
called Ezhini alongwith the Ohola and Pandya kings. He was the
lord of Pukar, Puzhinad and Kollimalai. He defeated the Yadava

chieftan Kazhuvul also. He ruled for seventeen years.

Poet Arisi Kizhar describes him as a king of generosity,

piety and military ability. He was a scholar too.

Ilam Oheral Irumporai?-

Ham Cheral Irumporai is the hero of the 9th Ten of’ Patittu-
pattu. He was the son of the previous ruler Perum Cheral. He

is credited with victories over the Oholas and Pandayas. He

defeated the Yicchi also. He brought to his capital Yanchi,
all the treasures amassed during the campaign. He ruled for
16 years.

Yanai Katchai Cheral Irumporai;-

He might have been the son and successor of Ilam Cheral and
the hero of the missing 10th decad of Patittupattu. Yanaikatchai,
literally the king with the elephant look was the last of the
Cheramans. He won a victory over the Chola king, but with the
assistance of Thevan Malayan Kari, the Chola king retained his
capital. Yanaikatchai was caught by the Pandyan king Nedum-
chezhiyan, but he managed to escape to his capital and regain
his country’s freedom.
 115
After Xanai Katchi, the Gheramans began to decline.

His successors were indolent and incompetent. Another Ghera

ruler Kanaikkal Irumporai was defeated by the Chola ruler Seng -

annan and he later committed suicide by starvation. Palai

Pufiya Perum Kadumko was another ruler of Yanchi® After him

come the insignificant ruler Kotha Mar-pan, who was defeated by

Killivalavan of Kongunad.

Invasions from the north, east and .south hastned the

L

decline of the Gheras. The layars entered Kerala and defeated

the rulers of Yanchi. The Kalabhra king Achuta Yikkanta seized

the ”three crowned kings” and held them captive at Kumbhakonam.

The Kadambas seized Thulunad from the Oheras in the 4th century

and later the Kongus asserted their independence. Only Karur,

east of the Ghats, remained with the Cheras,

Though the early history of South India is known through

poetic represntations of Sangam literature, it is interesting

to note a struggle of supremacy going on in the triangular

conflict of the early Cholas, Cheras and the Pandyas. During

the time of the first three Ghera rulers, we get a glimpse of

their effort at achiving political power over the neighbouring

kingdoms including the Pandyas, These rulers fared well and

hence they had to shift their capitals to the extended terri­

tory also.

The position did not change much during the time of Yel Kelu
 -116

Kuttavan. But he too carried on the expansion of the

countrys territory hy defeating the chieftain of Mogur

and the Cholas. He was able to carry on peaceful activity

in the country also. The succeeding rulers seem to main­

tain the strength and possibly keeping the enemy at the

border. During the time of Selvakatumko, the Ohera power was

again tested by the combined forces of the Oholas and thd

Pandyas in which Cheras again proved successful. The same

story is repeated during the time of Perumcheral Irumporai and

his successor Ham Gheral Irumporai.'

The situation during the time of Yanaikatchi changes in

favour of the Oholas. The Cholas seems to have regained

their power and started a compaign against the Cheras.

Yanaikatchi could withstand the Chola attack. But the Chera

power was crushed and the last Cheraman laid down his life.

Invasions from many sides by different forces made their

decline fast and the age of the Sangam_Cheramans came to

an end.

Post - Sangam Age

Politically the three centuries that followed the

death of Yanaikkatchi, was completely a’dark period’ in

Kerala history. The same can be applied to whole of South

India also. The history of Kerala in the 6th, 7th and 8th
 117

centuries can "be reconstructed partly from the inscriptions of

South. Indian powers like the Chalukyas, the Pallavas, the
Pandyas and Rashtrakutas and all these dynasties claim to
have over-run Kerala.

The Kalabhra ruler Achutha Yikkanta had established his

sway over large part of South India in the 5th century A.D.
and it is said that he kept the Ghera, Ghola and Pandya
rulers in confinement. The Chalukyas of Badami (545 - 755)
also claim their conquest over Kerala under Pulakesin I
(544 - 566) as evidenced by an inscription. His brother,
Kirtivarman I (567 - 598) also had victories over the kings

of Kerala and Mushaka, according to the Mabakuta inscription

of Mangalesa (598 - 610). Pulakesin II (610 - 642 A.D.) is

also said to have been subdued the Cheras, The same is

followed by Pulakesin’s son Yjkramaditva I (655 - 681),
Vinayaditya (681 - 696 A.D,),and Vinayadityals grandson
Yikramadit.ya II (754 - 745).

The Pallavas and the Pandyas becomes prominent towards

the end of the 6th century. The Pallava king Simhavishnu

(560 - 80)and Mahendra Yarman (580 - 650) are the earliest

Pallava rulers to claim sovereignty over Kerala. Harasimha-

yarman (650 - 688) is said to have won victories over the

Cheras. Handivarman.II (751 - 796) joined with Kerala in

the fight against the Pandya contemparary Varaguna I.
 118

The Pandya ruler Sender (645 - 70) claims victory over

Kerala. Another Pandya ruler, Kuna Pandya (670 - 710) also

defeated a joint army of the Keralas and the Pallavas.

The Rashtraku'las who overthrew the Ghalukyas also claim

hegemony over Kerala. Two Rashtrakuta rulers, Dantidurga (752-

756) and Govinda III (792 - 814), are said to have won

victories over Kerala Icings.

So the post - Sangam period is a ’Dark period1 in the

history of Kerala when the land was invaded hy successive

powers from out side. But as a matter of fact, most of

these claims are not supported with tangible evidences,

excepting that of the Pandyas.

The Ay Dynasty;

Prom the Sangam period, the Ays were a dominant power

in South Kerala up-to the begining of 10th century A.33.

The regions south of Tiruvalla was under their rule during

the Sangam period. The Purananura locates the Ay capital

on the Podiya mountain which has been identified as Aykudi

near Shencottah*18 Not much is known about the origin of Ays.

The Paliyam Copper Plates^of Vikramaditya Varaguna ascribe the­

ir origin to the family of Yadavas. In Tolkappiyam, the

 119
Ays are described as immigrants to the South from Dwarka

along with the sage Agastya. The prominent Ay kings of the

Sangam Age were Andiran, Titiyan and Athiyan. Elephant was

the emblem of Ay kings®

Andiran;-

He figures in Purananuru- and his praises are sung by

Sangam poets, Muda Mosiyar, Odaikkizhar2lnd Kiranar22 His

kingdom extended from the Pampa in the north west to the

Tarmarpani in the south-east and certain parts of Tinnevelly

and Western Ghats were also within his kingdom. He had a

victory over the kings of the Kongu country (Puram 130).

He was a Saivite by faith.

Titiyan;-

Sangam works mention Titiyan as the king after Andiran,

though it is difficult to say whether he was the immediate

successor to Andiran. The poets Kapilar and Paranar and

the poe*t king Bhutapandyan of the Pandya kingdom were his

contemporaries. There is no reliable source to show that

there were any conflicts between the Ays and the Pandyas

during his time.

Athiyan:-

The next king known from the Sangam works is Athiyan.

During his rule, the kingdom began to disintegrate. The

 120

Pan aya re king Pasumpan P an cl yan ( Azhakia Pandyan ) invaded the

Ay kingdom and subjugated Athiyan,

After this defeat, the Ays attempted to regain their

lost freedom and political power, The Ay king took part

in the battle of Talaiyalankanam, in which the Pandyan king

Nedumchezhiyan defeated seven contemporary South Indian kings.

These reverses did not discourage the Ays^continued their

struggle and at a later period succeeded in becoming masters

of central and south Travaneore.

Ays in the -post - Sangam -period.

The post - Sangam period is not documented and hence one

hears about the Ays at the end of 7th century only from the

inscriptions of the Pandya kings. These are the only sources

for the reconstruction of the Ays in the 7th, 8th centuries.

By 7th century, the Pandyas had become very powerful and

they made a series of attempts up to the end of the 8th

century to conquer the Ay kingdom and the Ays seem to be

on the defensive struggle.

The Pandyan king Jayantavarman (645 - 670 A.D.) had some

success over his contemporary kings in Kerala. His successor

Arikesari (670 «* 700 A,D,) also won a battle at Sennilan and

 121

defeated the Ay king and captured him alive, Arikesaris*

son Koehadayan (700 - 730 A.D.) also defeated the Ay king

in a "battle at Maruthur0 This is evident from the Vgivi—

kuddi inscription?^

After the Maruthur war, truce seem to have prevailed for

some time. It seems to have been broken and Hajasimhas* son

Maran Chadayan (765 - 815 A„D»), invaded the Ay kingdom many
times indicating the continued conflict. Ays did not remain
under the Pandyan supremacy for long. The Ay kings during
the period of Maranchadayan were Chadaiyan and his son
Karunantan.

Karunandadakkan:-

The most important king of the Ay dynasty was Karunan­

dadakkan (875 “885 A.33.) with his capital at Vizhinjam. On
the evidences of Huzur Plates2? it is inferred tint he

also bore the name Sri Vallabha.

He was a promoter of religion and learning. He built the

Vishnu temple at Parthivasekharapuram and established a Yedic

college at the same place.

 122

Yikramad1tya Yaraguna;-

The successor of Karunandadakkan .was Yikramaditya Yaraguna

from 855 to, 925 A.P. During Ms time,, the struggle for poli­
tical supremacy "between the Pandyas and Cholas had reached a

critical phase and hence the pressure on Ays was not only
reduced, but their help was sought# Yaraguna seems to have
helped the Pandyas in their fight against the Chola king
Parantaka ( 907 - 955 A#D.). The reign of Yaraguna might

have ended in 925 A#D#

In the conflicts Pandyas and the Ays suffered heavily

at the hands of the Cholas# With the death of Yaraguna,
the Ays lost the status of a separate dynasty and its northern
territories became part of the Chera kingdom as evidenced by
a 10th century inscription, when Rajasimha Pandya was defeated
by Parantaka Chola, the Kanthalur and Yizhinjam which,were
parts of the Ay kingdom, are referred to as places lying
within the Chera rule.

Though Yaraguna was engaged in the bitter struggle against

the Cholas, he had time to grant privileges to temples as
evidenced by the Paliyam Copper Plate?5 This testifies his

policy of religious toleration.

 123

The Bzh.il hill kingdom:

In the fifth century when the Ays were powerful in the

South and the Cheras in the centre, in North Kerala the

Bzhil hill kingdom was' powerful. Their capital was Mount

Eli. Its early history is shrouded in darkness for want

of information. The north Malabar, the Kasaragod regions,

Wynad, Gudalur, Nilampur and parts of Western Ghats were

all included in this kingdom. The most famous ruler of

this kingdom was Nannan who is popular in Tamil literature.

He was victorious in many battles. During his time, the

Cholas attacked him and in the battle, the Chola commander

Pazhaiyan died in action against Nannan?6 His another

victory was against Pindan.later Nannan had to face the

threat from Oheras, and in the battle of Pazhi, the Chera coalm­

an der-in-chief was killed by Hannans* commander-in-chief,

Minili and the Oheras were defeated. But the attack from

New Yadukas (Yamba Moriyas) seems to have been more powerful.

His capital was taken and Nannan was forced to flee to the

Wynad forest. Fortunately Nannan could regroup his power

and defeated the Yadukas.

Though he was successful, his success was short lived.

The Cheras under Narmudi Gheral, moved against him and

defeated and killed Nannan in the battle of Yakai. H±s.

 124

kingdom was captured by the Cheras. After Nannan, his son

Uthiyan continued to rule there for some time probably as

a feudatory of the Cheras.

The Second Ghera Empire (800 -1102 A.D.).

The political turmoil which followed the Sangam age,

which witnessed the invasion of Kerala by a number of non-

Kerala powers like the Chalukyas, the Pallavas, the Pandyas

and the Rashtrakutas continued up to the 800 A.D. At this

time the Cheras again rouse to power under Kulasekhara

Yarman. A number of important kings known as Kulasekharas

ruled over Kerala from 800 A.D. to 1102 A.D. with their
capital at 2iruvanchikulam or Mahodayapuram and their

reign is called the "Golden Age 0f Kerala”, politically,

socially and culturally. All the kings of this period

adopted the official title Kulasekhara Perumal which might

have originated from the fact that the founder of the dynasty

was a Kulasekhara. Their capital was at the same place where

the first Chera rulers of Sangam period had their capital,

which was called Yanchi. This period is also marked by

the rise of great sages and seers like Sankaracharya,

Kulasekhara Alwar and Cheraman Perumal Mayanar.

 120

Kulaaekhara Alwar. (800 - 820 A.D»)

Kulasekhara Alwar was the founder of the Second Chera

Empire® Taishnavite religious works mention Mm as a king

who was skilled in the arts of kingship. He defeated, the

Oholas and the Pandyas and got the titles 'Kozhikken*and

'Kudalnayakan®. He later abdicated the throne, installed

foam
his son as king and went place to place singing in praise
A

of God.8

He was a famous Taishnavite saint and figures in the

Taishnavite movement in South India. He wrote two hooks -

the Mukunda Mala in Sanskrit and the Perumal Tirumozhi in

Tamil. He is also credited with the authorship of three

dramas - Tapatismyaranam, Subhadra Dhanjaya and Tichchinna-

bhisheka,

Rajasekhara Tarman. (820 - 844 A-.D.)

Rajasekhara Tarman is identified as the Rajasekhara who

figures in Madhavachary*s Sankaravijaya and Sivanandalahari,

is the second ruler of the dynasty. No detail' is known of

this king. The Tazhapalli inscription of Rajasekhara is the

first epigraphical record of the Chera king to be discovered

from Kerala.
 120

He was an ardent devotee of Site and the famous Saivite

saint Cheraman Perumal Nayanar is identified as Rajasekhara

himself. Sundaramurti, who is belived to have stayed with

Nayanar at Tiruvanchikulam belongs roughly to this period.

Both the saints died at Tiruvanchikulam.

Sthanu Ravi Yarman ( 844 - 885 A.D.)

Sthanu Ravi Yarman, the next Chera ruler was an outstand­

ing ruler of this dynasty. He was the contemporary of the

Chola emperor, Aditya Chola (871 - 907 A.D.). With the

accession of Sthanu Ravi, began a period of Chola - Chera frien­

dship, cemented by marriages between Chola princes and Kerala

princesses. It was mainly with the help of Keralas that the

Chola rose to power. Sthanu Ravi himself went to the assist­

ance of Aditya I and fought at the head of his force against

the Pallavas. The marriage of Parantaka Chola (907 - 55)

with Sthanu Ravi's daughter further strengthened the relations*’

The two important inscription of Sthanu Ravi are the Terisapalli

Copper Plate of 844 A.B., the second at the Kudalmanikkam

temple.

He was a devout Saivite. He was a patron of science,

literature and arts also.

 127
Rama Varma (885 - 917 A.D8)

He succeeded Sthanu Ravi as the king. Some scholars are

of opinion that Sthanu Ravi was succeeded hy Vijayarayan who fi­

gures in the Terisapally and other inscriptions. During his

period, the friendship between the Oheras and the Cholas

continued.

He was a patron of literature and arts. He patronised

the Yamaka poet Vasudeva Bhattatiri, the author of many works.

Eotha Ravi Varma (917 - 947 A.D.)

Rama Varma was succeeded by Kotha Ravi Varma. An

inscription of the 17th year of the kings reign has been

found in ,the Hedumpuram Tali temple and another at Santana

Gopalaswami temple at Tripunithura. During his period, the

whole of Kerala was under his rule and they had been an

important military power in South India. The relation

between the Cheras and the Cholas seem to have deteriorated

during his period* As the Chola empire expanded,the importance

of the Kerala alliance began to diminish. Moreover, the

revival of trade with Europe after the barbarian invasion,

where Kerala had the monopoly of pepper, the Cholas thought of

conquering Kerala. By this time Cholas had consolidated

their power over the Dandyas and under Parantaka, their power

was felt by the Cheras.

 128

Indu Kotha Yarma (944 ~ 962 A»D9)

Goda Ravi Yarma was succeeded by Indu Kotha Yarma.

Six inscriptions of him has been found at places like
?ali29, Trikkakara^®, Muzhikulam ^^ and Tiruvanvandur.^

During his reign, Parantaka Ghola invaded and conquered the

north - "Western part of Kongunad which deteriorated the
relation between the Cheras and the Cholas. But fourtu-
nately for the Cheras the Rashtrakutas defeated the Cholas
at the battle of Takkolam and hence Kerala could remain
peaceful for the next thirty years.

Bhaskara Ravi Yarman I and II.

Bhaskara Ravi Yarman I succeeded Indu Kotha Yarman in

962 to 1021 A.D. to the throne of the Cheras. He had to

continue resistence against the Chola power. The Chola king

Raja Raja (985 - 1016 A.D.) attacked Kandalur Salai. In

999 A.D., he attacked the Chera again and took Kanyakumari and
Kottar. Further north, he advanced up to Yizhinjam and
Kandalur Salai. He sent an expedition against the city of Quilon
and sacked it. The northern part of Chera kingdom was
attacked and ravaged. But the Chola power was not able to

supress the power of the Cheras completely.

 129

Raja Rajas' son and successor Raj&ndra Chola (1012 - 1044)

continued Ms fathers policy* But Bhaskara Ravi Yarman refused

to acknowledge Mm and "by this time, he had reversed the tables

for the time being and not only freed many parts of Kerala

from Choia menace, but also helped Ceylon against their common

enemy Rajendra Chola. In 1019 Rajadhiraja I, the son of

Rajendra Chola after defeating the Ceylon Raja, he sacked

Yizhinjam and Kandalur Salai and moved into northern Kerala,

crushed the Chera army with Bhaskara Ravi Yarman I, dying in

the battle. The Cholas used the land force as well as navy.

But it is seen that although Rajendra won the battle, only the

area south of Trivandrum continued under his rule.

Bhaskara Ravi II ascended the throne in 1019 and he had

only a short reign. On the evidences of the inscriptions of

his discovered from Trikkakara, 33 Tirunelli34 etc. it has been

clear that his reign ended in 1021 A.D,

Yira Kerala (1021 - 1028. A,D.)

Bhaskara Ravis1 successor, Yira Kerala tried to throw the

Chola yoke. But Rajendra Chola sent his son Rajadhi Raja to

supress the Cheras in 1028 A.D, and was victorious.Vira Kerala

was captured and was trampled to death under an elephant. The

Yenad king^Kandan Kari Yarman, the Mushika chief of Iramakulam,

 130

were also killed in this battle. The prolonged war with the

Cholas weakned the Chera power and Kulasekhara power disintegra­

ted.

The followers of Yira Kerala continued the struggle against

the Ghola power. Yira Kerala was succeeded by Rajasimha (1028 -

1043 A.D.). and he acknowledged the supremacy of the Cholas.

But his follower Bhaskara Ravi III (1043 to 1048) attempted

several times to regain their power and he seems to have

succeeded by the time of Kulottunga Chola (1070 A.3).} and

Kerala once again became free from the Chola control. But

this freedom was short lived. The Cheras were.once more

defeated and controlled by the Cholas.

Rama Yarma Kulasekhara (1090 - 1102 A.D.)

He was the last of the Kulasekharas of Mahodayapuram,

came to the throne at this period of crisis in the history

of Kerala. He decided to Kerala from the Chola power. The

Chola king, Kulottunga I (1070 - 1120) sent his general,

Naralokavira, first to the Pandyan country and then to Kerala.

The Pandyan army under Parakrama was defeated, then he marched

towards Kerala and he took Kottar and Kantalur Sala y

But
the defenders disputed euery inch. The Chola army moved furthe:

north and destroyed Quilon city. Rama Yarma understood the

danger and rallied all patriotic forces under him for war to
 131

liberate Kerala from Chola imperialism. A large body of the

Ohera army was transformed into suicide squads (chavers).

But in the long war, his capital Mahodayapuram and the neighbo­
uring places were burned down, This defeat made him to shift

his capital to Quilon. At Quilon, he called upon all the

former Samanthas and other nobles to make a last effort to
free the land from the Chola menace. In 1099, he moved with
a large army against the Chola army and the Chola army was
forced to withdraw;', towards Kottar. This marked the end of

Chola domination over Kerala.

With the migration of Rama Varma Kulasekhara from Maho­

dayapuram to Quilon, the Kulasekhara dynasty came to an end.

The Venad attained the-status of an independent kingdom and

Rama Yarma Kulasekhara became the founder of that kingdom.

Rise of Yenad, Kolathunad., Cochin and Calicut.

The prolonged Chera.- Chola war in the 12th century weak-

ned the authority .of the Cheras and the vestige of centralised
power in Kerala disappeared. With the absence of centralised
power, political situation became localised and the rise of
1Naduvazhis' . ’ seen and they assert their independence.
They were totally 18 in number. Among these feudatories,
Venad, Kolathunad, Cochin and Galicut become very prominent.
 132

This period of 12th and 13th century is a time of upheaval

in the history of other parts of India. The Turk advance

towards the end of 12th century and the struggles of succeed­

ing centuries kept most of the larger powers busy in their

own affairs. The Cholas, the Hoysalas, the ladavas, the

Eastern Chalukyas, had their own trouble and had to face invas­

ion from the armies of Turks. In this political turmoil,

Kerala was left to its own activity, till the advent of the

piratical trouble created by the Portuguese.

Yenad.

The Yenad, which was the southern most province of the

Kulasekhara dynasty rouse to prominence in the 12th century

A.D. with the disappearance of Kulasekharas as the rulers.

Till 9th century, Venad was only a small principality lying

between Quilon and Trivandrum with their capital at Quilon.

In 12th century, the royal house belonged to the Kizhperur

family* In the same period, a branch of the Ay family from Tri-

ppapur and another from Chiravai, merged with Yenad family

and from this period the ruler of Yenad was designated as

Ohiravai Muppan and the heir - apparent Trippappur Muppan .

Ayyan Atikal Tiruatikal was the first Venad king as we know

from the Terisapalli Copper Plate Grant^issued by him in

849 A.D. The next king for which we get evidence is from
the Mampalli plate-^ of 914 A.D., is of Sri Yallabhan Kotha.
 133

He was followed by Govardhana Marthanda, who figures in the

Jewish plate^ of Bhaskara Ravi Varman (1-000 A.D.). In the

latter part of 11th century, there is,no evidence.of any kings

of Venad.

During the Chera - Ohola conflict, the city of Quilon

was destroyed by the Ohola army. The Ghera capital Mahodayap-

uram was also destroyed by the Ohola army and the Chera ruler

Rama Varma Kulasekhara moved to Quilon and made it as his head

quarters. The Ohola army was defeated by Kulasekhara and he

made Quilon as his capital and he may be regarded as the

founder of the Yenad royal house. The title Kulasekhara and

Kulasekhara Perumal was taken over by the rulers of Yenad since

the days of Rama Yarma Kulasekhara.

The successor of Rama Yarma Kulasekhara was Kotha Yarma

(1102 - 1125 A.D.) who conquered Kot'tar and the neighbouring

portions of Nanjanad from the Pandyas and added them to Yenad.

Kotha Yarma had. four sons, viz., Kotha Kerala Yarma. Yira Ravi

Yarma, Aditya Yarma and Udaya Marthanda Yarma. All of them

r*

ascended the throne from 1125 to 1195 A.D.

The next prominent Venad king was Ravi Kerala Yarma

(1215 - 1240 A.D.) who figures in the Kandiyur inscription^®

(1218 A.D.).. During his period Odanad acknowledged the

authority of Venad. The next ruler was Padmanabha Marthanda

(1240 - 1253). Prom his time to 1299 the history of

Yenad is not known clearly.

 134

One of the most outstanding kings of the Yenad history is

Ravi Yarma Kulasekhara (1299 - 1314 A.D.). He is said to have

conquered parts of South India. He defeated the Pan&yas and

he was crowned himself as the Emperor of South India in 1312 A.D.

He was a patron of Hinduism, arts, trade and commerce. He

is helived to have written the Sanskrit drama Pradyumnabhyudayam.

Rise of Kolathunad.

Not much is known about the origin of Kolathunad. During

the Sangam period, the area was under the ruler of Ezhilmala and

in the age of the second Ohera rulers, the whole area was

under the Kulasekharas. Some scholars are of opinion that the

Mushakas are the decendants of the ancient Nannan*s family.

But some are of opinion that the Mushakas were an independent

dynasty.

In the Hth century, the old Mushaka country had come to he

known as Kolathunad and.the new line of rulers called IColathiris

was ruling over this kingdon. The hourdarbies of this kingdom at

their zenith extended from the Netravati river in the north to

the Korapuzha in the south and from Kudumala in the east to the

Arabian sea in the west.

 135

No chronological order for the Icings of this dynasty is

available. Among the few outstanding rulers the first was

Raghava. But none of his military activities are known from
any source. He was a patron of literature. Kerala Varma

(1423 - 1446) was another prominent ruler of this kingdom.

He too was a patron of letters and learning. His court was
aderned with poets and scholars. Rama Vamna, a prince, wrote

the Bharatasamgraha and the Sanskrit drama Chandrikalapida.

The famous Malayalam work Krishnagatha was written under the
patronage of one Udaya Tarman Kolathiri.

The rise of Cochin Dynasty.

Cochin royal-kingdom came into prominence in the begining

of 16th century only. The early history of Cochin is not known.
According to the tradition the Perumpadappu chief of Cochin
ruler was the descendant of the Kulasekharas of Mahodayapuram
in the material line. The Perumpadappu Swarupam had their
capital at Chitrakulam in the Perumpadappu village in
Vennerittil, till the end of 13th century.

By the study of inscriptions, the names of three early

Cochin rulers were brought to light. They are Bhaskara Ravi
Varma, whose name appears in the Copper-Plate Grant to the
Jewsf® in the Tirunelli inscription^ and a stone inscript­

ion in the temple at Trikkakara. Yira Raghava and Goda Ravi

are the other two rulers.
 136

The Perumpadappu Swarupam’s capital Yennerittil was

abandoned when the Zamorin of Calicut attacked Yalluvanad

in the later half of the 13th century and the Swarupam migrated

to Mahodayapuram. Later in 1405, the capital was transferred

to Cochin® The conflict between the Zamorin and the Raja of

Cochin for political supremacy started in the 15th century.

This brought the internal dissensions in the country of Cochin.

Rise of Calicut under the Early Zamorins:-

The kingdom of Calicut was an important power in north

and central Kerala in the medieval period. The kingdom of

Calicut was called Rediyiruppu Swarupam after the original

house of the Bradis at Hediyiruppu. Its ruler was popularly

known as the Samuri, the term Zamorin being its Europeanised

form. The Bradis are the founders of this kingdom following

the fall of the Kulasekhara dynasty. Calicut under the

Zamorins became a political force in the 14th century.

The Zamorins started a seried of campaigns to bring the

neighbouring principalities under his rule. Rajas of Beypore,

Patappanad, Yettat, Kurumbarnad, Payyoremala nairs and the

local chieftlans, all accepted his suzernaity. Later he

brought under his rule Tirunavai in the Valluvanad territory

in South Malabar exploiting the internal feud between two

 137

Nambodiri factions, The Zamorin continued his conquest

and brought under his control Nilambur, Manjeri, Malappuram

and Venkatakota. Then he annexed the Talappilli kingdom

and some part of Valluvanad,

The internal dissentions in the Perumpadappu Swarupam

provided the opportunity to the Zamorin to interfere in the

politics of Cochin and defeated the Raja of Cochin. Kollangode

was also brought under his rule. The Kolathiri Raja's of the

lorth Kerala were also defeated and the areas annexe'di to his

reign. So in tne medieval period Calicut under the Zamorins

become a major power in northern and central Kerala.

The Zamorins of Calicilt were 'very good patrons of learning

culture and literature. Manavikroma (14-66 - 1471) was a man

of letters. He wrote the commentry Yikramiya, on Murari's

Anargharaghava. His court was adorned by 18 celebrated

poets called ’Patinattarakavikal'. Under the Zamorins,

ei!ery year a seven day literary assembly known as the

’’Revati Pattathanam" was conducted at Tali temple.

Some minor Principalities: -

The political condition of Kerala at the end of the

15th century immediately before the arrival of the Portuguese

was very complex. The whole area of Kerala was divided into

a number of petty principalities over each of which ruled a

 138

Raja or some chief who acknowledged the suzerainity of one

of the major rulers. At the close of the 15th century only

the Kolathiri, the Zamorin and the Yenad had full soverigin

rights. Besides these rulers, there were minor Rajas of

whom the chief were the Rajas of Tanur, Cranganore, Cochin,

Mangat, Idapalli, Yadakkumkur, Tekkumkur, Procaud, Kayamkulam

Quilon and llayadathu Sworupam. A short description of the

minor principalities are given below.

Ali Raja of Cannanore

The Cannanore was ruled by the chief called Ali Raja,

who hails from the Arakkal family. The senior most member

of the family is given the name Ali Raja and the "family was

founded by one Arayankulangara Nair, one of the Ministers

of Kotathiri, He became a convert Islam and-he had become

the lord of Cannanore bazar.and a powerful controler of

selling spices. The Portuguese, the Dutch and the English

tried to keep good relation with him because of his high

standing In the field of commerce. It was at his request that

Haider Ali invaded North Kerala in 1766.

Yalluvanad;-

The Yalluvanad family was founded by one Rajasekhara

of the second Chera Empire in the 10th century A.D. His

son Yallabha was killed by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna II

 13 9

in the battle of Takkolam in 949 A.D. Their capital was

Valluvanagaram. Yalluvanad comprised of the whole of present

Perintalmann'a and Ottappalam talukas. They made repeated

attempts to regain Tirunavai, which was taken by the Zamorin
of Calicut. At the time of Tipus invasion, the Raja sought asy­

lum in Travancore.

Bdapalli;-

Bdapalli was a small kingdom near Cochin founded by

a Nambudiri Brahmin with the fall of the Kulasekhara Empire
in 1102 A.D. The Island of vaipin and Cochin also belonged
to him, Sometime about 1400 A.D., one of the Edapalli chiefs
gifted the land to the Raja of Cochin. His successors tried
in-vain to regain the land. Then with the help of Zamorin,
they attacked Cochin and regained the land.

Cranganore

The Craganore principality exercised their rule over

the present Cranaganore Taluk. The Cranganore claims their

origin to a Kshatriya chiefy a* the one who accompanied

Rajendra chola when he captured Tiruvanehikulam in the 11th
43
cen ury. Throughout their rule, they accepted the suzera­
inty of either the Zamorin or the Raja of Cochin.
 140

Yadakkumkurj -

Vadakkumkur was the northern part of the Vempolinad

kingdom and it came into existence about 1100 A.D. Compr­

ising the Etliumanur and Vaikam areas and a portion of the

Minachil Taluk. Their capital was at Kaduthuruthi first

and later at Yaikom. The Kizumalainad which comprised the

Muvattupuzha and Thodupuzha Taluks of the present day merged

in Yadakkumkur in 1600 A.D, and from that time they had their

capital at Karikode* Eor a long time the kingdom was subor­

dinate to Perumpadappu Swarupam.

Tekkumkur:-

The kingdom came into existence about 1100 A.D. when

the Vempolinad was split into two kingdoms, viz., Yadakkumkur

and Tekkamkur* The Tekkumkur kingdom had their boundaries to

the south of Kayamkulam and on the north by Yadakkumkur and

Kizmalainad. They shifted their capital from Yennimala and

Manikantapuram to Nettaseri, finally in the out skirts of

Kottayam. The kingdom was subordinate to Cochin.

Purakkads-

The kingdom comprised the present Ambalapuzha and Kuttanad

Taluks• They also known as Champakasseri kingdom, who were

 141

good patrons of learning and the kingdom was ruled by a line

of Brahmins. The ancestral home of the Chempakasseri Rajas

was Kudamalur in Kottayam Taluk.

Kayamkulam: -

The kingdom comprised portions of Chengannur, Mavelikara,

Iiarunagappally and Earthigapally Taluks with their capital at

Kandiyar Mattam near Mavelikara. This kingdom was originally
called 0danad and some of the prominent chiefs of this kingdom
in the 13th and 14-th centuries were Rama Eotha ^arman. Rama
Adicha barman, Ravikerala barman etc. In the 15th century,

the capital was shifted to Sruva in Eayamkulam and thereafter

the kingdom as Eayamkulam.

Some of the other important minor principalities were

Attingal,Earunagappally, Earth!gapally, Pantalam, Punjar,

Earappuram, Anchi Eaimals, Parur, Alangad, Airur, Talapilli,

Palghat, Eollengode, Eavalappara, Vettanad Parappanad,

Eurumpuranad, Eodathainad, Kottayam, Kurangoth, Randathara,

Hileswaram and Kumbala.
 G-eneologieal table of the Sangam Cheras:
(The ordinals in- the bracket indicate the Paththus and Patittupathus)

Utian Cheral (i)

Nedum Oheralathan (II)

i
Palayani (III)

V
Narmudi Cheral (IV) Vel Kelu Kuttavan (V) A-tukot Pattu knthuvan
(VI)
Oheralathan

■
Selvakatumko (VII)
r '

Perum Cheral Irumporai (YIII)

Ilam Cheral arumporai (IX)

■
l

Yani Katchai (X)

142
Genealogical Table of the Kulasekharas of

Mahodayapuram.

Cheras.

Bhaskara Ravi 962 - 1019 A.D.

Y arman I

Bhaskara Ravi 979 - 1021 A.D.

Yarman II

Yira Kerala 1021 - 1028 A.D.

Rajasmha 1028 - 1045 A.D.

Bhaskara

Ravi Yarmanlll 1043 - 1082 A.D.

Ravi Rama

Yarma 1082 - 1090 A.D.

Rama Yarma

Ku'lasekharan 1090 - 1102 A.D.

 Geneologic al Table :

Ays Cheras Cholas Pandyas

Sadayan till Kulasekhara Maran jadayan or 765-815 A.D.
about 788 A.D. Alwar 800-820A.D.
J atilavarman .

Karunandan 788-857 Rajasekhara 820-844 Parantaka Sri Mara 815-862 A.D.

Karunandaruman A.D. Varman A.D. Sri Vallabha.
Karunandada- 857-885 Sthanu Ravi 844-885 Vijayalaya 850-871 Varaguna 862-885 A.D.
kkan .. A.D. Varman. A.D. A.D. Varman II
Vikramaditya 885-925 Rama Varma 885-917 Aditya I 871-907 Parantaka Yira 860-905 A.D.
V araguna *.D. A.D. \ A.D. Narayana
Goda Ravi 917-944 Parantaka 907-955 Maravarman 905-920 A.D.
Varma A.D. I 'A.D. Rajasimha II
Indu Kotha 944-962
Varma A.D.

M
 5

CholasP Cher a Pandyas

• /TO O
hOO & o V 100io3).

Earikala Uthian Cheral

Eudanad
Nedum Cheralathan
Yavanas
150” 1 Yelpattadakkai . 150 "
Eongu , i.ys t

Palayani Sel Eelu /

Porainad

- -
u
002 -i&nchi
Narmudi ’** 200 ”
/'
, Hannan
Yel Eelu Kuttavan
Selva Kadumko
Takadur Perum Cheral Irump oral
250 " ' 111am Cheral Irumporai . 250 «
---------- -
--
- -<r1x-„; i-- '
Yanikatchai *' " Hedum Ch.ezM.yan I

0>
' Chengannan Eanikkal Irumporai
300 300 ”
Nayars Jt '
Ealabhras
Eadambas
-- < m

350 ” . . 350
 146

References:

1. Innes, C.A: Madras District Gazetters, Malabar,p.26.

2. Ibid: p.25.

3* Murti Sreenivasa, G: and Aiyangar Krishna, A,Ns Edicts of

Asoka, p*5.

4. Sastri Milakanta, K.As Eoreign Notices of South India,

p • 53»

5® Ibid, p.57.

6. Menon Sreedhara, A: A Survey of Kerala History, p.67

7. Ibid,

8. Ibid.
9. Murti Sreenivasa, G: and Aiyangar Krishna, A.Ns Ibid.

Ediet, No.I, p.3, II, p.7, 17, p.II etc.

10. Ibid, p.68*

11. Pillai Elankulam Kunjan, Studies in Kerala History, p.139.

12* Ibid, p.139.

13. Ibid.

14. Puram 62-63 .

15. Menon Sreedhara, As Ibid, p.105.

16. T.A.S. Vol.I, pp.187 - 93.

17. The Cheras the Oholas and the Pandyas.

18. 127 -135. 241, 374, 375.

19* Puram. 240.

20. Pillai Elamkulam Kunjan, L. ■. (b) Chila Keralacharitra

Prasnangal. (in Malayalam), p.91.

 147

21. Pillai Elamkulam JKunjan, Ibid* (b) p. 224.

22. Pillai Elamkulam KunJan, Ibid, (a) p. 42.

23. Ibid.

24. I he search to locate the capital by the author in the area

Srfas not fruitfulo

25* Pillai llamkulam Kunjan, Ibid, (a) pi 46.

26. Ibid. p.45»

27. The poet Paranar praises him in Akam, 258.

28. Rao Gopinatha, l.A: IAS, Yol.II, Part-I, pp.8 - 14.

29. Ibid.pp. 6@ -83®

30. Pillai Elamkulam Run3an, Ibid, (b) p.227.

31. Ibid, p.230.

32. Subramanya Aiyer, K.Y: T.A.S. Yol.Ill, Part-II, pp.161-169.

33* Ibid, p.189 - 90.

34. Pillai Elamkulam Kunjan, Ibid, (b) p.230.

35. Rao Gopinatha, I.A: T.A.S.Ibid. pp. 38-41®

36. Hultzsch, Epi. Ind. Yol. Ill, pp. 66 - 70.

37. Rao Gopinatha, T.A: I.A.S. Ibid, pp.60 - 83.

38* Epi.End. Yol.IX, pp.234 - 9.

39. Rao Gopinatha, T.A: g.A.S. Ho.XVl, pp.288 - 290.

40. Menon ,;Sreedhara, A; Ibid, p.165.

41. Ibid, p.169.