UNDERSTANDING RABIES

By

Dr. A. K. Gupta
From Association for Prevention and Control of Rabies in India
All rights reserved. This book is protected by copyright. No part of this
publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise without the prior permission of the copyright owner, Dr.A.K.Gupta.

First published: March 2013

Author:
Dr. A.K. Gupta

All rights reserved with © Dr. A.K. Gupta

Price:

Published by:
Aditi Publications
B -1/57, Ashok Vihar, Phase-2,
Delhi-110052 (India)
Tel.: 09811045255
E-mail: guptanift@gmail.com
This book is dedicated to all those who are working
together to make Rabies history
Contents

Preface i

Acknowledgments iii

1. Epidemiology 1
2. Rabies statistics in India 2
3. Rabies Virus 3
4. Animal reservoirs 4
5. Transmission 5
6. Modes of exposures 5
7. Pathogenesis 7
8. Essentials of Rabies Diagnosis 7
9. Types of Rabies 7
10. Clinical features of Rabies in Humans 8
11. Detection of rabies virus 10
12. About Various available tests 12
13. Differential Diagnosis 15
14. Management of Animal Bites 15
15. Post Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP) 15
16. Local treatment of wound(s) 15
17. Animal bites and Infections 17
18. Categorization of animal bite wound(s) 18
19. Observation of biting animal 18
20. Anti Rabies Vaccination (ARV) 19
21. Historical Development of Rabies Vaccines 19
22. Ideal Requirements of a Rabies Vaccine 20
23. Various types of modern anti-rabies vaccines 20
24. Window period 22
25. Vaccine potency and storage 22
26. Vaccination in special medical conditions 23
27. Bite by a vaccinated dog 23
28. PEP Vaccination Schedule (WHO ESSEN-IM) 24
29. Reasons for Rabies Post-Exposure Prophylaxis Failures 25
30. Intradermal Vaccination (IDRV) in India 25
31. Mode of action 26
32. ID injection technique 26
33. IDRV vaccines 26
34. Side effects 27
35. Dose and Schedule of IDRV 28
36. Eight-site intradermal regimen (“8–0–4–0–1–1” regimen) 28
37. Sites for IDRV 28
38. Contraindications to IDRV 28
39. Potency of IDRV 29
40. Criterion for protection (Seroconversion) and its importance 29
41. Rabies Immunoglobulin (RIG) 30
42. Importance of RIG 30
43. Types of RIGs 31
44. Dosage of RIGs 31
45. Availability of different RIGs in India 31
46. When to administer RIGs 31
47. Precautions to be taken while administering RIGs 32
48. Skin Sensitivity Testing & interpretation 32
49. Adverse reactions to HRIGs 33
50. Mode of Administration of full dose of RIGs 34
51. RIGs in re-exposure cases 34
52. Approach to a patient requiring RIGs, when none is available 35
53. Important Considerations 35
54. Pre-exposure vaccination (PrEV) 36
55. Rabies in animals 37
56. Control of rabies in dogs 38
57. Vaccines for veterinary use 38
58. Animal birth control 38
59. Myths about rabies in India 38
60. Seasonal variation in dog bite cases 39
61. How Can You Prevent Rabies 39
62. Methods of euthanasia(for animals) 39
63. Conclusion 40
Preface

Rabies is acute viral encephalitis. It is a zoonotic disease (i.e. transmitted by

animals). All mammals, but mainly carnivores and bats, are susceptible and can
transmit rabies virus. Human exposures are most frequently associated with
bites by rabid dogs and transmission of virus from dogs’ saliva. Rabies is the
only communicable disease of man that is practically 100% fatal even today
but easily preventable. Till date only seven survivors have been recorded.
Few countries are free of rabies as a result of their privileged geographical
situation & strict application of stringent legislation.
The Association for the Prevention and Control of Rabies in India (APCRI)
reported in 2004 that there were 20,565 reported human deaths over the
period of one year. True incidence of human rabies could be even 10 times
more than those officially reported. Current statistics of animal bites/rabies in
animal population are scanty, unreliable and controversial due to poor
surveillance/reporting system.
Dog is the commonest source of human rabies in Asia and Africa. It causes over
99% of all global human rabies deaths. Nearly 96% of cases are due to bites
from stray, ownerless, dogs. 40-65% of dog bite victims are children <15 years.
Hydrophobia and aerophobia are pathognomonic for rabies and occur in 50%
of patients. Attempting to drink or having air blown in the face produces
severe laryngeal or diaphragmatic spasms and a sensation of asphyxia. This
may be related to a violent response of the airway irritant mechanisms. Even
the suggestion of drinking may induce hydrophobic spasm. Hydrophobia is
typically unique to human beings.
There is no specific treatment for clinical rabies. Key to survival after exposure
to rabies virus is administration of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) as soon as
possible. Death is virtually inevitable once clinical signs develop. Medical
management is supportive and palliative.
Rabies can be prevented by:
- Avoiding contact with unfamiliar animals. Do not handle, feed, or attract
wild animals. Place litter in closed garbage cans. Never adopt or bring wild
animals into your home. Teach your children to never handle unfamiliar
animals, wild or domestic, even if they appear friendly.

i
- Being a responsible pet owner. Keep rabies vaccinations up-to-date for all
cats and dogs. Neuter your pets to help reduce the number of unwanted
pets that may not be properly cared for or vaccinated regularly.
Let us work together to make rabies history.

17th March, 2013

Dr. A. K. Gupta
Clinic: C 1/15, Rana Pratap Bagh, Delhi-110007, India.
Residence: B-1/57, Ashok Vihar, Phase-2, Delhi-110052, India.
Author of (1) "RABIES - the worst death" (2) “Frequently Asked Questions on
Rabies” (3) Understanding Rabies
Joint Secretary, Association for Prevention and Control of Rabies in India (APCRI)
M: 09811045255, E-mail: guptanift@gmail.com
Website: www.drakgupta.in

ii
Acknowledgments

The help of my wife Dr. Archana Gupta in preparation of the manuscript is

sincerely acknowledged. The publication of this book was made possible by the
personal and sincere efforts of Mr. Abhinav K. Gupta. I gratefully acknowledge
Aditi Publications for publishing this book. Finally, readers are welcome to give
their comments, suggestions, and feedback for improving on this effort and
add to the present knowledge of rabies prevention.

Dr. A.K. Gupta

iii
 Understanding Rabies

Epidemiology

Rabies is one of the oldest and most feared zoonotic diseases, and has been a
threat to human health for more than 4000 years. Rabies is a neglected and
severely under-reported disease. The WHO estimated the annual number of
human rabies deaths to be between 40,000 and 70, 000. All mammals, but
mainly carnivores and bats, are susceptible and can transmit rabies virus.
Human exposures are most frequently associated with bites by rabid dogs and
transmission of virus from dogs’ saliva. The Association for the Prevention and
Control of Rabies in India (APCRI) estimated in 2004 that in India, there were
20,565 reported human deaths every year. Human rabies in India accounts to
36 % of global rabies deaths and 56 % of human rabies deaths in Asia. Rabies is
the only communicable disease of man that is practically 100% fatal even
today but easily preventable.
About half of the world’s population lives in areas in which rabies is enzootic.
Till date only seven survivors have been recorded. These patients survived not
due to any specific anti-rabies therapy but following intensive life support and
excellent nursing care. These patients survived for variable periods with
residual neurological deficits. All the survivors had paralytic form of rabies and
majority had history of some anti-rabies vaccination in the past.
There are about 59 countries that do not report rabies.
Few countries are free of rabies as a result of their privileged geographical
situation & strict application of stringent legislation.
According to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Countries and
political units that reported no indigenous cases of rabies are:

REGION COUNTRIES

Cape Verde, Libya, Mauritius, Réunion, São Tomé and Príncipe,

Africa
and Seychelles

North: Bermuda, St. Pierre and Miquelon

Caribbean: Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, The Bahamas,
Barbados, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Guadeloupe, Jamaica,
Americas
Martinique, Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles, Saint Kitts (Saint
Christopher) and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Martin, Saint Vincent
and Grenadines, Turks and Caicos, and Virgin Islands (UK and US)

1
 Understanding Rabies

REGION COUNTRIES

Asia and the Hong Kong, Japan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Malaysia (Sabah), Qatar,
Middle East Singapore, United Arab Emirates

Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Czech Republic,2 Denmark,2 Finland,

Gibraltar, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Isle of Man, Luxemburg,
Europe
Netherlands,2 Norway, Portugal, Spain2 (except Ceuta and
Melilla), Sweden, Switzerland.

Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Hawaii, Kiribati,

3
Oceania Micronesia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Northern Mariana
Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Vanuatu
1
Bat rabies may exist in some areas that are reportedly free of rabies in other mammals.
2
Bat lyssaviruses are known to exist in these areas that are reportedly free of rabies in
other mammals.
3
Most of Pacific Oceania is reportedly "rabies-free."

Rabies statistics in India

• Each year approximately 7 million people undergo post exposure rabies
treatment after a dog bite. Besides, there is an estimated 17.4 million
animal bites annually in India. Majority (75%) of animal bite victims belong
to poor or low-income group.
• The Association for the Prevention and Control of Rabies in India (APCRI)
reported in 2004 that there were 20,565 reported human deaths over the
period of one year. True incidence of human rabies could be even 10 times
more than those officially reported. Current statistics of animal bites/rabies
in animal population are scanty, unreliable and controversial due to poor
surveillance/reporting system.
• Nearly 96% of cases are due to bites from stray, ownerless, dogs.
• 40-65% of dog bite victims are children <15 years. Children are at a
significant higher risk of getting bitten by a provoked bite. Children do not
recognize the angry or defensive behavior of the dog and continue to play
with them which the dog considers as the invasion of territory and may
incite an attack.
In India the islands of Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep are free of
rabies.

2
 Understanding Rabies

Rabies virus
Rabies is acute viral encephalitis caused by a RNA virus (Genus: Lyssavirus,
Family: Rhabdoviridae). The genus name derives from lyssa, the Greek goddess
of frenzy.
Virion morphology and size: Enveloped, bullet shaped 45-100 nm in diameter,
100-430 nm in length.
Nucleic acid: Single-stranded, linear, negative-sense RNA genome, ~11.9 kb in
length.
These viruses have a phospholipids envelope with glycoprotein surface spikes.
The rabies virus genome encodes five proteins: the nucleoprotein (N), the
matrix protein (M), the glycoprotein (G-protein is an antigen, to which
protective anti-bodies are induced), the phosphorylated protein (P) and a large
polymerase protein (L).
The existence of lyssaviruses that are closely related to rabies virus and that
can also cause clinical disease (Duvenhage virus, Lagos bat virus, Mokola virus,
Shimoni bat virus, and Ikoma virus) has been known for several decades.
Types of rabies virus
There are mainly two types of rabies virus.
1. Street virus which is virulent, having a long and variable incubation period
of about 3 weeks to 3 months. When first isolated from natural human or
animal hosts, rabies virus preserves its natural properties and is referred to
as street virus. Most of the street virus isolates generally cause a lethal CNS
infection.
2. Fixed virus which is an attenuated street virus. It is a rabies virus that has
been passaged in tissue culture or animals. The term fixed indicates only
that the incubation period and virulence has been stabilized. Fixed virus is
least virulent, and has a fixed short incubation period of 5-9 days. It is used
as seed virus for manufacturing rabies vaccines.
Rabies virus gets inactivated by:
• By heat (1 hour at 50°C)
• On exposure to ultraviolet radiation
• By exposure to 70% ethanol, phenol, formalin, trypsin, β-propiolactone, 1%
sodium Hypochlorite, 2% glutaraldehyde
• Detergents

3
 Understanding Rabies

• By lipid solvents.
• At pH below 3 or above 11.
• Rabies virus is susceptible to sunlight and desiccation. It is inactivated
rapidly in sunlight and does not survive for long periods out of the host (in
dried blood and secretions)
• Ultra-violet and x-rays.
Rabies virus is resistant to cold and freeze drying.
Animal reservoirs
Reservoir means species in which transmission of virus is sustained with a
maintained circle of infection within the species.
Vector means any animal which transmits the disease.
Rabies exists in two forms:
1. Urban Rabies, propagated chiefly by unimmunized dogs.
2. Sylvatic rabies, propagated by skunks, foxes, raccoons, mongooses, wolves,
bats etc.
Dog is the commonest source of human rabies in Asia and Africa. It causes over
99% of all global human rabies deaths.
In America, north of Mexico and in Europe, only 0.1% to 5% of the total
number of animal rabies cases reported annually involve dogs.
In these areas, three factors may account for the low prevalence of disease in
dogs:
1. A large proportion of the dog population is restricted in movements (i.e.,
dogs are kept indoors or in enclosures and are kept on a leash when
outside)
2. Dog vaccination is strongly recommended or even compulsory; and
3. It is possible that strains of virus that are adapted to wild species are not
well suited for propagation within dog populations.
The host animals of the rabies virus differ among regions. The main vectors are
foxes in Europe and Canada, raccoons, skunks, and fruit-eating and
insectivorous bats in the United States, dogs in Asia, mongooses, jackals, and
dogs in Africa, and dogs and vampire bats in Latin America.

4
 Understanding Rabies

In India, the animals commonly responsible for transmission of rabies are dogs
and cats (97%) followed by wild animals like mongoose, foxes & jackals (2%)
and occasionally by horses, donkeys, monkeys, cows, goats, sheep and pigs.
India has approximately 25 million dogs, with an estimated dog: man ratio of
1:36.2. The dogs fall into 4 broad categories: pets (restricted and supervised);
family dogs (partially restricted, wholly dependent); community dogs
(unrestricted, partially dependent); and undomesticated stray dogs
(unrestricted, independent). Most dogs in India, perhaps 80%, would fall into
the last 3 categories. The majority of the stray dog population is found in rural
areas.
Animal bites are very common in India. The annual incidence of animal bites is
high, 1.7% and it is more in rural areas (1.8%), children (2.6%) and poor/low
income group (75%). The main biting animal is dog (91.5%), mostly stray (63%),
followed by cat (4.7%). Neither the age nor the breed or sex of the dog is
important in transmission of rabies.
In India most rodents, rats, squirrel, rabbits, birds and bats have been found to
be free of rabies. However, following exposure to mongoose, PEP is
recommended.
Rat bite cases do not require rabies vaccination but this is a right opportunity
to start pre-exposure vaccination.
Transmission
Modes of exposures: Human exposures to rabies can generally be categorized
as bite, open wound, mucous membrane, or other types of exposure:
Bite exposure: Any penetration of the skin of a person by the teeth of a rabid
or potentially rabid animal.
Open wound exposure: Introduction of saliva or other potentially infectious
material (cerebrospinal fluid, spinal cord, or brain tissue) from a rabid or
potentially rabid animal into an open wound (e.g., broken skin that bled within
the past 24 hours).
Mucous membrane exposure: Introduction of saliva or other potentially
infectious material (cerebrospinal fluid, spinal cord, or brain tissue) from a
rabid or potentially rabid animal onto any mucous membrane (eyes, nose,
mouth).

5
 Understanding Rabies

Other exposure: Any interaction with a rabid or potentially rabid animal where
a bite, open wound, or mucous membrane exposure cannot be definitively
ruled out.
Airborne infections, such as inhaling an aerosol of infected animal brain tissue
in virus laboratories, or of contaminated air in bat-inhabited caves, have been
reported. Bats that are the easiest to approach and capture (unable to fly, etc.)
are the most likely to have rabies. Bat Rabies is not present in India.
Iatrogenic rabies cases have occurred in patients who received cornea, kidney,
liver, or blood vessel graft transplantation from donors who had undiagnosed
rabies.
Transmission of rabies by blood transfusion
There has never been a reported case of rabies infection via a blood
transfusion. Viremia has not been demonstrated, and the virus is intraneuronal
during the incubation period. There is no evidence to suggest that an
apparently healthy blood donor can transmit rabies, even if incubating clinical
rabies.
Rabies cannot be transmitted to doctors/assistants conducting postmortem of
a person who died of rabies. As per Centre for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR), no confirmed case of
rabies has ever been reported in persons who performed a postmortem
examination of people or animals, although contact with decedents with
confirmed or suspected rabies can cause anxiety. Even from living patients
with rabies, human-to-human transmission has been documented only rarely,
(in cases of organ or tissue transplantation).
Both CDC and the World Health Organization (WHO) have stated that the
infection risk to health-care personnel from human rabies patients is no
greater than from patients with other viral or bacterial infections. In addition,
rabies post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) is available for exposed personnel.
Nevertheless, because of the nearly universal fatal outcome from rabies, both
CDC and WHO recommend that all personnel working with rabies patients or
decedents adhere to recommended precautions. Even the minimal risk for
rabies virus transmission at autopsy can be reduced by using careful dissection
techniques and appropriate personal protective equipment, including an N95
or higher respirator, full face shield, goggles, gloves, complete body coverage
by protective wear, and heavy or chain mail gloves to help prevent cuts or
sticks from sharp instruments or bone fragments.

6
 Understanding Rabies

Participation in the autopsy should be limited to persons directly involved in

the procedure and collection of specimens. Previous vaccination against rabies
is not required for persons performing such autopsies. PEP of autopsy
personnel is recommended only if contamination of a wound or mucous
membrane with patient saliva or other potentially infectious material (e.g.,
neural tissue) occurs during the procedure.
Pathogenesis
The first event in rabies is the inoculation of virus through the skin, usually
through a bite that delivers virus-laden saliva. Initial viral replication appears to
occur within striated muscle cells at the site of inoculation. Replication may
occur in muscle/subcutaneous /nerve tissues. The virus gets attached to
nicotinic acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction and enters the
peripheral nerves.The virus then spreads centripetally up the nerve to the CNS,
probably via peripheral nerve axoplasm, at a rate of 3-10 mm/hour. Once the
virus reaches the CNS, it replicates almost exclusively within the grey matter
and then passes centrifugally along autonomic nerves to other tissues – the
salivary glands, adrenal medulla, kidneys, lungs, liver, skeletal muscles, skin,
and heart. Passage of virus into the salivary glands and viral replication in
mucinogenic acinar cells facilitates further transmission via infected saliva.
There is no viremia in Rabies.
Essentials of rabies diagnosis
Hydrophobia and aerophobia are pathognomonic for rabies and occur in 50%
of patients. Attempting to drink or having air blown in the face produces
severe laryngeal or diaphragmatic spasms and a sensation of asphyxia. This
may be related to a violent response of the airway irritant mechanisms. Even
the suggestion of drinking may induce hydrophobic spasm. Hydrophobia is
typically unique to human beings.
Types of rabies
There are mainly two types of rabies:
1. Furious (encephalitic) type, two-third of rabies patients suffer from typical
furious type of rabies. The virus replicates in portions of the brain including
the hippocampus, amygdala, anterior thalamic nuclei and limbic cortex.
Furious rabies has three cardinal signs:

7
 Understanding Rabies

• Fluctuating consciousness, episodes of excitement and hallucinations.

• Phobic spasms – Aerophobia, Hydrophobia and Photophobia.
• Autonomic dysfunctions like increased salivation, excessive sweating,
priapism & pupillary abnormalities.
It is typically believed that salivation and vomiting are linked, and contribute to
the apparent hydrophobia (fear of water) in patients. These symptoms can last
for few days, after which the patient may suffer from the second type of rabies,
or may slip into a coma and die. It is when suffering from furious rabies that a
person or animal is likely to attack those near them, and spread the disease.
2. Dumb (paralytic) type which is characterized by flaccid muscle weakness,
constipation, urinary retention, stupor and coma. Hydrophobia is usually
absent in these cases. This is a condition resembling Guillain Barre
Syndrome. Dumb Rabies occurs as the result of the virus replicating in the
brain’s neocortex.
It is much harder for a doctor to diagnose rabies in its “dumb” form than it is in
its “furious” form, because the symptoms are less indicative of a specific
medical issue.
Both forms are progressive and will lead to death, usually within 7 days in
patients with encephalitic rabies and 3 weeks in those with paralytic rabies.
Clinical features of rabies in humans
The incubation period of rabies that is the time interval between the exposure
to virus and the onset of symptoms, is usually from 03 weeks to 03 months
(rarely 04 days to 02 years).
In rabies, a long and variable incubation period is well known. The recorded
longest incubation periods have been 19 years and 27 years. The later was
recently reported from Philippines. During most of the long incubation period
of rabies, the virus likely remains close to the site of viral entry. Centripetal
spread to the central nervous system and spread within the central nervous
system occur by fast axonal transport.
The incubation period varies with the amount of virus transmitted, virus strain,
site of inoculation (bites closer to the head have a shorter incubation period),
host immunity and nature of the wound.
Children are at an increased risk of a shorter incubation period because of
their short stature and bites are often closer to CNS. Multiple bites to the head
and neck are associated with very short incubation periods less than 1 month.

8
 Understanding Rabies

People who are immuno-compromised will most likely be more susceptible to

rabies. Rabies is usually undetectable during the incubation period, and
infections can also be difficult to diagnose when the clinical signs first appear.

Prodromal syndrome (Lasts for 2-10 days)

• Pain or paraesthesiae at the site of the bite is well known as a diagnostically

useful prodromal symptom occurring in one-third to two-thirds of cases.
• In Thailand, however, a specific type of paraesthesiae-itching-was the
earliest symptom in >40% of cases. Itching occurred at the site of the
healed bite wound or involved the whole bitten limb and was sometimes so
intense as to provoke frenzied scratching and excoriation of the skin. The
explanation for local paraesthesiae may be the multiplication of virus in the
dorsal root ganglion of the sensory nerve supplying the area of the bite.
• Pain behind the grafted eye was an early symptom in three of the four
patients who developed rabies following corneal transplants.
• Priapism with frequent spontaneous orgasms was the first symptom in one
Thai patient.
• Fever, malaise, nausea and vomiting.
• The skin becomes sensitive to changes of temperature, especially air
currents.

Neurologic stage (Lasts for 2-7 days)

• Aphasia
• In coordination
• Paresis
• Paralysis
• Mental status changes
• Hyperactivity

Late symptoms

• Hypotension
• Cardiac arrhythmias
• Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)
• Cardiac arrest

9
 Understanding Rabies

Coma (May last for 0-14 days)

Death usually occurs within a few days after appearance of clinical symptoms.
Detection of rabies virus
(a)Diagnosis of rabies in animals
In animals, rabies is diagnosed using the direct fluorescent antibody (dFA)
test, which looks for the presence of rabies virus antigens in brain tissue.
A diagnosis of rabies can be made after detection of rabies virus from any part
of the affected brain, but in order to rule out rabies, the test must include
tissue from at least two locations in the brain, preferably the brain stem and
cerebellum.
(b)Diagnosis of rabies in humans
Several tests are necessary to diagnose rabies ante-mortem (before death) in
humans; no single test is sufficient. Tests are performed on samples of saliva,
serum, spinal fluid, and skin biopsies of hair follicles at the nape of the neck.
Saliva can be tested by virus isolation or reverse transcription followed by
polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Serum and spinal fluid are tested for
antibodies to rabies virus. Skin biopsy specimens are examined for rabies
antigen in the cutaneous nerves at the base of hair follicles.
Ante Mortem testing
All samples should be considered as potentially infectious. Test tubes and
other sample containers must be securely sealed (tape around the cap will
insure that the containers do not open during transit).
All four samples listed below are required to provide an ante mortem rule out
of rabies.
1. Saliva
Using a sterile eyedropper pipette, collect saliva and place it in a small sterile
container which can be sealed securely. No preservatives or additional material
should be added. Laboratory tests to be performed include detection of rabies
RNA (by reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction, RT/PCR, of
extracted nucleic acids) and isolation of infectious virus in cell culture. Tracheal
aspirates and sputum are not suitable for rabies tests.

10
 Understanding Rabies

2. Neck biopsy

A section of skin 5 to 6 mm in diameter should be taken from the posterior

region of the neck at the hairline. The biopsy specimen should contain a
minimum of 10 hair follicles and be of sufficient depth to include the
cutaneous nerves at the base of the follicle. Place the specimen on a piece of
sterile gauze moistened with sterile water and place in a sealed container. Do
not add preservatives or additional fluids. Laboratory tests to be performed
include RT/PCR and immunofluorescent staining for viral antigen in frozen
sections of the biopsy.

3. Serum and cerebral spinal fluid (CSF)

At least 0.5 ml each of serum and CSF should be collected; no preservatives

should be added. Do not send whole blood. If no vaccine or rabies immune
serum has been given, the presence of antibody to rabies virus in the serum is
diagnostic and tests of CSF are unnecessary. Antibody to rabies virus in the
CSF, regardless of the immunization history, suggests a rabies virus infection.
Laboratory tests for antibody include indirect immunofluorescence and virus
neutralization.

4. Brain biopsy

The rarity of rabies and the lack of an effective treatment make the collection
of a brain biopsy for ante mortem testing unwarranted; however, biopsy
samples negative for herpes encephalitis should be tested for evidence of
rabies infection. The biopsy is placed in a sterile sealed container; do not add
preservatives or additional fluids. Laboratory tests to be performed include
RT/PCR and immunofluorescent staining for viral antigen in touch impressions.

Postmortem testing

In certain cases, human samples may need to be tested for rabies postmortem.
Fresh tissue samples from the central nervous system (brain) should be
submitted. Postmortem diagnosis of rabies is made by immunofluorescent
staining of viral antigen in touch impressions of brain tissue. Portions of the
medulla (brain stem), the cerebellum, and the hippocampus should be frozen
and sent on dry ice to a laboratory. Preservation of tissues by fixation in
formalin is not recommended if rabies diagnosis is desired.

11
 Understanding Rabies

About various available tests

1. Direct fluorescent antibody test
The dFA test is based on the observation that animals infected by rabies virus
have rabies virus proteins (antigen) present in their tissues. Because rabies is
present in nervous tissue (and not blood like many other viruses), the ideal
tissue to test for rabies antigen is brain. The most important part of a dFA test
is fluorescently-labeled anti-rabies antibody. When labeled antibody is
incubated with rabies-suspect brain tissue, it will bind to rabies antigen.
Unbound antibody can be washed away and areas where antigen is present
can be visualized as fluorescent-apple-green areas using a fluorescence
microscope. If rabies virus is absent there will be no staining.
2. Rapid Fluorescent Focus Inhibition Test (RFFIT)
The test measures the ability of antibodies that may be present in a sample to
neutralize and block rabies virus from infecting the cells used in the test. These
antibodies are called rabies virus neutralizing antibodies (RVNA).
Immunofluorescent staining of infected cells is used as an indicator of rabies
virus replication. The RFFIT takes ~20 hours and is both sensitive and specific.
While rabies virus antibodies can be measured through the application of an
Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbant Assay (ELISA), these tests measure binding
antibodies to viral antigens rather than functional neutralizing antibodies
measured in the RFFIT. In some cases, ELISA tests can provide false positive
results if they detect antibodies that bind to rabies virus, but are unable to
neutralize the virus. The RFFIT is the current gold standard serological assay
recommended by both the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices
(ACIP) and the World Health Organization (WHO). Other serological tests, such
as an ELISA, are more appropriate for research, and are not recommended for
samples requiring clinical decision making by clinicians based upon current
ACIP and WHO recommendations.
3. Histological examination
General histopathology
Histological examination of biopsy or autopsy tissues is occasionally useful in
diagnosing unsuspected cases of rabies that have not been tested by routine
methods. When brain tissue from rabies virus-infected animals are stained
with a histological stain, such as hematoxylin and eosin, evidence of
encephalomyelitis may be recognized by a trained microscopist. This method is
nonspecific and not considered diagnostic for rabies.

12
 Understanding Rabies

Before current diagnostic methods were available, rabies diagnosis was made
using this method and the clinical case history. Histopathology evidence of
rabies encephalomyelitis (inflammation) in brain tissue and meninges includes
the following:
1. Mononuclear infiltration
2. Perivascular cuffing of lymphocytes or polymorphonuclear cells
3. Lymphocytic foci
4. Babes nodules consisting of glial cells
5. Negri bodies
Negri bodies
Negri bodies are round or oval inclusions within the cytoplasm of nerve cells of
animals infected with rabies. Negri bodies may vary in size from 0.25 to 27 µm.
They are found most frequently in the pyramidal cells of Ammon's horn, and
the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum. They are also found in the cells of the
medulla and various other ganglia. Negri bodies can also be found in the
neurons of the salivary glands, tongue, or other organs. Staining with Mann's,
giemsa, or Sellers stains can permit differentiation of rabies inclusions from
other intracellular inclusions. With these stains, Negri bodies appear magenta
in color and have small (0.2 µm to 0.5 µm), dark-blue interior basophilic
granules.
The presence of Negri bodies is variable. Histological staining for Negri bodies
is neither as sensitive nor as specific as other tests. Some experimentally-
infected cases of rabies display Negri bodies in brain tissue; others do not.
Histological examination of tissues from clinically rabid animals show Negri
bodies in about 50% of the samples; in contrast, the dFA test shows rabies
antigen in nearly 100% of the samples. In other cases, non-rabid tissues have
shown inclusions indistinguishable from Negri bodies. Because of these
problems, the presence of Negri bodies should not be considered diagnostic
for rabies.
4. Immunohistochemistry (IHC)
IHC methods for rabies detection provide sensitive and specific means to
detect rabies in formalin-fixed tissues. These methods are more sensitive than
histological staining methods, such as H&E and Sellers stains. Like the dFA test,
these procedures use specific antibodies to detect rabies virus inclusions. The
techniques use enzyme-labeling systems that increase sensitivity. In addition,
monoclonal antibodies may be used to detect rabies virus variants.

13
 Understanding Rabies

5. Electron microscopy
The ultra structure of viruses can be examined by electron microscopy. Using
this method, the structural components of viruses and their inclusions can be
observed in detail.
6. Amplification methods
Samples containing small amounts of rabies virus may be difficult to confirm as
rabies-positive by routine methods. Virus isolation in cell cultures increases the
virus concentration because the virus replicates in cell cultures. Mouse
neuroblastoma cells (MNA) and baby hamster kidney (BHK) cells provide an
excellent environment for amplification of rabies virus without the use of
animals.
Another method for amplifying the nucleic acid portion of rabies virus uses
biochemical methods. With this procedure, rabies virus RNA can be
enzymatically amplified as DNA copies. Rabies RNA can be copied into a DNA
molecule using reverse transcriptase (RT). The DNA copy of rabies can then be
amplified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This technique can confirm
dFA results and can detect rabies virus in saliva and skin biopsy samples.
Accuracy of the tests
Because of high sensitivity and specificity of the direct fluorescent antibody
(DFA) test, in comparison to virus isolation methods, the dFA test is the "gold
standard" diagnostic method for rabies.
During clinical disease, millions of viral particles may be found intermittently in
the saliva. In theory, only a single rabies particle or virion is required to result
in a productive infection.
The mass of a single virion has been estimated to be approximately 221
thousand kilodaltons. A small proportion of this amount includes viral RNA
which accounts for less than 2% of the mass of a single virion.
Any rabies test proposed on living animals would need to be extremely
sensitive to detect very minute quantities of protein or nucleic acid. In
addition, several repeat tests would be needed over time to ensure that rabies
virus excretion is not missed since viral shedding in the saliva is inconsistent.

14
 Understanding Rabies

Differential diagnosis of rabies

• Encephalitis
• Guillain-Barre Syndrome
• Herpes Simplex
• Herpes Simplex Encephalitis
• Poliomyelitis
• Tetanus
During differential diagnosis, the most important viruses to rule out are Herpes
Simplex virus type 1and Varicella-zoster virus.
Management of animal bites
Post Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP)
As there is no specific treatment for clinical rabies, key to survival after
exposure to rabies virus is administration of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) as
soon as possible. Death is virtually inevitable once clinical signs develop.
Medical management is supportive and palliative.
Improper treatment to animal bite victims may lead to rabies death and
litigation under Consumer Protection Act (COPRA). According to Consumer
Protection Act, the animal bite should be considered as “medical urgency” and
treated with due care.
PEP includes
1. Local treatment of wound(s)
2. Categorization of animal bite wound(s)
3. Anti Rabies Vaccination (ARV)
4. Administration of Rabies Immunoglobulin (RIG)
5. In addition, Tetanus prophylaxis, analgesics & systemic antibiotics may be
given.
As rabies is 100% fatal, there are no contraindications to post exposure
prophylaxis.
Local treatment of wound(s)
By mere washing of wounds and application of antiseptics, the risk of rabies
reduces by about 50%.

15
 Understanding Rabies

The maximum benefit of the wound washing is obtained when fresh wound is
cleaned immediately. It is important to remove saliva containing rabies virus at
the site of bite by physical or chemical means. This can be done by prompt and
gentle thorough washing with ordinary soap or detergent and flushing the
wound with running tap water for at least 15 minutes. If soap or antiviral agent
is not available, the wound should be thoroughly washed with water.
Washing of the wound must be done as long as the wound is raw; irrespective
of the time elapsed since the exposure. Care must be taken not to disturb the
scab, if formed.
After thorough washing and drying the wound, any one of the available
chemical agents should be applied viz Povidone iodine (Betadine), Alcohol,
Chloroxylenol (Dettol), Chlorhexidine Gluconate and Cetrimide solution (Savlon
- in appropriate recommended dilution), etc.
Discourage local wound applicants like turmeric, neem, red chili, lime, plant
juices, coffee powder etc.
Theoretically, the richly innervated areas like head, neck, face, hands and
genitals are the most dangerous sites of bite in man. But practically, it is often
the wounds on legs, which are ignored/neglected, that cause rabies.
Avoid
1. Avoid direct touching of wounds with bare hands. Considering the
importance of this step, the anti-rabies clinics should have proper wound
washing facilities.
2. Cauterizing the wound is not advisable as it leaves a very bad scar and also
does not confer any additional advantage over washing the wound with
water and soap. It amounts to malpractice and the doctor can be sued for
compensation under COPRA.
3. Avoid suturing of the bite wound as a rule since it may risk inoculation of
the virus deeply into the wound. However, if the wound has to be sutured,
it should be done as late as possible from several hours to 3 days after
infiltration of RIGs. If RIGs is not available, as a last resort, the wound must
be flushed with povidone iodine before suturing. The suture should be
loose and not interfere with free bleeding and drainage. Human and animal
bite wounds are best closed by secondary sutures after one week and after
proper cleansing and daily wound care. Primary surgical intervention must
be avoided if possible.

16
 Understanding Rabies

4. We should never try to deepen the bite wound. Deepening of wound for
cleaning depends on area of injury, extent of injury and the aim should be
to preserve as much tissue as possible and to excise dead tissue only.
5. Do not bandage the wound as far as possible and if unavoidable, apply non-
adherent, absorbent dressings (paraffin gauze or Melolin) to absorb the
discharge from the wound.
Animal bites and Infections
15 to 20 percent of dog bite wounds become infected. Puncture wounds and
hand wounds are more likely to become infected than scratches.
Most infected dog bite wounds yield polymicrobial organisms. Pasteurella
multocida and Staphylococcus aureus are the most common aerobic organisms
Systemic antibiotic treatment for animal bites
Using antibiotics may be helpful, particularly in high-risk wounds.

Antimicrobials effective in the empiric treatment of patients with animal bite

and human bite wounds
Animal bite Human bite
Amoxicillin-clavulanate (PO) + +
Ampicillin-sulbactam (IV) + +
Moxifloxacin (PO, IV) + +
Gatifloxacin (PO, IV) + +
Doxycycline (PO, IV) + +

Medical Conditions Associated with a High Risk of Infection After a Dog Bite
1. Chronic disease
2. Chronic edema of the extremity
3. Diabetes mellitus
4. Immunosuppression
5. Liver dysfunction
6. Previous mastectomy
7. Prosthetic valve or joint
8. Splenectomy
9. Systemic lupus erythematosus

17
 Understanding Rabies

Categorization of animal bite wound(s)

WHO classified exposures into three categories.

Category (Type of contact with a Recommended treatment.

suspect or confirmed rabid domestic
None, if reliable case history is
or wild animal, or animal unavailable
available
for observation)
Administer vaccine immediately. Stop
I. Touching or feeding of animals,
treatment if animal remains healthy
Licks on intact skin
throughout an observation period of
II. Nibbling of uncovered skin, Minor 10 days or if animal is killed humanely
scratches or abrasions without and found to be negative for rabies by
bleeding, appropriate laboratory techniques.
III. Single or multiple transdermal Administer rabies immunoglobulin
bites or scratches, Contamination and vaccine immediately. Stop
of mucous membrane with saliva treatment if animal remains healthy
(i.e. licks), Licks on broken skin throughout an observation period’ of
10 days or if animal is killed humanely
and found to be negative for rabies by
appropriate laboratory techniques.

When in doubt of degree of exposure to rabies risk, it is safer to over treat

than under treat.
Biting animal
It is very important to elicit information about biting animal.
Low risk category includes healthy pets and regularly vaccinated dogs/cats.
Moderate risk category includes healthy pets but vaccination status doubtful
or not done.
High risk category includes rabid, sick, died, stray dogs/cats, or wild animals.
Observation of biting animal
Carrier state of rabies in dogs/cats is not yet conclusively proven and
established. Hence, both WHO and Govt. of India recommend observation of

18
 Understanding Rabies

animal for 10 days during post-exposure treatment. In Europe which is almost

rabies free, observation period is 15 days.
The treatment should be started immediately after the bite. The treatment
may be modified if animal involved (dog or cat) remains healthy throughout
the observation period of 10 days by converting post-exposure prophylaxis to
pre-exposure vaccination by skipping the vaccine dose on day 14 and
administering it on day 28 while using Essen Schedule. The observation period
is valid for dogs and cats only. The natural history of rabies in mammals other
than dogs or cats is not fully understood and therefore the 10-day observation
period may not be applicable. The rationale for observation is that if the animal
is incubating rabies, they will show signs of disease in the next 3-5 days and die
subsequently in another 3-5 days.
Whether a dog bite was provoked rather than unprovoked should not be
considered a guarantee that the animal is not rabid as it can be difficult to
understand what an attacking dog considers provocation for an attack.
Anti Rabies Vaccination (ARV)
First Rabies Vaccine: Pasteur treatment
All human cases of rabies were fatal until a vaccine was developed in 1885 by
Louis Pasteur and Émile Roux.
• Joseph Meister, a 9 year old boy was severely bitten by a rabid dog.
• On July 6th, 1885, Louis Pasteur administered the first of 14 injections of
infected rabbit spinal cord suspension; inactivated by desiccation.
• The immunization was successful and Joseph survived.
Historical development of rabies vaccines
1885: Pasteur vaccine, Louis Pasteur developed the first rabies vaccine
1911: Semple vaccine developed by Sir David Semple
• Inactivated virus using formalin and phenol
• Infected adult rabbit, sheep, or goat brain tissue
1955: Fuenzalida vaccine, Drs Fuenzalida and Palacios
• Suckling mouse brain (SMB) vaccine
• Decreased reactogenicity with improved immunogenicity 10-15 doses
required

19
 Understanding Rabies

1956: Duck embryo vaccine, first effective attempt at cell culture vaccine
• Duck embryo vaccine (DEV)
• Poorly immunogenic, high rate of allergic reaction. Stopped in 1980
1970s: Modern cell culture vaccines
• Highly immunogenic with good safety profile
Modern Anti-rabies vaccines being used now are Tissue Culture Vaccines
(TCV) inactivated by beta-propiolactone (BPL). Beta-propiolactone is
carcinogenic but it loses its carcinogenicity because of its hydrolysis during the
process of inactivation of rabies virus.
As a general rule, live attenuated viral vaccines induce better immunity. But,
WHO has forbidden the use of live attenuated rabies vaccine in humans
because live attenuated vaccines always carry risk of reverting to virulent
forms. If such a vaccine is given to human beings, it may cause fatal disease.
Ideal requirements of a rabies vaccine
• Pure: Highly purified and well-tolerated primary cell culture vaccine with
excellent safety profile
• Powerful: Highly potent, provides early and long-lasting protective
antibiotic titers
• Protection: Highly efficacious and trusted for use in all WHO recommended
IM and ID regimens.
Various types of modern anti-rabies vaccines
These are:
1. Purified vero cell rabies vaccine (PVRV) - Verorab, Xprab, Abhayrab, Indirab
and Verovax-R.
2. Purified chick embryo cell vaccine (PCECV) - Rabipur, Vaxirab-N
3. Human diploid cell vaccine (HDCV)- Rabivax
4. Purified duck embryo vaccine (PDEV) - Vaxirab
Each IM dose is available in a single dose vial only.
Response to rabies vaccination is a unique mix of specificities to rabies virus
antigens. Antibodies develop out of intrinsic host responses and in response
to extrinsic factors such as the amount of antigen given, type of antigen, and
route of exposure or vaccination. There may be substantial variation in the
neutralizing activity and quantity of rabies virus neutralizing antibodies (RVNA)

20
 Understanding Rabies

produced. Therefore, the strain of virus used in antirabies vaccine plays a role
in eliciting the required response.
Compared to other continuous cell lines based rabies vaccines, PCEC vaccine
with PM strain has several advantages, these includes:
• This method provides vaccine with high yield, greater potency and
immunogenicity which makes the vaccine comparatively cost effective and
unique.
• It is more readily scalable to large scale commercial vaccine production.
Of the currently available TCVs such as HDCV, PCECV, PVRV, and PDEV, all are
equally good and approved by WHO. All are interchangeable following non
availability of one brand or due to allergy to one of the CCVs or PDEV. All are
considered protective throughout the world against different strains of rabies
viruses in different parts of the world.
Each vaccine has its own merit.
1. Purified Vero cell Rabies Vaccine (PVRV): Verorab, Xprab, Abhayrab, Indirab.
Vero cell line is a continuous cell line initiated in 1962 by Yasumura (Japan)
from kidneys of an African green monkey.
Verorab was developed in 1984.It is a freeze-dried product composed of
PM/WI 38 1503-3M strain. The rabies virus is produced on Vero cell lines,
inactivated with beta propiolactone and purified so that the potency of one
dose of vaccine is superior to 2.5 IU.
2. Purified chick embryo cell vaccine (PCECV): Vaxirab-N, Rabipur
a. VAXIRAB-N
• Vaxirab N is manufactured in Zydus Vaccine Plant which has state-of-the-art
manufacturing facility.
• Vaxirab N is World’s 1st Purified Chick Embryo Cell Culture Rabies Vaccine
(PCEC) with Pitman-Moore (PM) Advantage.
• Pitman Moore Strain is the most Stable & Safe Strain for biologicals.
• Vaxirab N contains
o Intact Inactivated Virus
o High G & N Protein
• Vaxirab N has double Stabilizer.
• Approved by DCGI both for Pre exposure and Post exposure prophylaxis.
• Approved both for Intramuscular (I.M.) or Intradermal (I.D.) route of
Administration.

21
 Understanding Rabies

b. Rabipur
Rabipur is a purified, potent and efficacious PCECV rabies vaccine. In the US,
PCECV has received FDA approval and is marked under the brand name of
RabAvert.
It is manufactured from the Flury LEP rabies virus strain grown in a culture of
chick embryo fibroblast cells, inactivated with beta-propiolactone, stabilized
with a gelatin product and purified by zonal centrifugation.
PCECV vaccine is generally contraindicated in persons allergic to egg proteins.
3. Human diploid cell vaccine (HDCV) – Rabivax
HDCV is of homologous (human) origin, considered by many as the “purest”
antigen. It is prepared with Pitman-Moore strain of rabies virus. HDCV vaccine
was developed by propagating the PM-1503-3M strain of the rabies virus on
diploid cells of human origin. In 1964, Wiktor et al used the WI38 Line, later
replaced by the MRC 5 line. After achieving growth of the virus, it is purified,
inactivated, stabilized and lyophilized. Each dose is reconstituted in a volume
of 1 ml. Large-scale production is impossible due to low yield of virus, duration
and difficulties of human diploid cell culture, the need for a heavy viral antigen
concentration and the complicated and lengthy controls that make production
difficult.
Window period
It is the time taken by Anti-Rabies vaccine to produce protective levels of
antibodies in the patient. The window period is of 7-14 days.
Vaccine potency and storage
WHO recommends that the vaccine potency should be at least 2.5 IU per dose.
The potency is the capacity of the vaccine to induce immune response. Vaccine
must be stored at +20 C to + 80 C.
Caution
• The modern anti-rabies vaccines should not be diluted with tetanus toxoid
or any other diluents other than that provided with the vaccine.
• If the vaccine was accidentally kept in freezer, it should not be used.
• Full course of rabies vaccine must be given even if sero-protective levels are
obtained after 2-3 injections. This is to cover a longer incubation period of
rabies as it can be more than 3 weeks and also to increase the cellular

22
 Understanding Rabies

immunity and interferon production that also play a role in the mechanism
of protection.
• A person receiving/completed antirabies immunization can donate blood.
However, the recipient does not benefit from the transfer of rabies-
neutralizing antibodies due to hemodilution.
Vaccination in special medical conditions
• Rabies vaccine can be given to a child with chicken pox or measles and it is
effective. If possible administration of measles vaccine should be postponed
by a fortnight after the completion of antirabies immunization.
• Rabies vaccine can be given to a patient with jaundice.
• Several studies of patients with HIV/AIDS have reported that those with
low CD4 (<200 counts) will mount a significantly lower or no detectable
neutralizing antibody response to rabies. In such patients and those in
whom the presence of immunological memory is no longer assured as a
result of other causes, proper and thorough wound management and
antisepsis accompanied by local infiltration of rabies Immunoglobulins
followed by anti-rabies vaccination are of utmost importance. Even immuno
compromised patients with category II exposures should receive rabies
immunoglobulin in addition to a full post-exposure vaccination. Preferably,
if the facilities are available, antirabies antibody estimation should be done
10 days after the completion of course of vaccination.
Bite by a vaccinated dog
Although unvaccinated animals are more likely to transmit rabies, vaccinated
animals can also do so if the vaccination of the biting animal was ineffective for
any reason. A history of rabies vaccination in an animal is not always a
guarantee that the biting animal is not rabid. Animal vaccine failures may occur
because of improper administration or poor quality of the vaccine, poor health
status of the animal, and the fact that one vaccine dose does not always
provide long-lasting protection against infection in dogs. PEP is required for a
person bitten by a vaccinated dog. Vaccinating the pet dog is primarily to
protect it against contracting rabies following bites by stray rabid
dogs/animals.
It should be noted that:
1. No veterinary vaccine offers 100% protection against rabies.
2. Rabies is enzootic in our stray dog/animal population.
3. The facility of measuring protective rabies antibody titer is available only at
few centers in India.

23
 Understanding Rabies

4. The immunization record of dog may not be always available.

5. Booster dose may not have been given to dog.
6. 6% of dogs found rabid have a reliable pre-exposure rabies vaccine history
7. 62% of dogs found rabid are less than 1 year old and
8. 40% of dogs’ vaccinated only one time lose most of their immunity 4-6
months later.
So in view of above facts and practical difficulties, rabies being 100% fatal, we
should start rabies PEP vaccination even if a person is bitten by a vaccinated
dog.
PEP vaccination schedule (WHO ESSEN-IM)
The schedule is one injection on days 0, 03, 07, 14 and 28. (Day 0 means day of
first dose of vaccine and not the day of bite).
Vaccine should be injected deep into deltoid muscle (in Adults) or antero-
lateral aspect of thigh (in Children).
Note that
• First three doses of modern rabies vaccine must be very timely and for the
fourth and fifth, one or two days of variation is permissible.
• These vaccines must not be administered in gluteal region as the gluteal fat
may retard vaccine absorption resulting in delayed and lower
seroconversion.
• All modern rabies vaccines have a uniform dosage for all age groups.
• If due to some reasons only initial three injections on days 0, 3 and 7 were
given, three inj. may provide protective antibody titers for about/up to 3
months.
• In case, day 0 and 3 inj. were given and inj. due on day 7 was postponed
because the dog was kept under observation but the dog dies between 8
and 15 days, three doses of vaccine must be given as close to the original
dates of the schedule and all five inj. must be completed by day 28.
• There is no single dose vaccine or a vaccine that gives lifelong immunity.
• Any major surgery can be conducted along with antirabies treatment.
Day 0 dose should be doubled in:
1. Patients who seek treatment after a delay of 48 hours or even months after
having been bitten should be dealt in the same manner as if the exposure
occurred recently.
2. Patients with very high risk exposures or extensive bites,

24
 Understanding Rabies

3. Immunodeficient patients or on immunosuppressive drugs, such as

steroids, antimalarials, anticancer drugs.
4. Severely malnourished patients,
5. Patients with underlying chronic disease like liver cirrhosis and in
6. Patients where RIG is indicated but unavailable.
Double dose of vaccine is not a substitute for RIG.
Reasons for Rabies Post-Exposure Prophylaxis Failures
1. Inappropriate local wound treatment
2. Poor quality of rabies vaccine
3. No RIG administered
4. Faulty handing / mistakes (improper dilution, spills, etc)
5. Improper administration of vaccine
6. Delayed initiation of PEP
7. Vaccination schedule not complete
PEP compliance is low in India
• Use of rabies vaccination in exposed humans is low= 40%
• Use of RIG negligible= 2.1%
• Human rabies victims did not receive any ARV = 79%
• Compliance to the full course is low = 40.5%
Intradermal vaccination (IDRV Rabies) in India
The production of Semple Vaccine, which was a sheep brain derived Nerve
Tissue Vaccine (NTV) has stopped totally in India after 31st December, 2004.
The last dose of NTV was used in September, 2005. The NTV was mainly used
for providing free treatment to animal bite victims attending Anti-Rabies
Clinics (ARCs) in govt. hospitals and health centers. After the complete
disappearance of NTV, there was a great shortage of Anti-Rabies Vaccines
(ARV) in the ARCs in govt. hospitals and health centers.
WHO approved IDRV in 1992. It is considered as an ethical and cost-effective
replacement of NTV. In India, Intra-dermal Rabies Vaccination (IDRV) started
on 19th May, 2006 in Uttar Pradesh followed by few other states.
The ID route has been permitted to be used in selected anti-rabies clinics
(ARCs) having an adequate number of patients (at least 5/day) seeking post-
exposure prophylaxis against rabies every day to make IDRV viable and cost-
effective.

25
 Understanding Rabies

Mode of action
It is deposition of approved modern rabies vaccine (or antigen) in the layers of
dermis of skin by which the immuno-receptive Langerhan cells present within
the dermis are stimulated. Subsequently the antigen is carried by antigen
presenting cells via the lymphatic drainage to the regional lymph nodes and
later to the reticulo-endothelial system eliciting a prompt and highly protective
antibody response. Immunity is believed to depend mainly upon the CD 4 + T-
cell dependent neutralizing antibody response to the G protein. In addition,
cell-mediated immunity has long been reported as an important part of the
defense against rabies. Cells presenting the fragments of G protein are the
targets of cytotoxic T- cells and the N protein induced T helper cells. The
immune response induced by IDRV is adequate and protective against rabies.
ID injection technique
Using aseptic technique, reconstitute the vial of freeze-dried vaccine with the
diluents supplied by the manufacturer. With 1 ml syringe draw 0.2 ml (up to 20
units if a 100 units syringe is used or up to 8 units if a 40 units syringe is used)
of vaccine needed for one patient (i.e. 0.1 ml per ID site X 2 sites) and expel the
air bubbles carefully from the syringe thereby removing any dead space in the
syringe.
Using the technique of BCG inoculation, stretch the surface of the skin and
insert the tip of the needle with bevel upwards, almost parallel to the skin
surface and slowly inject half the volume of vaccine in the syringe (i.e. 0.1ml;
either 10 or 4 units) into the uppermost dermal layer of skin, over the deltoid
area, preferably an inch above the insertion of deltoid muscle. If the needle is
correctly placed inside the dermis, considerable resistance is felt while
injecting the vaccine. A raised papule should begin to appear immediately,
causing a peau d’ orange (orange peel) appearance. Inject the remaining half
the volume of vaccine (i.e. 0.1ml; either 10 or 4 units) on the opposite deltoid
area.
IDRV vaccines
The following vaccines have been approved by DCGI for use by intra-dermal
route.
1. Purified Chick Embryo Cell-Culture Vaccine (PCEC) - Rabipur & Vaxirab-N.
2. PVRV (Purified verocell rabies vaccine) – Verorab-vial of 0.5 ml,
3. PVRV – Abhayrab – vial of 0.5 ml., Human Biological Institute
4. PVRV – Indirab, vial of 0.5 ml/1.0 ml. Bharath Biotech, Hyderabad.

26
 Understanding Rabies

As far as possible, the same vaccine should be used throughout a course of

IDRV. However, in exigencies, the permitted vaccines are interchangeable.
Caution
1. The ID injections must be administered by staff trained in this technique.
2. The Vaccine vials must be stored at +20 C to + 80 C after reconstitution and
3. The total content should be used as soon as possible, but at least within 8
hours.
4. The 0.1 ml. ID administration of cell-culture vaccine should create a wheal
of at least 5 mm diameter with “peau de orange” appearance.
5. WHO recommends that in cases where the wheal over the skin is not
formed then the patient should receive another dose of vaccine at a site
nearby. If the IDRV fails in any one of the sites after two attempts, then the
vaccine must be given by IM route and the remaining doses of the schedule
given by IM route only.
Note:
• There are no dietary restrictions during IDRV. However, alcohol may be
avoided as it may affect the immune response.
• Routine sera testing for rabies antibodies to know IDRV efficacy is not
required.
• Pregnancy and lactation are not contraindications for IDRV.
• There is no need to alter the dose or schedule of any concomitant
medication during IDRV.
Following re-exposure the bitten person needs only two doses of 0.1 ml. of ID
dose at one site only, on day 0 and day 3. RIGs are not needed. Proper wound
treatment is very important.
Side effects
Cell culture vaccines have proved remarkably safe and free of significant
adverse events. However, mild symptoms of pain, erythema, irritation or
swelling at the intradermal injection sites occur in 3% to 92% of patients. The
most frequent symptom is local irritation in 7% to 64% of vaccines. Generalized
symptoms reported by 3% to 14% of recipients include headache, fever
and influenza- like illness. Transient macula papular and urticarial rashes are
occasionally seen. All these adverse effects are mild, transient and self limiting
and rarely call for the use of anti-histamines (tablet or syrup Avil) and
analgesics.

27
 Understanding Rabies

Dose and schedule of IDRV

The IM dose of Verorab (PVRV) and Abhayrab (PVRV) is 0.5mL; that of Vaxirab
N, Rabipur (PCEC) and PVRV (Coonoor) is 1mL. Still the ID dosage of all vaccines
is uniformly 0.1ml.
For PEP, the modified “TRC ID” schedule (2-2-2-0-2) is the only schedule
approved by the DCGI at present. ID vaccine is given on days 0, 03, 07, and 28.
For pre-exposure vaccination, 0.1 ml of ID-approved vaccine is to be given ID
over one deltoid on days 0, 7 and 21 or 28 days.
Eight-site intradermal regimen (“8–0–4–0–1–1” regimen)
One dose of 0.1 ml is administered intradermally at eight different sites (Either
upper arms, lateral thighs, supra-scapular region, and lower quadrant of
abdomen) on day 0. On day 7, four 0.1 ml injections are administered
intradermally into each upper arm (deltoid region) and each lateral thigh.
Following these injections, one additional 0.1 ml dose is administered on days
28 and 90. This regimen lowers the cost of vaccine administered by
intramuscular regimens and generally produces a higher antibody response
than the other recommended schedules by day 14. It does not result in a
significantly earlier antibody response and in order to ensure optimal
treatment, a passive immune product must be administered to patients
presenting with severe exposures. However, this regimen is not approved for
use in India by DCGI.
It is recommended by many internationally reputed experts that the
phenomenon of mixing of IM and ID schedules is not to be practiced and must
be avoided as far as possible.
Sites for IDRV
IDRV can be given in deltoid region, supra-scapular, anterior abdominal wall
and the upper part of thigh.
Contraindications to IDRV
1. Patient on chloroquine.
2. Patient on long term steroid usage.
3. Immunocompromised patient or on any immunosuppressant therapy.
In such cases, the rabies vaccine should be given IM.

28
 Understanding Rabies

Potency of IDRV
Only three countries are practicing IDRV in regular patients attending regular
anti-rabies clinics (ARCs) for more than ten years. These countries are Thailand,
Philippines and Sri Lanka.
In Thailand and Sri Lanka, the potency requirement is 0.7 IU/ID dose and in
Philippines it is 0.5 IU/ID dose.
The ESSEN (IM) schedule is a better schedule, with a large margin of safety,
easy to administer, better compliance for both the patient and the physician
and always the route of choice in cases where the immune response to
vaccination is doubtful.
Few suggestions by APCRI for more effective implementation of IDRV
a. The accurate dosage of vaccine can be done if separate insulin syringes are
used for each site of administration.
b. For children below 5 years of age, it is advisable to adopt IM vaccination.
Criterion for protection (Seroconversion) and its importance
The effectiveness of modern tissue rabies vaccines is measured by their ability
to protect persons exposed to rabies and to induce antibodies to rabies virus.
The definition of a minimally acceptable antibody titer varies between
laboratories and is influenced by the type of test conducted. The WHO
specifies a rabies virus neutralizing antibody (RVNA) titer of 0.5 IU/ml as
adequate for protection.
The facility for this test is available at NCDC Delhi, CRI Kasauli, Pasteur institute
Coonnor, NIV Pune and NIMHANS Bangalore.
Serological assays to measure rabies neutralizing antibodies
Two recognized tests by WHO:
• RFFIT (rapid fluorescent foci inhibition test), ‘gold standard’. RFFIT test is
the only internationally approved procedure for measuring rabies
neutralizing antibodies.
• FAVN (fluorescent antibody virus neutralizing test). Neutralizing tests
can only be done in labs approved to work with live rabies virus and
which have the practiced expertise to do these tests.
ELISA is not an appropriate test system, as it does not measure neutralizing
antibodies.

29
 Understanding Rabies

Points that should be considered as to whether a person should receive a

booster dose of rabies vaccine when their antibody level falls below 0.5 IU/mL
are:
• Anticipated risk of exposure (i.e., routinely handling sick animals or rabies
reservoir species in enzootic areas)
• Length of time until the next antibody measurement
• Previous rabies antibody levels and the probability of decay to low or
undetectable levels in the intervening period
• Individual health status (consider immuno-compromising conditions or a
history of poor vaccine response)
• Timely access to vaccine and administration should a potential exposure
occur
Rabies Immunoglobulin (RIG)
RIG is a life saving drug in all category 3 exposures and in a few category 2
exposures. Use of RIG is as low as 2.1% in our country. Failure to advice RIGs
attracts litigation/compensation under Consumer Protection Act for
deficient/faulty medical service.
Following situations need RIG:
• All Category III exposures.
• Even Category II exposures in immuno-compromised/ immunosuppressed
individuals.
• Bites by all wild animals viz. by mongoose, jackal, fox etc.
Importance of RIG
The rationale behind the use of RIG is above all; to rapidly neutralize the virus
locally inside of the wound(s) before it enters the peripheral nerve endings.
RIGs are specific rabies-virus-neutralizing antibodies (or their immune-active
fragments) that immediately bind to the rabies virus on contact. Once the
viruses are coated with antibodies, they cannot adsorb onto and enter the
nerve endings. This results in a further reduction (and in some cases complete
obliteration) of the inoculated virus, even in deeper tissues where washing and
cleansing may not have reached. RIG provides local protection during the time
gap until the appearance of vaccine-induced anti-bodies in protective
concentration 7 to 10 days later, thereby protecting the patient during the
critical first week after infection.
RIGs are never to be used alone to treat animal bite victims.

30
 Understanding Rabies

RIG should not be given after day 07 if a modern rabies vaccination has
already been started without RIG.

Types of RIGs

There are two types of RIGs:

1. Human RIG (HRIG): Available with a potency of 150 IU/ml.

2. Equine RIG (ERIG): Available with a potency of 300 IU/ml.

Dosage of RIGs

Dosage for administration is decided on the basis of body weight.

For HRIGs: Dosage is 20 IU per kg body weight subject to a maximum of 1500

IU. HRIG has a longer half-life (about 21 days).

For ERIGs: Dosage is 40 IU per kg body weight subject to a maximum of 3000

IU.

Availability of different RIGs in India

HRIG Brands

1. Berirab-P- manufactured by CSL Behring GmbH, Germany and marketed by

Bharat Serum & Vaccines Ltd.
2. Kamrab - manufactured by Kamada Ltd., Israel and marketed by Synergy.

ERIG brands

1. Anti Rabies Serum - manufactured by CRI – Kasauli.

2. Equirab - manufactured and marketed by Bharat Serum & Vaccines Ltd.
3. Abhayrig - manufactured by VINS Bioproducts and marketed by Human
Biologicals Ltd.
4. Vinirig - manufactured and marketed by VINS Bioproducts.

When to administer RIGs

RIG is more effective if infiltrated immediately or within 24 hours of animal

bite along with first dose of vaccine. If vaccine alone was started, then RIG can
be given up to 7 days after starting first dose of vaccine. Ideally, rabies vaccine
should precede RIG. However, in exceptional situations, approximately within
1 hour after administering RIG, the vaccine must be given.

31
 Understanding Rabies

Precautions to be taken while administering RIGs

1. Patient should not be on an empty stomach.
2. RIGs vial taken out from the refrigerator should be kept outside for a few
minutes to warm it to room/body temperature.
3. While infiltrating RIGs into the bite wound, care must be taken to avoid
injecting into blood vessels and nerves.
4. While injecting into finger tips, care must be taken to avoid compartment
syndrome.
5. All emergency drugs and facilities for managing any adverse reactions must
be available.
6. For ERIG, keep the patient under observation for at least one hour after
ERIG administration and then send home.
Skin sensitivity testing & interpretation
Majority of reactions to ERIG result from complement activation and are not
IgE mediated and will not be predicted by skin testing.
The recent WHO recommendation states that there are no scientific grounds
for performing a skin test prior to the administration of ERIG, because testing
does not predict reactions and ERIG should be given whatever the result of the
test.
However skin test is mandatory to avoid any possible litigation under
consumer protection Act (COPRA) in India.
Inject 0.1 ml ERIG diluted 1:10 in physiological saline intra-dermally into the
flexor surface of the forearm to raise a bleb of about 3-4 mm diameter. Inject
an equal amount of normal saline as a negative control on the flexor surface of
the other forearm. After 15 minutes an increase in diameter to > 10 mm of
indurations surrounded by flare is taken as positive skin test, provided the
reaction on the saline test was negative. An increase or abrupt fall in blood
pressure, syncope, hurried breathing, palpitations and any other systemic
manifestations should be taken as positive test.
A negative skin test must never reassure the physician that no anaphylactic
reaction will occur. Those administering ERIG should always be ready to treat
early anaphylactic reactions with adrenalin. The dose is 0.5 ml of 0.1 percent
solution (1 in 1000, 1mg/ml) for adults and 0.01 ml/kg body weight for
children, injected subcutaneously or IM.

32
 Understanding Rabies

Most ERIGs that are manufactured presently are highly purified and the
occurrence of adverse events has been significantly reduced. Unlike the
original unpurified rabies antisera which resulted in adverse reactions in as
many as 40% of recipients, the adverse-reaction rate of patients receiving
highly purified ERIGs has been reduced to <1–2%. However adverse event like
anaphylaxis cannot be completely ruled out.
Adverse reactions to HRIGs
In rare cases the following adverse reactions may occur:
• Allergic reactions including fall in blood pressure, dyspnoea, cutaneous
reactions, in isolated cases reaching as far as anaphylactic shock, even when
the patient has shown no hypersensitivity to previous administration of
Immunoglobulins.
• Generalized reactions such as chills, fever, headache, malaise, nausea,
vomiting, arthralgia and moderate back pain
• Cardiovascular reactions particularly if HRIG is inadvertently injected
intravascularly.
Local reactions:
At the injection site local pain, tenderness or swelling can be observed in rare
cases.
Adverse reactions to ERIGs
• There may be transient tenderness at the injection site.
• Brief rise in body temperature.
• Skin reactions are extremely rare.
• RIG must never be given intravenously since this could produce symptoms
of shock, especially in patients with antibody deficiency syndromes.
• Serum sickness occurs in 1% to 6% of patients usually 7 to 10 days after
injection of ERIG, but it has not been reported after treatment with HRIG.
ERIG should preferably be given in a hospital setting.
Adverse reactions to ERIGs are managed as follows:
Anti-sera of equine origin may cause anaphylactic shock.

33
 Understanding Rabies

Management if anaphylactic reaction occurs:

1. Adrenaline: The dose is 0.5 ml of 0.1 percent solution (1 in 1000, 1mg/ml)
for adults and 0.01ml/kg body weight for children, injected intramuscularly
(IM).
2. Inj Hydrocortisone: 100 mg stat and 6 hourly I/V.
3. Inj Chlorphinaramine I/V.
4. Inj Ranitidine I/V.
If patient is sensitive to ERIG, HRIG should be used. Patient who had prior
exposure of anti-sera (e.g.-Anti-tetanus serum, anti-diphtheria serum) should
receive subcutaneous dose of Inj adrenaline (the requirement will be half dose
of that required for treatment for anaphylaxis).
Mode of administration of full dose of RIGs
It is important to infiltrate all wounds with RIGs. Intra-muscular (IM)
administration of RIGs is of very little value. As much of the calculated dose of
RIG, as is anatomically feasible, should be infiltrated into & around all the
wounds. In the event that some volume of RIGs is left over after all wounds
have been infiltrated, it should be administered by deep IM at a site distant
from the vaccine injection site.
If the calculated dose of RIG is insufficient (by volume) to infiltrate all wounds,
sterile saline can be used (up to equal volume) to dilute it to permit thorough
infiltration.
If a wound has healed or healing (scab is formed) the total dose of RIGs should
be given IM gluteal only.
Note: RIG should never be administered in the same syringe or at the same
anatomical site as vaccine administration.
RIGs in re-exposure cases
Managing re-exposure following post-exposure treatment with TCV: If re-
exposed, persons who have previously received full post-exposure prophylaxis
(Either by IM or ID route) with a potent cell-culture vaccine should now be
given only two booster doses, intramuscularly (0.5ml/1ml)/intra-dermally (0.1
ml at 1 site) on days 0 and 3. Proper wound toilet should be done. Treatment
with RIG is not necessary.
Managing exposure following pre-exposure prophylaxis with TCV: If after
recommended pre-exposure prophylaxis, a vaccinated person is exposed to

34
 Understanding Rabies

rabies, a proper wound toileting should be done and two IM/ID (0.1 ml at 1
site) doses of Cell Culture Vaccine are given on days 0 and 3. Treatment with
RIG is not necessary.
Managing re-exposure following post-exposure treatment with NTV: Persons
who have previously received full post-exposure treatment with NTV should be
treated as fresh case and may be given treatment as per merits of the case.
Approach to a patient requiring RIGs, when none is available
In circumstances where no immunoglobulin are available greater emphasis
should be given to proper wound toileting followed by Essen Schedule of Cell
Culture Vaccine with double dose on day 0 at 2 different sites intramuscularly
(0 day – 2 doses on left and right deltoid, 3, 7, 14 and 28 days). It is emphasized
that doubling the first dose of CCV is not a replacement to RIG. A full course of
vaccine should follow thorough wound cleansing and passive immunization.
Important considerations
• RIGs can be infiltrated even to already sutured wounds without disturbing
the sutures.
• RIGs can be safely injected into already infected animal bite wounds
following proper wound cleansing and administration of appropriate
antibiotics.
• Unboiled milk of a rabid animal may contain rabies virus. There is a
theoretical risk of humans contracting rabies after having consumed
unboiled milk of a rabid animal. If a person has consumed milk of a rabid
animal, counseling should be done. If counseling is not effective, then PrEP
by IM or ID route or as a last resort a course of PEP (only vaccine) should be
given. If the milk is boiled or heated then only counseling or at the most a
course of PrEP should be given only due to compulsions in medical practice
in Indian setting.
• Kissing a rabies patient may transmit disease because there may be contact
with rabies patient’s saliva. Full post-exposure immunization must be given
either by Intramuscular (IM) or Intradermal (ID) route. If there are ulcers in
the mouth of the exposed person, then RIGs must be given by IM route.
• Rabies virus is present in the semen and to some extent in vaginal
secretions. Priapism, increased sexual libido and indulgence are seen both
in male and female rabies cases. Hence, in the exposed person, a full course
of rabies post-exposure vaccination either by Intramuscular (IM) or
Intradermal (ID) route should be given. If there is any doubt of category III

35
 Understanding Rabies

exposures, that is, abrasion on penis or in vagina, then even RIG must also
be given by IM route.
• If a person has handled or eaten the raw meat of a rabid animal, he should
receive full course of rabies vaccine. If the person has eaten raw meat of a
rabid animal and has oral ulcers/lesions, he may be given RIGs in thigh IM
on day 0 along with first dose of vaccine.
• If the rabid animal`s saliva falls into the eyes, the eyes should be washed
with water/saline and then RIGs can be instilled as eye drops, after dilution
(1:1) with sterile normal saline along with full course of anti-rabies
vaccination.
• Antibodies from vaccination do not cross an intact blood-brain barrier.
• A person does not acquire immunity against natural rabies infection, as it
occurs in other viral infections because there is no viremia in rabies and the
virus is not accessible to the normal immune mechanism of the body. The
antibody production starts only after travelling efferently from CNS via
mostly autonomic nerves to different target organs. But by that time, the
neuronal cells of patient`s brain stem are affected.
• In case the mother develops rabies, the foetus is safe because rabies virus
does not cross placental barrier. Still the new born should be given full
course of rabies PEP vaccination.
• If a vaccinated pet dog dies of sudden unexplained death, then all those
who came in contact with the saliva of the animal, directly or through its
fomites, should be given full PEP vaccination.
• It is advisable to use human vaccines for human and use the veterinary
vaccines for animals.
• If unvaccinated or partially vaccinated pet dog is bitten by a suspected
rabid stray dog, then the pet dog should ideally be put to sleep
(Euthanasia). Otherwise, full PEP vaccination of pet dog with cell culture
vaccine and simultaneous observation of dog for 2 to 6 months is
recommended. Pre-exposure vaccination of all household members is
necessary.
Pre-exposure vaccination (PrEV)
Pre-exposure (Prebite) vaccination means immunization before the bite.
It should be given to:
• Veterinarians and staff
• Rabies laboratory personnel
• Personnel working in rabies vaccine manufacturing plants

36
 Understanding Rabies

• Wildlife rehabilitees and animal control workers

• Military personnel and armed forces
• Adventure travelers to canine rabies endemic countries
• Children in canine rabies endemic high risk areas
Pre-exposure vaccination schedule
The regimen is three IM injections on days 0, 7 & 28.
Pre-exposure vaccination simplifies post-exposure vaccination because after
bite, those who have received full Pre-exposure vaccination, only two doses of
vaccine at days 0 & 3 are required. RIGs are not required (WHO 2007).
Although no teratogenicity is reported with modern rabies vaccines, pre-
exposure vaccination should be avoided in pregnant woman.
Rabies in animals
The symptoms of rabies in dogs/cats are:
Behaviour change – Friendly dog becomes aggressive and vice versa,
Voice change – Distinctive howl or bark,
Choking – Seem to have a bone or other object stuck in throat,
Snapping – Snap at objects that are not there.
As recently as 2004, a new symptom of rabies has been observed in foxes.
Probably at the beginning of the prodromal stage, foxes, which are extremely
cautious by nature, seem to lose this instinct. Foxes will come into settlements,
approach people, and generally behave as if tame.
There are few variations in signs of rabies between different species of
animals. Cattle with furious rabies attack and pursue man and other animals. A
common clinical sign is a characteristic abnormal bellowing. Head butting is a
characteristic sign in case of rabies in sheep and goats.
The signs of Rabies in dogs/cats are:
Motor Paralysis is most consistent sign in all animals. Paralysis develops and is
usually an ascending. First signs are weakness or uncoordinated hind limbs. As
paralysis becomes more extensive, locomotors dysfunction becomes more
pronounced.

37
 Understanding Rabies

Development of paraplegia without a history of compatible trauma injury is

highly suspicious of rabies.
Animals do not exhibit Hydrophobia.
Control of rabies in dogs
The classic methods are
• Vaccination of dogs and
• Control of dog population
Animal vaccination remains the method of choice to control and eradicate
rabies.
Primary vaccination schedule for the dogs and cats, consists of initial two
doses of vaccine, that is, one dose given at 3 months of age and the second
given 1 month later. This is followed by a booster dose of vaccine every year.
Post Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP) vaccination is not very successful in dogs.
The cost of a post-bite treatment in humans is about twenty to one hundred
times more costly than the vaccination of a dog.
Animal birth control: Under optimal conditions a given population of dogs
would nearly triple every year. In the policy of animal birth control, also
referred to as the ABC Programme, stray dogs are impounded, surgically
sterilized and released back into the area from where they were picked up. The
success of this program hinges on the sterilization of 70% of the strays in a
given geographic area within six months, before the next reproductive cycle
begins; otherwise the entire effort is negated. This target is difficult to achieve,
given the large number of strays and the limited resources. Hence the success
of the animal birth control program in controlling the stray dog population is a
subject of dispute and doubt.
Myths about Rabies in India
Following myths about rabies are very much prevalent in India:-
• People apply turmeric, herbal extracts and sometimes ghee over the wound
area. Chilies, hydrogen- peroxide and cow dung are some other wrong
practices followed mainly in the rural parts of India.
• In rural areas, people also resort to witchcraft and religious practices.
• Washing of wound(s) can cause hydrophobia.

38
 Understanding Rabies

• Dietary changes can cure, that is, shift from vegetarianism to non-
vegetarianism or vice versa; stopping consumption of white things etc.
• A single dose vaccine will prevent rabies.
• Vaccines are more effective if taken on empty stomach.
• One should not take bath; eat meat and eggs during vaccination.
• Gems and stones have magical properties against rabies.
Seasonal variation in dog bite cases
Maximum dog bites were observed in the autumn months. It is observed that
there is an increase during warm-weather months (May through August) and a
corresponding decrease during colder months (November through March).
How can rabies be prevented?
• Have your pets vaccinated against rabies. Any pets which come in contact
with wild animals are at risk. If your cat or dog has been bitten by a wild
animal or has bites or scratches of unknown origin, consult the veterinarian
immediately.
• If your cat or dog is sick, seek the advice of your veterinarian.
• Protect your pets from stray or wild animals.
• Report stray animals to your local health department.
• Do not feed or handle wild animals especially those that appear aggressive
or sick.
• Never keep a wild animal as a pet.
Methods of Euthanasia (for animals)
1. Intravenous anesthetic
Pets are almost always euthanized by intravenous injection, typically a very
high dose of a barbiturate such as pentobarbital. Unconsciousness, respiratory
then cardiac arrest follows rapidly, usually within 30 seconds.
2. Stray animals are sometimes put to sleep by animal shelters that put
unclaimed and unadopted dogs and cats in a sealed chamber and pump the air
out. The animal dies of anoxia.
3. Inhalant anesthetic
Gas anesthetics such as isoflurane and sevoflurane can be used for euthanasia
in very small animals. The animals are placed in sealed chambers where high
levels of anesthetic gas are introduced.

39
 Understanding Rabies

4. Cervical dislocation
Cervical dislocation, or snapping of the neck, is a simple and common method
of killing small animals such as rabbits.
5. Intraperitoneal injection
When intravenous injection is not possible, euthanasia drugs such as
pentobarbital can be injected directly into a body cavity. Intraperitoneal
injection is fully acceptable (although it may take up to 15 minutes in dogs and
cats)
6. Shooting
This can be an appropriate means of euthanasia for large animals (e.g., horses,
cattle)
The usual method of euthanasia for dogs is by IV injection of either
concentrated Mag. Sulphate solution or euthatol which is concentrated
pentabarbitine.
World Rabies Day: It is on 28th September.
Conclusion
• Rabies is the only communicable disease of man that is practically 100%
fatal even today but easily preventable.
• The WHO estimated the annual number of human rabies deaths to be
between 40,000 and 70, 000.
• Most human deaths follow a bite from an infected dog.
• Wound cleansing and immunizations, done as soon as possible after suspect
contact with an animal and following WHO recommendations, can prevent
the onset of rabies in virtually 100% of exposures.
• Once the signs and symptoms of rabies start to appear, there is no
treatment and the disease is almost always fatal.
• Globally, the most cost-effective strategy for preventing rabies in people is
by eliminating rabies in dogs through animal vaccinations.
• 40-65% of dog bite victims are children <15 years. Children often play with
animals and are less likely to report bites or scratches.
• In areas known for rabies, professionals with frequent exposure to animals
(e.g. veterinarians), or who spend a lot of time outdoors (e.g. wildlife
specialists or researchers), particularly in rural areas, should be vaccinated
preventively.

40
 Understanding Rabies

Abbreviations and Acronyms

ABC Animal Birth Control Programme
AEV Avian Embryo Vaccines
APCRI Association for Prevention and Control of Rabies in India
ARCs Anti-Rabies Clinics
ARS Antirabies Serum
ARV Antirabies Vaccine
ATS Antitetanus Serum
AWBI Animal Welfare Board of India
BBB Blood-Brain Barrier
BPL Beta Propio Lactone
CCV Cell Culture Vaccine
CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention United States
COPRA Consumer Protection Act
CRI Central Research Institute, Kasauli, H.P.
DCGI Drug Controller Govt. of India
DFA Direct Fluorescent Antibody Testing
EPI Expanded Programme of Immunization
ERIG Equine Rabies Immunoglobulin
FAT Fluorescent Antibody Test
HDCV Human Diploid Cell Vaccine
HRIG Human Rabies Immunoglobulin
ID Intradermal
IDRV Intradermal Rabies Vaccination
IM Intramuscular
IU International Units
MNT Mouse Neutralization Test
NCDC National Institute of Communicable Diseases, Delhi

41
 Understanding Rabies

NIMHANS National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore

NIV National Institute of Virology, Pune
NTV Nerve Tissue Vaccine
PCECV Purified Chick Embryo Cell Vaccine
PDEV Purified Duck Embryo Vaccine
PEP Post Exposure Prophylaxis
PrEV Pre Exposure Vaccination
PVRV Purified Vero Cell Rabies Vaccine
RFFIT Rapid Fluorescent Focus Inhibition Test
RIG Rabies Immunoglobulin
RT-PCR Reverse-Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction
RVNA Rabies Virus Neutralizing Antibody
TCV Tissue Culture Vaccines
TRC ID Thai Red Cross Intradermal Schedule
WHO World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
WRD World Rabies Day

WEBSITES ON RABIES
www.who.int/rabies
www.cdc.gov.in
www.apcri.org
www.rabiesinasia.org
www.kimscommunitymedicine.org
www.rabiescontrol.net
www.worldrabiesday.org
www.drakgupta.in
Although utmost care is taken to provide updated information through this
book, ultimately the decision to treat the patient lies solely with the physician.

42