CHAPTER – II
INDIAN HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM - A PERSPECTIVE
2.1 Introduction
2.2 History
2.3 Primary Education
2.4 Secondary Education
2.5 Higher Education
2.6 Technical Education
2.7 Open and Distance Learning
2.8 Women’s Education
2.9 Problems of Higher Education
2.10 Higher Education in Tamil Nadu
2.11 Summary
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Education in India is provided by the public sector as well as the
private sector, with control and funding coming from three levels: central,
state, and local.1 The Nalanda University was the oldest university-system of
education in the world.2 Western education became ingrained into Indian
society with the establishment of the British rule. Education in India falls
under the control of both the Union Government and the States, with some
responsibilities lying with the Union and the States having autonomy for
others. The various articles of the Indian Constitution provide for education
as a fundamental right.
India has made progress in terms of increasing primary education
attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately two thirds of the
population.3 India's improved education system is often cited as one of the
main contributors to the economic rise of India.4 Much of the progress,
especially in higher education and scientific research, has been credited to
various public institutions. The private education market in India is merely 5
per cent although in terms of value is estimated to be worth $40 billion in
2008 and will increase to $68–70 billion by 2012.5
However, India continues to face stern challenges. Despite growing
investment in education, 25 per cent of its population is still illiterate; only
15 per cent of Indian students reach high school, and just 7 per cent
graduate.6 The quality of education in India whether at primary or higher
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education is significantly poor as compared to major developing nations of
the world. As of 2008, India's post-secondary institutions offer only enough
seats for 7 per cent of India's college-age population, 25 per cent of teaching
positions nationwide are vacant, and 57 per cent of college professors lack
either a master's or PhD degree.7 As of 2011, there are 1522 degree-granting
engineering colleges in India with an annual student intake of 582,000,8 plus
1,244 polytechnics with an annual intake of 265,000. However, these
institutions face shortage of faculty and concerns have been raised over the
quality of education.9
2.2 HISTORY
Monastic orders of education under the supervision of a Guru were a
favored form of education for the nobility in ancient India. The knowledge
in these orders was often related to the tasks of a section of the society had
to perform. The priest class, the Brahmins, was imparted knowledge of
religion, philosophy, and other ancillary branches while the warrior class,
the Kshatriya, was trained in the various aspects of warfare. The business
class, the Vaishya, was taught of their trade and the working class, the
Shudras, was generally deprived of educational advantages. Secular
Buddhist institutions cropped up along with monasteries. These institutions
imparted practical education, e.g. medicine. A number of urban learning
centers became increasingly visible from the period between 200 BC to 400
AD. The important urban centers of learning were Taxila (in modern day
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Pakistan) and Nalanda, among others. These institutions systematically
imparted knowledge and attracted a number of foreign students to study
topics such as Buddhist literature, logic, grammar and the like. By the time
of the visit of the Islamic scholar Alberuni (973–1048 AD), India already
had a sophisticated system of mathematics.10
With the arrival of the British, the modern European education came
to India. This dramatically changed the whole educational system. Educated
people failed to get jobs because the language in which they received their
education had become redundant. At present, Indian education system is
divided into different into pre primary level, primary level, elementary
education, secondary education, under graduate level and post graduate
level.11 Between 1867 and 1941 the British increased the percentage of the
population in primary and secondary education from around 0.6 per cent of
the population in 1867 to over 3.5 per cent of the population in 1941.
However, this was much lower than the equivalent figures for Europe, where
in 1911 between 8 and 18 per cent of the population was in primary and
secondary education.12 In 1901, the literacy rate in India was about 5 per
cent; by India's independence it was nearly 20 per cent.13
The credit for fostering education to the masses following
independence in 1947 chiefly goes to the first Prime Minister Jawaharlal
Nehru. India's first education Minister Maulana Azad envisaged strong
central government control over education throughout the country, with a
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uniform educational system.14 However, given the cultural and linguistic
diversity of India, only higher education, which dealt with science and
technology, came under the jurisdiction of the central government. The
government also held powers to make national policies for educational
development and could regulate selected aspects of education throughout
India.15
Following independence, India viewed education as an effective tool
for bringing social change through community development. The
administrative control was effectively initiated in the 1950s, when, in 1952,
the government grouped villages under a Community Development Block—
an authority under national programme which could control education in up
to 100 villages. A Block Development Officer oversaw a geographical area
of 150 square miles (390 km2) which could contain a population of as many
as 70000 people.16 The community development programmes comprise
agriculture, animal husbandry, cooperation, rural industries, rural
engineering (consisting of minor irrigation, roads, buildings), health and
sanitation including family welfare, family planning, women welfare, child
care and nutrition, education including adult education, social education and
literacy, youth welfare and community organization. In each of these areas
of development there are several programmes, schemes and activities which
are additive, expanding and tapering off covering the total community, some
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segments, or specific target populations such as small and marginal farmers,
artisans, women and in general people below the poverty line.
Despite some setbacks the rural education programmes continued
throughout the 1950s, with support from private institutions. A sizable
network of rural education had been established by the time the Gandhigram
Rural Institute was established and 5, 200 Community Development Blocks
were established in India. Nursery schools, elementary schools, secondary
school, and schools for adult education for women were set up.17
The Government of India formulated the National Policy on
Education (NPE) in 1968 and in 1986 and also reinforced the Programme of
Action (POA) in 1992. The government initiated several measures like
launching of DPEP (District Primary Education Programme) and SSA
(Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, India's initiative for Education for All) and setting
up of Navodaya Vidyalaya and other selective schools in every district,
advances in female education, inter-disciplinary research and establishment
of open universities. India's NPE also contains the National System of
Education, which ensures some uniformity while taking into account
regional educational needs. The NPE also stresses on higher spending on
education, envisaging a budget of more than 6 per cent of the Gross
Domestic Product.18 While the need for wider reform in the primary and
secondary sectors is recognized as an issue, the emphasis is also on the
development of science and technology education infrastructure.
65
The National Council of Educational Research and Training
(NCERT) is the apex body for curriculum related matters for school
education in India.19 The NCERT provides support and technical assistance
to a number of schools in India and oversees many aspects of enforcement
of education policies. In India, the various curriculum bodies governing
school education system are:
Ø The state government boards, in which the majority of Indian children
are enrolled.
Ø The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE). CBSE conducts
two examinations, namely, the All India Secondary School
Examination, AISSE (Class/Grade 10) and the All India Senior
School Certificate Examination, AISSCE (Class/Grade 12).
Ø The Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE).
CISCE conducts three examinations, namely, the Indian Certificate of
Secondary Education (ICSE - Class/ Grade 10); The Indian School
Certificate (ISC - Class/ Grade 12) and the Certificate in Vocational
Education (CVE - Class/Grade 12).
Ø The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS).
Ø International schools affiliated to the International Baccalaureate
Programme and/or the Cambridge International Examinations.Islamic
Madrasah schools, whose boards are controlled by local State
66
Governments, or autonomous, or affiliated with Darul Uloom
Deoband.
Ø Autonomous schools like Woodstock School, Auroville, Patha
Bhavan and Ananda Marga Gurukula.
In addition, NUEPA (National University of Educational Planning
and Administration) and NCTE (National Council for Teacher Education)
are responsible for the management of the education system and teacher
education respectively.20
The Central and most State Boards uniformly follows the "10+2+3"
pattern of education. In this pattern, 10 years of primary and secondary
education is followed by 2 years of higher secondary (usually in schools
having the higher secondary facility, or in colleges) and then ‘3 years’ of
college education for bachelor degree.21 The ‘10 years’ is further divided
into ‘5 years’ of primary education and ‘3 years’ of upper primary, followed
by ‘2 years’ of high school. This pattern is originated from the
recommendation the Education Commission of 1964–66.22
2.3 PRIMARY EDUCATION
The Indian government lays emphasis to primary education up to the
age of fourteen years (referred to as Elementary Education). The Indian
government has also banned child labour in order to ensure that the children
do not enter unsafe working conditions. However, both free education and
the ban on child labour are difficult to enforce due to economic disparity and
67
social conditions.23 Eighty per cent of all recognized schools at the
Elementary Stage are government run or supported, making it the largest
provider of education in the Country.24
During 2011, there were 58,16,673 elementary school teachers in
India.25 As of March 2012 there were 2,127,000 secondary school teachers
in India.26 Education has also been made free for children for 6 to 14 years
of age or up to class VIII under the Right of Children to Free and
Compulsory Education Act 2009.27
The primary education scheme has shown a high Gross Enrollment
Ratio of 93–95 per cent for the last three years in some States. Significant
improvement in staffing and enrollment of girls has also been made as a part
of this scheme.28 The current scheme for universalization of Education for
All is the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan which is one of the largest education
initiatives in the world. Enrollment has been enhanced, but the levels of
quality remain low.
In India, nearly 80 per cent of schools are government schools
making the government the major provider of education. However, because
of poor quality of public education, 27 per cent of Indian children are
privately educated.29 With more than 50 per cent children enrolling in
private schools in urban areas, the balance has already tilted towards private
schooling in cities; even in rural areas, nearly 20 per cent of the children in
2004-05 were enrolled in private schools.30 Private schools often provide
68
superior results at a multiple of the unit cost of government schools. In their
favour, it has been pointed out that private schools cover the entire
curriculum and offer extra-curricular activities such as science fairs, general
knowledge, sports, music and drama. The pupil teacher ratios are much
better in private schools (1:31 to 1:37) for government schools and more
teachers in private schools are female.31
According to the latest DISE survey, the percentage of untrained
teachers (para techers) is 54.91 per cent in private, compared to 44.88 per
cent in government schools and only 2.32 per cent teachers in unaided
schools receive in service training compared to 43.44 per cent for
government schools. The competition in the school market is intense, yet
most schools make profit. However, the number of private schools in India
is still low - the share of private institutions is 7 per cent with upper primary
being 21 per cent and secondary 32 per cent.
2.4 SECONDARY EDUCATION
The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, has provided for
environment awareness, science and technology education, and introduction
of traditional elements such as Yoga into the Indian secondary school
system.32 Secondary education covers children of 14–18 years which covers
88.5 million children according to the Census, 2001. However, enrolment
figures show that only 31 million of these children were attending schools in
2001–02, which means that two-third of the population remained out of
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school.33 A significant feature of India's secondary school system is the
emphasis on inclusion of the disadvantaged sections of the society.
Professionals from established institutes are often called to support in
vocational training. Another feature of India's secondary school system is its
emphasis on profession based vocational training to help students attain
skills for finding a vocation of his/her choice.34
World Bank statistics found that fewer than 40 per cent of
adolescents in India attend secondary schools. The Economist reports that
half of 10-year-old rural children could not read at a basic level, over 60 per
cent were unable to do division, and half dropped out by the age 14.
2.5 HIGHER EDUCATION
India's higher education system is the third largest in the world, after
China and the United States.35 The main governing body at the tertiary level
is the University Grants Commission (India), which enforces its standards,
advises the government, and helps to coordinate between the Centre and the
State.36 Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12 autonomous
institutions established by the University Grants Commission.37 In India,
education system is reformed.
Indian higher education system has expanded at a fast pace by
adding nearly 20,000 colleges and more than 8 million students in a decade
from 2000-01 to 2010-11.38 As of 2011, India has 42 Central Universities,
275 State Universities, 130 Deemed Universities, 90 Private Universities,
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five Institutions established and functioning under the State Act, and 33
Institutes of National Importance.39 Other institutions include 33,000
colleges as Government Degree Colleges and Private Degree Colleges,
including 1800 exclusive women's colleges, functioning under these
universities and institutions as reported by the UGC in 2012. The emphasis
in the tertiary level of education lies on science and technology. Indian
educational institutions by 2004 consisted of a large number of technology
institutes. Distance learning and open education is also a feature of the
Indian higher education system, and is looked after by the Distance
Education Council.40 Indira Gandhi National Open University is the largest
university in the world by number of students, having approximately 3.5
million students across the globe.41
Some institutions of India, such as the Indian Institutes of
Technology (IITs), Indian Institute of Management (IIMS), National
Institute of Technology (NITS) and Jawaharlal Nehru University have been
globally acclaimed for their standard of undergraduate education. The IITs
enroll about 10,000 students annually and the alumni have contributed for
the growth of the private sector and the public sector Industries. However
the IIT's have not had significant impact on fundamental scientific research
and innovation. Several other institutes of fundamental research such as the
Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science(IACS), Indian Institute of
Science IISC), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR),
71
Harishchandra Research Institute (HRI), are acclaimed for their standard of
research in basic Sciences and Mathematics.42
Besides top rated universities which provide highly competitive
world class education to their pupils, India is also home to many universities
which have been founded with the sole objective of making easy money.
Regulatory authorities like UGC and AICTE have been trying very hard to
extirpate the menace of private universities which are running courses
without any affiliation or recognition. Many private colleges and universities
do not fulfill the required criterion by the Government and central bodies
(UGC, AICTE, MCI, BCI) and take students for a ride. For example, many
institutions in India continue to run unaccredited courses as there is no
legislation strong enough to ensure legal action against them. Quality
assurance mechanism has failed to stop misrepresentations and malpractices
in higher education. At the same time, regulatory bodies have been accused
of corruption, specifically in the case of deemed-universities.43 In this
context of lack of solid quality assurance mechanism, institutions need to
step-up and set higher standards of self-regulation.44
Government of India is aware of the plight of higher education sector
and has been trying to bring reforms, however, 15 bills are still awaiting
discussion and approval in the Parliament.45 One of the most important bill
at present is Foreign Universities Bill, which is supposed to facilitate entry
of foreign universities to establish campuses in India. The bill is still under
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discussion and even if it gets passed, its feasibility and effectiveness is
questionable as it misses the context, diversity and segment of international
foreign institutions interested in India.46 One of the approaches to make
internationalization of Indian higher education effective is to develop a
coherent and comprehensive policy which aims at infusing excellence,
bringing institutional diversity and aids in capacity building.47
Three Indian universities were listed in the Times Higher Education
list of the world’s top 200 universities - Indian Institutes of Technology,
Indian Institutes of Management, and Jawaharlal Nehru University in 2005
and 2006.48 Six Indian Institutes of Technology and the Birla Institute of
Technology and Science - Pilani were listed among the top 20 science and
technology schools in Asia by Asiaweek.49 The Indian School of Business
situated in Hyderabad was ranked number 12 in global MBA rankings by the
Financial Times of London in 201050 while the All India Institute of Medical
Sciences has been recognized as a global leader in medical research and
treatment.51
2.6 TECHNICAL EDUCATION
The number of graduates coming out of technical colleges increased
to over 700,000 in 2011 from 550,000 in 2010.52 However, 75 per cent of
technical graduates and more than 85 per cent of general graduates are
unemployable by India's high-growth global industries, including
information technology.53 From the first Five Year Plan onwards, India's
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emphasis was to develop a pool of scientifically inclined manpower.54
India's National Policy on Education (NPE) provisioned for an apex body
for regulation and development of higher technical education, which came
into being as the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) in
1987 through an act of the Indian parliament. At the Central (federal) level,
the Indian Institutes of Technology, the Indian Institute of Space Science
and Technology, the National Institutes of Technology and the Indian
Institutes of Information Technology, Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum
Technology are deemed of national importance. The Indian Institutes of
Technology are among the nation's premier education facilities. Since 2002,
Several Regional Engineering Colleges (RECs) have been converted into
National Institutes of Technology giving them Institutes of National
Importance status.
The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MOP&NG),
Government of India set up The Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum
Technology at Jais, Rae Bareli district, Uttar Pradesh through an Act of
Parliament. RGIPT has been accorded "Institute of National Importance”
along the lines of the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) and Indian
Institute of Management (IIM). With the status of a Deemed University, the
institute awards degrees in its own right.55
The UGC has inter-university centres at a number of locations
throughout India to promote common research, e.g. the Nuclear Science
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Centre at the Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi.56 Besides there are
some British established colleges such as Harcourt Butler Technological
Institute situated in Kanpur and King George Medical University situated in
Lucknow which are important center of higher education.
Central Universities such as Banaras Hindu University, Jamia Millia
Islamia University, Delhi University, Mumbai University, University of
Calcutta, and the like are also pioneers of technical education in the country.
In addition to above institutes, efforts towards the enhancement of technical
education are supplemented by a number of recognized Professional
Engineering Societies such as Institution of Mechanical Engineers (India),
Institution of Engineers (India), Institution of Chemical Engineering (India),
Institution of Electronics and Tele-Communication Engineers (India), Indian
Institute of Metals, Institution of Industrial Engineers (India), Institute of
Town Planners (India) and Indian Institute of Architects that conduct
Engineering/Technical Examinations at different levels (Degree and
diploma) for working professionals desirous of improving their technical
qualifications.
2.7 OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING
At school level, National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)
provides opportunities for continuing education to those who missed
completing school education. Fourteen lakh students are enrolled at the
secondary and higher secondary level through open and distance learning.
75
At higher education level, Indira Gandhi National Open University
(IGNOU) co-ordinates distance learning. It has a cumulative enrolment of
about 15 lakhs, serviced through 53 regional centres and 1,400 study centres
with 25,000 counsellors. The Distance Education Council (DEC), an
authority of IGNOU is co-coordinating 13 State Open Universities and 119
institutions of correspondence courses in conventional universities. While
distance education institutions have expanded at a very rapid rate, but most
of these institutions need an up gradation in their standards and
performance.57 The Open Learning System allows a learner to determine his
pace of learning and provides education at the doorstep of the learner. The
mode of transaction is through self-learning print material, supplemented by
audio and video programmes. It has further scope of students accessing
material through internet and various other media.
According to the Census of 2011, "every person above the age of 7
years who can read and write in any language is said to be literate".
According to this criterion, the 2011 survey holds the National Literacy Rate
to be around 74.07 per cent. Government statistics of 2001 also hold that the
rate of increase in literacy is more in rural areas than in urban areas. Female
literacy was at a national average of 65 per cent whereas the male literacy
was 82 per cent. Within the Indian States, Kerala has shown the highest
literacy rates of 93 per cent whereas Bihar averaged 63.8 per cent
76
literacy.The 2001 statistics also indicated that the total number of 'absolute
non-literates' in the country was about 304 million.58
2.8 WOMEN'S EDUCATION
Women have a much lower literacy rate than men. Far fewer girls
are enrolled in the schools, and many of them drop out. Conservative
cultural attitudes prevent some girls from attending school. The number of
literate women among the female population of India was between 2–6 per
cent from the British period onwards to the formation of the Republic of
India in 1947. Concerted efforts led to improvement from 15.3 per cent in
1961 to 28.5 per cent in 1981.59 By 2001, literacy for women had exceeded
50 per cent of the overall female population, though these statistics were still
very low compared to world standards and even male literacy within India.
Recently the Indian government has launched Saakshar Bharat Mission for
Female Literacy. This mission aims to bring down female illiteracy by half
of its present level.60
Since 1947, the Indian government has tried to provide incentives for
girls’ school attendance through programs for midday meals, free books, and
uniforms. This welfare thrust raised primary enrollment between 1951 and
1981. In 1986 the National Policy on Education decided to restructure
education in tune with the social framework of each state, and with larger
national goals. It emphasized that education was necessary for democracy,
and central to the improvement of women’s condition. The new policy
77
aimed at social change through revised texts, curricula, increased funding for
schools, expansion in the numbers of schools, and policy improvements.
Emphasis was placed on expanding girls’ occupational centers and primary
education; secondary and higher education; and rural and urban institutions.
The report tried to connect problems like low school attendance with
poverty, and the dependence on girls for housework and sibling day care.
The National Literacy Mission also worked through female tutors in
villages. Although the minimum marriage age is now eighteen for girls,
many continue to be married much earlier. Therefore, at the secondary level,
female dropout rates are high.61
The education of women in India plays a significant role in improving
livings standards in the country. A higher women literacy rate improves the
quality of life both at home and outside of home, by encouraging and
promoting education of children, especially female children, and in reducing
the infant mortality rate. Several studies have shown that a lower level of
women literacy rates results in higher levels of fertility and infant mortality,
poorer nutrition, lower earning potential and the lack of an ability to make
decisions within a household.62 Women’s lower educational levels is also
shown to adversely affect the health and living conditions of children.
Infant mortality rate was inversely related to female literacy rate and
educational level. It shows a correlation between education and economic
growth.
78
In India, it was found that there is a large disparity between female
literacy rates in different states. For example, while Kerala actually has a
female literacy rate of about 86 per cent, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh have
female literacy rates of around 55-60 per cent. These values are further
correlated with health levels of the Indians, where it is found that Kerala is
the State with the lowest infant mortality rate, while Bihar and Uttar Pradesh
are the States with the lowest life expectancies in India. Furthermore, the
disparity of female literacy rates across rural and urban areas is also
significant in India. Out of the 24 States in India, 6 of them have female
literacy rates of below 60 per cent. The rural State Rajasthan has a female
literacy rate of less than 12 per cent.63
2.9 PROBLEMS IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTION
“Our university system is, in many parts, in a state of disrepair... In
almost half the districts in the country, higher education enrollments are
abysmally low, almost two-third of our universities and 90 per cent of our
colleges are rated as below average on quality parameters... I am concerned
that in many states university appointments, including that of vice-
chancellors, have been politicized and have become subject to caste and
communal considerations, there are complaints of favouritism and
corruption” said the Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in 2007.64
Students from rural and semi urban background often fall prey to
these institutes and colleges. One the fundamental weaknesses of the system
79
is lack of transparency and recommendations have been made to mandate
high standards of data disclosures by institutions on performance.65 Modern
education in India is often criticized for being based on rote learning rather
than problem solving.
2.10 HIGHER EDUCATION IN TAMIL NADU
Tamil Nadu enjoys the privilege of being one of the most developed
states in the Country in the field of Higher Education. Tamil Nadu has 37
Universities, 455 Engineering Colleges, 449 Polytechnic Colleges and 566
Arts and Science Colleges.66
Tamil Nadu is the eleventh largest state in India by area and the
seventh most popular state. It is the second largest state economy in India as
of 2012.67 The state ranked 6th among states in India according to the Human
Development Index as of 2011.68 Tamil Nadu is also the most urbanised
state in India. The state has the highest number (10.56 %) of business
enterprises and stands second in total employment (9.97 %) in India,
compared to the population share of about 6 per cent.
Tamil Nadu is the home of the Tamil people. Its official language
Tamil has been in use in inscriptions and literature for over 3800 years.
Tamil Nadu is home to many natural resources, Hindu temples of Dravidian
architecture, Hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites and
eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites.69 Tamil Nadu is having 32 district.
It was established as Madras State in 1950 and renamed as Tamil Nadu on
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14th Jan. 1969.70 At present Chennai is the capital city of Tamil Nadu. The
population of Tamil Nadu state was 7th rank in India as per 2011 census
report and the literacy rate was 80.33 per cent.71
2.10 SUMMARY
This chapter brings into light the Educational setup of Higher
education in India and Tamil Nadu. It deals with the primary Education,
Secondary Education and Higher Education. The National Council of
Education Research and Training (NCERT) is the apex body for curriculum
related matters for school education in India. National University of
Educational Planning and administration (NUPEA) and National Council for
Teacher Education (NCTE) are responsible for the management of the
education system and teacher Education.
Higher Education includes Technical Education, Professional
Education, Arts and Science Colleges, Open and Distance Learning, Teacher
Education Colleges. The main governing body at the higher education level
is UGC. Higher Education is growing fast quantitatively but not developed
qualitatively. It is because of weakness of system and lack of transparency.
The problems of Higher Education is the problems of resources involved in
Higher Education i.e. both teachers and students. It may be due to the lack
of facilities in colleges.
81
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15. Ibid.
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17. Ibid
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20. Ibid.
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scheme-seeks-to-divide-schooling-into-two-stages-of-education/
1/203052.html". India Today. Retrieved 10 December 2012.
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25. Ibid.
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