Environmental Chemistry and Analysis Prof. M.S.

Subramanian

CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Environmental Segments

Atmosphere 1
Hydrosphere 2
Lithosphere 3
Biosphere 4
Natural cycles of the environment 5
Hydrologic cycle 5
Oxygen cycle 6
Nitrogen cycle 8
Nitrogen fixation 9
Nitrification 9
Nitrate Reduction 10
Denitrification 10
Phosphorous cycle 11
Sulphur cycle 12
Sulphate reduction to sulphide by bacteria such as 12
desulfovibrio
Sulfide oxidation by bacteria such as thiobacillus 12
Degradation of organic sulphur compounds 13

Commonly Used Terms 13

Pollutant 13
Contaminant 13
Receptor 14
Sink 14
Dissolved Oxygen 14
Chemical Oxygen Demand 14
Biological Oxygen Demand 15
Threshold limit value 15

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Environmental Chemistry and Analysis Prof. M.S.Subramanian

MODULE 1.1
Introduction

Environmental Chemistry deals with the origins, transport, reactions,

effects and fates of chemical species in the water, air, terrestrial and living

environments. It overlaps with different branches of chemistry such as organic

chemistry, analytical chemistry, physical chemistry, photochemistry,

geochemistry and biological chemistry and also includes many widely different

fields such as physics, life sciences, agricultural sciences, medical sciences,

public health and sanitary engineering.

Environmental Segments:

The environment consists of various segments such as atmosphere,

hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. Before explaining the chemistry that

is taking place in these segments one by one, a brief out line about their

importance will be discussed.

Atmosphere:

The following points highlight the vital role played by atmosphere in the survival

of life in this planet.

• The atmosphere is the protective blanket of gases which is surrounding

the earth. It protects the earth from the hostile environment of outer space.

• It absorbs IR radiations emitted by the sun and reemitted from the earth

and thus controls the temperature of the earth.

• It allows transmission of significant amounts of radiation only in the

regions of 300 – 2500 nm (near UV, Visible, and near IR) and 0.01 – 40

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Environmental Chemistry and Analysis Prof. M.S.Subramanian

meters (radio waves). i.e it filters tissue damaging UV radiation below

300 nm.
• It acts as a source for CO2 for plant photosynthesis and O2 for respiration
• It acts as a source for nitrogen for nitrogen fixing bacteria and ammonia
producing plants.
• The atmosphere transports water from ocean to land.

Hydrosphere:

The hydrosphere is a collective term given to all different forms of water.

It includes all types of water resources such as oceans, seas, rivers, lakes,

streams, reservoirs, glaciers and ground waters. The distribution of earth's water

supply is shown in fig 1.

Locked up in
2% polar ice caps
1%
Fresh water

high salt content

Unusable for human
consumption

97% Ocean

(Fig 1 Distribution of earth's water supply)

As can be seen, only 1% of the total water supply is available as fresh

water in the form of rivers, lakes, streams and ground water for human

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Environmental Chemistry and Analysis Prof. M.S.Subramanian

consumption and other uses. The extent of the use of available fresh water for

various purposes is shown in the following figure 2.

50% 30% Irrigation

Thermal
power plants
Industrial water
13%
uses uses
7%
Domestic uses

Fig 2 Major use of fresh water

The major problem with global water supply is it’s non-uniform distribution,

since people in areas with low precipitation often consume more than people in

regions with more rainfall.

Lithosphere:

• The earth is divided in to layers as shown in fig: 3

• The lithosphere consists of upper mantle and the crust.

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Environmental Chemistry and Analysis Prof. M.S.Subramanian

Crust

40 km
upper mantle

Lower mantle

Outer core

Inner
core

Fig 3 Layers of earth

The crust is the earth’s outer skin that is accessible to human.

The crust consists of rocks and soil of which the latter is the important

part of lithosphere.

Biosphere:

• The biosphere refers to the realm of living organisms and their interactions
with the environment (VIZ: atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere)
• The biosphere is very large and complex and is divided into smaller units
called ecosystems.
• Plants, animals and microorganisms which live in a definite zone along
with physical factors such as soil, water and air constitute an ecosystem.
• Within each ecosystems there are dynamic inter relationships between
living forms and their physical environment

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Environmental Chemistry and Analysis Prof. M.S.Subramanian

• These inter relationships manifest as natural cycles.(hydrologic cycle,

oxygen cycle, nitrogen cycle, phosphorous cycle and sulphur cycle),
• The natural cycles operate in a balanced manner providing a continuous
circulation of essential constituents necessary for life and this stabilizes
and sustains the life processes on earth.

Natural Cycles Of The Environment:

Hydrologic cycle:

The hydrologic cycle involves a continuous exchange of water between

sea, atmosphere, land and living animals through massive evaporation of water

from the ocean, cloud formation and precipitation as outlined in figure 4, and in

the following paragraph.

Sun
Cloud
Cloud

Transpiration
Precipitation

Runoff Plants
Evaporation Evaporation

Lake
Ground water
Ocean

Fig 4 Hydrologic cycle

(Redrawn by permission of Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, Michigan 48118, USA from

Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry, S.E.Manahan, p.374,1993)

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Environmental Chemistry and Analysis Prof. M.S.Subramanian

• The land surface and water surfaces on earth lose water by

evaporation by solar energy.
• Normal evaporation of water from ocean exceeds precipitation by rain
into seas by 10% .
• This 10% excess which precipitates on land balances the hydrological
cycle.
• Some of the precipitated rain seeps into the soil as ground water.
• Ground water moves up by capillary action and there by maintains a
continuous supply of water to the surface layer of soil.
• The water from the surface layer of the soil is absorbed by plants,
which in turn is returned to atmosphere through transpiration.
• Surface water or runoff flows into streams, rivers, lakes and catchment
areas or reservoirs.
• Animals also take water which is also returned to the atmosphere
through evaporation.
• Thus there is always a balanced continuous cycling of water between
earth’s surfaces and atmosphere.

Oxygen cycle:

The exchange of oxygen between different segments of the environment

such as atmosphere lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere is shown in fig 5.

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Environmental Chemistry and Analysis Prof. M.S.Subramanian

Fig 5 Oxygen cycle

(Redrawn by permission of Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, Michigan 48118, USA from

Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry, S.E.Manahan, p.561,1993)

The importance of oxygen in atmospheric chemistry, geo chemical

transformation and life processes is outlined in the following paragraph.

• Atmospheric oxygen contributes largely to the processes on the earth’s

surface. Atmospheric oxygen participate in energy producing reactions

such as burning of fossil fuels,

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O ................................................................(1)

(In natural gas)

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Environmental Chemistry and Analysis Prof. M.S.Subramanian

• Atmospheric oxygen is utilized by aerobic organism in the degradation of

organic material
Organism
[CH2O] + O2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
→ CO2 + H2O ................................................(2)

• Oxygen is consumed by some oxidative weathering processes of

minerals

4FeO + O2 → 2Fe2O3 .........................................................................(3)

• Photosynthesis by plants return the oxygen to the atmosphere.

plants
CO2 + H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯
→ CH2O + O2 ........................................................(4)
hυ

• A form of oxygen containing species O3 occurring in the rarified region of

the atmosphere (stratosphere) absorbs harmful UV radiation and serves

as radiation shield.

• All the molecular oxygen now in atmosphere is thought to have originated

through the action of photosynthetic organisms, which shows the

importance of photosynthesis in the oxygen balance of atmosphere.

Nitrogen cycle:

Nitrogen cycle refers to the incorporation of N2 from the atmosphere into

living matter and chemically bound nitrogen in soil, water and then back into the

atmosphere again. Fig.6 shows some of the most important microorganism

mediated chemical reactions involving nitrogen components in aquatic and soil

environments.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Environmental Chemistry and Analysis Prof. M.S.Subramanian

NO Combustion Nitrogen fixation

NO2 N2
Amino
acids in
Denitrification -NH2 plants
Atmospheric N2o steps
synthesis microbial decay

nitrification steps NH3 fertiliser

nitrobacter
NO3- Nitrosomonas
NO2-

Fig 6 Nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen fixation:

In this step the atmospheric nitrogen is chemically bound to form ammonia

by bacteria and algae.

3(CH2O) + 2N2 + 3H2O + 4H+ → 3CO2 + 4NH4+ .............................(5)

(bacteria and algae)

Biological nitrogen fixation is mediated by organisms like Rhizobium that live a

symbiotic relation with nodules on the roots of particular species of plants.

These organisms are capable of catalysing the conversion of atmospheric

nitrogen into forms usable by plants.

Nitrification:

It is the conversion of N(-III ) to N(V) catalysed by Nitrosomonas and

Nitrobacter

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Environmental Chemistry and Analysis Prof. M.S.Subramanian

2O2 + NH4+ → NO3- + 2H+ + H2O ................................................................(6)

Ammonium ion present in water or soil is subjected to oxidation in an

aerobic environment. The optimum pH for nitrification is between 6.5 and 8, and

the reaction rate decreases significantly when the pH falls below 6.

Nitrification is important in nature, since nitrogen is absorbed by plants

primarily as nitrate. Even when nitrogen is applied in the form of ammonium salts

as fertilisers, the ammonia is microbially oxidized to nitrate so that it can be

assimilated by plants

Nitrate Reduction:

This refers to the reduction of nitrogen in chemical compound by microbial

action to lower oxidation states in the absence of free oxygen

2NO3- + {CH2O} → 2NO2- + H2O + CO2 ...............................................(7)

2NO2- + 3{CH2O} + 4H+ → 2NH4+ + 3CO2 + H2 O ...............................(8)

In the absence of dissolved oxygen (e.g: in water logged soils) Bacterium

denitrificans mediates the reaction(8) to produce ammonium ion.

Denitrification:

There are several types of denitrification reactions. One of these is the

reduction of nitrate to form nitrogen gas. The process involves several steps. A

number of heterotrophic bacteria including species of Pseudomonas and

Anchromobacter mediate these processes. In this process N2 gas is produced

from chemically fixed nitrogen

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Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Environmental Chemistry and Analysis Prof. M.S.Subramanian

4NO3- + 5{CH2O} + 4H+ → 2N2 + 5CO2 + 7H2O .................................(9)

By this natural microbial mediated process N2 gas is returned to the

atmosphere.By all these processes the nitrogen cycle is balanced and thus the

N2 concentration in the atmosphere is relatively kept constant.

Phosphorous cycle:

• For the growth and maintenance of animal bones and teeth phosphates
are necessary.
• Organophosphates are essential for cell division involving the production
of nuclear DNA and RNA.

• The major inorganic phosphorous includes soluble H2 PO4- and HPO4 2-

and insoluble Ca5(OH)(PO4)3, Fe3(PO4)28H2O.

• Terrestrial plants absorb inorganic phosphate salts from the soil and
convert these into organic phosphate.
• Animals obtain their phosphate by eating plants.
• Plants and animals after their death return the phosphate to the soil.
• The microorganisms present in the soil convert them into soluble inorganic
phosphate, a process known as mineralisation or biodegradation.
• Biodegradation also deactivates highly toxic organophosphate
compounds, such as phosphate ester insecticides.
• In water phosphorous solubility is controlled by the availability of iron and
aluminium under acid conditions and calcium under alkaline conditions;
each of these metals form insoluble phosphates. When the pH is slightly
acidic, phosphorous has its maximum solubility and under these

conditions H2 PO4- is the predominant species.

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Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Environmental Chemistry and Analysis Prof. M.S.Subramanian

Sulphur cycle:

In the atmosphere, oxidation reactions convert lower oxidation state

species into sulphate. In hydrosphere and soil, sulphur is present in many

inorganic and organic forms exhibiting oxidations states from -2 to + 6. The

sulphur cycle involves interconversion among a number of sulphur species. The

major microbially mediated process in this cycle are the following.

Sulphate reduction to sulphide by bacteria such as desulfovibrio:

In an organic rich reducing aqueous environment, sulphate is readily reduced to

species in the -2 or less commonly, o oxidation states:

SO 4 2- + 2{CH2O} + 2H+ → H2S + 2CO2 + 2H2O .............................(10)

The toxic and odiferous H2S may cause serious problem with water quality.

Sulfide oxidation by bacteria such as thiobacillus :

Sulphide is unstable under aerobic conditions and is easily oxidised via a

variety of pathways. The sulphide might have been formed during the

decomposition of organic matter or might have been present as sulphide mineral

in the sediment or soil.

2H2S + 4O2 → 4H+ + 2SO42- .......................................................(11)

The acid tolerant sulphur-oxidising bacteria thiobacillus produce and thrive in,

environmentally damaging acidic waters, such as acid mine water. The reaction

simultaneously produces hydronium ions and is thus an acidifying process.

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Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Environmental Chemistry and Analysis Prof. M.S.Subramanian

Degradation of organic sulphur compounds:

The degradation of sulphur-containing organic compounds by bacterially

mediated processes can result in the production of strong-

smelling noxious H2S and other volatile organic sulphur compounds such as

methyl thiol CH3SH and dimethyl sulphide CH3SSCH3. Thus the above reactions

give a brief outline of the major microbially mediated processes in the sulphur

cycle.

Before going into the details of the various sections of Environmental

Chemistry, it is essential to understand the following terms, which will be used

often in the course of our discussions

Commonly Used Terms:-

Pollutant:

If the concentration of a substance already present in nature is

increased to unrequired ratio due to human activity, which ultimately has a

detrimental effect on the environment either by reducing the quality of life or

affecting the health then it is known as a pollutant.For example, sulphur dioxide,

carbon monoxide, lead, mercury, excess heat, sound etc. are all called as

pollutants.

Contaminant:

A contaminant is a substance that does not occur in nature, but is

introduced by human activity into the environment. A contaminant is called a

pollutant when it exerts detrimental effect on human health. It is also a pollutant.

Receptor:

A receptor may be any thing which is affected by the pollutant. For

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Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Environmental Chemistry and Analysis Prof. M.S.Subramanian

example,man is a receptor of contaminated water because cholera and

gastroenteritis are caused by it.

Sink:

It is the medium, which interacts and retains the long lived pollutant.

The oceans are the sinks for atmospheric carbon dioxide. Ground water and

subsoil water act as sinks for pesticides employed in agriculture.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO):

Oxygen dissolved in water is vital for aquatic life. The optimum value for

dissolved oxygen in a good quality water is 4-8mg/L. It is consumed by oxidation

of organic matter/ reducing agent etc. present in water.Water which has DO

value less than 4 mg/L is termed as polluted and is unfit for human or aquatic

animal consumptions.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):

It is an index of the organic content of water, since the most common

substance oxidized by the dissolved oxygen in water is organic matter, which has

a biological origin, such as dead plants etc. The COD of a water sample is

determined by the chemical oxidation of the organic matter by K2Cr2O7 in 50%

H2SO4. This method includes other reducible inorganic species that may be

present in water such as NO2- , S2 O3 2- , S2- etc., and hence this method does not

truly reflect the organic content in water. However since this method is rapid, it is

widely used.

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):

The capacity of the organic matter in the sample of natural water to

consume oxygen is called its BOD. It is determined experimentally by

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Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Environmental Chemistry and Analysis Prof. M.S.Subramanian

determining the dissolved oxygen (DO) at the beginning and at the end of a

5-day period in a sealed sample. The BOD gives the measure of oxygen utilized

or consumed in the period as a result of oxidation of dissolved organic matter

present in the water sample.

Threshold limit value (TLV):

This value indicates the permissible level of a toxic pollutant in

atmosphere to which a healthy industrial worker can be exposed during an eight-

hour day without any adverse effect. TLV of a pollutant is found by

experimentation on animals, medical knowledge and experience and

environmental studies.

Now let us discuss the various segments of our environment in detail one

by one. In the first instance let us discuss about the atmosphere and atmospheric

chemistry.

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