Nara Period 710-794

Japanese literature traces its beginnings to oral traditions that were first recorded in written form in the early eighth century after
a writing system was introduced from China. The Kojiki (Record of Ancient Matters) and Nihon shoki (Chronicle of Japan) were
completed in 712 and 720, respectively, as government projects. The former is an anthology of myths, legends, and other
stories, while the latter is a chronological record of history. The Fudoki (Records of Wind and Earth), compiled by provincial
officials beginning in 713, describe the history, geography, products, and folklore of the various provinces.
The most brilliant literary product of this period was the Man'yoshu (Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves), an anthology of 4,500
poems composed by people ranging from unknown commoners to emperors and compiled around 759. Already emerging was a
verse form comprising 31 syllables (5-7-5-7-7) known as tanka. In 905 the Kokin wakashu or Kokinshu (Collection of Poems
from Ancient and Modern Times) was published as the first poetry anthology commissioned by an emperor; its preface paid high
tribute to the vast possibilities of literature.
Heian Period 794-1185
In the resplendent aristocratic culture that thrived early in the eleventh century, a time when the use of the hiragana alphabet
derived from Chinese characters had become widespread, court ladies played the central role in developing literature. One of
them, Murasaki Shikibuwrote the 54-chapter novel Genji monogatari (Tale of Genji) [in ealy 11 century, ca 1008 ?], while
another, Sei Shonagon, wrote Makura no soshi (The Pillow Book), a diverse collection of jottings and essays [around 996 ].
Others also wrote diaries and stories, and their psychological portrayals remain fresh and vivid to present-day readers. The
appearance of the Konjaku monogatari (Tales of a Time That Is Now Past) around 1120 added a new dimension to literature.
This collection of more than 1,000 Buddhist and secular tales from India, China, and Japan is particularly notable for its rich
descriptions of the lives of the nobility and common people in Japan at that time.
Kamakura-Muromachi Period 1185-1573
In the latter half of the twelfth century warriors of the Taira clan (Heike) seized political power at the imperial court, virtually
forming a new aristocracy. Heike mono-gatari (The Tale of the Heike),which depicts the rise and fall of the Taira with the spotlight
on their wars with the Minamoto clan (Genji), was completed in the first half of the thirteenth century [before 1219 ]. It is a grand
epic deeply rooted in Buddhist ethics and filled with sorrow for those who perished, colorful descriptions of its varied characters,
and stirring battle scenes. In former times the tale was narrated to the accompaniment of a Japanese lute. The Shin kokin
wakashu (New Collection of Poems from Ancient and Modern Times), an anthology of poetry commissioned by retired Emperor
Go-Toba, was also completed around this time [ca 1205 ?] ; it is dedicated to the pursuit of a subtle, profound beauty far
removed from the mundane reality of civil strife.
This period also produced literature by recluses, typified by Kamo no Chomei 's Hojoki (An Account of My Hut) [1212] , which
reflects on the uncertainty of existence, and Yoshida Kenko 's Tsurezuregusa (Essays in Idleness) [ca 1330 ] , a work marked by
penetrating reflections on life. Both works raise the question of spiritual salvation. Meanwhile, the profound thoughts and incisive
logic of the Shobogenzo (Treasury of the True Dharma Eye) [before 1237 ] , one of the first Buddhist texts written in Japanese
rather than Chinese, marked a major development in Zen thought. The Taiheiki (Chronicle of the Great Peace), depicting the 50
years from 1318 to 1367 when two rival imperial courts struggled for power, is a valuable historical record, while the noh plays
perfected by Kan'ami and his son Zeami are of great literary value.Zeami 's Fushi kaden (The Transmission of the Flower of
Acting Style) [1400] is a brilliant essay on dramatic art.
Edo Period 1603-1868
Around this time the function of literature as a means of social intercourse broadened. Composing renga (successive linked
verses by several people forming a long poem) became a favorite pastime, and this gave birth to haikai (a sort of jocular renga)
in the sixteenth century. It was the renowned seventeenth century poet Matsuo Basho who perfected a new condensed poetic
form of 17 syllables (5-7-5) known as haiku, an embodiment of elegant simplicity and tranquility.
In the Genroku era (1688-1704) city-dwelling artisans and merchants became the main supporters of literature, and professional
artists began to appear. Two giants emerged in the field of prose: Ihara Saikaku, who realistically portrayed the life of Osaka
merchants, and Chikamatsu Monzaemon, who wrote joruri, a form of storytelling involving chanted lines, and kabuki plays.
These writers brought about a great flowering of literature. Later Yosa Buson composed superb haiku depicting nature, while
fiction writer Ueda Akinari produced a collection of gothic stories called Ugetsu monogatari (Tales of Moonlight and Rain) [1776]
Meiji Period to present
In the Meiji era (1868-1912) unification of the written and spoken language was advocated, and Futabatei Shimei 's Ukigumo
(Drifting Clouds) [1887] won acclaim as a new form of novel. In poetry circles the influence of translated foreign poems led to a
"new style" poetry movement, and the scope of literary forms continued to widen. Novelists Mori Ogai and Natsume Soseki
studied in Germany and Britain, respectively, and their works reflect the influence of the literature of those countries. Soseki
nurtured many talented literary figures. One of them, Akutagawa Ryunosuke, wrote many superb novelettes based on his
detailed knowledge of the Japanese classics. His suicide in 1927 was seen as a symbol of the agony Japan was experiencing in
the process of rapid modernization, a major theme of modern Japanese literature.
Naturalism as advocated by Emile Zola dominated Japan's literary world for the first decade of the twentieth century. This school
of literature, as represented by Shimazaki Toson, is noted for the "I novel," a style of novel typical of Japan. A number of pre-
World War II literary currents, such as proletarian literature and neo-sensualism, petered out during the war but later regained
strength, generating a diverse range of works.
In 1968 Kawabata Yasunari became the first Japanese to win the Nobel Prize for literature, and Oe Kenzaburo won it in 1994.
They and other contemporary writers, such as Tanizaki Jun'ichiro, Mishima Yukio, Abe Kobo, and Inoue Yasushi, have been
translated into other languages. In the last few years works by the remarkably active postwar-generation writers Murakami Ryu
(who won the Akutagawa Prize), Murakami Haruki, Yoshimoto Banana, and others have also been translated into many
languages and have gained tremendous popularity.
The Kojiki is considered the earliest historical record of Japan. It was completed in 712 but purportedly records the events
dating back to 660 bce and the creation of the Japanese Imperial line. The writing of the Kojiki was a particularly tricky task
because the Japanese language did not have a written script. Yasumaro, the scribe charged with recording what had heretofore
been committed to memory by Hieda no Are and other kataribe, describes the challenges of trying to find a way to use Chinese
characters to represent Japanese words. As a result, the Kojiki is written in a strange mixture of Chinese used both
ideographically, phonetically, and otherwise to create Japanese. There was little apparent logic to Yasumaro's selection, and the
Kojiki was soon to be illegible until Nativist Scholars unraveled the cumbersome readings in the later centuries.
The two great poetry collections of the classical period in Japan are the Manyôshû and Kokinshû. The Manyôshû, compiled in
the seventh century, is the earliest existing anthology of poems and includes both long and short forms. The Kokinshû, compiled
from the eighth to tenth centuries, was the first collection of poems of the short form, called waka (or tanka), the thirty-one
syllable classical poetic form. The Kokinshûprovided the standard of poetic knowledge for educated people and waka became
the model poetic form for the next 1,000 years.
In the year 710, the first permanent Japanese capital was established in Nara, a city modelled after the Chinese capital. Large
Buddhist monasteries were built in the new capital. The monasteries quickly gained such strong political influence that, in order
to protect the position of the emperor and central government, the capital was moved to Nagaoka in 784, and finally to Heian
(Kyoto) in 794 where it would remain for over one thousand years.
One characteristic of the Nara and Heian periods is a gradual decline of Chinese influence which, nevertheless, remained
strong. Many of the imported ideas were gradually "Japanized". In order to meet particular Japanese needs, several
governmental offices were established in addition to the government system which was copied after the Chinese model, for
example. In the arts too, native Japanese movements became increasingly popular. The development of the Kana syllables
made the creation of actual Japanese literature possible. Several new Buddhist sects that were imported from China during the
Heian period, were also "Japanized".
Hojoki, long considered a classic of Japanese essay writing, is one of the most popular of the works in the essay genre for its
style and Buddhistic philosophy of life. Various people in Japan have mentioned the work as an example of Japanese nature
writing including a recent work by Tadashi Inamoto comparing Thoreau with novelist Natsume Soseki (Inamoto 稲本 276).The
opening of Hojoki is something that every Japanese knows. Just how well-known and influential the work has been can be seen
in the fact that one of its earliest translations into English was done by none other than Natsume Soseki himself, considered to
be a novelist of importance in this country. “A Translation of Hojio-ki with a Short Essay on It” was completed in 1891 when
Soseki was only 24 (Natsume 夏目 Vol. 20 260).The author of the book, Kamo no Chomei, was a twelfth century figure, having
been born in1155. He was a poet and critic of Japanese poetry, one of the major figures in the history of Japanese literature. He
is best known as a classic example of the man of sensibility turned recluse and as the author of Hojoki. The son of a Shinto
priest of Kyoto, Chomei was given a thorough artistic training. Despite his comparatively humble origin, his poetic gifts brought
him grudging recognition from the court and, eventually, a court-appointed office. Shortly after his position was established,
Chomei took Buddhist orders in1204 and turned his back on the world. He lived first for four or five years in the hills of Ohara
and then built his tiny hermit’s hut in the Hino foothills southeast of the capital and completed his well-known work (Japan 1 :
729).
Genji Monogatari was written around the year 1000 B.C. by Murasaki Shikibu—a woman in the service of the
Empress Shoshi. Life in this time period was centered around the imperial court and governed by a strict sense of social
hierarchy. Those who were closest to the emperor or members of powerful families enjoyed the benefits of high birth, whereas
minor aristocrats living in the outer provinces were often regarded as uncultured and inferior.
The Monogatari chronicles the entire life of the unnaturally beautiful Genji, and ends long after his death during the prime years
of his grandson’s generation. Although demoted by his father, the emperor, to commoner status, Genji is destined to become
the most powerful man in the nation. His early years are characterized by rash actions and seeking pleasure in women. This
lifestyle results in the deaths of both Genji’s wife and lover at the hands of a malevolent spirit, and ultimately, exile. When
banished from the capital, Genji fathers the girl who will rise to become empress. Upon his return, Genji attains exalted status
and builds his great estate—the Rokujo-in.
The focus of the Monogatari then shifts to the courtships, scandals, and political issues that characterized court life. One central
episode includes Genji’s innapropriate pursuit of his adopted daughter Tamakazura. As the tale progresses and Genji becomes
ever more powerful, he grows increasingly dependent on his favorite wife, Murasaki.
After Genji’s death, the tale moves on to Uji, where Genji’s grandson relentlessly pursues the girl Ukifune. The story ends as
Ukifune removes herself from the world of earthly pleasure by taking religious vows.
Tales of Moonlight and Rain (雨月物語 Ugetsu Monogatari?) is a collection of nine independent stories, written by Ueda Akinari,
first published in 1776, adapted from Chinese ghost stories. It is considered to be among the most important works of Japanese
fiction of the 18th century, the middle of the Edo period. Edo literary achievements are normally associated with the fiction of
Ihara Saikaku and drama of Chikamatsu Monzaemon in the Genroku period and the popular literature of Takizawa Bakin in the
later Bunka Bunsei period. Tales of Moonlight and Rain, then, occupies an important yet often overlooked position between
these two moments in Edo literary history.
The Pillow Book (枕草子, Makura no Sōshi) is a book of observations and musings recorded by Sei Shōnagon during her time
as court lady to Empress Consort Teishi (定子) during the 990s and early 11th century in Heian Japan. The book was completed
in the year 1002.
In it she included lists of all kinds, personal thoughts, interesting events in court, poetry and some opinions on her
contemporaries. While it is mostly a personal work, Shōnagon's writing and poetic skill makes it interesting as a work of
literature, and it is valuable as a historical document. Part of it was revealed to the Court by accident during Shōnagon's life. The
book was first translated into English in 1889 by T. Purcell and W. G. Aston. Other notable English translations were by Arthur
Waley in 1928, Ivan Morris in 1967, and Meredith McKinney in 2006. The Dog Pillow is an Edo periodparody.
Other pillow books
More generally, a pillow book is a collection of notebooks or notes which have been collated to show a period of someone or
something's life. In Japan such kind of idle notes are generally referred to the zuihitsu genre. Other major works from the same
period include Kamo no Chōmei's Hōjōki andYoshida Kenkō’s Tsurezuregusa. Zuihitsu rose to mainstream popularity in the Edo
period, when it found a wide audience in the newly developed merchant classes. Furthermore, it gained a scholarly foothold, as
Japanese classical scholars began customarily writing in the ‘’zuihitsu’’ style. Reputable authors from this movement include
Motoori Norinaga, Yokoi Yayu, and Matsudaira Sadanobu.
The Tale of the Heike is the classic of medieval samurai fiction--the romance of the warrior, which in Japanese fiction comes
after the romance of the lover, instead of before as in Western literature. The great classic of the earlier Heian Period (794-
1185) was The Tale of Genji. Genji is definitely a courtly lover, not a battlefield warrior, and he is the ideal of the period, as
imagined by a sophisticated woman at home in te world of that court. The heroes (and villains) of theTale of the Heike are
battlefield warriors, however, and this is the period, the Kamakura Period (1185-1333), when the mystique of the samurai
develops. Kamo no Chomei (1153-1216) comes early in this period, and presents the chaos that had descended on Heian-Kyo
in My Ten-Foot Hut (that I presented last month), a chaos that lead him to reject that world. And there are important
developments in Buddhist thought and the Noh drama in the period, but it is dominated by Civil War and the development of the
warrior's code.
The story told in the 800 pages of the book happens in 20 years which would be relatively early in Chomei's lifetime, but he
tells nothing of that story himself. It is essentially the story of a fall from political power provoked by pride, the pride of the Taira
clan of warriors (the Heike) faced with the rise of the Minamoto clan (the Genji), whom the Taira had defeated in the 1160s.
They had also ousted the Fujiwara family from the power at court it had held during most of the Heian Period. But the great
battles come in five years (1180-85), from the rise of the Minamoto clan in 1180 to their crushing defeat of the Taira in 1185, and
these then become as well known in Japanese history as our great Civil War battles are to us.
The tale divides roughly into three parts. The central figure of the first part is Taira no Kiyomori--a great villain. "Arrogant, evil,
and ruthless, he is above all so consumed by the fires of hatred for the Minamoto that he dies in agony, his feverish body
beyond all cooling, even when he is immersed in water." The main figures of the second and third parts are the Minamoto
generals, Minamoto no Yoshinaka, then, after his death, the great samurai warrior, Minamoto no Yoshitsune, a military genius
wrongly suspected of treachery by his elder brother, Minamoto no Yoritomo, the more astute politician.
The Tale has an epic sweep in being centered on the great battles that resolve this conflict, the brave deeds of warriors, and
the code of bushido, prizing strict loyalty to the lord and honor over life that we have since come to see as the samurai code.
But there are subordinate episodes involving love stories that hark back to Heian literature, and the whole is permeated by
Buddhist themes stressing that all human experience is ephemeral and illusory, that nothing persists except faith in the Buddha.
One thing that gives the work a link to the epic tradition, but also a stong link to these Buddhist themes is that it was
developed by a tradition of Biwa Hoshi, blind priests who traveled the country reciting this and other works to the
accompaniment of the lute. They used no fixed text but recreated the story each time as chanters using oral formulae, many
passages in the 7-5 syllable rhythm of classical poetry, which has suggestions of the way the Homeric epics were passed on
even to Plato's time. The result is that surviving texts vary greatly from one another.
In any case, the work has influenced later writers, and values, greatly. It provided material for many Noh plays, and informed
the general samurai mystique of later ages, unto World War II.
Scholars attribute nearly fifty plays to Zeami. Among them are the works Izutsu, Hagoromo (“The Feather Mantle”), Koi no
omoni (“The Burden of Love”) and Takasago. In addition to writing plays and his major theoretical work, Fūshi kaden (風姿花伝,
also known as Kadensho, 花伝書), Zeami also wrote practical instructions for actors and established the Noh theatre as a
serious art form. His books are not only instructional manuals but also aesthetic treatises based on the spiritual culture of Japan.
Fūshi kaden can be roughly translated as “Floral Message: How Does the Wind Look?” The connotation is that an actor needs
to have sophisticated (flowery) skills, but the technique must not be ostentatious (it must be transparent).
Zeami’s theory of art is unusual. In Europe a treatise like Fūshi kaden would be characterized as poetry. Fūshi kaden was
written between 1400 and 1418. The theory of Fūshi kaden was unique because it was not speaking of concrete visual art like
architecture or painting, but was an essay on art expressed through the movements of man and kokoro (heart, emotion, attitude)
in live performances. The sentences of the essay resemble the way a musical score captures detailed directions on paper for
how the music is supposed to sound.
In Fūshi kaden, Zeami expressed his thoughts on the essence of art, writing from the viewpoint of one who had reached the
ultimate culmination of the art of acting, his father Kan’ami. It described the world as seen through the eyes of a Tatsujin (a
virtuoso). The word Tatsujin in the introduction of Fūshi kaden refers to an ultimate professional who has gone beyond being a
Meijin (master). Kan’ami and Zeami both aimed to reach the level of Tatsujin, and Zeami saw his father Kan’ami as a model
Tatsujin.
Fūshi kaden was an edited version of Kan’ami’s dictation to his son Zeami, before he lost his memories of performance. Zeami
incorporated his philosophy on the art of life, “the way,” into his instructions on how to approach the art of acting. The principles
of Noh echoed the principles of Buddhism and the martial arts. For two hundred years, Fūshi kaden was a secret and much
sought-after textbook on aesthetics and the art of acting, available only to Noh actors and the samurai class. It is still studied by
young Noh artists today.
For a long time, the existence of the work was unknown. Yasuda Zenjiro (1879-1936), the heir of the wealthy Yasuda family,
maintained the Yasuda Library, which contained rare literature and Kabuki and Nohbooks of the Edo period. In 1908, Yoshida
Togo, a scholar of national history, found Zeami’s books in the Yasuda Library, and the next year he published the sixteen
volumes of Zeami’s works. Fūshi kaden had been bequeathed to the head of the school of Kanze (観世) Noh players as oral
instructions on the mysteries of the art. There are five extant schools of Noh acting, Kanze (観世), Hosho (宝生), Kompaku (金
春), Kita (喜多) and Kongo (金剛). Among them, Kanze, founded by Kan’ami, was the largest and most famous school of Noh.
Kabuki is a traditional Japanese form of theater with its origins in the Edo Period. In contrast to the older forms of Japanese
performing arts, such as Noh, Kabuki was popular among the common townspeople and not of the higher social classes.
Kabuki plays are about historical events, moral conflicts, love relationships and the like. The actors use an old fashioned
language which is difficult to understand even for some Japanese people. Actors speak in somewhat monotonous voices
accompanied by traditional Japanese instruments.
Kabuki takes place on a rotating stage (kabuki no butai). The stage is further equipped with several gadgets like trapdoors
through which the actors can appear and disappear. Another specialty of the kabuki stage is a footbridge (hanamichi) that leads
through the audience.
In the early years, both men and women acted in kabuki plays. Later during the Edo Period, theTokugawa Shogunate forbade
women from acting, a restriction that survives to the present day. Several male kabuki actors are therefore specialists in playing
female roles (onnagata).
In Japanese literature and music, a type of chanted recitative that came to be used as a script in Bunraku puppet drama. Its
name derives from the Jōrurihime monogatari, a 15th-century romantic tale, the leading character of which is Lady Jōruri. At first
it was chanted to the accompaniment of the four-string biwa (Japanese lute); with the introduction of the three-stringed, plucked
samisen (or shamisen) from the Ryūkyū Islands in the 16th century, both the music and the scripts became more complex.
When puppets were added at the end of the 16th century, the jōruri expanded to add a dramatic quality not present in the first
simple recitatives. Themes of loyalty, vengeance, filial piety, love, and religious miracles were included; dialogue and descriptive
commentary took an increasingly large role. The chanter was at first more important than the writer of the script, until the
appearance of one of Japan's greatest playwrights, Chikamatsu Monzaemon, in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. A 30-
year collaboration between Chikamatsu and the chanter Takemoto Gidayū (1651–1714) raised the puppet theatre to a high art.
Gidayū himself became so famous that his style, gidayū-bushi (“Gidayū music”), became nearly synonymous with jōruri.
Jōruri are performed by one or more chanters (tayū). One of the world's most highly developed forms of narrative music,
jōruri is still popular as music, even when separated from the stage.
Haikai (Japanese 俳諧 comic, unorthodox) is a poetic genre that includes a number of forms which embrace the aesthetics of
haikai no renga, and what Bashō referred to as the "poetic spirit" (fūga), including haiku, renku (haikai no renga), haibun, haiga
and senryū[1] (though not orthodox renga, tanka or waka).
"Haikai" is sometimes used as an abbreviation for "haikai no renga"
Matsuo Bashō (1644-1694) is one of the most famous poets of the Edo period. For Bashō, haikai involved a combination of
comic playfulness and spiritual depth, ascetic practice and involvement in human society.[3]
Bashō’s haikai treated of the ordinary, everyday lives of commoners. In contrast to traditional Japanese poetry, he portrayed
figures from popular culture such as the beggar, the traveller and the farmer. In crystallising the newly popular haikai he played a
significant role in giving birth to modern haiku, which reflected the common culture.
Zen aims at a perfection of personhood. To this end, sitting meditation called “za-zen” is employed as a foundational method of
prāxis across the different schools of this Buddha-Way, through which the Zen practitioner attempts to embody non-
discriminatory wisdom vis-à-vis the meditational experience known as “satori” (enlightenment). A process of discovering wisdom
culminates in the experiential dimension in which the equality of thing-events is apprehended in discerning them. The most
distinguishing feature of this school of the Buddha-Way is seen in its contention that wisdom, accompanied by compassion, is
expressed in the everyday “life-world” when associating with one's self, people, and nature. The everyday “life-world” for most
people is an evanescent transforming stage in which living is consumed, philosophically speaking, by an either-or, ego-logical,
dualistic paradigm of thinking with its attendant psychological states such as stress and anxiety. Zen demands an overcoming of
this paradigm by practically achieving an holistic perspective in cognition, so that the Zen practitioner can celebrate, with a
stillness of mind, a life of tending toward the concrete thing-events of everyday life and nature. For this reason, the Zen
practitioner is required to embody freedom expressive of the original human nature. Generally speaking, Zen cherishes
simplicity and straightforwardness in grasping reality and acting on it “here and now,” for it believes that a thing-event that is
immediately presencing before one's eyes or under one's foot is no other than an expression of suchness, i.e., it is such that it is
showing its primordial mode of being. It also understands a specificity of thing-event to be a recapitulation of the whole; parts
and the whole are to be lived in an inseparable relationship through an exercise of nondiscriminatory wisdom, without prioritizing
the visible over the invisible, the explicit over the implicit, and vice versa. As such, Zen maintains a stance of “not one” and “not
two,” i.e., “positionless position,” where “not two” signals a negation of the stance that divides the whole into two parts, i.e.,
dualism, while “not one” designates a negation of this stance when the Zen practitioner dwells in the whole as one, while
suspending judgment in meditation, i.e., non-dualism. Free, bilateral movement between “not one” and “not two” characterizes
Zen's achievement of a personhood with a third perspective that cannot, however, be confined to either dualism or non-dualism
(i.e., neither “not one” nor “not two”).
The designation of this school of the Buddha-Way as Zen, which means sitting meditation, is derived from a transliteration of the
Chinese word Chán. Because the Chinese term is in turn a transliteration of the Sanskrit term dhyāna, however, Zen owes its
historical origin to early Indian Buddhism, where a deepened state of meditation, called samādhi, was singled out as one of the
three components of study a Buddhist was required to master, the other two being an observation of ethical precepts (sīla) and
an embodiment of nondiscriminatory wisdom (prajñā). The reason that meditation was singled out for the designation of this
school is based on the fact that the historical Buddha achieved enlightenment (nirvāna) through the practice of meditation. In the
context of Zen Buddhism, perfection of nondiscriminatory wisdom (Jpn., hannya haramitsu; Skrt., prajñāpāramitā) designates
practical, experiential knowledge, and secondarily and only derivatively theoretical, intellectual knowledge. This is, Zen explains,
because theoretical knowledge is a form of “language game” (Jpn.; keron; Skrt., prapañca), i.e., discrimination through the use
of language, as it is built in part on distinction-making. Zen believes that it ultimately carries no existential meaning for
emancipating a human being from his or her predicaments, for it maintains that discriminatory knowledge of any kind is
delusory/illusory in nature. To this effect it holds that it is through a practical transformation of the psychophysiological
constitution of one's being that one prepares for embodying nondiscriminatory wisdom. This preparation involves the training of
the whole person and is called “self-cultivation” (shugyō) in Japanese. It is a practical method of correcting the modality of one's
mind by correcting the modality of one's body, in which practice (prāxis) is given precedence over theory (theōria). (Yuasa,
1987.)
The designation of this school of the Buddha-Way as Zen, which means sitting meditation, is derived from a transliteration of the
Chinese word Chán. Because the Chinese term is in turn a transliteration of the Sanskrit term dhyāna, however, Zen owes its
historical origin to early Indian Buddhism, where a deepened state of meditation, called samādhi, was singled out as one of the
three components of study a Buddhist was required to master, the other two being an observation of ethical precepts (sīla) and
an embodiment of nondiscriminatory wisdom (prajñā). The reason that meditation was singled out for the designation of this
school is based on the fact that the historical Buddha achieved enlightenment (nirvāna) through the practice of meditation. In the
context of Zen Buddhism, perfection of nondiscriminatory wisdom (Jpn., hannya haramitsu; Skrt., prajñāpāramitā) designates
practical, experiential knowledge, and secondarily and only derivatively theoretical, intellectual knowledge. This is, Zen explains,
because theoretical knowledge is a form of “language game” (Jpn.; keron; Skrt., prapañca), i.e., discrimination through the use
of language, as it is built in part on distinction-making. Zen believes that it ultimately carries no existential meaning for
emancipating a human being from his or her predicaments, for it maintains that discriminatory knowledge of any kind is
delusory/illusory in nature. To this effect it holds that it is through a practical transformation of the psychophysiological
constitution of one's being that one prepares for embodying nondiscriminatory wisdom. This preparation involves the training of
the whole person and is called “self-cultivation” (shugyō) in Japanese. It is a practical method of correcting the modality of one's
mind by correcting the modality of one's body, in which practice (prāxis) is given precedence over theory (theōria). (Yuasa,
1987.)
I-Novel (私小説 Shishōsetsu, Watakushi shōsetsu?) is a literary genre in Japanese literature used to describe a type of
confessional literature where the events in the story correspond to events in the author's life.[1] This genre was founded based
on the Japanese reception of Naturalism during the Meiji period. Many authors believed form reflected greater individuality and
a less constrained method of writing. From its beginnings, the "I-Novel" was a genre that also was meant to expose the dark
side of society or the dark side of the author's life.
There are several general rules for the creation of an I-Novel: The first and most important was that it was often written from the
first person perspective (and this is where the "I" of I-Novel comes from).[2] The story attempts to portray a realistic view of the
world (thus the genre's ties to Naturalism). The idea was to prove that a real experience can be completely portrayed with
language. Because these two concepts were so important to the authors they used the events of their own lives for their subject
matter. Many of them were also trained in literary studies, so their works expressed a great knowledge of literature. Additionally,
compared to formal writing styles influenced by Chinese literature, used more casual language.
The first "I-Novels" are believed to be Hakai (Broken Commandment), written in 1906 by Shimazaki Toson, and Futon (Quilt)
written by Tayama Katai in 1907. In Hakai, Toson described a male who was born a member of a discriminated segment of the
population (burakumin), and how he decided to violate his father's commandment not to reveal his community of birth. In Futon,
the protagonist confesses his affection for a female pupil.
Major writers include Naoya Shiga, Osamu Dazai and others. Scandal by Shusaku Endo is a recent example of an "I-Novel"
Noh is a very old form of traditional Japanese theater with its origins in the 14th century. The actors of Noh plays wear masks.
They speak and sing in a very monotonous way, accompanied by a chorus andtraditional music instruments. The Noh stage is
traditionally located outdoors and has a roof supported by four columns.
Every culture in the world has its own theater. In Japan one of the most ancient forms of theater is Noh. The Noh theater found
its form in the fourteenth century and continues in much the same form, with many of the same plays, in present day Japan. A
Noh play portrays one all-encompassing emotion dominating the main character, the shite (she-tay). Whether jealousy, rage, or
sorrow, all music, gesture, dance, and recitation are used to build the emotion to its final climax at the close of the play. Often
the plays depict the return of a historical personage, in spirit - or "ghostly" - form, to the site of a significant event in his or her
life. A warrior might return to the battle field, or young woman to the scene of a love affair. According to Buddhism of the
fourteenth century, a person could not find spiritual release even after death if he still possessed a strong emotion or desire. To
exorcise this emotion, the warrior might appear in his armor and recreate the battle in a dance. The dance would reveal his
humiliation at suffering defeat.
Noh plays are extremely intense. In order to express something so abstract as an emotion, words are often inadequate. As the
play progresses, then, dance and poetry are used to express the tortured heart. Other elements which contribute to an
intensification of the mood are the bare simplicity of the stage which allows no distraction from the main character, and the
gorgeous costumes of the main character himself. The stylized movements also help to focus the energy on the emotion rather
than on the individual personalities. In Noh as in classical ballet, every movement is choreographed and often symbolic. There is
no individual interpretation.
Aside from the main character there are one or sometimes two secondary parts, the waki. Usually they are priests attired in long
dark robes. Like the audience, the secondary character is really there only to observe the tragedy enacted by the main
character. Usually a play opens with the priest or other secondary character's entrance. He describes the scene which he wants
the audience to imagine. The scenes are all actual spots in Japan. The main character may then enter disguised as a local
person. The local person reveals to the secondary character the significance of the site. He then exits. He returns dressed as
his true self with a mask and embroidered robes. From the time of his return to the stage, the secondary character generally
remains seated to one side.
Masks are very important in the Noh and are worn only by the main character. The mask helps to raise the action out of the
ordinary, to freeze it in time. For the Noh actor the mask of a particular character has almost a magic power. Before putting it on
he will look at it until he feels the emotion absorbed within himself. When he puts on the mask, his individuality recedes and he
is nothing but the emotion to be depicted.
A chorus sits to the side of the stage. The chorus often echoes the words of the characters, but it may also speak for them. Thus
in a dialogue between the main character and secondary characters, the chorus may say the lines of either of them. This is of
course according to the script and not improvised. Nothing on the Noh stage is improvised. The use of the chorus to recite the
actors' lines make it seem as though the lines belong to no one: The actors are there but the emotion is not under anyone's
control. It floats between actors and chorus and is further picked up by a sudden drum beat or drawn out by the flute.
There are usually four musicians who sit to the rear of the stage. Three play Japanese drums and one plays a flute made from
bamboo. The drums give a very hollow thud while the flute has an eerie whistling sound. This eerie whisper is what draws the
first actor out onto the stage and creates the other-worldly feeling necessary to Noh.
Kireji
Kireji is considered the “cutting word” in Japanese haiku and is difficult to accurately define. The kireji is normally positioned at
the end of any verse’s three metrical phrases and it provides structural support. When the kireji is effectively developed, it can
become its own poem.
The word choice and positioning of the cutting word are strategic decisions to be made by the writer. The word choice
combined with the positioning of the kireji cuts the flow of thoughts or ideas and suggests two thoughts independent of each
other. This also creates a parallel between the initial phrase and what follows after the pause.
The pause is not only rhythmical, but it is also grammatical, which produces emotion for the reader. The Kireji is also capable of
providing a strong conclusion at the end of the verse.
Kireji is specific to Japanese haiku, but in English haiku, punctuation including dashes or ellipsis can be used as the equivalent.
The ultimate goal is to allow the reader to come up with a relationship between the two contrasting parts.
Kigo
Unlike kireji, which is a structural element in haiku, kigo is more conceptual. While kigo is another aspect of traditional
Japanese haiku, it is often omitted in modern and non-Japanese haiku.
The phrases in haiku can be constructed using kigo which are words associated with a particular season. The earliest indication
of the use of kigo in Japanese poetry anthologies goes back to the mid-8th century. The reference to seasons and the use of
seasons as elements of expression have been an integral part of Japanese poetry and culture.
When referencing the seasons, it is important to use elements from nature to create images that represent emotion and ideas.
The following are some typical ways of using kigo in haiku.
Winter: Winter imagery is often indicative of grief, distance and serenity. It can include "snow," "ice" and "bare tree."
Summer: Summer words often invoke vivacity, warmness, love, rage, or lust. Phrases are comprised of references to the sky,
heat, romance, and the beach.
Fall: Fall usually depicts decay, paranormal activity, suspicion, regret, loss, and an ending. These are portrayed with words
describing shadows and language that invokes a sense of mystery.
Spring: Spring is often written about with words that connote youth, innocence and infatuation.
Holidays: Holidays are also written about and include their own appropriate array of explicit vocabulary.
The most popular reference for kigo is a book called Saijiki, which is divided into the four seasons. Under each season, one will
find various categories such as the Earth, the Sky, Animals, Plants or Humanity. Each category contains lists of kigo related to
that subject. Saijiki is a type of dictionary that allows writers to find descriptions of kigo along with lists of related words that can
be used. The book also contains examples of haiku that include kigo.
Kigo is an effective and powerful way of conveying ideas, thoughts and emotions to the reader. It is recommended that those
writing traditional Japanese haiku incorporate kigo in order to produce the full effect.