INTRODUCTION

KALRO Organization Overview

The national blue print Vision 2030 recognizes the role of research in technology generation and
creation of new knowledge; all of which are vital in national development. Vision 2030 also
places great importance on value addition in agriculture and livestock as a means of raising rural
household incomes as captured by the sector's driving strategy, the Agricultural Sector
Development Strategy 2010-2020. In implementing the second medium term plan the Kenya
Government reformed the National Agricultural Research Systems through creation of the Kenya
Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) in 2014 after merging four research
institutes. Its formation was aimed at restructuring agricultural and livestock research into a
dynamic, innovative, responsive and well-coordinated system driven by a common vision and
goal. KALRO is a corporate body created under the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research
Act of 2013 to establish suitable legal and institutional framework for coordination of
agricultural research in Kenya with the following goals:
- Promote, streamline, co-ordinate and regulate research in crops, livestock, genetic resources
and biotechnology in Kenya.
- Expedite equitable access to research information, resources and technology and promote the
application of research findings and technology in the field of agriculture.
While striving to fulfil the stated goals, KALRO will be obliged to:

(a) Formulate policy and make policy recommendations to the Cabinet Secretary on
agricultural research.
(b) Prioritize areas for, and co-ordinate, agricultural research in Kenya in line with the national
policy on agriculture.
(c) Determine and advise the Government on the resource requirements for agricultural
research in Kenya both at the national and county level.
(d) Regulate, monitor and ensure that all agricultural research undertaken by research institutes
and other institutions or persons undertaking agricultural research is consistent with the
national priorities specified in the relevant policy documents.
(e) Establish and exercise control over the research institutes, committees and research centres
established pursuant to this Act.
(f) Formulate or approve medium and long term research plans, strategies and budgets of
research institutes, committees and organization's established pursuant to this Act.
(g) Provide grants to research institutes and persons desirous of carrying out research and
training programs which are consistent with the national research priorities and plans of the
Organization.
(h) Support and promote the training and capacity building in relation to agricultural research.
(i) Promote the dissemination and application of research findings in the field of agriculture
and the establishment of a Science Park.
(j) Liaise with and ensure the co-ordination of institutions, agencies and persons involved in
agricultural research.
(k) Establish platforms for the purposes sharing of research information, advancing research
and transfer of technology and dissemination of information relating to advancements made
in agricultural research.
(l) Ensure continuance of performance improvement in the field of agricultural research.
(m) Perform such other functions as may be conferred on it by this Act or any other written law

Mandate
The mandate of KALRO is to promote, streamline, coordinate and regulate all aspects of
research in agriculture and livestock development, and also promote the application of the
research findings and technologies in the country.

Vision
To be a global centre of excellence for research in agriculture and livestock

Mission
Generate and promote knowledge, technologies and innovations for sustainability of the
agriculture and livestock sector for the wellbeing of Kenyans

Goal
To contribute to the growth of the agricultural sector through research, technology transfer and
utilization of agricultural innovations

Core Values
i) Excellence and professionalism
ii) Integrity and ethics
iii) Innovativeness and quality
iv) Environmental consciousness
v) Partnerships and cooperation
vi) Equity

Strategic Objectives
1) To generate and promote technologies and innovations for demand-driven agricultural and
livestock product value chains.
2) To develop and promote markets and marketing strategies for agricultural and livestock
product value chains.
3) To facilitate and advocate policy option for enhancing demand-driven agricultural and
livestock product value-chains.
4) To strengthen the capacity for implementing agricultural and livestock product value chains
research.
5) To enhance availability of knowledge, information, and technologies on agricultural and
livestock product value chain research.
Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), Embu branch mainly deals
with research on food crops. In the organization, there are three main laboratories where different
research work is carried out. These include;

Analytical/Soil analysis laboratory

This laboratory deals with all activities that involve soil testing and analysis. Soil testing is done
to determine the soil status in regard to mineral composition, soil fertility, soil pH, and all other
essential aspects that affect the performance of plants growing on that soil. Soil testing is done
for several reasons as follows;

a) To know the fertility (nutrient) status of the soil.

b) To determine the type of inorganic fertilizers to use, at what rates and their combinations.
c) To provide information on the right time to use fertilizers and methods to use.
d) To provide information to farmers on the kind of crops to grow in a specific region.
e) To provide information on the appropriate land management programs to use whether
long-term or short-term.
f) To determine which fertilizer analysis is best for your lawn or garden. The analysis (percentage of
nitrogen, phosphate, and potash) is stated on each fertilizer bag. For example: 25-3-3 contains 25
percent N, 3 percent P2O5, and 3 percent K2O.
g) To know whether your soil pH is in the proper range, and if not, how much lime is needed to
adjust it to the desired range.

Steps in Soil Sampling

1. Identify manageable sized fields with similar characteristics (i.e. hillside versus bottomland).

2. Using a soil probe or shovel, collect soil 6 inches deep in at least a 1-inch area.

3. Collect from at least 10 to 15 locations, on at least every acre.

4. Collect sporadically from locations in field.

5. Avoid locations near gravel roads, feeding areas or trees.

6. Label location of sample.

7. Preparation of soil samples and analyzing them.

8. Interpretation of the results.

9. Making recommendations based on the results.

There are some crucial factors to consider when carrying out a soil sampling program. These
factors include; land topography, soil color, soil type, crop performance, soil management
history, types of weed, land drainage, general land management and development.
Most producers are aware soil pH influences nutrient uptake and have seen Figure 1. This figure
shows that if soil pH is not within the proper range – 6.2 to 7.2 for most crops – nutrient uptake
is inhibited. That doesn’t mean the nutrient is not in the soil, it just means the soil chemical
environment is not suitable for uptake of that nutrient. This usually takes place in highly alkaline
(greater than 7.5) or highly acidic (less than 5.5) situations. If the pH is outside the desired range,
recommendations will be made to either add sulfur to lower pH or lime to raise it. High organic
soils, however, are well buffered and resistant to pH changes so plants grown in these soils will
generally need foliar applications of limiting elements. Outside the desired pH range it is also
possible for some non-essential nutrients to become more available, which can lead to nutrient
toxicities. Aluminum (Al) is best known for this at lower pH.

Figure 1. Nutrient availability in relation to pH. The thicker the bar the more available the
nutrient.

Animal Nutrition Laboratory

This laboratory deals with all tests carried out on animal feeds to ensure that the feed fed to
animals have the right proportions of nutrients and is free from materials that would harm the
livestock. The tests done in this laboratory are;

i. Mineral composition of feed

ii. Amount of fibre in the feed
iii. Amount of fats present in the feed
Pathology Laboratory

This laboratory deals mainly with plant diseases where plants are diagnosed for different
diseases depending on their symptoms and recommendations are given on how to control them.

Laboratory Equipments

KALRO laboratories have different equipments which help carry out the different activities.
Some of these equipments with their functions include;

Laboratory Equipments Functions

pH meter This is a machine used to test the soil using

electrons.
Core-ring box This is a box that contains core rings which are
used for compacting soil.
Sieves and the base Sieves of various sizes are used to separate soil
particles into different sizes for fertility
evaluation.
Pestal and motar These are used for grinding soil particles
manually.
Oven This is used for drying soil.
Digester For digesting soil particles into solution by
heating at 360oc for 3 hours.
Flow analyzer For analyzing various nutrients elements in a
soil sample solution, e.g. % nitrogen.
Water still This is used for distilling water in the
laboratory.
Freeze drier Used for removing water from materials
without deforming their structure.
Soil auger Used for scooping soil samples from the fields
for testing.
Sokslet apparatus Used for extracting fats from feeds using
inorganic solvents.
Muffle furnace Used for determining the mineral composition
of feeds.
Acid Detergent Fibre machine Used for determining the amount of fibre in the
feed
Flame photometer Used to determine K, Na and Ca in a soil
sample solution. Uses cooking gas.
PROCUREMENT

Procurement is the process of buying goods, works or services. For instance, in terms of PPP,
procurement comprises the process of buying the basic infrastructure and services. This may, for
example, involve the acquisition of operation and management services for a basic service such
as water supply. Procurement is often carried out by the process of tendering, rather than buying
products directly from a seller.

A company or organization (the promoter, client or employer) wishing to obtain goods or

services will first specify its requirements. Subsequently, it will open the bidding in a process
known as tendering. Interested companies can then submit their proposals to the client (often a
local government) to meet these requirements. The government offering the tender will then
evaluate the bids to decide which offer best suits its requirements. The company that has been
successful in the tender process will perform the work by contract.

The underlying objectives of procurement and tendering are concerned with ensuring
competition, which is viewed as a key factor in achieving the twin objectives of:

Accountability in the spending of public money; and

Transparency in the steps of the decision-making processes.

Parties to Procurement

In relation to the actual contract, there is a need to focus on who is involved in a contract and
what each of these actor’s various obligations are. The most commonly used engineering
contracts recognize a “triangle of actors’: promoter; engineer; and contractor.

1. The promoter/client, otherwise known as the employer, specifies, authorises and pays for
the work to be undertaken.
2. The engineer acts as an agent on behalf of the employer. The duties of the Engineer
include:
a) Evaluation of tenders.
b) Supervision of the work of the contractor.
c) Confirmation of whether or not the work as been completed to specification.
d) Mediation between the employer and the contractor in case of dispute.
3. The contractor (the bidder) successfully bids for a contract and carries out the work
required.

Quotations are formal documents that offer to sell goods or services at stated prices under
specified conditions that allow a customer to see details before confirming. Quotations from
different suppliers are received by the organization within the specified time period and they are
opened after 7 days of receiving by specific committee. A special document called Local
Purchase Order (LPO) is given to the chosen supplier authorizing them to supply the goods.
Deliveries are made within 7 days after which another committee inspects the items delivered in
line with the specifications in the quotation.

ACCOUNTING

Accounting is the systematic and comprehensive recording of financial transactions pertaining

to a business. Accounting also refers to the process of summarizing, analyzing and reporting
these transactions. Accounting office is an important office in any organization and it has two
main units: Voucher unit and Examination unit. Several documents are used in this office for
different record keeping purposes such as;

Imprest Requisition Form- this is a form that is filled by users to in any organization to request
for any funding.

Inward register- this is a record book where all documents coming into the accounts office are
recorded.

Muster Roll book- this is a book where all details of every casual worker in the organization are
recorded.

Pay sheet- this is a document that keeps record of the number of working days for workers for
the purpose of payments.

Claim voucher- this is a document which is filled to claim back some cash incase of money
shortage by using receipts. The voucher entails; name, designation, job group, total amount
claimed, and expenditure details.

MAIZE BREEDING

Maize crop has become the most important food crop over the recent years rendering it a basic
necessity for Kenyans. In that line, the government of Kenya has paid a lot of attention and
invested on research and technology to increase its production to ensure food security in the
country. KALRO therefore have a department whose mandate is to;

Increase maize yields.

Improve resistance to pests and diseases.

Increase the nutritive value of maize.

Develop early maturing maize varieties.

Develop varieties that can adapt to a wide range of environments.

Develop drought-tolerant varieties.

Types of Crosses

1. Single Cross Hybrid 2. Double Cross Hybrid

A B (A×B) (C×D)

(A×B) (A×B)×(C×D)

3. Three Way Cross 4. Reciprocal Cross

(A×B) C A B B A

(A×B) × C (A×B) (B×A)

4. Diallele Crossing

A B C D E F G H

Fig 1. Types of crosses

Maize Breeding involves crossing of the parent maize to develop hybrids by combining parent
genes. Hybrids can only be planted once and they should not be recycled. Due to this problem of
hybrids, researchers have worked to develop varieties that can be recycled upto 3 seasons
without drastic changes in yield. These varieties are called Open Plant Varieties (OPVs) and they
are of two types;

iv. Synthetic
v. Composite

To develop an OPV, one must have a minimum of 8 parents which are mixed thoroughly and
planted at random. Plants that exhibit the desired traits during the growing period upto to
harvesting are selected and used as OPVs.

TISSUE CULTURE BANANA AND NURSERY

A nursery is a specially prepared site for germinating or propagating materials such as seeds,
cuttings, and other vegetative materials to develop new seedlings. Favorable conditions must be
provided to ensure healthy and vigorous growing seedlings. When selecting a site for nursery
establishment, several factors are put into consideration such as;
1. Slope- the recommended slope for nurseries is 3.5%

2. Accessibility- the site must be accessible for easy management.

3. Water availability- there must be a reliable source of water supply because seedlings in the
nurseries have relatively high water requirements.

4. Security- the site must be secured from strong wind, sunlight, theft or destructions from
animals.

5. Soils- the soils must be fertile with good drainage and ability to retain water and free from
pests and diseases.

In most tree and fruit nurseries, there are special treatments done to seeds to break dormancy
thereby ease the germination. Some of these treatments include;

 Scarification- this involves softening the seed coat manually by scratching or breaking.
 Shelling- this refers to cracking the seeds to allow entry of water and oxygen.
 Soaking- this involves soaking seeds in water to soften the hard seed coat hence breaking
dormancy.
 Stratification- this involves moist chilling seeds to temperatures of about 2-7oC to break
dormancy.

General Management Practices in the nursery

Filling polypots- these are polythene containers where seeds are planted in tree or fruit
nurseries. The soil composition in the polypots should be loam, well decomposed manure and
sand.

Shading- special nets are used to reduce the intensity of sunlight reaching the young seedlings in
the nursery to prevent sun scalding.

Watering- water is a requirement for growth and development of seedlings in the nursery in the
right amounts. Water acts as a medium of transportation of nutrients and allows different
metabolic reactions to occur.

Weeding- this refers to the act of removing undesirable plants from the nursery to reduce
competition for nutrients, light and space with the target crops. Weeding also ensures hygiene
and uniformity.

Pruning- this involves the cutting of the overgrown roots using pangas.

Pricking- this refers to the transferring of seedlings from the nursery to containers for
transporting.
Spraying- this is the process of applying the recommended chemicals to control pests and
diseases.

Image result for propagation definition agriculture

Plant propagation is the process of creating new plants from a variety of sources: seeds,
cuttings, bulbs and other plant parts. Plant propagation can also refer to the artificial or natural
dispersal of plants.

Methods of propagation

1. Division and Separation- this involves planting parent plant parts to develop new seedlings,
i.e.

 Splits e.g. pyrethrum

 Suckers e.g. bananas
 Roots e.g. neem plants

2. Stooling- this method involves heaping of soil around the base of the plant after cutting to
influence shooting, e.g. apples

3. Layering- this is a propagation technique that involves influencing root development from
plant branches. Types of layering include;

a. Simple layering is a method of managed plant propagation. The process does not involve
seeds, roots, or removing any part of the plant. Instead, a low-growing stem is bent down into a
hole in the soil where it takes root and the original plant goes on as two plants.

Fig 2. Simple layering

b. Tip layeringthe propagation of plants by bending a stem to the ground and covering the tip
with soil so that roots and new shoots may develop.
Fig 3. Tip layering

c. Air layering is a propagation method for woody plants that allows you to root branches while
still attached to the parent plant.

Fig 4. Air layering

4. Grafting- is a horticultural technique whereby tissues from one plant are inserted into those of
another so that the two sets of vascular tissues may join together. This vascular joining is called
inosculation. Types of grafting include;

 Wedge/cleft
 Whip/tongue
 splice

5. Cutting- A plant cutting is a piece of a plant that is used in horticulture for vegetative
(asexual) propagation. A piece of the stem or root of the source plant is placed in favorable
conditions to develop into a new. Types of cuttings include;

 Stem cutting
 Root cutting
 Leaf cutting
CROP PROTECTION

Crop protection is the science and practice of managing, plant diseases, weeds and other pests
(both vertebrate and invertebrate) that damage agricultural crops and forestry. Agricultural crops
include field crops (maize, wheat, rice, etc.), vegetable crops (potatoes, cabbages, etc.) and fruits.
The crops in field are exposed to many factors. The crop plants may be damaged by insects,
birds, rodents, bacteria, etc. The main purpose of crop protection is;

I. To generate and screen crop protection technologies to farmers

II. To carry out dissemination fun8ctions
III. To provide advisory services to farmers and clients

There are two major problem solving approaches applied while carrying out crop protection.
These include:

1. On farm research

On-farm research is an indispensable tool for developing and validating alley farming
technology. On-farm research (OFR) can be defined in its simplest terms as research carried out
on farmer's fields and in a farmer's environment. There are two types of on farm research;

A. Experimental OFR

This is the more commonly known and practiced of the two types of OFR. It is performed for
big-physical, technical, and economic assessment of alternative systems or treatments within the
framework of standard experimental designs. Bio-physical assessment aims at determining the
system's biological and physical yield and productivity, while economic assessment inquires into
the availability of labor, cash, and other resources for meeting the projected needs of the
alternative system, and looks into the level and dependability of profit.

B. Developmental OFR

This type of OFR activity has received less attention than the experimental type. It involves (1)
the introduction of particular systems within the farmer environment and (2) the assessment of
the workability of the system and its acceptability by farmers. Developmental OFR operates
within a framework of research-extension collaboration. Its main purpose is the extrapolation of
the tested results to the target area. An attempt is made to fine-tune the technology and to
determine the required support structures prior to wide-scale extension of the technology.
Through the developmental OFR process, farmers of the targeted area are gradually exposed to a
new technology, and their management of the system is monitored in order to identify problem
areas and researchable issues.

2. On station research

On station research is a scientific research center that investigates difficulties and potential
improvements to food production and agribusiness. Experiment station scientists work with
farmers, ranchers, suppliers, processors, and others involved in food production and agriculture.
Station scientists study biological, economic, and social problems of food and agriculture and
related industries in each state. They investigate such areas as crop variations, soil testing,
livestock, processing and animal technology, and other advanced technology in food and
agriculture. They also work with specialists called extension agents. These specialists help
inform famers about developments in agriculture. Most agricultural experiment station scientists
are faculty members of the land-grant universities.

Other fundamental approaches that incorporate the integrated pest management methods (IPMs)
include;

i. Biological approach
ii. Chemical approach
iii. Mechanical approach
iv. Indigenous technical knowledge approach
v. Botanical approach
vi. Agronomic approach
vii. Breeding for resistance approach

Crop protection also involves more technical and complex biotechnology approaches some
of which include;
  Tissue culture
 Vitro and in-vitro
 Genetic engineering
 Molecular Assisted Recurrent Scheme (MARS)

In crop protection context, insects are classified according to;

 Feeding habits
 Types of plants they feed on
 Parts of the plants they feed on
 Good, bad or neutral
 Taxonomic order

Crop protection department in KALRO works closely with maize breeding department to
develop maize varieties that are highly resistant to pests and diseases, drought, early maturing
and with high yields. The most common maize diseases being researched on are;

 Maize streak virus (MSV)

 Maize lethal necrotic disease (MLN)
 Maize rust
 Head smut
 Grey leaf spot
 Leaf blight
 NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Natural resource management refers to the management of natural resources such as land, water,
soil, plants and animals, with a particular focus on how management affects the quality of life for
both present and future generations (stewardship).

Natural Resources Management (NRM) refers to the sustainable utilization of major

natural resources, such as land, water, air, minerals, forests, fisheries, and wild flora and fauna.

Together, these resources provide the ecosystem services that underpin human life. The

perspective of this paper is that NRM should contribute to poverty alleviation, and that natural

resources should be used in a sustainable manner to enhance human welfare. While poverty

alleviation and sustainable NRM are generally compatible, difficult tradeoffs may occur at times.

Nevertheless the fact remains that without poverty alleviation, the environment in developing

Countries will continue to degrade, and without better NRM, poverty alleviation will be
undermined. There are different ecological zones under NRM that are named depending on the
temperatures of a particular region and they indicate the type of crops grown in those regions and
the soil types.

Agro-ecological zones (AEZs) are geographical areas exhibiting similar climatic conditions that
determine their ability to support rained agriculture. At a regional scale, AEZs are influenced by
latitude, elevation, and temperature, as well as seasonality, and rainfall amounts and distribution
during the growing season.

Theses agro-ecological zones are determined by;

 temperatures
 rainfall
 soils

There are several agro-ecological zones that support the growth of different crops as illustrated in
the table below:
 AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF THE TROPICS

MAIN ZONES 0 1 4 5 6 7
2 3
de-humid humid sub-humid semi-humid transitional semi -arid arid
BELTS OF ZONES

Tropical alpine Glacier

zone (2-100c) Mountain Cattle sheep sheep zone High altitude
swamps zone deserts
F
Upper highlands Sheep/ Pyrethrum/ Wheat/ UH
zone (10-150c) dairy wheat barley ranching
UH nomadic zone
O zone zone zone zone

Lower R Tea Wheat/ Wheat/ Cattle/ LH

highlands zone /dairy maize/ barley sheep/ ranching
LH nomadic zones
(15-180c) zone pyrethrum zone barley zone
E
zone zone
Upper midland Coffee/ Main Marginal Sunflower/ Livestock/ UM UM
nomadic
zone (18-240c) S tea zone coffee coffee maize sorghum ranching
zone
zone zone zone zone zone
Lower midland Sugarcan Marginal LM Marginal LM LM LM
T nomadic
zone (21- 240c) e zone sugarcane cotton cotton livestock/ ranching
zone
zone zone zone millet zone
Z zone
Lowland zone Rice Lowland Lowland Groundnut Lowland Lowland Lowland
nomadic
(24-310c) zone sugarcane cotton zone livestock/ ranching
O zone
zone zone millet zone
zone
Coastal lowland N Cocoa/ Lowland Coconut Cashew Lowland Lowland Lowland
nomadic
zone (<310c) oil-palm sugarcane /cassava nut/ Cass livestock/ ranching
zone
zone zone zone zone millet zone
E
zone

s
 RANDOMIZATION AND FIELD PLAN

T1 T4 T2 T3 Vigor scale Crop vigor

5 High
T3 T5 T1 T5
4 Normal +

3 Normal
T4 T3 T5 T2 Region & average
Growth & vigor
2 Normal −
T2 T1 T4 T1

1 Low
T5 T2 T3 T4