Stimulants (also referred to as psychostimulants) are psychoactive drugs that induce temporary
improvements in either mental or physical functions or both. Examples of these kinds of effects may
include enhanced alertness, wakefulness, and locomotion, among others. Due to their rendering a
characteristic "up" feeling, stimulants are also occasionally referred to as "uppers". Depressants or
"downers", which decrease mental and/or physical function, are in stark contrast to stimulants and
are considered to be the functionally opposite drug class. Stimulants are widely used throughout the
world as prescription medicines as well as without a prescription (either legally or illicitly)
asperformance-enhancing or recreational drugs. Some examples of prescribed stimulants are
Adderall, Ritalin, amphetamines, methamphetamine. Examples of Illicit stimulants (illegal stimulants)
are cocaine, crystal meth, and yaba
Effects[edit]
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Stimulants produce a variety of different kinds of effects by enhancing the activity of
the central and peripheral nervous systems. Common effects, which vary depending on the
substance and dosage in question, may include
enhanced alertness, awareness, wakefulness, endurance, productivity, and motivation,
increased arousal, locomotion, heart rate, and blood pressure, and the perception of a diminished
requirement for food and sleep. Many stimulants are also capable of improving mood and relieving
anxiety, and some can even induce feelings of euphoria. However different effects are often dose
related, such as amphetamine causing anxiety, dysthymia, hyperactivity and potentially heart failure
at high doses, but relieving anxiety, producing euthymia or euphoria, reducing hyperactivity and
being generally free of serious side effects at moderate doses used in clinical medicine. Stimulants
exert their effects through a number of different pharmacological mechanisms, the most prominent of
which include facilitation of norepinephrine(noradrenaline) and/or dopamine activity (e.g.,
via monoamine transporter inhibition or reversal),[2] adenosine receptor antagonism, and nicotinic
acetylcholine receptor agonism.
Medical uses[edit]
Stimulants are used both individually and clinically for therapeutic purposes in the treatment of a
number of indications, including the following:
To counteract lethargy and fatigue throughout the day while at work or while doing other
activities
To reduce sleepiness and to keep the person awake when necessary, as well as to
treat narcolepsy
To decrease appetite and promote weight loss, as well as to treat obesity
To improve concentration and focus, and reduce restlessness and hyperactivity, especially for
those with attentional disorders such as ADHD
Occasionally, used off-label to treat clinical depression and bipolar disorder, in
particular, atypical depression and treatment-resistant depression[3][4][5][6][7]
To relieve nasal congestion and to treat orthostatic hypotension and postural orthostatic
tachycardia syndrome.
To aid in smoking cessation. (bupropion, nicotine)
To counteract fatigue and maintain alertness for extended periods and critical operations in
military aviation and space flight.
To offset sedative effects of opioids used long term at higher doses such as in cancer or AIDS
patients. (May also have synergistic effect on opioids.)
To relieve headache, in part by potentiating other drugs. (caffeine)
ADHD drugs[edit]
Main article: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management § Stimulants
Stimulants are the most effective, most commonly prescribed medications for ADHD.[8] The most
common stimulant medications are substituted
phenethylamines: amphetamine,methylphenidate (Ritalin, Metadate,
Concerta), dexmethylphenidate (Focalin), dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine, Zenzedi), mixed
amphetamine
salts (Adderall),[9]dextromethamphetamine (Desoxyn)[10] and lisdexamfetamine (Vyvanse).[11] Controlle
d-release formulations may allow once or twice daily administration of medication. Once daily
morning administration is especially helpful for children preferring not to take their medication in the
middle of the school day. Several controlled-release methods are used.
Ampakines[edit]
Main article: Ampakine
Ampakines are a class of compounds observed to enhance attention span and alertness, and
facilitate learning and memory in clinical trials. They take their name from theglutamatergic AMPA
receptor with which they strongly interact.
These stimulants tend to increase alertness without the peripheral (body) effects or
addiction/tolerance/abuse potential of "traditional" stimulants (such as amphetamine),[medical citation
needed]
as they lack direct dopaminergic action. Their effect on sleep structure is not fully established
and may reduce quality of sleep. The ampakineCX717, when administered at doses necessary to
reduce the effects of sleep deprivation, reduced subsequent stage 4 and slow-wave recovery
sleep.[12] Ampakines such asampalex and CX717 have been developed but are awaiting further
research before being commercially released. They have been investigated by DARPA for potential
use in increasing military effectiveness.[13]
Eugeroics[edit]
Main article: Eugeroics
A wakefulness-promoting agent (eugeroic) is a type of psychoactive drug that
improves wakefulness and alertness, and reduces tiredness, drowsiness, and the need for sleep.
They are used mainly in the treatment of sleeping disorders, excessive daytime sleepiness,
and narcolepsy, though they are also used merely to counteract fatigue and lethargyand to enhance
motivation and productivity. Wakefulness-promoting agents appear to function primarily by
increasing catecholaminergic (adrenergic, dopaminergic) andhistaminergic activity in the brain.
Unlike many other stimulants, eugeroics are relatively non-addictive and non-dependence-
forming.[medical citation needed]
The prototype drug in this class is modafinil, and other drugs include adrafinil, hydrafinil,
and armodafinil. The primary difference between these drugs and amphetamine-like stimulants is
that wakefulness-promoting agents trigger activation of neurons in the hypothalamus-based
wakefulness circuits, as opposed to producing diffuse neuronal activation.[14]
The functional opposites of wakefulness-promoting agents would
be hypnotics/sedatives like antihistamines, opioids, and benzodiazepines.
Chemistry[edit]
For details on stimulant classes, see Substituted phenethylamine and Substituted amphetamine.
A chart comparing the chemical structures of different amphetamine derivatives
Classifying stimulants is difficult, because of the large number of classes the drugs occupy, and the
fact that they may belong to multiple classes; for example, ecstasy is a substituted
methylenedioxyphenethylamine as well as a substituted amphetamine (and consequently,
asubstituted phenethylamine as well).
When referring to stimulants, the parent drug (e.g., amphetamine) will always be expressed in the
singular; with the word "substituted" placed before the parent drug (substituted amphetamines).
Major stimulant classes include phenethylamines and their daughter class substituted
amphetamines.
Amphetamines (class)[edit]
Main article: Substituted amphetamines
Substituted amphetamines are a group of phenylethylamine stimulants such as amphetamine and
methamphetamine. With the exception of cathinones, many drugs in this class work primarily by
activating trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1);[15] in turn, this causesreuptake inhibition and
effluxion, or release, of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin.[15] An additional mechanism of
some substituted amphetamines is the release of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles into
the cytosol, or intracellular fluid of the presynaptic neuron.[16]
Amphetamines-type stimulants are often used for their therapeutic effects. Physicians sometimes
prescribe amphetamine to treat major depression, where subjects do not respond well to
traditional SSRI medications,[citation needed] but evidence supporting this use is poor/mixed.[17] Notably, two
recent large phase III studies of lisdexamfetamine (aprodrug to amphetamine) as an adjunct to an
SSRI or SNRI in the treatment of major depressive disorder showed no further benefit relative
to placebo in effectiveness.[18]Numerous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of drugs such
as Adderall (a mixture of salts of amphetamine and dextroamphetamine) in controlling symptoms
associated with ADD/ADHD. Due to their availability and fast-acting effects, substituted
amphetamines are prime candidates for abuse.[19]
Dopamine precursors[edit]
The main section for this topic is on the page Dopamine, in the section Biosynthesis.
Human biosynthesis pathway for trace amines and catecholamines[20][21]
L-Phenylalanine
L-Tyrosine
L-Dopa
Epinephrine
Phenethylamine
p-Tyramine
Dopamine
Norepinephrine
N-Methylphenethylamine
N-Methyltyramine
p-Octopamine
Synephrine
3-Methoxytyramine
AADC
AADC
AADC
PNMT
PNMT
PNMT
PNMT
AAAH
AAAH
COMT
DBH
DBH
This is the biosynthesis of catecholamines, including dopamine, as well as phenethylaminergic trace
amines from the amino acid phenylalanine. Trace amines are endogenous agonists of TAAR1, the same
receptor activated by amphetamine;[15] consequently, all of these trace amines are stimulants. Abbreviations:
DBH, dopamine β-hydroxylase; AADC, aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase; AAAH, aromatic amino acid
hydroxylase; COMT, catechol O-methyltransferase; PNMT, phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase
Dopamine is one of the principal neurotransmitters involved with stimulant activity in the brain,
(others being norepinephrine and serotonin). Increase in itsprecursors may result in increased
dopamine biosynthesis, especially in malnourished individuals. However levels of the
enzyme tyrosine hydroxylaseultimately limit the biosynthesis regardless of increased tyrosine.
L-Tyrosine is the precursor that is 'closest' to being dopamine among those supplements legally
available without prescription in most jurisdictions. It is converted by tyrosine hydroxylase into L-
Dopa. Some of this L-Dopa is converted into dopamine and norepinephrine. Because tyrosine
competes with other amino acids for entry into the brain supplement makers recommend tyrosine be
taken on an empty stomach. However tyrosine hydroxylase is the rate limiting factor and even large
dosages recommended by most supplement companies may not produce any noticeable effect. L-
Phenylalanine is 'one step back' from L-Tyrosine—it must be converted into tyrosine before the
tyrosine can be converted into L-Dopa, which in turn becomes dopamine. Dopamine is also the
direct precursor of norepinephrine.
Notable stimulants[edit]
Amphetamine[edit]
Main article: Amphetamine
Amphetamine is a potent central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the phenethylamine class that
is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
andnarcolepsy.[22] Amphetamine was discovered in 1887 and exists as
two enantiomers: levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine.[note 1][23] Amphetamine refers to equal
parts of the enantiomers, i.e., 50% levoamphetamine and 50% dextroamphetamine.[24][25] Historically,
it has been used to treat nasal congestion, depression, and obesity.[23][26]Amphetamine is also used
as a performance and cognitive enhancer, and recreationally as
an aphrodisiac and euphoriant.[27][28][29][30] Although it is a prescription medication in many countries,
unauthorized possession and distribution of amphetamine is often tightly controlled due to the
significant health risks associated with uncontrolled or heavy use.[31][32] As a consequence,
amphetamine is illegally synthesized by clandestine chemists, trafficked, and sold.[33] Based upon
drug and drug precursor seizures worldwide, illicit amphetamine production and trafficking is much
less prevalent than that of methamphetamine.[33]
The first pharmaceutical amphetamine was Benzedrine, a brand of inhalers used to treat a variety of
conditions.[23][26] Because the dextro isomer has greater stimulant properties, Benzedrine was
gradually discontinued in favor of formulations containing all or mostly dextroamphetamine.
Presently, it is typically prescribed as Adderall, dextroamphetamine (e.g., Dexedrine), or the
inactive prodrug lisdexamfetamine (e.g., Vyvanse).[23][34] Amphetamine, through activation of a trace
amine receptor, increasesbiogenic amine and excitatory neurotransmitter activity in the brain, with its
most pronounced effects targeting
the catecholamine neurotransmitters norepinephrine anddopamine.[15] At therapeutic doses, this
causes emotional and cognitive effects such as euphoria, change in libido, increased arousal, and
improved cognitive control.[28][29][35]Likewise, it induces physical effects such as decreased reaction
time, fatigue resistance, and increased muscle strength.[27]
In contrast, much larger doses of amphetamine are likely to impair cognitive function and induce
rapid muscle breakdown.[22][28][36] Substance dependence (i.e., addiction) is a serious risk of
amphetamine abuse, but only rarely arises from proper medical use.[22][37] Very high doses can result
in a psychosis (e.g., delusions and paranoia), which very rarely occurs at therapeutic doses even
during long-term use.[38][39] As recreational doses are generally much larger than prescribed
therapeutic doses, recreational use carries a far greater risk of serious side effects.[22][36]
Amphetamine is the parent compound of its own structural class, the (substituted) amphetamines,
which includes prominent substances such as bupropion, cathinone, ecstasy, and
methamphetamine.[40][41] It is chemically related to methamphetamine; however, unlike
methamphetamine, its salts lack sufficient volatility to be smoked.[40] During long-term treatment in
humans, amphetamine has been shown to normalize, or improve, brain function, in particular in
the right caudate nucleus;[42][43] in contrast, methamphetamine induces permanent reductions in brain
structure and function.[44][45] Amphetamine is also chemically related to the naturally occurring trace
amines, to be specific phenethylamineand N-methylphenethylamine, both of which produced within
the human body.[41]
Caffeine[edit]
Main article: Caffeine
Roasted coffee beans, a common source of caffeine.
Caffeine is a stimulant compound belonging to the xanthine class of chemicals naturally found
in coffee, tea, and (to a lesser degree) cocoa orchocolate. It is included in many soft drinks, as well
as a larger amount in energy drinks. Caffeine is the world's most widely used psychoactive drug and
by far the most common stimulant. In North America, 90% of adults consume caffeine daily.[46] A few
jurisdictions restrict its sale and use. Caffeine is also included in some medications, usually for the
purpose of enhancing the effect of the primary ingredient, or reducing one of its side-effects
(especially drowsiness). Tablets containing standardized doses of caffeine are also widely available.
Ephedrine[edit]
Main article: Ephedrine
Ephedrine is a sympathomimetic amine similar in molecular structure to the well-known
drugs phenylpropanolamine and methamphetamine, as well as to the
important neurotransmitter epinephrine (adrenaline). Ephedrine is commonly used as a
stimulant, appetite suppressant, concentration aid, and decongestant, and to
treat hypotension associated with anaesthesia.
In chemical terms, it is an alkaloid with a phenethylamine skeleton found in various plants in the
genus Ephedra (family Ephedraceae). It works mainly by increasing the activity
ofnorepinephrine (noradrenaline) on adrenergic receptors.[47] It is most usually marketed as
the hydrochloride or sulfate salt.
The herb má huáng (Ephedra sinica), used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), contains
ephedrine and pseudoephedrine as its principal active constituents. The same may be true of other
herbal products containing extracts from other Ephedra species.
MDMA[edit]
Illicit tablets containing MDMA
Main article: MDMA
See also: Its parent class and MDA
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy, or molly), typically comes as tablets,
capsules, and in powder/crystal form. Briefly used by some psychotherapists as an adjunct to
therapy, the drug became popular recreationally and the DEA listed MDMA as aSchedule I
controlled substance, prohibiting most medical studies and applications. MDMA is known for
its entactogenic properties. The stimulant effects of MDMA include hypertension, anorexia (appetite
loss), euphoria, social disinhibition, insomnia (enhanced wakefulness/inability to sleep), improved
energy, increased arousal, and increased perspiration, among others.
MDMA differs from most stimulants in that its primary pharmacological effect is on
the neurotransmitter serotonin rather than dopamine,epinephrine, or norepinephrine. Because of
this, it is considered to be primarily an entactogen or an empathogen.
MDPV[edit]
Main article: MDPV
Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) is a psychoactive drug with stimulant properties that acts as
a norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor (NDRI).[48] It was first developed in the 1960s by a
team at Boehringer Ingelheim.[49] MDPV remained an obscure stimulant until around 2004, when it
was reported to be sold as a designer drug. Products labeled as bath salts containing MDPV were
previously sold as recreational drugs in gas stations and convenience stores in the United States,
similar to the marketing for Spiceand K2 as incense.[50][51]
Incidents of psychological and physical harm have been attributed to MDPV use.[52][53]
Prolintane[edit]
Main article: Prolintane
Mephedrone[edit]
Main article: Mephedrone
Mephedrone is a synthetic stimulant drug of the amphetamine and cathinone classes. Slang names
include drone[54] and MCAT.[55] It is reported to be manufactured in China and is chemically similar to
the cathinone compounds found in the khat plant of eastern Africa. It comes in the form of tablets or
a powder, which users can swallow, snort, or inject, producing similar effects
to MDMA, amphetamines, and cocaine.
Mephedrone was first synthesized in 1929, but did not become widely known until it was
rediscovered in 2003. By 2007, mephedrone was reported to be available for sale on the Internet; by
2008 law enforcement agencies had become aware of the compound; and, by 2010, it had been
reported in most of Europe, becoming particularly prevalent in the United Kingdom. Mephedrone
was first made illegal in Israel in 2008, followed by Sweden later that year. In 2010, it was made
illegal in many European countries, and, in December 2010, the EU ruled it illegal. In Australia, New
Zealand, and the USA, it is considered an analog of other illegal drugs and can be controlled by laws
similar to theFederal Analog Act. In September 2011, the USA temporarily classified mephedrone as
illegal, in effect from October 2011.
Methamphetamine[edit]
Main article: Methamphetamine
Methamphetamine (contracted from N-methyl-alpha-methylphenethylamine) is a neurotoxin and
potent psychostimulant of the phenethylamine and amphetamine classes that is used to
treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and obesity.[44][56][45] Methamphetamine exists as
two enantiomers, dextrorotary and levorotary.[57][58]Dextromethamphetamine is a stronger CNS
stimulant than levomethamphetamine;[36][57][58] however, both are addictive and produce the same
toxicity symptoms at high doses.[58] Although rarely prescribed due to the potential risks,
methamphetamine hydrochloride is approved by the United States Food and Drug
Administration (USFDA) under the trade name Desoxyn.[56] Recreationally, methamphetamine is
used to increase sexual desire, lift the mood, and increase energy, allowing some users to engage in
sexual activity continuously for several days straight.[56][59]
Methamphetamine may be sold illicitly, either as pure dextromethamphetamine or in an equal
parts mixture of the right- and left-handed molecules (i.e., 50% levomethamphetamine and
50% dextromethamphetamine).[59] Both dextromethamphetamine and racemic methamphetamine
are schedule II controlled substances in the United States.[56] Also, the production, distribution, sale,
and possession of methamphetamine is restricted or illegal in many other countries due to its
placement in schedule II of the United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances treaty.[60][61] In
contrast, levomethamphetamine is an over-the-counter drug in the United States.[note 2]
In low doses, methamphetamine can cause an elevated mood and increase alertness,
concentration, and energy in fatigued individuals.[36][56] At higher doses, it can
inducepsychosis, rhabdomyolysis, and cerebral hemorrhage.[36][56] Methamphetamine is known to
have a high potential for abuse and addiction.[36][56] Recreational use of methamphetamine may result
in psychosis or lead to post-withdrawal syndrome, a withdrawal syndrome that can persist for
months beyond the typical withdrawal period.[64]Unlike amphetamine and cocaine, methamphetamine
is neurotoxic to humans, damaging both dopamine and serotonin neurons in the central nervous
system (CNS).[44][45]Entirely opposite to the long-term use of amphetamine, there is evidence that
methamphetamine causes brain damage from long-term use in humans;[44][45] this damage includes
adverse changes in brain structure and function, such as reductions in gray matter volume in several
brain regions and adverse changes in markers of metabolic integrity.[42][43][45]
Nicotine[edit]
Main article: Nicotine
This section needs
expansionwith: a connection
between its addictive properties
and stimulant effect. You can
help by adding to it.(January 2014)
Nicotine is the active chemical constituent in tobacco, which is available in many forms,
including cigarettes, cigars, chewing tobacco, and smoking cessation aids such as nicotine
patches, nicotine gum, and electronic cigarettes. Nicotine is used widely throughout the world for its
stimulating and relaxing effects.
Phenylpropanolamine[edit]
Main article: Phenylpropanolamine
Phenylpropanolamine (PPA; Accutrim; β-hydroxyamphetamine), also known as
the stereoisomers norephedrine and norpseudoephedrine, is a psychoactive drug of
thephenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes that is used as a stimulant, decongestant,
and anorectic agent.[65] It is commonly used in prescription and over-the-countercough and cold
preparations. In veterinary medicine, it is used to control urinary incontinence in dogs under trade
names Propalin and Proin.
In the United States, PPA is no longer sold without a prescription due to a proposed increased risk
of stroke in younger women. In a few countries in Europe, however, it is still available either by
prescription or sometimes over-the-counter. In Canada, it was withdrawn from the market on 31 May
2001.[66] In India, human use of PPA and its formulations were banned on 10 February 2011.[67]
Propylhexedrine[edit]
Main article: Propylhexedrine
Propylhexedrine (Hexahydromethamphetamine, Obesin) is a stimulant medication, sold over-the-
counter in the United States as the cold medication Benzedrex.[68] The drug has also been used as
an appetite suppressant in Europe. Propylhexedrine is not an amphetamine, though it is structurally
similar; it is instead a cycloalkylamine, and thus has stimulant effects that are less potent than
similarly structured amphetamines, such as methamphetamine.
The abuse potential of propylhexedrine is fairly limited, due its limited routes of administration: in the
United States, Benzedrex is only available as an inhalant, mixed with lavender oil and menthol.
These ingredients cause unpleasant tastes, and abusers of the drug have reported unpleasant
"menthol burps." Injection of the drug has been found to cause transient diplopia and brain stem
dysfunction.[69][70][71]
Dimethylamylamine[edit]
Main article: Dimethylamylamine
Dimethylamylamine is a stimulant drug, once sold in over-the-counter workout supplements and
study aids in the United States as in the supplement Jack 3D, but it was later discontinued.
Dimethylamylamine is not an amphetamine, though it is structurally similar, and thus has stimulant
effects that are less potent than similarly structured amphetamines, such as amphetamine.
Pseudoephedrine[edit]
Main article: Pseudoephedrine
Pseudoephedrine is a sympathomimetic drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical
classes. It may be used as a nasal/sinus decongestant, as a stimulant,[72] or as a wakefulness-
promoting agent.[73]
The salts pseudoephedrine hydrochloride and pseudoephedrine sulfate are found in many over-the-
counter preparations, either as a single ingredient or (more commonly) in combination
with antihistamines, guaifenesin, dextromethorphan, and/or paracetamol (acetaminophen) or
another NSAID (such as aspirin or ibuprofen).
Catha edulis (Khat)[edit]
Main article: Khat
Catha edulis
Khat is a flowering plant native to the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula.[74][75]
Khat contains a monoamine alkaloid called cathinone, a "keto-amphetamine", that is said to cause
excitement, loss of appetite, and euphoria. In 1980, the World Health Organization (WHO) classified
it as a drug of abuse that can produce mild to moderate psychological dependence(less than
tobacco or alcohol),[76] although the WHO does not consider khat to be seriously addictive.[75] It is
a controlled substance in some countries, such as the United States, Canada, and Germany, while
its production, sale, and consumption are legal in other nations, includingDjibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia,
and Yemen.[77]
Cocaine[edit]
Main article: Cocaine
Cocaine is an SNDRI. Cocaine is made from the leaves of the coca shrub, which grows in the
mountain regions of South American countries such as Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru. In Europe,
North America, and some parts of Asia, the most common form of cocaine is a white crystalline
powder. Cocaine is a stimulant but is not normally prescribed therapeutically for its stimulant
properties, although it sees clinical use as a local anesthetic, in particular in ophthalmology. Most
cocaine use is recreational and its abuse potential is high (albeit higher than amphetamine), and so
its sale and possession are strictly controlled in most jurisdictions. Other tropane derivative drugs
related to cocaine are also known such as troparil and lometopane but have not been widely sold or
used recreationally.[78]
Abuse[edit]
Main article: Recreational drug use § Stimulants
See also: Bath salts (drug)
Abuse of central nervous system (CNS) stimulants is common. Addiction to some CNS stimulants
can quickly lead to medical, psychiatric, and psychosocial deterioration. Drug
tolerance, dependence, and sensitization as well as a withdrawal syndrome can occur.[79]
Stimulants enhance the activity of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Common effects may
include increased alertness, awareness, wakefulness, endurance,productivity,
and motivation, arousal, locomotion, heart rate, and blood pressure, and a diminished desire
for food and sleep.
Use of stimulants may cause the body to reduce significantly its production of natural body
chemicals that fulfill similar functions. Until the body reestablishes its normal state, once the effect of
the ingested stimulant has worn off the user may feel depressed, lethargic, confused, and miserable.
This is referred to as a "crash", and may provoke reuse of the stimulant.
Testing[edit]
The presence of stimulants in the body may be tested by a variety of procedures. Serum and urine
are the common sources of testing material although saliva is sometimes used. Commonly used
tests include chromatography, immunologic assay, and mass spectrometry.[80] Patients taking ADHD-
prescribed, Adderall-type amphetamine compounds are commonly surprised upon being tested as
"positive" for "meth", or methamphetamine (Desoxyn—its licit, FDA-licensed, medicinal form) in
forensically unsophisticated urinalysis, as methamphetamine is the active ingredient of the drug
Desoxyn, and is chemically similar to the active ingredients of other ADHD medications.
