‫ﺑﺮرﺳﯽ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻠﮫ ای‬

‫ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ‬
‫دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﯽ و ﻓﺎرﺳﯽ‬

‫ﺗﺮﺟﻤﮫ و ﺗﺪوﯾﻦ‬

‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ آذروش‬
‫ﻋﻀﻮ ھﯿﺌﺖ ﻣﺪرﺳﯿﻦ داﻧﺸﮕﺎه ﺟﺎﻣﻊ ﻋﻠﻤﯽ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮدی‬
‫ﻣﺪرس ﻃﺮح ﺿﻤﻦ ﺧﺪﻣﺖ دﺑﯿﺮان آﻣﻮزش و ﭘﺮورش‬
‫‪۰‬‬
 ‫ﭘﯿﺸﮕﻔﺘﺎر‬

‫در ﮐﺘﺎب ﺣﺎﺿﺮ اﺻﻮل ﺣﺎﮐﻢ ﺑﺮ زﺑﺎن ﻓﺎرﺳﯽ و اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﯽ ھﻤﺮاه ﺑﺎ ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ﺳﺎﺧﺖ دﺳﺘﻮری ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎ در‬
‫ﻓﺎرﺳﯽ و اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﯽ ﻣﻮرد ﺑﺮرﺳﯽ و ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﻗﺮار ﮔﺮﻓﺘﮫ اﻧﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪۱‬‬
 ‫ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻠﮫ اي‬
CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS

‫ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻠﮫ اي ﻋﺒﺎرت اﺳﺖ ازﺳﻨﺠﺶ ﺷﺒﺎھﺖ ھﺎ و ﺗﻔﺎوت ھﺎي دو زﺑﺎن ازﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن ﺑﺎ‬
‫اﯾﻦ ﺳﻨﺠﺶ ﺑﺎﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﮫ ي ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ ھﺎي ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎدرزﺑﺎن ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن‬.‫ھﺪف ﺗﺮﺟﻤﮫ وﺗﺪرﯾﺲ آﻧﮭﺎ‬
‫ دراﯾﻦ راﺳﺘﺎ اﺟﺰاي ﻣﻌﺎدل دردوزﺑﺎن ﺑﺎ ﯾﮑﺪﯾﮕﺮﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ﺷﺪه و وﺟﻮه ﺗﺸﺎﺑﮫ و ﺗﻔﺎوت‬. ‫اﻧﺠﺎم ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد‬
.‫آﻧﮭﺎ ﺟﮭﺖ ﺟﻠﻮﮔﯿﺮي ازﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ ﻧﺎدرﺳﺖ درﺗﺮﺟﻤﮫ ﺑﮫ ﺷﺮح زﯾﺮ ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد‬

Contrastive analysis deals with the similarities and the differences between two
languages regarding various aspects .The study follows the goal to help the
translation or the teaching of the languages .The subject is carried out through
the study of the sentence formation processes in the languages. To do this, all
same elements in the languages are compared to find out the similar and
different aspects in order to prevent wrong interpretations in translation. The
process goes on as the following.

‫ دراﯾﻦ ﺑﺨﺶ واژﮔﺎن ﻣﻌﺎدل در دو زﺑﺎن از ﻟﺤﺎظ ﻓﺮھﻨﮓ اﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ اﺳﺖ‬: ‫اﻟﻒ – ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﻣﻔﮭﻮم واژﮔﺎن‬
‫ﮐﮫ درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﺑﺎﻣﻔﮭﻮم ﺣﺎﺷﯿﮫ‬-suburb ‫ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ ي آن واژهي اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺲ ﻧﺸﯿﻦ دﻻﻟﺖ‬. ‫ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ‬
.‫ﺑﺮﻗﺸﺮﻓﻘﯿﺮﺟﺎﻣﻌﮫ داﺷﺘﮫ ودرﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﻣﻌﺮف ﻗﺸﺮﻣﺮﻓﮫ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﮫ اﺳﺖ‬

A= Word meaning: In this stage, word equivalents, regarding their social and
cultural aspects are studied. Words like “suburb“implying the wealthy group of
some societies are socially studied to prevent just a denotational equivalent
which implies a poor group in some other societies .

‫ دراﯾﻦ ﺑﺨﺶ داﻣﻨﮫ ي ﻋﻤﻠﮑﺮد ﻣﻌﻨﺎﯾﻲ واژﮔﺎن دو زﺑﺎن ﻣﻮرد ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ﻗﺮار‬: ‫ب – ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد واژﮔﺎن‬
‫ ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ ي آن واژه ي ﺑﺰرگ در زﺑﺎن ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ ﺑﺎ داﻣﻨﮫي ﮐﺎرﺑﺮدی‬. ‫ﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮد‬

‫ﮔﺴﺘﺮده درﺳﻄﺢ ﮔﻔﺘﺎر ﮔﻮﯾﺸﻮران اﯾﻦ زﺑﺎن ﺑﺎ ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎﯾﻲ ﮐﮫ داﻣﻨﮫ ي ﮐﺎرﺑﺮدي ﻣﺤﺪودﺗﺮي دارﻧﺪ ﻣﻌﺎدل‬
.‫ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ‬
۲
B= Word use : In this stage,semantic functions of the words of the languages
compared and contrasted are studied . As an instance , the domain of the word
“ bozorg “ in Persian is compared with its English equivalents “ large ” “ big “
and “ grand “ which have a more restricted domain .

‫ ﻣﻮﺿﻮع اﯾﻦ ﺑﺨﺶ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎﯾﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﮫ ي‬: ‫ج – ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد ﻣﻔﮭﻮﻣﻲ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎ‬
‫ در اﯾﻦ راﺳﺘﺎ ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻣﻔﮭﻮﻣﻲ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎﯾﻲ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ‬. ‫اﺟﺰاي آﻧﮭﺎ ﻧﺸﺎن دھﻨﺪه ي ﻣﻀﻤﻮن آﻧﮭﺎ ﻧﺒﺎﺷﺪ‬

How many miles does your car get to a gallon ?

‫ﻣﺎﺷﯿﻦ ﺷﻤﺎ ﺻﺪﮐﯿﻠﻮﻣﺘﺮﭼﻨﺪﻟﯿﺘﺮﻣﻲ ﺳﻮزاﻧﺪ ؟‬

.‫ﻣﻮرد ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﻗﺮار ﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪ‬

C- Sentence semantic functions: The goal that this stage follows is to analyze the
sentences the translation of the components of which does not represent the
current equivalent of the sentence in the second language. Here, the translation
of the sentences like: “How many miles does your car get to a gallon? “are
studied .

‫ اﯾﻦ ﺑﺨﺶ ﺑﮫ ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ي ﻗﻮاﻧﯿﻦ ﺣﺎﮐﻢ ﺑﺮدوزﺑﺎن ﭘﺮداﺧﺘﮫ وﻣﻘﻮﻟﮫ ي‬: ‫د – ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﻗﻮاﻋﺪﺣﺎﮐﻢ ﺑﺮدوزﺑﺎن‬
‫ﺣﺬف ﯾﺎ اﻓﺰوده ﺷﺪن ﺑﺮﺧﻲ از ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ ھﻤﺮاه ﺑﺎ ﮔﺴﺘﺮش ﺣﺎﮐﻤﯿﺖ ﺑﺮﺧﻲ دﯾﮕﺮاز آﻧﮭﺎ را ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﮐﮫ‬
‫درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﻣﻌﺎدﻟﻲ ﺑﺮاي‬the ‫ ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ ي آن راﻣﻲ ﺗﻮان درﮐﺎرﺑﺮد ﺣﺮف ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ ﻣﻌﯿﻦ آن وﺟﻮد‬. ‫ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ‬
.‫ﻧﺪارد ﺟﺴﺘﺠﻮ ﮐﺮد‬

D= Language rules: In this stage, the rules dominating the two languages are
considered to study the deletion or the addition of some of them along with the
expansion of their application. Article “the” in English which does not have any
equivalent in Persion is a subject to study in this stage.

۳
 ‫روش ﺷﻨﺎﺳﻲ‬

‫‪METHODOLOGY‬‬

‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎ در ﺣﻮزه ي زﺑﺎﻧﺸﻨﺎﺳﻲ درﺳﻄﺢ دو روﯾﮑﺮد دﺳﺘﻮر ﺳﻨﺘﻲ و دﺳﺘﻮر زاﯾﺸﻲ ﻣﻮرد‬
‫ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ و ﺗﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻗﺮار ﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮد‪.‬‬

‫‪The comparison and contrast of the sentence structures in linguistics is carried‬‬

‫‪out in “Traditional” and “Generative” grammar .‬‬

‫اﻟﻒ – دﺳﺘﻮر ﺳﻨﺘﻲ ‪ :‬اﯾﻦ روﯾﮑﺮد ﺑﮫ ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ اﺟﺰاي ﮐﻼم از ﺟﻤﻠﮫ اﺳﻢ ﻓﻌﻞ ﺻﻔﺖ ﻗﯿﺪ ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎي‬
‫ﻧﻘﺸﻲ و ﻣﻌﺮف ھﺎ ﭘﺮداﺧﺘﮫ و ﻧﻘﺶ ﺑﺨﺶ ھﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﮐﻼم ازﺟﻤﻠﮫ ﻧﮭﺎد و ﮔﺰاره و ھﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ ﻧﻮع‬
‫اﺟﺰاي ﺟﻤﻠﮫ را ﻣﻮرد ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﻗﺮار ﻣﻲ دھﺪ ‪ .‬دراﯾﻦ روﯾﮑﺮد ﺷﺒﺎھﺖ ھﺎ و ﺗﻔﺎوت ھﺎي ﻣﻮﺟﻮد در‬
‫روﺳﺎﺧﺖ دو ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ﺑﮫ وﯾﮋه ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎ و ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرﻣﻌﺮف ھﺎ ﻣﻮرد ﺗﻮﺟﮫ ﻗﺮار ﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪A= Traditional grammar : This approach deals with the definition of the‬‬
‫‪sentence components such as nouns , verbs ,adjectives ,adverbs ,etc. along with‬‬
‫‪the function of subject and predicate . Contrastive analysis in this approach‬‬
‫‪deals with surface structure and mainly sentence structures to focus on the‬‬
‫‪similarities and differences between the sentences .‬‬

‫ب – دﺳﺘﻮر زاﯾﺸﻲ ‪ :‬ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ي ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرھﺎ دراﯾﻦ روﯾﮑﺮد در ﺳﻄﺢ اﻟﮕﻮي اوﻟﯿﮫ ي ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ﮐﮫ ﺑﮫ‬
‫ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ھﺴﺘﮫ ﻣﻌﺮف اﺳﺖ ﺻﻮرت ﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮد ‪ .‬دراﯾﻦ راﺳﺘﺎ و درﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ ي ﻧﺨﺴﺖ ﺻﻮرت ژرف‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﻮرد ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ﺗﻌﯿﯿﻦ ﺷﺪه و ﺳﭙﺲ ﻣﺮاﺣﻞ اﻋﻤﺎل ﮔﺸﺘﺎرھﺎ ﺗﺎ ﭘﯿﺪاﯾﺶ روﺳﺎﺧﺖ آﻧﮭﺎ‬
‫ﻣﻮرد ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ﻗﺮارﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪ ‪.‬ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس ﻗﻮاﻋﺪي ﮐﮫ ژرف ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ را ﺑﮫ روﺳﺎﺧﺖ آن ارﺗﺒﺎط ﻣﻲ‬
‫دھﻨﺪ ﻣﻮرد ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ﻗﺮارﮔﺮﻓﺘﮫ و ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮﺟﻤﻠﮫ در روﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﺑﺎ ﯾﮑﺪﯾﮕﺮ ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ﻧﻤﻲ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ ‪ .‬اﯾﻦ روﯾﮑﺮد‬
‫اﺳﺎﺳﺎ" ﺑﺮﻗﻮاﻋﺪي ﺗﺎﮐﯿﺪ دارد ﮐﮫ ژرف ﺳﺎﺧﺖ را ﺑﮫ روﺳﺎﺧﺘﻲ ﺗﺒﺪﯾﻞ ﮐﺮده اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ از ﻟﺤﺎظ ﻇﺎھﺮي‬
‫ﺷﺒﺎھﺖ ﭼﻨﺪاﻧﻲ ﺑﺎ ژرف ﺳﺎﺧﺖ آن ﻧﺪارد‪.‬‬

‫‪B= Generative grammar : In this approach , the comparison of the sentence‬‬

‫‪structures is achieved regarding the initial sentence stage , ie. deep structure .‬‬

‫‪۴‬‬
To do so , the deep structures of the sentences compared are determined and
sequentially , transformations leading to the final surface structures of
sentences in both languages are compared .In other words ,the syntactic rules
which lead the deep structures to the final surface structures in both languages ,
and not the elements in the surface structure , are compared . This approach
necessarily focuses on the transformation rules that create the surface structure
which may not be somehow similar to its deep structure .

‫ﻣﺜﺎل‬

The red apple is on the table. ( ‫) روﺳﺎﺧﺖ‬

The apple is on the table . The apple is red . ( ‫) ژرف ﺳﺎﺧﺖ‬

The apple which is red is on the table . ( ‫) ﻋﺒﺎرت ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻟﻲ‬

The apple red is on the table . ( ‫)ﮐﺎھﺶ ﻋﺒﺎرت ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻟﻲ‬

The red apple is on the table . ( ‫) ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي اﺻﻠﻲ‬

‫ دردﺳﺘﻮرﺳﻨﺘﻲ‬. ‫اﻧﺘﺨﺎب ھﺮﯾﮏ ازروﯾﮑﺮدھﺎي ﺳﻨﺘﻲ ﯾﺎ زاﯾﺸﻲ ﺑﮫ ھﺪف ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪه ﺑﺴﺘﮕﻲ دارد‬
‫ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪه ﺑﮫ ﺗﺠﺰﯾﮫ و ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ زﺑﺎن ﭘﺮداﺧﺘﮫ و ﺑﺪون ﻣﺮاﺟﻌﮫ ﺑﮫ ھﺮﮔﻮﻧﮫ ﻣﺮﺟﻌﻲ ﮐﮫ ﺧﺎرج از‬
‫ﺣﻮزه ي زﺑﺎن ﻗﺮارداﺷﺘﮫ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ اﺟﺰاء و اﻟﮕﻮھﺎي زﺑﺎن را ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻒ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ درﺣﺎﻟﻲ ﮐﮫ دردﺳﺘﻮر‬
‫زاﯾﺸﻲ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﮐﻨﻨﺪه ﺑﺮ ارﺗﺒﺎط ﻣﯿﺎن زﺑﺎن و ﺗﻔﮑﺮوھﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ ارﺗﺒﺎط ﻣﯿﺎن ﺷﻨﺎﺧﺖ اﻧﺴﺎن و زﺑﺎن ﺗﺎﮐﯿﺪ‬
‫داﺷﺘﮫ و ﻣﻌﺘﻘﺪ اﺳﺖ درﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ زﺑﺎن ﺻﺮﻓﺎ" ﻧﺒﺎﯾﺪ ﺑﺮﺗﻔﺎوت ھﺎي ﻣﻮﺟﻮد ﻣﯿﺎن زﯾﺮﺳﺎﻣﺎﻧﮫ ھﺎي زﺑﺎن از‬
‫ ﺗﺎﮐﯿﺪ ﮐﺮد ﺑﻠﮑﮫ اﺑﺰارﻣﻔﺎھﯿﻢ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﮫ ﻧﯿﺰﮐﮫ درﺗﻤﺎﻣﻲ‬...‫ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ﻧﻈﺎم زﺑﺎﻧﻲ ﻧﻈﺎم آواﯾﻲ ﻧﻈﺎم دﺳﺘﻮري و‬
.‫زﺑﺎن ھﺎ وﺟﻮد دارﻧﺪ ﺑﺎﯾﺪ ﻣﻮرد ﺗﻮﺟﮫ و ﺗﺎﮐﯿﺪ ﻗﺮارﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪ‬

The selection of either of the approaches depends upon the goal of the
researcher . In the traditional approach , the researcher analyzes the sentences
and describes the language patterns and language elements regardless of any
reference out of language field . In generative grammar , on the other hand , the
researcher focuses on the language - thought relations as well as the

۵
relationship between man’s cognition and language . This approach confirms
that language subsystems such as phonetics and grammar should not be the
mere ones under emphasis ,but other similar means to convey the meaning
should be focused on , too .

‫اﯾﺮاد ھﺎي وارد ﺷﺪه ﺑﮫ دﺳﺘﻮر زاﯾﺸﻲ‬

‫ اﯾﻦ ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ ﺻﺮﻓﺎ" ﺑﮫ‬. ‫ﯾﮑﻲ ازاﯾﺮادھﺎي وارد ﺷﺪه ﺑﮫ دﺳﺘﻮرزاﯾﺸﻲ درﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ زﺑﺎن ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ ﮔﺸﺘﺎري اﺳﺖ‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرﻧﺤﻮي ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎ ﭘﺮداﺧﺘﮫ وھﯿﭽﮕﻮﻧﮫ اﻃﻼﻋﺎﺗﻲ درﻣﻮرد ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ھﺎي ﺻﺮﻓﻲ وﯾﺎ ارﺗﺒﺎط ھﺎي ﻣﻮﺟﻮد‬
‫ ﺣﺘﻲ ﻧﻈﺮﯾﮫ‬.‫ﻣﯿﺎن ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي زﺑﺎن ﮐﮫ ﺑﮫ ﺷﮑﻞ ﻋﯿﻨﻲ ﺑﺮاي ﺑﺮﻗﺮاري ارﺗﺒﺎط ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎر ﻣﻲ روﻧﺪ ﻧﻤﻲ دھﻨﺪ‬
‫ي اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪارد ﻧﯿﺰ ﺗﻔﺎوت ھﺎي ﺳﺎده ي ﻣﯿﺎن ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرھﺎي دو زﺑﺎن را ﻣﺸﺨﺺ ﻧﮑﺮده و ﺑﮫ ﺟﺰﺋﯿﺎﺗﻲ ازﻗﺒﯿﻞ‬
.‫ﺗﻌﺪاد و ﺟﻨﺲ ﻧﻤﻲ ﭘﺮدازد‬

Model of Generative Grammar : Problems

A major problem with generative grammar in contrastive analysis is with the

analysis of transformation rules . These rules merely deal with the syntactic
structures of sentences and represent nothing about the inflectional intractions
or the interrelations among the sentences used to create a real communication .
Even the “ Standard Theory ” does not specify the simple differences between
the sentence structures of the languages and does not focus on details .

‫ﻣﺮاﺣﻞ ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ و ﺗﻘﺎﺑﻞ زﯾﺮﺳﺎﻣﺎﻧﮫ ھﺎي دو زﺑﺎن‬

Comparison stages of the subsystems in languages :

‫ دراﯾﻦ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﮐﻨﻨﺪه ﭘﺲ ازﻣﺮاﺟﻌﮫ ﺑﮫ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﮫ ي ﺷﺨﺼﻲ وﺷﻢ زﺑﺎﻧﻲ ﺧﻮد‬: ‫اﻟﻒ – اﻧﺘﺨﺎب‬
.‫ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ ھﺎﯾﻲ از ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي دو زﺑﺎن را ﺑﺮاي ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ اﻧﺘﺨﺎب ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ‬

A= Selection : A selection of the sentences to be compared across languages is

done according to one’s language intuition .

۶
 .‫ در ﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ ي دوم ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرھﺎي دﺳﺘﻮري دو زﺑﺎن ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻒ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ‬: ‫ب – ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻒ‬

B= Description : Structural rules applied to the sentences are analyzed and

described .

‫ دراﯾﻦ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﮐﻨﻨﺪه ﺑﮫ ﺟﺴﺘﺠﻮي ﺷﺒﺎھﺖ ھﺎ وﺗﻔﺎوت ھﺎي دوزﺑﺎن درﺣﻮزه ھﺎي‬: ‫ج – ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ‬
‫ ﺑﺮاي ﻣﺜﺎل درﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ي ﺷﮑﻞ ﺟﻤﻊ اﺳﻢ ھﺎ دردو زﺑﺎن‬. ‫ﺷﮑﻞ ﻣﻌﻨﻲ وﺗﻮزﯾﻊ ﭘﺎراﻣﺘﺮھﺎ ﻣﻲ ﭘﺮدازد‬
‫ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ واﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﯾﮑﻲ ازﯾﺎﻓﺘﮫ ھﺎي وي ﺣﺎﮐﻲ ازﮐﺎرﺑﺮد دو ﺗﮑﻮاژ " ان " و " ھﺎ " در ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﺧﻮاھﺪ‬
‫ﺑﻮد ﮐﮫ ﺗﮑﻮاژ ﻧﺨﺴﺖ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﺎ" ﺑﺮاي ﺟﻤﻊ ﺑﺴﺘﻦ اﺳﻢ ھﺎي ﺟﺎﻧﺪار و ﺗﮑﻮاژ دوم ﺑﺮاي ﺟﻤﻊ ﺑﺴﺘﻦ ﮐﻠﯿﮫ ي‬
‫اﺳﻢ ھﺎي ﻋﺎم و ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﺷﻤﺎرش ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎر ﻣﻲ رود اﻣﺎ در اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﯽ ﺻﺮﻓﺎ" ﯾﮏ ﺗﮑﻮاژ در ﺟﻤﻊ ھﺎی ﺑﺎﻗﺎﻋﺪه‬
.‫ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎر ﻣﯿﺮود‬

books trees oranges

‫ﮐﺘﺎب ھﺎ‬ ‫درﺧﺘﺎن‬ ‫ﭘﺮﺗﻘﺎل ھﺎ‬

C= The analyzer seeks for the the similarities and the differences laying in the
semantic field and the distribution of the parameters as well .Regarding Persian
compared with English in the form of plurals , the researcher comes the plural
bound morpheme “an” (for human being) and “ha” for nonhuman

being while in English he comes to the plural morpheme “s” for all with the
allophones “s” , “z” and “iz” as the preceeding examples .

‫ﯾﺎﻓﺘﮫي دوم اودراﯾﻦ ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮدﺷﮑﻞ ﻣﻔﺮد ﯾﺎ ﺟﻤﻊ اﺳﻢ ھﺎ ﭘﺲ ازﺻﻔﺖ ھﺎي ﮐﻤﯿﺘﻲ ﺟﻤﻊ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ اﯾﻦ‬
‫ﭘﺎراﻣﺘﺮدرﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﺑﺎ ﺗﻮﺟﮫ ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد ﺷﮑﻞ ﻣﻔﺮد اﺳﻢ ھﺎ ﭘﺲ ازﺻﻔﺖ ھﺎي ﮐﻤﯿﺘﻲ ﺟﻤﻊ درﺗﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺑﺎاﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ‬
‫ﮐﮫ ﺷﮑﻞ ﺟﻤﻊ اﺳﻢ ھﺎرا ﭘﺲ ازﺻﻔﺖ ھﺎي ﮐﻤﯿﺘﻲ ﺟﻤﻊ ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎرﻣﻲ ﺑﺮد ﻗﺮارﮔﺮﻓﺘﮫ اﻣﺎ اﮔﺮاﯾﻦ ﺻﻔﺖ‬
.‫درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﺑﻌﺪ ازاﺳﻢ ﻗﺮارﮔﯿﺮد ﮐﺎرﺑﺮداﺳﻢ ﺑﮫ ﺷﮑﻞ ﺟﻤﻊ اﺳﺖ‬

Then he will come to the singular and plural form of the noun after the
quantitative adjectives in which he finds all nouns singular in Persian after the
quantitatives while he finds the nouns plural after these adjectives in English
.He concludes that in Persian, the noun stands plural only when it stands before
the quantitative adjectives.

۷
seven windows ‫ھﻔﺖ ﭘﻨﺠﺮه‬

many books ‫ﮐﺘﺎب ھﺎي زﯾﺎد‬

‫ در اﯾﻦ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﮐﻨﻨﺪه ﭘﺲ از ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﺗﻔﺎوت ھﺎ و ﺷﺒﺎھﺖ ھﺎي دو زﺑﺎن‬: ‫د – ﭘﯿﺶ ﺑﯿﻨﻲ‬
‫ در اﺟﺮاي‬. ‫ﭘﺎراﻣﺘﺮھﺎي ﻏﯿﺮﻣﺸﺘﺮک آﻧﮭﺎ راﺟﮭﺖ ﺷﻨﺎﺧﺖ ﺗﺎﺛﯿﺮ آﻧﮭﺎ ﺑﺮ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﮫ ﻣﻮرد ارزﯾﺎﺑﻲ ﻗﺮارﻣﻲ دھﺪ‬
.‫اﯾﻦ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ رواﻧﺸﻨﺎﺳﺎن رﻓﺘﺎري ﺳﮫ ﻓﺮﺿﯿﮫ را ﻣﻄﺮح ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ‬

D= Prediction :Having noted the similarities and the differences,the analyzer

notes the unshared parameters in the languages and studies their influences in
translation . In this stage , behaviorists set forth three hypotheses :

‫رواﻧﺸﻨﺎﺳﻲ رﻓﺘﺎري ﻣﻌﺘﻘﺪ اﺳﺖ درﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ ﯾﺎدﮔﯿﺮي اﺻﻞ اﻧﺘﻘﺎل دردو‬: ‫ﻓﺮﺿﯿﮫ ي ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻠﮫ اي ﻗﺎﻃﻊ‬
‫ اﻧﺘﻘﺎل ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ھﻨﮕﺎﻣﻲ روي‬.‫ ﻣﺜﺒﺖ و ﻣﻨﻔﻲ‬: ‫ﺳﻄﺢ ﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮي و ﺗﺎﺛﯿﺮﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮي ﻓﻌﺎل ﺑﻮده و دو ﻧﻤﺎﯾﮫ دارد‬
‫ دراﯾﻦ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺳﺎدﮔﻲ درﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ ﯾﺎدﮔﯿﺮي ﺑﮫ‬. ‫ﻣﻲ دھﺪ ﮐﮫ ﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮي زﺑﺎن دوم ھﻤﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮي زﺑﺎن اول ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‬
‫ﺷﺨﺺ ﮐﻤﮏ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ ﺗﺎ آﻣﻮﺧﺘﮫ ھﺎي ﺧﻮد درﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮي زﺑﺎن اول را ﺑﮫ ﺳﮭﻮﻟﺖ درﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮي زﺑﺎن دوم ﺑﮫ‬
‫درﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ اﻧﺘﻘﺎل ﻣﻨﻔﻲ ﺑﺎ ﺗﺪاﺧﻞ ﺗﻔﺎوت ھﺎي ﻣﯿﺎن دوزﺑﺎن ﻣﺸﮑﻼﺗﻲ را درﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮي زﺑﺎن دوم ﭘﺪﯾﺪ‬. ‫ﮐﺎرﮔﯿﺮد‬
‫ واﮐﻨﺶ ﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪه‬. ‫ﻣﻲ آورد ﮐﮫ ﺣﺠﻢ آن ﺑﮫ ﻣﯿﺰان ﺗﻔﺎوت ھﺎي ﻣﻮﺟﻮد ﻣﯿﺎن آن دو زﺑﺎن ﺑﺴﺘﮕﻲ دارد‬
‫ي زﺑﺎن دوم ﺑﺮﻣﺒﻨﺎي اﺻﻞ اﻧﺘﻘﺎل درﯾﺎدﮔﯿﺮي ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد ﭘﺎراﻣﺘﺮھﺎﯾﻲ از زﺑﺎن ﻣﺎدري ﺑﮫ ﺟﺎي‬
. ‫آن دﺳﺘﮫ ازﭘﺎراﻣﺘﺮھﺎﯾﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ در زﺑﺎن دوم وﺟﻮد ﻧﺪارﻧﺪ‬

۱- Strong version of the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis : Behaviorists

believe that in learning process , the principle of transfer is at work in the levels
of learning and the effect of learning . The principle has two aspects: positive
and negative . Positive transfer takes place when learning the second language
is the same as learning the first language where the simplicity of the learning
process helps the learner to make use of his previous knowledge of his first
language in learning the second language . Negative transfer , on the other hand
, brings about difficulties as a result of the interference of the differences
between the languages . These difficulties are dependent upon the existing
differences between the languages . According to the principle of learning , the
learner’s reaction depends on the substitution of the parameters which do not
exist in the first language . (eg.the substitution of “k” for “kh” in English)
۸
‫ﻓﺮﺿﯿﮫ ي ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻠﮫ اي ﺿﻌﯿﻒ ‪ :‬ﮔﺮوھﻲ دﯾﮕﺮ از ﻧﻈﺮﯾﮫ ﭘﺮدازان در ﺣﻮزه ي رواﻧﺸﻨﺎﺳﻲ رﻓﺘﺎري‬
‫ﺿﻤﻦ رد ﻧﻈﺮﯾﮫ ي دﺧﺎﻟﺖ اﺻﻞ اﻧﺘﻘﺎل درﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ ﯾﺎدﮔﯿﺮي زﺑﺎن ﺧﺎرﺟﻲ ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ ﺑﺎورھﺴﺘﻨﺪﮐﮫ ﺗﺒﺪﯾﻞ ﺗﻔﺎوت‬
‫ھﺎي دو زﺑﺎن ﺑﮫ وﺟﻮه ﻣﺸﺘﺮک ﻣﯿﺎن آﻧﮭﺎ ) ﺑﺮاي ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ ﺟﺎﯾﮕﺰﯾﻨﻲ ت ﺑﮫ ﺟﺎي درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ( ﺑﮫ دﻟﯿﻞ ﻋﺪم‬
‫ﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮي ودرﻧﺘﯿﺠﮫ ﻧﺎﺗﻮاﻧﻲ ﺷﺨﺺ درﮐﺎرﺑﺮد آﻧﮭﺎ ﺑﻮده ورﺑﻄﻲ ﺑﮫ ﻋﻤﻠﮑﺮد اﺻﻞ اﻧﺘﻘﺎل درﯾﺎدﮔﯿﺮي ﻧﺪارد‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس آﻧﺎن ﭘﺎراﻣﺘﺮھﺎي زﺑﺎن ﻣﺎدري درﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮي زﺑﺎن ﺧﺎرﺟﻲ را ﻧﮫ ﯾﮏ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ دﺧﺎﻟﺖ ﮐﻨﻨﺪه ﺑﻠﮑﮫ‬
‫ﯾﮏ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﯾﺎري ﮐﻨﻨﺪه ﺑﮫ ﺷﻤﺎرﻣﻲ آورﻧﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪۲- Weak version of the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis : Rejecting the‬‬

‫‪interference of the principle of transfer in learning , a group of behaviorists‬‬
‫‪believe that the conversion of the differences into the similarities ( eg. “k” for‬‬
‫‪“kh” in English ) is the reason of the learner’s failure to use them and is not‬‬
‫‪relevant to the function of the principle of transfer in learning . Thus :‬‬

‫‪This group of psychologists consider the first language parameters as a help in‬‬
‫‪learning the language and not an interference .‬‬

‫ﻓﺮﺿﯿﮫ ي ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻠﮫ اي ﻣﻼﯾﻢ ‪ :‬اﯾﻦ ﻓﺮﺿﯿﮫ ﺑﮫ ﭘﯿﺶ ﺑﯿﻨﻲ ﺧﻄﺎھﺎي ﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪه ي زﺑﺎن ﭘﺮداﺧﺘﮫ‬
‫وﺑﺎدرﻧﻈﺮﮔﺮﻓﺘﻦ ﺟﺎﯾﮕﺰﯾﻨﻲ ﭘﺎراﻣﺘﺮھﺎي زﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا درزﺑﺎن ﻣﻘﺼﺪ ‪ -‬ﺑﺮاي ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ واج ت ‪ -‬ﺑﮫ ﺟﺎي‬
‫ﻋﻤﻠﮑﺮد اﺻﻞ ﻣﺤﺮک ﺗﻌﻤﯿﻢ دھﻨﺪه درﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪه را ﮐﮫ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﺎ آن داﻧﺴﺘﮫ ھﺎي ﻗﺒﻠﻲ ﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪه در‬
‫ﯾﺎدﮔﯿﺮي زﺑﺎن دوم ﺗﻌﻤﯿﻢ ﭘﯿﺪا ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ راﻣﻄﺮح ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ ‪.‬اﯾﻦ ﻓﺮﺿﯿﮫ ﻣﻌﺘﻘﺪ اﺳﺖ ﻃﺒﻘﮫ ﺑﻨﺪي اﻟﮕﻮھﺎي‬
‫اﻧﺘﺰاﻋﻲ وﻋﯿﻨﻲ ﺑﺮﻣﺒﻨﺎي ﺷﺒﺎھﺖ ھﺎ و ﺗﻔﺎوت ھﺎي آﻧﮭﺎ اﺳﺎس ﯾﺎدﮔﯿﺮي اﺳﺖ و ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس ھﺮزﻣﺎن ﮐﮫ‬
‫ﺗﻔﺎوت ﻣﯿﺎن ﻣﻌﻨﺎھﺎ ﯾﺎ ﺻﻮرت ھﺎ ﮐﻢ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ روﯾﺪاد ﻧﺎھﻨﺠﺎري درﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ ﯾﺎدﮔﯿﺮي ﺑﺪﯾﮭﻲ ﺧﻮاھﺪﺑﻮد‪.‬‬

‫درﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ھﺮﮔﺎه اﻟﮕﻮھﺎي ﻣﻮﺟﻮد دردو ﻧﻈﺎم زﺑﺎﻧﻲ ازﻟﺤﺎظ ﻧﻘﺶ وﯾﺎ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﯿﺖ ادراک ﺑﺎ ﯾﮑﺪﯾﮕﺮﻣﻌﺎدل‬
‫ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪدرآن ﺻﻮرت ﺗﻌﻤﯿﻢ ﺻﺤﯿﺢ روي ﺧﻮاھﺪ داد ‪.‬ﺑﺮاي ﻣﺜﺎل اﺷﺘﺒﺎھﺎت ﯾﮏ ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ زﺑﺎن دراﺳﺘﻔﺎده از‬
‫آن دﺳﺘﮫ ازاﻟﮕﻮھﺎي ﻧﻈﺎم زﺑﺎﻧﻲ اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﮐﮫ ھﯿﭻ ﺳﻨﺨﯿﺘﻲ ﺑﺎ اﻟﮕﻮھﺎي ﻧﻈﺎم زﺑﺎﻧﻲ ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﻧﺪارﻧﺪ‬
‫ﺑﺴﯿﺎرﮐﻤﺘﺮازاﺷﺘﺒﺎھﺎت او دراﺳﺘﻔﺎده ازاﻟﮕﻮھﺎي ﻣﺸﺎﺑﮫ ﻣﻮﺟﻮد ﻣﯿﺎن دو زﺑﺎن اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ اﯾﻦ اﻣﺮ ﺗﻌﻤﯿﻢ‬
‫اﻟﮕﻮھﺎي ﻧﻈﺎم زﺑﺎن ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ درزﺑﺎن اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ دراﯾﻦ ﺣﻮزه را ﺗﻮﺟﯿﮫ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪۳- Moderate version of the Contrastive Analysis : This hypothesis notes the‬‬
‫‪prediction of the errors made by the learner . Considering the substitution of‬‬
‫‪the parameters existing in the first language , it sets forth the principle of‬‬
‫‪stimulus generalization in which the previous knowledge of the learner in the‬‬

‫‪۹‬‬
first language extends in learning the second language . This hypothesis states
that learning is based upon the categorization of the abstract and concrete
patterns and thus whenever the the differences between the meanings or the
forms are not many , the occurance of the mistake will be rare .On the other
hand whenever the patterns in a two language systems are similar in function
,then correct generalization takes place .As an instance to explain the
generalization of Persian patterns in English , the errors made by a Persian
native speaker using the English patterns with no similarities , are fewer than
the errors made when the patterns are similar.

‫ دراﯾﻦ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﮐﻨﻨﺪه ﯾﺎﻓﺘﮫ ھﺎي ﺧﻮد را ﺑﺎ واﻗﻌﯿﺖ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﻣﻲ دھﺪ ﺗﺎﻣﻄﻤﺌﻦ ﺷﻮد ﮐﮫ آﯾﺎ‬: ‫ه – ﺗﺎﯾﯿﺪ‬
‫ در اﯾﻦ راﺳﺘﺎ‬.‫ﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪه ي زﺑﺎن دوم ﺧﻄﺎھﺎي ﭘﯿﺶ ﺑﯿﻨﻲ ﺷﺪه ﺗﻮﺳﻂ اورا درﻋﻤﻞ اﻧﺠﺎم ﻣﻲ دھﺪ ﯾﺎ ﺧﯿﺮ‬
.‫اﻧﺠﺎم ﯾﮏ آزﻣﺎﯾﺶ درﻣﺮاﺣﻞ زﯾﺮﺿﺮوري ﺧﻮاھﺪ ﺑﻮد‬

E= Verification : The researcher here adapts his findings with the language
realities to see if the learner commits the errors predicted by him or not .To do
so , the following test is inevitable :

‫ اﻧﺘﺨﺎب ﺻﺪاھﺎ واژﮔﺎن وﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرھﺎﯾﻲ ﮐﮫ دردوزﺑﺎن ﺷﺒﯿﮫ ھﻢ ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ دراﯾﻦ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ اﻧﺠﺎم‬: ‫ﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ ي ﺻﻔﺮ‬
‫ ﺑﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﮑﺮد اﺻﻞ اﻧﺘﻘﺎل ﻣﺜﺒﺖ ﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪه در ﯾﺎدﮔﯿﺮي ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮزﺑﺎن دوم ﺑﺎ ﻣﺸﮑﻠﻲ دراﯾﻦ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ‬. ‫ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد‬
.‫ﻣﻮاﺟﮫ ﻧﺨﻮاھﺪ ﺑﻮد‬

Level ۰ – Some similar sounds , words and structures are selected . The learner
comes to no problems in learning the elements of the second language as the
positive transfer is working .

‫درھﺮدوزﺑﺎن‬ /b/‫ وﺟﻮد ﺻﺪاي‬.............. ‫ﻣﺜﺎل واﺟﻲ‬

wall ‫ دﯾﻮار‬.............................. :‫ﻣﺜﺎل واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ‬

۱۰
 ‫ﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ ي ﯾﮏ ‪ :‬ھﻢ ﻧﺸﺴﺖ دو ﯾﺎ ﭼﻨﺪ واژه ﺑﺎ ﯾﮑﺪﯾﮕﺮ در زﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا ﮐﮫ ﻓﻘﻂ ﯾﮏ ﻣﻌﺎدل واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ در‬
‫داﯾﺮه ي واژﮔﺎن زﺑﺎن ﻣﻘﺼﺪ دارﻧﺪ ‪ :‬دراﯾﻦ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ ﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪه ﺑﺎﯾﺪ اﯾﻦ ﺗﻔﺎوت را درزﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا ﻣﻮرد ﺗﻮﺟﮫ‬
‫ﻗﺮار دھﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪Level ۱ – Coaloscence : Two or more items in the native language converge into‬‬
‫‪one item in the target language . The learner has to overlook the distinction he‬‬
‫‪has learned in his native language .‬‬

‫‪student‬‬ ‫داﻧﺸﺠﻮ ‪ .‬داﻧﺶ آﻣﻮز‬ ‫ﻣﺜﺎل ‪................... :‬‬

‫‪cousin‬‬ ‫ﻋﻤﻮزاده ‪ .‬ﻋﻤﮫ زاده ‪ .‬ﺧﺎﻟﮫ زاده ‪ .‬داﯾﻲ زاده‬

‫ﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ ي دو – زﯾﺮ ﺗﻔﺎوت ھﺎي ﺗﻮزﯾﻌﻲ ‪ :‬ﯾﮏ ﺗﻮزﯾﻊ در زﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا راﯾﺞ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ در زﺑﺎن ﻣﻘﺼﺪ وﺟﻮد‬
‫ﻧﺪارد وﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪه ﻧﺒﺎﯾﺪ ﺑﮫ آن ﺗﻮﺟﮫ ﮐﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﺑﮫ ﻋﻨﻮان ﻣﺜﺎل ﺑﺮاي واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ "ﻣﮕﺮ " و " ﭼﻨﺪﻣﯿﻦ "‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎدﻟﻲ دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﯾﺎﻓﺖ ﻧﻤﻲ ﺷﻮد‪.‬‬

‫‪Level ۲ – Underdifferentiation : The equivalence of an item in the native‬‬

‫‪language is absent in the foreign language .As an instance ,for the Persian words‬‬
‫‪“chandomin” and “magar” there are no equivalents in English .‬‬

‫ﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ ي ﺳﮫ – ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮﻣﺠﺪد ‪ :‬ﯾﮏ ﺗﻮزﯾﻊ درھﺮدوزﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا وﻣﻘﺼﺪ وﺟﻮد دارد ﮐﮫ ﻓﻘﻂ ﮔﺎھﻲ اوﻗﺎت ﺑﺎ‬
‫ﯾﮑﺪﯾﮕﺮﻣﻌﺎدل ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ وﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪه آن را ﺑﺮاﺳﺎس ﺷﺒﺎھﺖ ھﺎ ي دو زﺑﺎن درزﺑﺎن ﻣﻘﺼﺪ ﺗﻌﻤﯿﻢ ﻣﯿﺪھﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻮزﯾﻊ زﻣﺎن ﺣﺎل اﺳﺘﻤﺮاري درﭘﺎره اي ﻣﻮارد ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ اي ازاﯾﻦ ﺗﻔﺴﯿﺮ اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬

‫‪Level ۳ – Reinterpretation : An item which exists in the native and the target‬‬
‫‪language .Sometimes they are equivalents , but other times they are not , as the‬‬
‫‪following examples :‬‬

‫‪We have come to school today.‬‬ ‫ﻣﺎ اﻣﺮوز ﺑﮫ ﻣﺪرﺳﮫ آﻣﺪه اﯾﻢ‪.‬‬

‫‪We are sitting in the class now.‬‬ ‫ﻣﺎ اﻻن درﮐﻼس ﻧﺸﺴﺘﮫ اﯾﻢ‪.‬‬
‫‪۱۱‬‬
 ‫ﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ ي ﭼﮭﺎر – ﺗﻔﺎوت ﺑﯿﺶ ازﺣﺪ ‪ :‬ﯾﮏ ﺗﻮزﯾﻊ درزﺑﺎن ﻣﻘﺼﺪ وﺟﻮد دارد ﮐﮫ درزﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا وﺟﻮد‬
‫ﻧﺪارد و ﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪه ﺑﺎﯾﺪ آن را ﯾﺎد ﺑﮕﯿﺮد ‪ .‬ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ ي آن زﻣﺎن ﺣﺎل ﮐﺎﻣﻞ اﺳﺘﻤﺮاري دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرﻣﻌﺎدل آن درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ وﺟﻮد ﻧﺪارد‪.‬‬

‫‪Level ۴ – Overdifferentiation : An item in the foreign language is absent in the‬‬

‫‪native language and the learner must learn them .The English structure of‬‬
‫‪“future in the past “ and “۰” in Persian phonology stand in this category .‬‬

‫ﻣﺮﺣﻠﮫ ي ﭘﻨﺞ – ﺷﮑﺎﻓﺖ ‪ :‬ﺑﺮاي ﯾﮏ ﺗﻮزﯾﻊ درزﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا دو ﯾﺎ ﭼﻨﺪ ﺗﻮزﯾﻊ درزﺑﺎن ﻣﻘﺼﺪ وﺟﻮددارد‪.‬‬
‫ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ ي آن ﺗﻮزﯾﻊ دوزﻣﺎن ﺣﺎل ﺳﺎده وﺣﺎل اﺳﺘﻤﺮاري درزﺑﺎن اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ)ﺑﮫ ﻋﻨﻮان زﺑﺎن ﻣﻘﺼﺪ( و ﺗﻮزﯾﻊ‬
‫ﯾﮏ زﻣﺎن ﻣﻀﺎرع اﺧﺒﺎري درزﺑﺎن ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ) ﺑﮫ ﻋﻨﻮان زﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا ( درﺣﻮزه ي دﺳﺘﻮري وھﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ ھﻢ‬
‫ﻧﺸﺴﺖ ﭼﻨﺪ واژه ي اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ درﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﯾﮏ واژه ي ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ درﺣﻮزه ي واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬

‫‪Level ۵ – Split : An item in the native language diverges into two or more items‬‬
‫‪in the target language and the learner must learn their distinction .For instance ,‬‬
‫‪as the following examples prove , the distinction between “ the simple present‬‬
‫‪tense “ and “ present continuous tense “ should be noted by the learner .‬‬

‫‪Where are you going ? I’m going to school.‬‬ ‫داري ﮐﺠﺎ ﻣﻲ روي؟ ﻣﺪرﺳﮫ ﻣﻲ روم‪.‬‬

‫‪Where do you go every week? I go to the park.‬‬ ‫ھﺮھﻔﺘﮫﮐﺠﺎﻣﻲروي؟ﭘﺎرک ﻣﻲروم‪.‬‬

‫رﺋﯿﺲ ‪chief , boss , director , chancellor , chairman , principal ......... :‬‬

‫ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ي ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرھﺎي ﻧﺤﻮی‬

‫‪Comparison of the Syntactic Structures‬‬
‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرھﺎي ﻧﺤﻮي ﺑﮫ اﺑﺰارھﺎﯾﻲ از زﺑﺎن اﺷﺎره ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ ﮐﮫ ﺻﻮرت دﺳﺘﻮري ﺟﻤﻠﮫ را ﺑﮫ ﺻﻮرت‬
‫ﻣﻌﻨﺎﯾﻲ آن ارﺗﺒﺎط ﻣﻲ دھﻨﺪ ‪.‬دراﯾﻦ ارﺗﺒﺎط ودرﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ي ﻧﺤﻮ دوزﺑﺎن ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ واﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرھﺎي اﯾﻦ‬
‫دوزﺑﺎن درﺣﻮزه ھﺎي زﯾﺮﻣﻮرد ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ﻗﺮارﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪۱۲‬‬
Syntactic structures imply the devices that convey meaning and relationship.
Regarding to this , the syntaxes of Persian and English are compared in the
following fields :

‫ھﺴﺘﮫ ي اﺳﻤﻲ درﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرﮔﺮوه ھﺎي اﺳﻤﻲ زﺑﺎن ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﻗﺒﻞ ازﻣﻌﺮف‬: ‫اﻟﻒ – ﻧﻈﻢ وﺗﺮﺗﯿﺐ واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ‬
.‫ﻗﺮارﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮد درﺣﺎﻟﻲ ﮐﮫ دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﺟﺎﯾﮕﺎه آن ﺑﻌﺪ ازﻣﻌﺮف اﺳﺖ‬

۱. Word order : The core of a noun phrase in Persian precedes the modifier
while in English it succeeds the modifier .

garden flower ‫ﮔﻞ ﺑﺎﻏﭽﮫ‬

flower garden ‫ﺑﺎﻏﭽﮫ ي ﮔﻞ‬

‫ ﺗﮑﻮاژھﺎﯾﻲ ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ ﮐﮫ واژه را ازﻟﺤﺎظ ﺗﻌﺪاد ﺟﻨﺲ زﻣﺎن ﻣﺎﻟﮑﯿﺖ وﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ‬: ‫ب – ﺻﺮف ﮐﻨﻨﺪه ھﺎ‬
:‫ ﻧﺘﯿﺠﮫ ي ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ي زﺑﺎن ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ و اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ دراﯾﻦ ﺣﻮزه ﺑﮫ ﺷﺮح زﯾﺮاﺳﺖ‬. ‫ﺻﺮف ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ‬

۲- Inflection : Inflections are the affixes that indicate number , gender , tense
genitive case and comparison . Regarding the comparison of English and Persian
in this field , the results are as the following :

‫ دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﭘﺴﻮﻧﺪ ﺟﻤﻊ ﺑﮫ آن دﺳﺘﮫ ازاﺳﻢ ھﺎﯾﻲ ﮐﮫ ﭘﺲ ازﺻﻔﺖ ھﺎي ﮐﻤﯿﺘﻲ ﺟﻤﻊ ﻗﺮارﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪ‬-
.‫اﻓﺰوده ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد در ﺣﺎﻟﻲ ﮐﮫ ﺷﮑﻞ اﺳﻢ ﭘﺲ ازاﯾﻦ ﺻﻔﺖ ھﺎ درزﺑﺎن ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ھﻤﻮاره ﻣﻔﺮد اﺳﺖ‬

A= In English , and not in Persian , the inflective plural suffix is attached to the
noun standing after a plural quantitative adjective .

seven flowers ‫ ھﻔﺖ ﮔﻞ‬: ‫ﻣﺜﺎل‬

"‫ درزﺑﺎن اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﭘﺴﻮﻧﺪ ﺟﻨﺴﯿﺖ ﺑﮫ ﺗﺪرﯾﺞ درﺣﺎل ﻧﺎﭘﺪﯾﺪ ﺷﺪن اﺳﺖ درﺣﺎﻟﻲ ﮐﮫ اﯾﻦ ﭘﺴﻮﻧﺪ اﺳﺎﺳﺎ‬-
.‫درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ وﺟﻮد ﻧﺪارد‬
۱۳
B= The gender inflective suffix is gradually disappearing in English while this
suffix does not exist in Persian at all .

actor / actress ‫ﺑﺎزﯾﮕﺮ‬

‫دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﺷﮑﻞ ﮔﺬﺷﺘﮫ و ﺻﻔﺖ ﻣﻔﻌﻮﻟﯽ اﻓﻌﺎل ﺑﺎ ﻗﺎﻋﺪه ﺑﺎﭘﺴﻮﻧﺪ ﺑﮫ رﯾﺸﮫ ي ﻓﻌﻞ ﺑﮫ دﺳﺖ ﻣﻲ آﯾﺪ‬-
‫اﻣﺎاﻓﻌﺎل ﺑﻲ ﻗﺎﻋﺪه ﺗﺎﺑﻊ دﺳﺘﻮرراﯾﺞ ﺧﺎﺻﻲ ﻧﯿﺴﺘﻨﺪ ﺣﺎل آﻧﮑﮫ درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﺻﻮرت ﮔﺬﺷﺘﮫ ي ھﻤﮫ ي اﻓﻌﺎل‬
.‫ از ﻣﺼﺪر ﺑﮫ دﺳﺖ ﻣﻲ آﯾﺪ‬/ ‫ ن‬/ ‫اﺻﻠﻲ ﺑﺎ ﺣﺬف‬

C= In English , the past form of most verbs include the suffix “ed” attached to
the simple form of the verb , while in Persian , the past form of all verbs is made
by the deletion of “N” from the infinitive .

jump + ed ------- p.t.-------- jumped ‫ﺑﻦ ﻣﺎﺿﻲ ﭘﺮﯾﺪ‬

come ---------p.t.------------ came ‫ﺑﻦ ﻣﺎﺿﻲ آﻣﺪ‬

.‫ ﻣﺎﻟﮑﯿﺖ درﻓﺎرﺳﯽ ﺑﺎ ﮐﺴﺮه در اﻧﺘﮭﺎی اﺳﻢ ﻧﺸﺎن داده ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد‬-

D= In English , possession is indicated by “ ‘ “or the preposition “ of “ while in

Persian , possession is indicated by “ e “ attached to the noun .

Daniel’s book ‫ﮐﺘﺎب داﻧﯿﺎل‬

. ‫درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﭘﺴﻮﻧﺪھﺎي " ﺗﺮ " و " ﺗﺮﯾﻦ " ﺑﺮای ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ﺗﻔﻀﯿﻠﯽ و ﻋﺎﻟﯽ ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎر ﻣﻲ روﻧﺪ‬

E= In English , comparison is indicated by “er” and “more” and superlative is

indicated by “est” and “most” while in Persian , comparison is indicated by “tar”
and superlative by “tarin” for all words .

larger / largest‫ ﺑﺰرﮔﺘﺮﯾﻦ‬/ ‫ﺑﺰرﮔﺘﺮ‬

more beautiful / most beautiful‫زﯾﺒﺎ ﺗﺮﯾﻦ‬ / ‫زﯾﺒﺎ ﺗﺮ‬

۱۴
 ‫ ﺻﻮرت ﺻﺮﻓﻲ ﻓﻌﻞ درﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﺑﺎ ﻓﺎﻋﻞ ﺧﻮد دردو زﺑﺎن ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ واﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﺑﮫ‬: ‫ج – ارﺗﺒﺎط ﺑﺎ ﺻﻮرت‬
.‫ﺷﮑﻞ زﯾﺮ اﺳﺖ‬

۳- Correlation of form : Inflection of verbs in English and Persian regarding their

subjects is as the following :

‫ﺻﺮف ﻓﻌﻞ ﺑﺮاي ﻓﺎﻋﻞ ھﺎي ﻣﻔﺮد و ھﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ ﻓﺎﻋﻞ ھﺎي ﺟﻤﻊ ﻏﯿﺮﺟﺎﻧﺪار در ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﻣﻌﻤﻮﻻ" ﺑﺎ ﺷﻨﺎﺳﮫ‬
‫ي ﺳﻮم ﺷﺨﺺ ﻣﻔﺮد اﺳﺖ ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس ﺻﺮف ﻓﻌﻞ از ﻟﺤﺎظ ﺗﻌﺪاد در ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﺑﺎ ﻓﺎﻋﻞ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺖ ﻧﺪارد‬
‫ ﺑﺎ ﺷﻨﺎﺳﮫ ي ﺳﻮم‬-‫ ﭼﮫ ﺟﺎﻧﺪار و ﭼﮫ ﻏﯿﺮﺟﺎﻧﺪار‬- ‫درﺣﺎﻟﻲ ﮐﮫ دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﻓﻌﻞ ﺑﺮاي ﻓﺎﻋﻞ ھﺎي ﺟﻤﻊ‬
.‫ﺷﺨﺺ ﺟﻤﻊ ﺻﺮف ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد‬

A= In Persian , verbs are inflected as for the third person singular for the plural
form of the nouns denoting unhuman being , even if they are plural ,in other
words , number does not influence the inflection of the verb , while in English ,
the verb is inflected according to the subject in number , no matter if it is human
being or nonhuman being .

The list of the books which is good is on the table .

The list of the books which are good is on the table .

In the first sentence of the example , “is” relates to “the list” and in the second
sentence , “are” relates to “the books”. In Persian ,on the other hand , the verb
is inflected singular which can cause ambiguity .

‫درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﺷﻨﺎﺳﮫ ي ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ ھﺮ ﻓﺎﻋﻞ ﺑﮫ ﺷﮑﻞ ﭘﺴﻮﻧﺪ ﺑﮫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﺻﺮف ﺷﺪه درﺟﻤﻠﮫ وﺻﻞ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد‬
‫در ﺣﺎﻟﻲ ﮐﮫ دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﺻﺮف اﻓﻌﺎل ﺑﺮاي ھﻤﮫ ي ﻓﺎﻋﻞ ھﺎ – ﺑﮫ اﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎئ ﻓﻌﻞ اﺻﻠﻲ ﺻﺮف ﺷﺪه ﺑﺮاي‬
.‫ﻓﺎﻋﻞ ﺳﻮم ﺷﺨﺺ ﻣﻔﺮد درزﻣﺎن ﺣﺎل ﺳﺎده – ﯾﮑﺴﺎن اﺳﺖ‬

B- In Persian , the subject influences the verb with a subjective inflectional suffix
, while in English , this suffix – except for the verbs inflected for the third person
singular in simple present tense – does not exist .

I / You / We / They play .

‫ آﻧﮭﺎ ﺑﺎزي ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ‬. ‫ ﻣﺎ ﺑﺎزي ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﯿﻢ‬. ‫ ﺗﻮ ﺑﺎزي ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻲ‬. ‫ﻣﻦ ﺑﺎزي ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻢ‬

۱۵
 ‫ ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎي ﭘﺮﺳﺸﻲ درﻧﺤﻮ اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ واژﮔﺎن ﻧﻘﺸﻲ ﺑﮫ ﺷﻤﺎر ﻣﻲ آﯾﻨﺪ درﺣﺎﻟﻲ ﮐﮫ‬: ‫د – واژﮔﺎن ﻧﻘﺸﻲ‬
.‫اﯾﻦ ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎ درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ درﮔﺮوه واژﮔﺎن اﺳﺘﻔﮭﺎﻣﻲ ﻗﺮارﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪ‬

۴- Functional words : “ Wh ” words in English syntax are considered as

functional words while in Persian syntax , they are considered as question
words .

Daniel came here.

Who came here ?

‫ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻟﻲ دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ازﺗﻨﻮع ﺿﻤﺎﯾﺮﻣﻮﺻﻮﻟﯽ‬: ‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرھﺎي ﻣﻌﺎدل‬- ‫ه‬

which , who, whom , that

‫اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ درﺣﺎﻟﻲ ﮐﮫ درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺿﻤﯿﺮﻣﻮﺻﻮﻟﻲ " ﮐﮫ "ﺑﺮاي اﯾﻦ ﻣﻨﻈﻮر ﻣﻮرد اﺳﺘﻔﺎده‬
.‫ﻗﺮارﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮد‬

۵- Equivalent structures : Relative clauses in English benefit a variety of relative

pronouns as “who” , “whom” “which” and “what” , while in Persian, the unique
relative pronoun “ ke “ is used at the beginning of the relative clauses.

‫ ﻗﺎﻋﺪه اي در زﺑﺎن اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ وﺟﻮد دارد ﮐﮫ ﺑﺮاي ﺑﯿﺎن ﯾﮏ ﻣﻨﻈﻮرﺳﮫ‬: ‫و – ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرھﺎي ﻏﯿﺮﻣﻌﺎدل‬
‫ ﯾﮑﻲ از‬. ‫ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﻣﺘﻨﻮع را ﺑﮫ ﭘﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻲ آورد اﻣﺎ درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﻓﻘﻂ ﯾﮏ ﻗﺎﻋﺪه ﺑﺮاي اﯾﻦ ﻣﻨﻈﻮر وﺟﻮد دارد‬
.‫ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ ھﺎي آن ﺗﻮزﯾﻊ وﺟﮫ ﻣﺠﮭﻮل دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ اﺳﺖ‬

۶- Unequivalent structures : A structural rule exists in English syntax which

enables the expression of one meaning in three different structures , while this
rule does not exist in Persian syntax .

They believe that Daniel is clever .‫آﻧﮭﺎ ﻣﻌﺘﻘﺪﻧﺪ ﮐﮫ داﻧﯿﺎل زرﻧﮓ اﺳﺖ‬

They believe Daniel to be clever . **********************

Daniel is believed to be clever . **********************

۱۶
‫ ھﺮدو زﺑﺎن اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ وﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﻗﺎﻋﺪه اي دارﻧﺪ ﮐﮫ ﺑﮫ ﮐﻤﮏ آن ﯾﮏ‬: ‫ز– ﻧﺸﺎن دارﮐﺮدن ﺳﺎزه ھﺎي ﺟﻤﻠﮫ‬
‫ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد اﯾﻦ ﻗﺎﻋﺪه‬. ‫ﻋﻤﻠﮑﺮد را ﺑﺮروي ﮔﺮوه ھﺎي ﻣﺘﻤﺎﯾﺰ ﺑﺮاي ﻧﺸﺎن دار ﮐﺮدن آﻧﮭﺎ اﻋﻤﺎل ﻣﻲﮐﻨﻨﺪ‬
‫درزﺑﺎن ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ اﻧﺘﻘﺎل ﺗﻤﺎم ﺳﺎزه ھﺎي اﺻﻠﻲ ﺑﮫ وﯾﮋه اﻧﺘﻘﺎل ﻣﻔﻌﻮل ﺑﮫ اﺑﺘﺪاي ﺟﻤﻠﮫ را اﻣﮑﺎن ﭘﺬﯾﺮﻣﻲ‬
‫ﮐﻨﺪ اﻣﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﮑﺮد اﯾﻦ ﻗﺎﻋﺪه دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﻣﺤﺪودﺗﺮ ﺑﻮده و اﻧﺘﻘﺎل ﻣﻔﻌﻮل ﺑﮫ اﺑﺘﺪاي ﺟﻤﻠﮫ راﺷﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻲ ﺷﻮد‬

۷- Marking the sentence constituents: There is a rule in both English and Persian
which is applied to a constituent to mark it. The application of this rule in
Persian is for all the constituents – particularly the object - through their
displacement to the very beginning of the sentences. In English, this rule is
applied only to the adverbs of place, time and request, and not to the object.

He wrote the letter yesterday .‫او دﯾﺮوز ﻧﺎﻣﮫ را ﻧﻮﺷﺖ‬

Yesterday , he wrote the letter .‫دﯾﺮوز او ﻧﺎﻣﮫ را ﻧﻮﺷﺖ‬

# # The letter he wrote yesterday ‫ﻧﺎﻣﮫ را او دﯾﺮوز ﻧﻮﺷﺖ‬

‫ ارﺗﺒﺎط دروﻧﻲ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرھﺎ ﺑﺎ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎراﺻﻠﻲ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﺗﺎﺑﻊ ﻧﻈﻤﻲ‬: ‫ح – ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎردروﻧﻲ ﺳﺎزه ھﺎ‬
.‫ﻣﺘﻔﺎوت ﺑﺎ اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ اﺳﺖ‬

My friend and I ‫ﻣﻦ و دوﺳﺘﻢ‬

۸- Internal structures of the constituents : In English and Persian , the

interrelations of the internal structures follow different orders .

‫ ارﺗﺒﺎط ﺑﯿﺮوﻧﻲ ﺳﺎزه ھﺎي ﯾﮏ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ﺑﺎ ﺳﺎزه ھﺎي دﯾﮕﺮ آن ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﺎ‬: ‫ط– ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎر ﺑﯿﺮوﻧﻲ ﺳﺎزه ھﺎ‬
.‫اﺻﻮل زﯾﺮ اﺳﺖ‬

۹- External structures of the constituents : The external relations of a

constituent with other constituents in a sentence follow the following principles

‫درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮان ﺑﺎ ﺗﻮﺟﮫ ﺑﮫ ﺷﻨﺎﺳﮫ ي ﻓﻌﻞ ﻓﺎﻋﻞ را ازﺟﻤﻠﮫ ﺣﺬف ﮐﺮد اﻣﺎ دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﺣﺬف ﻓﺎﻋﻞ‬
.‫ازﺟﻤﻠﮫ ﻋﻤﻠﻲ ﻧﯿﺴﺖ‬

۱۷
A= In Persian , because of the subjective inflectional suffix , the subject can be
deleted from the sentence , while in English , the deletion of the subject in a
sentence is impossible .

I went to school yesterday. .‫ﻣﻦ دﯾﺮوز رﻓﺘﻢ ﺑﮫ ﻣﺪرﺳﮫ‬

# # Went to school yesterday. .‫دﯾﺮوز رﻓﺘﻢ ﺑﮫ ﻣﺪرﺳﮫ‬

. ‫ﺑﺮﺧﻲ ازﺳﺎزه ھﺎي ﻣﻔﻌﻮل ﻣﺴﺘﻘﯿﻢ دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﺳﺎزه اي ازﻣﻔﻌﻮل ﻏﯿﺮﻣﺴﺘﻘﯿﻢ درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ‬

I believe them .‫اﻋﺘﻤﺎد دارم‬ ‫ﻣﻦ ﺑﮫ آﻧﮭﺎ‬

(‫)ﻣﻔﻌﻮل ﻣﺴﺘﻘﯿﻢ‬ (‫)ﻣﻔﻌﻮل ﻏﯿﺮﻣﺴﺘﻘﯿﻢ‬

B= Some “ direct object ” constituents in English are “ indirect object ”

constituents in Persian .

.‫ﺑﺮﺧﻲ ازﺳﺎزه ھﺎي ﻗﯿﺪي درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﺳﺎزه اي ﻣﻔﻌﻮﻟﻲ دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ‬

George lives a comfortable life . ‫ﺟﺮج راﺣﺖ زﻧﺪﮔﻲ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ‬

(‫) ﺳﺎزه ي ﻣﻔﻌﻮﻟﻲ‬ (‫) ﺳﺎزه ي ﻗﯿﺪي‬

C= Some “ adverbial “ constituents in Persian are “ object “ constituents in

English .

‫ دراﯾﻦ اﯾﻦ ﺳﻄﺢ ازﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﻧﺤﻮي ﻣﯿﺰان ﺗﻔﺎوت ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرھﺎي ﻣﻮردﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ درزﺑﺎن ھﺎي ﻣﺒﺪا‬: ‫ط – ﮔﺸﺘﺎرھﺎ‬
‫و ﻣﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﮫ ﺗﻌﺪاد ﮔﺸﺘﺎرھﺎﯾﻲ ﺑﺴﺘﮕﻲ دارد ﮐﮫ ﺑﺮاي ﺷﮑﻞ ﮔﯿﺮي روﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﺑﮫ ژرف ﺳﺎﺧﺖ اﻋﻤﺎل ﺷﺪه اﻧﺪ‬

۱۰- Transformations : In this stage of syntactic analysis , the differentiation of

the structures compared is considered due to the transformations applied to the
deep structures to create the surface structure .

۱۸
‫‪The red flower is on the table .‬‬ ‫روﺳﺎﺧﺖ‬ ‫ﮔﻞ ﺳﺮخ روي ﻣﯿﺰ اﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬

‫ﮔﻞ روي ﻣﯿﺰاﺳﺖ‪.‬ﮔﻞ ﺳﺮخ اﺳﺖ‪ .‬ژرف ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ‪The flower is on the table .The flower is red.‬‬
‫ﮔﻠﻲ ﮐﮫ روي ﻣﯿﺰ اﺳﺖ ﺳﺮخ اﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﮔﺸﺘﺎرﻣﻮﺻﻮﻟﻲ ‪The flower that is red is on the table .‬‬

‫‪The flower red is on the table‬‬ ‫ﮔﺸﺘﺎرﮐﺎھﺶ ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻟﻲ‪.‬‬

‫************************{‬

‫‪The red flower is on the table‬‬ ‫ﮔﺸﺘﺎر اﻧﺘﻘﺎل ﺻﻔﺖ‬ ‫ﮔﻞ ﺳﺮخ روي ﻣﯿﺰ اﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬

‫درﺷﮑﻞ ﮔﯿﺮي روﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي ﺑﺎﻻ ﺳﮫ ﮔﺸﺘﺎردراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ و دو ﮔﺸﺘﺎردرﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﺑﮫ ژرف ﺳﺎﺧﺖ‬
‫اﻋﻤﺎل ﺷﺪه اﻧﺪ وﮔﺸﺘﺎراﻧﺘﻘﺎل ﺻﻔﺖ درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ دﯾﺪه ﻧﻤﻲ ﺷﻮد ‪ .‬ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ ھﺎﯾﻲ ﻧﯿﺰدردو زﺑﺎن وﺟﻮددارﻧﺪ ﮐﮫ‬
‫در آﻧﮭﺎ ﺗﻌﺪاد ﮔﺸﺘﺎرھﺎ ي اﻋﻤﺎل ﺷﺪه ﺑﺮ ژرف ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﯾﮑﺴﺎن اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬

‫‪In the surface-structure formation of the English sentence above, three‬‬

‫‪transformations have been applied, in contrast, the equivalent surface structure‬‬
‫‪of the sentence in Persian has gone under two transformations.‬‬

‫‪However, there are instances in both Persian and English in which the numbers‬‬
‫‪of the transformations applied are the same.‬‬

‫‪The flower on the table is pretty.‬‬ ‫روﺳﺎﺧﺖ‬ ‫ﮔﻞ روي ﻣﯿﺰ زﯾﺒﺎ اﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬

‫‪The flower is pretty . / The flower is on the table .‬‬ ‫ﮔﻞ زﯾﺒﺎ اﺳﺖ ‪.‬ﮔﻞ روي ﻣﯿﺰ اﺳﺖ ‪.‬‬
‫ژرف ﺳﺎﺧﺖ‬

‫ﮔﻠﻲ ﮐﮫ روي ﻣﯿﺰ اﺳﺖ زﯾﺒﺎ اﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﮔﺸﺘﺎرﻣﻮﺻﻮﻟﻲ ‪The flower that is on the table is pretty .‬‬

‫‪The flower on the table is pretty‬‬ ‫ﮔﻞ روي ﻣﯿﺰ زﯾﺒﺎ اﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﮔﺸﺘﺎر ﮐﺎھﺶ ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻟﻲ‪.‬‬

‫ي ‪-‬آھﻨﮓ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ‪:‬ﻣﻨﻈﻮرازآھﻨﮓ ﻧﻮاﺧﺖ ﻣﻮزﯾﮑﺎل ﺟﻤﻠﮫ درھﻨﮕﺎم ﺑﯿﺎن آن اﺳﺖ‪.‬درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ و اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ دو‬
‫ﻧﻮاﺧﺖ اﺻﻠﻲ درﺑﯿﺎن ﺟﻤﻠﮫ وﺟﻮد دارد ‪ :‬ﺻﻌﻮدي – ﻧﺰوﻟﻲ و ﺻﻌﻮدي ‪ .‬درﺑﯿﺎن ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎي ﭘﺮﺳﺸﻲ‬
‫آﻏﺎزﺷﺪه ﺑﺎ ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎي اﺳﺘﻔﮭﺎﻣﻲ زﺑﺎن ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ھﺮدواﻟﮕﻮي ﺻﻌﻮدي ‪ -‬ﻧﺰوﻟﻲ و ﺻﻌﻮدي را ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎر ﻣﻲ‬
‫ﺑﺮد اﻣﺎ در اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻧﻮاﺧﺖ ﺻﻌﻮدي – ﻧﺰوﻟﻲ در اداي اﯾﻦ دﺳﺘﮫ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎ ﻣﺸﺎھﺪه ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد‬

‫‪۱۹‬‬
۱۱- Intonation : Intonation refers to the music of a sentence . There are two
major patterns of intonation in English and Persian: rising-falling and rising.
Rising intonation is used for simple questions both in English and Persian ;in

“wh” questions , however , English uses a falling pattern of intonation while in

Persian , both rising-falling and rising patterns are used .

‫ دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﺗﻐﯿﯿﺮ ﺟﺎﯾﮕﺎه اﺳﺘﺮس درﮐﻠﻤﮫ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ " ﺑﮫ ﺗﻐﯿﯿﺮ ﻣﻌﻨﺎ و ﻧﻘﺶ دﺳﺘﻮري ﮐﻠﻤﮫ‬: ‫ اﺳﺘﺮس‬- ‫ر‬
‫ ﻋﻼوه ﺑﺮ آن‬.‫ﻣﻲ اﻧﺠﺎﻣﺪ اﻣﺎ درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﺗﻐﯿﯿﺮ ﺟﺎﯾﮕﺎه اﺳﺘﺮس ﺑﮫ ﻧﺪرت ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﭼﻨﯿﻦ ﺗﻐﯿﯿﺮاﺗﻲ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد‬
.‫ﺗﻐﯿﯿﺮ ﺟﺎﯾﮕﺎه اﺳﺘﺮس اﺻﻠﻲ در واژﮔﺎن ﯾﮏ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﻧﺸﺎن دارﺷﺪن آن واژه درﺟﻤﻠﮫ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد‬

۱۲- Stress is the rising of pitch on a syllable in a word . In English the shift of the
stress usually results in a new word with a different meaning and a different
part of speech , while in Persian , stress shift very rarely results in a new word .
This shift sometimes causes markedness in the sentence .

John drove to school yesterday .

‫ ﺧﻮاھﺪ ﺑﻮد‬.who ‫ ﭘﺎﺳﺦ ﺑﮫ ﭘﺮﺳﺶ‬John‫اﺳﺘﺮس ﺑﺮ‬

‫ ﺧﻮاھﺪ ﺑﻮد‬.where ‫ ﭘﺎﺳﺦ ﺑﮫ ﭘﺮﺳﺶ‬school‫اﺳﺘﺮس ﺑﺮ‬

‫ ﺧﻮاھﺪ ﺑﻮد‬.when ‫ ﭘﺎﺳﺦ ﺑﮫ ﭘﺮﺳﺶ‬yesterday‫اﺳﺘﺮس ﺑﺮ‬

Stress on “ John “ is an reply to the question with “ who “ .

Stress on “ school “ is a reply to the question with “ where “ .

Stress on “ yesterday “ is a reply to the question with “ when “ .

‫ ﻣﮑﺚ‬. ‫ ﻣﻨﻈﻮرازﻣﮑﺚ ﺗﻮﻗﻒ ﮐﻮﺗﺎه ﻣﺪت درھﻨﮕﺎم اداي واژﮔﺎن وﯾﺎ ﮔﺮوه ھﺎي ﯾﮏ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ اﺳﺖ‬: ‫ ﻣﮑﺚ‬- ‫ز‬
.‫درھﺮدو زﺑﺎن ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ و اﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﮔﺎھﻲ ﻣﻮﺟﺐ ﺗﻐﯿﯿﺮﻣﻌﻨﺎ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد‬

۱۳- Pause : Pause is the relative length of silence that one uses between words
or group of words . Pause sometimes results in a new meaning in both Persian
and English .

۲۰
 ‫ ﺑﺨﺸﺶ ! ﻻزم ﻧﯿﺴﺖ اﻋﺪاﻣﺶ ﮐﻨﯿﺪ‬: ‫ﻣﺜﺎل درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ‬

‫ﺑﺨﺸﺶ ﻻزم ﻧﯿﺴﺖ ! اﻋﺪاﻣﺶ ﮐﻨﯿﺪ‬

twenty , three cent stamps ‫ ﺑﯿﺴﺖ ﺗﻤﺒﺮ ﺳﮫ ﺳﻨﺘﻲ‬: ‫ﻣﺜﺎل دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ‬

twenty three , cent stamps ‫ﺑﯿﺴﺖ وﺳﮫ ﺗﻤﺒﺮ ﯾﮏ ﺳﻨﺘﻲ‬

‫ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ي واژﮔﺎن‬
Comparing the vocabulary items

‫ﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮان زﺑﺎن ﺧﺎرﺟﻲ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ" در درک ﻣﻔﮭﻮم ﭘﻮﺷﯿﺪه اي ﮐﮫ درون واژه ﻗﺮاردارد ﺑﺎ ﻣﺸﮑﻞ ﻣﻮاﺟﮫ‬
‫ازآﻧﺠﺎ ﮐﮫ اﯾﻦ ﻣﻔﮭﻮم ﺑﺎ ﻓﺮھﻨﮓ ﮔﻮﯾﺸﻮران ﻋﺠﯿﻦ اﺳﺖ ﯾﺎدﮔﯿﺮي زﺑﺎن ﺧﺎرﺟﻲ آﺷﻨﺎﯾﻲ ﻧﺴﺒﻲ ﺑﺎ‬. ‫ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ‬
‫ ﺑﺮاي ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ ﻣﻔﮭﻮم ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ي ﺷﻠﮫ زرد درﻓﺮھﻨﮓ‬. ‫ﻓﺮھﻨﮓ اﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ آن زﺑﺎن را ﻃﻠﺐ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ‬
‫ دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﺑﻮده و ﻓﺮاﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪه ﻧﺒﺎﯾﺪ ﺻﺮﻓﺎ" ﺑﮫ ﻣﻌﻨﺎي‬sweet soup ‫ﻣﺬھﺒﻲ اﯾﺮاﻧﯿﺎن ﺑﺴﯿﺎر ﻓﺮاﺗﺮاز ﺗﺤﺖ‬
‫ ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﮫ ي واژﮔﺎن و ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ دو زﺑﺎن در ﭼﺎرﭼﻮب‬. ‫اﻟﻠﻔﻈﻲ آن ﺑﺴﻨﺪه ﮐﻨﺪ‬
‫ﻣﺮاﺣﻞ زﯾﺮ اﻧﺠﺎم ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد‬

Foreign language learner usually come to problems with the meanings implied
in the words . Since the implied meaning is combined with the culture of the
people speaking a language , familiarity with the culture of these people is
necessary . As an instance , the meaning of “ shole zard “ in Persian something
much more than its denotative meaning “ sweet soup “ in English ; there are
some cultural aspects which have been mixed with the denotative meaning of
the word . To study these aspects , the study of the words is carried through the
following stages :

cat‫ﮔﺮﺑﮫ‬ ‫اﻟﻒ – ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﮫ ي واژه ھﺎي ﺗﮑﻮاژي ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ‬

A= The study of monomorpheme words like “ cat “ and “ apple “ .

blackboard ‫ﺗﺨﺘﮫ ﺳﯿﺎه‬ text-book ‫ﮐﺘﺎب درﺳﯽ‬ ‫ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﮫ واژﮔﺎن ﻣﺮﮐﺐ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ‬-‫ب‬

۲۱
B= The study of compound words like “ text-book “ and “ blackboard “ .

school teacher ‫ج – ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﮫ ي واژﮔﺎن ﻣﺮﮐﺐ ﻣﺸﺘﻖ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ‬

C= The study of compound derived words like “ school teacher “ .

Every thing that shines is not gold.‫ھﺮﮔﺮدي ﮔﺮدو ﻧﻤﯿﺸﮫ‬: ‫د – ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﮫ ي ﺿﺮب اﻟﻤﺜﻞ ھﺎ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ‬

D= The study of proverbs like : “ Everything that shines is not gold . “

burry the hatcher ‫ه – ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﮫ ي اﺻﻄﻼﺣﺎت ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ در ﻧﻄﻔﮫ ﺧﻔﮫ ﮐﺮدن‬

E= The study of expressions like “ burry the hatcher “ .

make a decision ‫و – ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﮫ ي ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﺗﺼﻤﯿﻢ ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻦ‬

The study of idioms like “ make a decision “ .

‫اﻟﮕﻮھﺎي ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ي واژﮔﺎن دو زﺑﺎن‬

Patterns to compare vocabulary items

‫ درداﯾﺮه ي واژﮔﺎن دوزﺑﺎن ﻣﻮرد ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﮫ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ" واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ وﺟﻮد دارﻧﺪ ﮐﮫ‬: ‫اﻟﻒ – واژﮔﺎن ھﻢ رﯾﺸﮫ‬
‫ازﻟﺤﺎظ ﻣﻌﻨﺎ وﯾﺎ ﺗﻠﻔﻆ ﺑﺴﯿﺎر ﺷﺒﯿﮫ ھﻢ ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ‬

door ‫در‬ :‫ﻣﺜﺎل‬

۲۲
 ‫دراﯾﻦ ارﺗﺒﺎط ھﺮاﻧﺪازه ﮐﮫ واژه ي زﺑﺎن دوم ازﻟﺤﺎظ ﺻﻮرت وﻣﻌﻨﻲ ﺷﺒﺎھﺖ ﺑﯿﺸﺘﺮي ﺑﮫ ﻣﻌﺎدل ﺧﻮد‬
‫درزﺑﺎن اول داﺷﺘﮫ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﯾﺎدﮔﯿﺮي آن ﻧﯿﺰ ﺳﺎده ﺗﺮ ﺧﻮاھﺪ ﺑﻮد ‪ .‬اﺷﮑﺎل اﺳﺎﺳﻲ اﯾﻦ وﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ درﺟﮫ ي‬
‫وﻗﻮع وھﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ ﺟﺎﯾﮕﺎه ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد آﻧﮭﺎ دردوزﺑﺎن اﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺑﺮاي ﻣﺜﺎل واژه ﺧﻨﺜﻲ ‪leg‬دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ ﺑﺎرﻋﺎﻃﻔﻲ‬
‫داﺷﺘﮫ و واژه ي ھﻢ رﯾﺸﮫ ي ﻣﻌﺎدل آن درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ‪ " -‬ﻟﻨﮓ " ‪ -‬ﺑﺎرﻋﺎﻃﻔﻲ ﻣﻨﻔﻲ دارد‪.‬‬

‫‪A= Cognates : There are a number of words having reasonably similar‬‬

‫‪pronunciations and similar meaning in the compared languages .The‬‬
‫‪assumption is that the more similar a foreign language word is in its form ,‬‬
‫‪meaning and distribution to navigate the native language , the easier it is to‬‬
‫‪learn .One basic difficulty with cognates lies in learning the proper frequency of‬‬
‫‪their use . For instance , the word “leg” is of an ordinary currency in English ,‬‬
‫‪while its cognate “leng” has a negative implication .‬‬

‫ب – ھﻢ رﯾﺸﮫ ھﺎي ﺟﻌﻠﻲ ‪ :‬ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎﯾﻲ در داﯾﺮه ي واژﮔﺎن دو زﺑﺎن ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ ﮐﮫ ﻣﻤﮑﻦ اﺳﺖ از ﻟﺤﺎظ‬
‫ﺻﻮرت ﺑﺎ ﯾﮑﺪﯾﮕﺮﺷﺒﯿﮫ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ اﻣﺎازﻟﺤﺎظ ﻣﻌﻨﺎﯾﻲ ﯾﺎ اﺻﻼ" ﺷﺒﯿﮫ ھﻢ ﻧﯿﺴﺘﻨﺪ وﯾﺎ ﺷﺒﺎھﺖ ﮐﻤﻲ ﺑﺎﯾﮑﺪﯾﮕﺮ‬
‫دارﻧﺪﮐﮫ اﯾﻦ وﯾﮋه ﮔﻲ ﻧﮫ ﺗﻨﮭﺎﺑﮫ ﯾﺎدﮔﯿﺮي ﮐﻤﮏ ﻧﻤﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ ﺑﻠﮑﮫ ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﯾﺎدﮔﯿﺮي را ﻧﯿﺰﮐﺎھﺶ ﻣﻲ دھﺪ‪.‬‬

‫ﮐﺎر‪car‬‬ ‫ﮐﻼس ‪class‬‬ ‫ﻣﺜﺎل ‪:‬‬

‫‪B= False or deseptive cognates : These are words which are similar in form but‬‬
‫‪may be different or only partially similar in meaning . This feature not only‬‬
‫‪doesn’t help learning but also may cause problems in its process .‬‬

‫ج – ھﻢ ﻣﻌﻨﺎھﺎﯾﻲ ﮐﮫ درﺻﻮرت واژه ﺑﺎ ﯾﮑﺪﯾﮕﺮ ﺗﻔﺎوت دارﻧﺪ ‪:‬واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ ﮐﮫ ازﻟﺤﺎظ ﻣﻌﻨﻲ در ﺑﮫ‬
‫ھﺮدوزﺑﺎن ﻣﻌﺎدل ﺑﻮده اﻣﺎ ﺑﺎرﻣﻌﻨﺎﯾﻲ آﻧﮭﺎ درھﺮﯾﮏ ازدوزﺑﺎن ﻣﺘﻔﺎوت اﺳﺖ ‪ .‬ﺑﺮاي ﻣﺜﺎل ﻣﻌﻨﻲ" ‪friend‬‬
‫دوﺳﺖ " دﻻﻟﺖ ﺑﺮﮐﺴﻲ دارد ﮐﮫ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﻓﺎﻣﯿﻠﻲ ﺑﺎ ﺷﺨﺺ ﻧﺪاﺷﺘﮫ اﻣﺎ ازﻧﻈﺮﻋﺎﻃﻔﻲ وﺻﻤﯿﻤﯿﺖ ﺑﮫ وي‬
‫ﻧﺰدﯾﮏ اﺳﺖ ‪ .‬اﻣﺎ از ﻟﺤﺎظ ﺑﺎر ﻣﻌﻨﺎﯾﻲ اﯾﻦ ﮐﻠﻤﮫ در ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ ﺣﻮزه ي ﮔﺴﺘﺮده ﺗﺮي را ﺷﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد ﮐﮫ‬
‫آن را ﺣﺘﻲ ﺗﺎ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺑﺮادرارﺗﻘﺎ ﻣﻲ دھﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪C= Words similar in meaning but different in form :These are the words which‬‬
‫‪are in fact equivalent , but have different implications . For instance , the word‬‬

‫‪۲۳‬‬
“doost” in Persian equivalented with “friend” in English refers to a person
whose compony , interests , and attitudes are sympathetic and to whom one is
not closely related . However , in both languages the words have some further
senses which are rooted in the cultures of their people .

‫ واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ ازدو زﺑﺎن ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ ﮐﮫ ﻣﻌﻨﺎﯾﻲ ﻏﯿﺮﻣﺘﻌﺎرف در‬: ‫د – ﮐﻠﻤﮫ ھﺎﯾﻲ ﮐﮫ ﻣﻌﻨﺎﯾﻲ ﻏﯿﺮﻣﻌﻤﻮل دارﻧﺪ‬
‫ وﻣﻌﺎدل آن " ﻃﺒﻘﮫ ِ اول " درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ‬second floor ‫ ﯾﮑﻲ از ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ ھﺎي آن‬. ‫زﺑﺎن دﯾﮕﺮدارﻧﺪ‬

"‫ در ﺣﻮزه ي ﻣﻌﻨﺎ ﺷﻨﺎﺳﻲ اﯾﻦ ﮔﺮوه از واژﮔﺎن در دو ﺷﺎﺧﮫ ي " ھﻢ ﻣﻌﻨﺎھﺎي ھﻤﮕﺮا " و‬. ‫اﺳﺖ‬
.‫ھﻢ ﻣﻌﻨﺎھﺎي واﮔﺮا " ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ‬

D= Words that have strange meanings : These are the group of words whose
equivalents in the second language are odd . For instance , the first floor in
Persian is equivalented with the second floor in American English . In the field of
semantics , these words are studied under the headings of “convergence” and
“divergence” .

‫ ﺷﺮاﯾﻄﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ درآن ﻣﻌﻨﺎي دوﯾﺎ ﭼﻨﺪ واژه درزﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا ﺑﺎ ﻣﻌﻨﺎي ﯾﮏ واژه در‬: ‫ھﻢ ﻣﻌﻨﺎ ھﺎي ھﻤﮕﺮا‬
.‫زﺑﺎن ﻣﻘﺼﺪ ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد‬

۱= Convergence : It refers to a situation in which two or more concepts in native

language are equivalent to one word in the target language .

‫ﻣﺜﺎل‬

drink‫ﻣﯿﻞ ﮐﺮدن‬ ‫ﺻﺮف ﮐﺮدن‬ ‫ﺧﻮردن‬ ‫ﻧﻮﺷﯿﺪن‬

‫ ﺷﺮاﯾﻄﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ درآن ﻣﻌﻨﺎي ﯾﮏ واژه درزﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا ﺑﺎ ﻣﻌﻨﺎي دوﯾﺎ ﭼﻨﺪ واژه‬: ‫ھﻢ ﻣﻌﻨﺎ ھﺎي واﮔﺮا‬
.‫درزﺑﺎن ﻣﻘﺼﺪ ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد‬

۲= Divergence : It refers to a situa on where one concept in the source language

may be divided into several concepts in the target language . Example :

big , large , major , grown up , great‫ﺑﺰرگ‬

۲۴
 ‫ ﺷﺮاﯾﻄﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ درآن ﻣﻌﺎﻧﻲ ﮐﺎﻣﻼ" ﻣﺘﻔﺎوت ﯾﮏ ﯾﮏ‬: ‫ه – ﺷﮑﻞ ﯾﮑﺴﺎن واژه ھﺎ واﻓﻌﺎل ﭼﻨﺪ ﮐﻠﻤﮫ اي‬
.‫واژه در زﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا ﺑﺎ ﻣﻌﻨﺎي ﯾﮏ واژه درزﺑﺎن ﻣﻘﺼﺪ ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد‬

E= Phrasal verbs and unfamiliar way of coding the meaning : Here ,

metaphorical extension is the case in which languages exhibit differences .
Therefore , different meanings of a word are equivalented to one word in the
second language .

‫ﻣﺜﺎل‬

It’s a dull knife .‫آن ﭼﺎﻗﻮ ﮐﻨﺪ اﺳﺖ‬

I feel a dull pain in my hand . ‫درد ﻧﺎﻣﺸﺨﺼﻲ دردﺳﺘﻢ اﺣﺴﺎس ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﻢ‬

It’s a dull colour .‫آن رﻧﮓ ﺗﺎر اﺳﺖ‬

It’s a dull book .‫آن ﮐﺘﺎب ﺧﺴﺘﮫ ﮐﻨﻨﺪه اﺳﺖ‬

He’s a dull boy .‫او ﭘﺴﺮي ﺧﻨﮓ اﺳﺖ‬

‫ اﯾﻦ اﺻﻄﻼﺣﺎت ﻋﻤﻮﻣﺎ" ازﯾﮏ ﻓﻌﻞ و ﯾﮏ‬. ‫اﯾﻦ ﺷﺮاﯾﻂ ﺑﺮاﺻﻄﻼﺣﺎت راﯾﺞ دردو زﺑﺎن ﻧﯿﺰﺣﺎﮐﻢ اﺳﺖ‬
‫ﺟﺰءاﺿﺎﻓﮫ ﺗﺸﮑﯿﻞ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ ﮐﮫ ﻓﻌﻞ آﻧﮭﺎ ﺑﺎ ھﻤﺮاھﻲ ﺟﺰء اﺿﺎﻓﮫ ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن ﻣﻌﻨﺎﯾﻲ ﺧﺎص را‬
‫درھﺮاﺻﻄﻼح ﻣﻨﺘﻘﻞ ﮐﺮده و ﻣﻌﺎدل ﺳﺎزي ﺟﺰء ﺑﮫ ﺟﺰء آن اﺻﻄﻼح درزﺑﺎن دﯾﮕﺮرا ﻏﯿﺮﻣﻤﮑﻦ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ‬

This extention dominates over the idioms of the two languages as well . Idioms
are normally composed of a verb and a particle . The verb , when accompanied
with a different particle , usually denotes a different meaning. This makes the
translation of the components of the idiom to grasp its meanin impossible .

‫ﻣﺜﺎل‬

look‫ﻧﮕﺎه ﮔﺮدن‬ look after‫ﻣﺮاﻗﺒﺖ ﮐﺮدن‬ look for‫ﺟﺴﺘﺠﻮ ﮐﺮدن‬

call‫ﺻﺪا ﮐﺮدن‬ call on‫ﺳﺮ زدن‬ call up‫ﺗﻠﻔﻦ زدن‬

۲۵
 ‫ اﯾﻦ ﺷﮑﻞ از ﻋﻤﻠﮑﺮد واژﮔﺎن‬: ‫و – واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ ﮐﮫ ﻣﻌﻨﺎي ﺗﻠﻮﯾﺤﻲ ﻣﺘﻔﺎوﺗﻲ را در دو زﺑﺎن ﻣﻲ رﺳﺎﻧﻨﺪ‬
‫ ﺑﺮاي ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ واژه ي‬. ‫درﺳﻄﺢ زﺑﺎن ﻧﺸﺎن دھﻨﺪه ي ﺗﻔﺎوت ھﺎي ﻓﺮھﻨﮕﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن ﺟﻮاﻣﻊ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ اﺳﺖ‬
‫ " ﭼﺎق" درﻓﺎرﺳﻲ دﻻﻟﺖ ﺑﺮﺳﻼﻣﺘﻲ وﻧﺸﺎط داﺷﺘﮫ اﻣﺎﻣﻌﺎدل آن دراﻧﮕﻠﯿﺴﻲ‬fat ‫ﻣﻔﮭﻮم ﺑﯿﻤﺎري وﻧﺎﺧﻮﺷﻲ‬
‫ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ ي دﯾﮕﺮآن ﻣﻔﮭﻮم واژه ي‬. ‫ را اﻟﻘﺎء ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ‬pub ‫اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ درﻓﺮھﻨﮓ ﮐﺸﻮرھﺎي اﻧﮕﻠﺴﺘﺎن و‬
‫اﻣﺮﯾﮑﺎ دﻻﻟﺖ ﺑﺮ ﻣﮑﺎﻧﻲ ﻣﻌﻤﻮﻟﻲ ﺑﺮاي ﺧﻮردن ﻣﺸﺮوﺑﺎت و ھﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ ﻣﻼﻗﺎت دوﺳﺘﺎن دارد اﻣﺎ درﻓﺮھﻨﮓ‬
.‫اﯾﺮاﻧﯿﺎن ﻣﮑﺎﻧﻲ ﻣﻤﻨﻮﻋﮫ ﺑﮫ ﺷﻤﺎر ﻣﻲ آﯾﺪ‬

F= Words with different connotations in the two languages :These words reflect
cultural differences . For instance the word “chagh” in Persian indicates health
and freshness , while its equivalent-“fat”-in English indicates illness . The same
way , the word “pub” in English indicates a bar where the friends gather to meet
and have hot drinks , and spend some time together,but in Persian,it indicates a
blamed place which is forbidden to go to .

‫ ﺷﺮاﯾﻄﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ درآن ﮔﻮﯾﺸﻮران ﯾﮏ‬: ‫ز – واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ ﮐﮫ در ﺟﻐﺮاﻓﯿﺎي ﺧﺎص ﯾﮏ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﮫ رواج دارﻧﺪ‬
‫ ﺑﺮاي ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ ﻣﻌﺎدل "ﺑﻨﺰﯾﻦ‬. ‫زﺑﺎن واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ ﻣﺘﻔﺎوت را ﺑﺮاي ﺑﯿﺎن ﯾﮏ ﻣﻨﻈﻮر ﺧﺎص ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎر ﻣﻲ ﺑﺮﻧﺪ‬
‫ در اﻧﮕﻠﺴﺘﺎن‬petrol‫ در اﻣﺮﯾﮑﺎ و‬gasoline

‫ ﻋﻼوه ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ آن دﺳﺘﮫ از ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ زﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا ﮐﮫ ﻣﻌﺎدل دﻗﯿﻘﻲ درزﺑﺎن ﻣﻘﺼﺪ ﻧﺪاﺷﺘﮫ‬.‫اﺳﺖ‬
.‫ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ ﻧﯿﺰ ﺑﮫ ﺷﺮح زﯾﺮدراﯾﻦ ﮔﺮوه دﺳﺘﮫ ﺑﻨﺪي ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ‬

G= Geographically-restricted words : These words demonstrate the case of

language varieties . For instance in Brtain ,the word “petrol” is used for the car
fuel , while in the United states , the word gasoline is used . This feature reflects
a combination of geographical and cultural differences .In addition to this ,
those group of words which do not have a precise equivalent in the second
language are categorized as the following :

.‫ﺑﺮﺧﻲ ازﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎ و ﮔﺮوه ھﺎي واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ زﺑﺎن ﻣﻘﺼﺪ ﻓﻘﻂ ﯾﮏ واژه ي ﻣﻌﺎدل در زﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا دارﻧﺪ‬

grand child‫ﻧﻮه‬ son in law ‫داﻣﺎد‬ in the morning‫ﺻﺒﺢ‬

۲۶
۱= Some word expressions in the target language have only one word
equivalent in the source language .

. ‫ﺑﺮﺧﻲ از ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎ و ﮔﺮوه ھﺎي واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ زﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا ﻓﻘﻂ ﯾﮏ واژه ي ﻣﻌﺎدل در زﺑﺎن ﻣﻘﺼﺪ دارﻧﺪ‬

suit ‫ﮐﺖ و ﺷﻠﻮار‬ furniture ‫اﺳﺒﺎب و اﺛﺎث‬ bed ‫ﺗﺨﺘﺨﻮاب‬

۲= Some word expessions in the source language have only one word equivalent
in the target language .

‫ﺑﺮﺧﻲ ازﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ زﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا ازﻟﺤﺎظ ﻣﻌﻨﺎي اﺟﺰاي ﺗﺸﮑﯿﻞ دھﻨﺪه ﺑﺎﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ واژﮔﺎن زﺑﺎن ﻣﻘﺼﺪ‬
.‫ﺗﻔﺎوت دارﻧﺪ‬

Newspaper ‫روزﻧﺎﻣﮫ‬ heavy storm ‫ﺗﻮﻓﺎن ﺷﺪﯾﺪ‬ man and wife‫زن و ﺷﻮھﺮ‬

۳= Some word expressions in the source language differ with the target
language in the components composing them .

‫ﺑﺮﺧﻲ ازﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ زﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا ازﻟﺤﺎظ ﻧﺤﻮي ﺑﺎ ﻣﻌﺎدل ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ زﺑﺎن ﻣﻘﺼﺪ ﺗﻔﺎوت‬
.‫دارﻧﺪ‬

۴- Some word expressions in the source language differ syntactically with their
equivalents in the target language .

fountain pen ‫ﺧﻮد ﻧﻮﯾﺲ‬

‫ﻓﻌﻞ‬ ‫ﺿﻤﯿﺮ‬

wrist watch ‫ﺳﺎﻋﺖ ﻣﭽﻲ‬

‫ﺻﻔﺖ‬ ‫اﺳﻢ‬

۲۷
salt and pepper ‫ﻓﻠﻔﻞ ﻧﻤﮑﻲ‬

‫اﺳﻢ‬ ‫اﺳﻢ‬

‫ﻧﻈﻢ واژﮔﺎن درﺑﺮﺧﻲ ازﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ زﺑﺎن ﻣﺒﺪا ﺑﺎ ﻧﻈﻢ واژﮔﺎن درﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﺎي واژﮔﺎﻧﻲ زﺑﺎن‬
.‫ﻣﻘﺼﺪ ﺗﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻧﺪارد‬

۵- Word order in some expresions of the source language does not adapt with
the word order in the expressions of the target language .

day and night ‫ﺷﺐ و روز‬ you and I ‫ﻣﻦ و ﺗﻮ‬

fork and knife ‫ﮐﺎرد و ﭼﻨﮕﺎل‬ the boys and the girls‫دﺧﺘﺮھﺎ و ﭘﺴﺮھﺎ‬

‫ﻣﻌﺎدل ﺳﺎزي واژﮔﺎن‬

Word Equivalency
.‫درﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻠﮫ اي ھﺮواژه درﭼﮭﺎرﺳﻄﺢ ﻣﻮرد ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﻗﺮار ﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮد‬

In contrastive analysis every word is studied in the following stages:

‫ اﯾﻦ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺑﮫ ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎر واﺟﻲ واژه ﭘﺮداﺧﺘﮫ و ﺗﻘﺎﺑﻞ واژﮔﺎن را درﺟﺎﻧﺸﯿﻨﻲ واج‬: ‫اﻟﻒ – آواﯾﻲ‬
. ‫ھﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن ﻣﻮرد ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﮫ ﻗﺮار ﻣﻲ دھﺪ‬/b/ ‫ و‬/p/ ‫در واج‬

A= Phonological : This stage deals with the phonological structure of the word
and studies the word contrast in the substitution of various phonemes .

It notes that , for instance , the difference between the words /pet/ and /bet/ is
in the phonemes /b/ and /p/ ( one feature in difference : the former voiced and
the latter unvoiced .)
۲۸
 ‫ ﺑﮫ‬. ‫ ﻧﻘﺶ واژه درﺟﻤﻠﮫ و ﻋﻤﻠﮑﺮد آن در ﺑﺎﻓﺖ دراﯾﻦ ﺳﻄﺢ ﻣﻮرد ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﻗﺮار ﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮد‬: ‫ب – ﻧﺤﻮي‬
‫اﯾﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﯿﺐ و ﺑﺮاﺳﺎس آﻧﭽﮫ ﮐﮫ ﭘﯿﺸﺘﺮ ﺑﮫ آن ﭘﺮداﺧﺘﮫ ﺷﺪ واژه ﭘﺲ از ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎر ﻧﺤﻮي ازﻟﺤﺎظ‬
.‫ﻋﻤﻠﮑﺮد درﺟﻤﻠﮫ ﻣﻮرد ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﮫ ﻗﺮارﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮد‬

B= Syntactic : The function of the word along with its function in the context is
studied in this stage .

‫ ﭼﮕﻮﻧﮕﻲ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده از واژه در ﺑﯿﺎن ﻣﻔﮭﻮم ﻣﺴﺘﻘﯿﻢ ﯾﺎ اﻧﺘﻘﺎل ﻣﻌﻨﺎي ﺗﻠﻮﯾﺤﻲ آن دراﯾﻦ‬: ‫ج – ﮐﺎرﺑﺮدي‬
.‫ﺳﻄﺢ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﮫ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد ﮐﮫ در ﺑﺨﺶ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﮔﻔﺘﻤﺎن ﺑﮫ ﺗﻔﺼﯿﻞ ﻣﻮرد ﺑﺤﺚ ﻗﺮار ﺧﻮاھﺪ ﮔﺮﻓﺖ‬

C= Pragmatical : The use of the word to convey a direct mean or to transfer an

implied mean is studied in this stage .

‫واژه دراﯾﻦ ﺳﻄﺢ از‬. ‫ ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﻌﻨﺎﯾﻲ واژﮔﺎن درﺑﺎﻓﺖ دراﯾﻦ ﺳﻄﺢ ارزﯾﺎﺑﻲ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ‬: ‫ ﻣﻌﻨﺎﯾﻲ‬- ‫د‬
‫ ﯾﮑﻲ از راھﮑﺎرھﺎي اﯾﻦ اﻣﺮ‬.‫ﻟﺤﺎظ ﻣﻌﻨﺎﯾﻲ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﺷﺪه ودﻻﻟﺖ آن ﺑﺮﻣﻔﮭﻮﻣﻲ ﺧﺎص ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد‬
.‫ﺗﺠﺰﯾﮫ ي ﺑﺪﻧﮫ ي اﺻﻠﻲ ﻣﻌﻨﺎﯾﻲ واژه ﺑﮫ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرھﺎي ﮐﻮﭼﮑﺘﺮ ﺗﺸﮑﯿﻞدھﻨﺪه ي آن اﺳﺖ‬.

D= Semantics : Semantic aspects of the words in contexts are studied in this

level . Here the word is semantically analyzed to clarify its specific implications .
A procedure to this goal is to analyze the semantic features composing its
meaning . For instance , the word “chase” in the sentence “the policeman
chased the thief “ is composed of two semantic structures : follow and arrest .
These two features have mixed to make the meaning of the word “chase” , but
there is no word alone to have these both features together in Persian . Thus
the way to translate the word is first to analyze the word into its
semanticfeatures and second , to collocate their equivalent meanings .
Sometimes , however , the rule due to which the word has been made in the
source language does not exist in the target language .

۲۹
 ‫ﮔﺎھﻲ اوﻗﺎت ھﺮدوزﺑﺎن ازﻗﻮاﻋﺪي ﺑﮭﺮه ﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪ ﮐﮫ داﻣﻨﮫ اي ﻣﻌﯿﻦ وﻣﺤﺪود داﺷﺘﮫ وﻧﻤﻲ ﺗﻮان آن را‬
‫ﺗﻌﻤﯿﻢ داد‪.‬‬

‫‪And sometimes , both languages have rules with restricted domains which can‬‬
‫‪not be generalized .‬‬

‫‪ :‬ﻣﺜﺎل‬

‫‪popular + ize ----------- popularize‬‬

‫) ‪similar + ize ----------- # # similarize ( simulate‬‬

‫ﺑﺎز ‪ +‬ﮐﺮدن ‪-------‬ﺑﺎز ﮐﺮدن‬

‫) ﺑﺴﺘﮫ ‪ +‬ﮐﺮدن ‪ # # -------‬ﺑﺴﺘﮫ ﮐﺮدن ) ﺑﺴﺘﻦ‬

‫ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس ھﻨﮕﺎم ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﻣﻌﺎدل ﺑﺮاي واژه درھﺮدو زﺑﺎن ﺑﺎﯾﺪ ﻣﺤﺪودﯾﺖ داﻣﻨﮫ ي ﻋﻤﻠﮑﺮد اﯾﻦ ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ‬
‫را ﻣﻮرد ﺗﻮﺟﮫ ﻗﺮارداد‪.‬‬

‫‪Therefore these restrictions should be noted when making word equivalents .‬‬

‫ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﮔﻔﺘﻤﺎن‬
‫‪Discourse Analysis‬‬
‫ﻣﻮﺿﻮع ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﮔﻔﺘﻤﺎن ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﮫ وﺑﺮرﺳﻲ زﺑﺎن درﺣﻮزه ي ﺟﺎﻣﻌﮫ ﺷﻨﺎﺳﻲ زﺑﺎن اﺳﺖ و دراﯾﻦ راﺳﺘﺎ ﻧﺸﺎﻧﮫ‬
‫ھﺎي زﺑﺎن ﺷﻨﺎﺧﺘﻲ از ﺟﻤﻠﮫ اﻃﻼﻋﺎت ﮔﻮﯾﻨﺪه از داﻧﺴﺘﮫ ھﺎ و اﻋﺘﻘﺎدات ﺷﻨﻮﻧﺪه اﻧﺪﯾﺸﮫ ھﺎ و ﻋﻮاﻃﻒ‬
‫آﻧﮭﺎ در ﺷﺮاﯾﻂ ﮔﻔﺘﻤﺎن ﻓﺮھﻨﮓ اﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻃﺮﻓﯿﻦ ﮔﻔﺘﮕﻮ وھﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ داﻧﺴﺘﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﺸﺘﺮک آﻧﮭﺎ ﻣﻮرد‬
‫ﺗﻮﺟﮫ ﻗﺮارﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮد ‪ .‬ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﮔﻔﺘﻤﺎن درﺣﻮزه ي زﺑﺎﻧﺸﻨﺎﺳﻲ دردوزﯾﺮﺷﺎﺧﮫ ي زﺑﺎﻧﺸﻨﺎﺳﻲ رﻣﺰ و‬
‫زﺑﺎﻧﺸﻨﺎﺳﻲ اﻧﺴﺎﻧﻲ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﮫ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد‪.‬‬

‫‪The subject of discourse analysis is the study of language in the field of‬‬
‫‪sociolinguistics . Here ,regarding the social status of the sides of speech and‬‬
‫’‪their common knowledges , linguistic signals including the speakers‬‬
‫‪knowledges about the presuppositions as well as their emotions and thoughts‬‬

‫‪۳۰‬‬
are considered in the conversation situation . In linguistics , discourse analysis is
viewed in two fields : “code linguistics” and ” human linguistic “.

‫ روﯾﮑﺮد اﯾﻦ ﺷﺎﺧﮫ ﺑﮫ زﺑﺎن ﺑﮫ ﻋﻨﻮان ﯾﮏ ﻧﻈﺎم اﻧﺘﺰاﻋﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ در آن ﺗﻮاﻧﺶ‬: ‫زﺑﺎﻧﺸﻨﺎﺳﻲ رﻣﺰ‬
.‫زﺑﺎﻧﻲ ازدﯾﺪﮔﺎه اﺟﺰاي آن ﺑﮫ وﯾﮋه واژﮔﺎن ﻧﺤﻮ ﻣﻌﻨﺎﺷﻨﺎﺳﻲ و واج ﺷﻨﺎﺳﻲ ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد‬

Code linguistics : It deals with language as an abstract system and is involved

with competence distinguishing separated components of language such as
syntax , semantics , phonology , and lexicon .

‫ روﯾﮑﺮد اﯾﻦ ﺷﺎﺧﮫ ﺑﮫ زﺑﺎن ﺑﮫ ﻋﻨﻮان ﯾﮏ ﻧﻈﺎم ﻋﯿﻨﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ در آن ﺗﻮاﻧﺶ‬: ‫زﺑﺎﻧﺸﻨﺎﺳﻲ اﻧﺴﺎﻧﻲ‬
‫ " ﭼﮫ ﮐﺴﻲ ﺑﺎ ﭼﮫ ﮐﺴﻲ ﺻﺤﺒﺖ ﻣﻲ‬: ‫زﺑﺎﻧﻲ در ﺣﻮزه ي ﮐﻨﺶ زﺑﺎﻧﻲ ﭘﺎﺳﺦ ﺑﮫ ﭘﺮﺳﺶ ھﺎﯾﻲ ھﻤﭽﻮن‬
‫ﮐﻨﺪ ؟ﻃﺒﯿﻌﺖ اﯾﻦ ﮔﻔﺘﮕﻮ ﭼﯿﺴﺖ؟ ﭼﮫ وﻗﺖ و درﮐﺠﺎ اﻧﺠﺎم ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد؟ " را ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﮐﺮده وﺑﺮداﺷﺖ ﺷﻨﻮﻧﺪه‬
‫ازﮔﻔﺘﮫ ھﺎي ﮔﻮﯾﻨﺪه و ﺑﮫ ﺑﯿﺎن ﮐﻠﻲ ﺗﺮ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﮔﻮﯾﻨﺪه وﺷﻨﻮﻧﺪه درﺷﺮاﯾﻂ ﻣﻌﯿﻦ راﻣﻮرد ارزﯾﺎﺑﻲ ﻗﺮار ﻣﻲ‬
‫ ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ارﺗﺒﺎﻃﻲ زﺑﺎن در اﯾﻦ ﺷﺎﺧﮫ از ﺗﻮﺟﮫ ﺑﯿﺸﺘﺮي ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﮫ ﺻﻮرت ھﺎي‬. ‫دھﺪ‬
.‫ ﻧﻤﻮﻧﮫ ي اﯾﻦ ﻣﻄﻠﺐ ﭘﺮﺳﺶ زﯾﺮوﭘﺎﺳﺦ ھﺎي ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﮫ آن اﺳﺖ‬. ‫ﺗﻔﮑﯿﮏ ﺷﺪه زﺑﺎﻧﻲ ﺑﺮﺧﻮردارھﺴﺘﻨﺪ‬

Human linguistics : It deals with communicative competence , considering

questions such as “Who is speaking to whom?” ,”When?” , “Where?” , “What
activities are they involved in?’ ‘What is the aim of communication?” This sense
of linguistics stands within the domain of pragmatics which deals with
communicative competence . Human linguistics tries to describe how the
speaker implements his communicative intentions , how the hearer deciphers
thespeaker’s intentions , and how these interact in particular situations of
communication . Therefore , the communicative aspect of language is of a
higher attention in this sense . An instance for this is the following question and
the answers to it :

‫ﭘﺮﺳﺶ – ﭼﺮا ﺑﮫ دوﺳﺘﺖ ﺗﻠﻔﻦ ﻧﻤﻲ زﻧﻲ ؟‬ Why don’t you call up your friend?

‫ﭼﻮن ﺗﻠﻔﻦ ﻧﺪارم‬ Because I don’t have a telephone.

‫ﭘﯿﺸﻨﮭﺎد ﺧﻮﺑﻲ اﺳﺖ‬ That seems a good idea.

۳۱
 ‫ﭘﺎﺳﺦ اول ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﭘﺮﺳﺶ را ﺻﺮﻓﺎ" ﺑﮫ ﻋﻨﻮان ﯾﮏ ﺳﻮال درﻧﻈﺮﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮد ﮐﮫ درآن ﻗﯿﺪ ﻋﻠﺖ ﻣﻮرد‬
‫اﺳﺘﻔﮭﺎم ﻗﺮارﮔﺮﻓﺘﮫ اﺳﺖ اﻣﺎ ﭘﺎﺳﺦ دوم ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﭘﺮﺳﺶ را درﺳﻄﺢ ﮐﻨﺶ ارﺗﺒﺎﻃﻲ و ﺑﮫ ﻋﻨﻮان ﯾﮏ‬
‫ﭘﯿﺸﻨﮭﺎد درﻧﻈﺮﮔﺮﻓﺘﮫ اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬

‫‪The first answer takes the sentence as a simple question in which the adverb of‬‬
‫‪reason is quested ; the second answer on the other hand , takes the speech act‬‬
‫‪into consideration and considers it as a suggestion .‬‬

‫ھﻤﺎﻧﮕﻮﻧﮫ ﮐﮫ در ﻣﺜﺎل ﺑﺎﻻ ﻣﺸﺎھﺪه ﻣﻲ ﺷﻮد اﮔﺮ ﭼﮫ ارﺗﺒﺎط ﺗﻨﮕﺎﺗﻨﮕﻲ ﻣﯿﺎن ﻧﻘﺶ ھﺎي زﺑﺎﻧﻲ و‬
‫ﺻﻮرت ھﺎي ﺧﺎص زﺑﺎﻧﻲ وﺟﻮد دارد اﻣﺎ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﮫ ي ﺷﺒﺎھﺖ ھﺎ وﺗﻔﺎوت ھﺎي زﺑﺎﻧﺸﻨﺎﺧﺘﻲ زﺑﺎن ھﺎ‬
‫دراﻟﮕﻮي روﯾﮑﺮد ﻣﺨﺎﻃﺐ ﻣﺤﻮر اھﻤﯿﺖ ﺑﺴﺰاﯾﻲ دارد ‪ .‬دراﯾﻦ اﻟﮕﻮ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ زﺑﺎﻧﻲ اﺟﺰاﯾﻲ ﺑﮫ ﺷﻤﺎرﻣﻲ‬
‫آﯾﻨﺪ ﮐﮫ ﺑﺮاي ﭘﯿﺸﺒﺮد ﮔﻔﺘﻤﺎن ﺑﮫ ﺟﻨﺒﮫ ھﺎي ﺷﻔﺎھﻲ آن واﺑﺴﺘﮫ ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ ‪ .‬ﭘﺎراﻣﺘﺮھﺎي دﯾﮕﺮي ﻧﯿﺰﮐﮫ دراﯾﻦ‬
‫ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪﮔﻔﺘﻤﺎن ﻣﻮردﺗﻮﺟﮫ ﻗﺮاردارﻧﺪﻋﺒﺎرﺗﻨﺪ از‪ :‬راھﮑﺎرھﺎي ﻣﻮرداﺳﺘﻔﺎده ي ﻃﺮﻓﯿﻦ در ﭘﯿﺸﺒﺮد ﮔﻔﺘﻤﺎن‬
‫وﻧﻤﻮدھﺎي زﺑﺎﻧﺸﻨﺎﺧﺘﻲ ﺑﺮاي ﺷﻨﺎﺧﺖ اﯾﻦ راھﮑﺎرھﺎ ھﻤﺮاه ﺑﺎﺗﺸﺨﯿﺺ ﺷﺎﺧﺼﮫ ھﺎي ﻣﻌﻨﺎﯾﻲ‪.‬ﺑﺮاﯾﻦ اﺳﺎس‬
‫ﺟﻤﻠﮫ درارﺗﺒﺎط ﺑﺎﻣﺘﻨﻲ ﮐﮫ درآن ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎررﻓﺘﮫ اﺳﺖ ﻣﻮردﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﻗﺮارﻣﻲ ﮔﯿﺮد ‪ .‬دراﯾﻦ راﺳﺘﺎ آﺷﻨﺎﯾﻲ ﺑﺎ‬
‫ﭘﺎﺳﺦ ﭘﺮﺳﺶ ھﺎﯾﻲ از ﺟﻤﻠﮫ " ﻣﺮدم ﭼﮕﻮﻧﮫ زﺑﺎن را ﺑﮫ ﮐﺎرﻣﻲ ﺑﺮﻧﺪ ؟ راﺑﻄﮫ ي ﺑﯿﻦ ﻃﺮﻓﯿﻦ ﮔﻔﺘﮕﻮ‬
‫ﭼﮕﻮﻧﮫ اﺳﺖ ؟ ﺟﺎﯾﮕﺎه اﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ آﻧﮭﺎ ﮐﺠﺎﺳﺖ ؟ ﻣﻌﻨﺎھﺎي ﺗﻠﻮﯾﺤﻲ و ﭘﻮﺷﯿﺪه ﭼﮕﻮﻧﮫ درﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎﺟﺎي‬
‫داده ﺷﺪه اﻧﺪ ؟ﮔﻔﺘﮕﻮي آﻧﮭﺎ درﺷﺮاﯾﻂ ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن ﭼﮫ اﻟﮕﻮﯾﻲ رارﻋﺎﯾﺖ ﻣﻲ ﮐﻨﺪ ؟ آھﻨﮓ وﻧﻮاﺧﺖ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ھﺎ‬
‫ﭼﮫ ﻋﻤﻠﮑﺮدي دارﻧﺪ؟ " ﺑﺮرﺳﻲ ﮐﻨﻨﺪه را درﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﮔﻔﺘﻤﺎن ﯾﺎري ﺧﻮاھﺪ ﮐﺮد‪ .‬ﺑﺮاي ﻣﺜﺎل ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﮔﻔﺘﻤﺎن‬
‫ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي زﯾﺮﺗﺤﺖ ﺷﺮاﯾﻂ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﮫ ﺷﺮح زﯾﺮ ﺧﻮاھﺪ ﺑﻮد‪.‬‬

‫‪As indicated in the example, close relationship between language functions and‬‬
‫‪language forms prove the vitality of the linguistic study of similarities and‬‬
‫‪differences of languages in a participant-oriented approach . In this approach ,‬‬
‫‪language elements are considered as components which are dependent upon‬‬
‫‪the oral aspects of the language to develop the discourse . There are other‬‬
‫‪parameters to be noted in this approach ,too ; ie. the procedures used by the‬‬
‫‪two sides to develop the discourse along with the linguistic signals to distinguish‬‬
‫‪these procedures and the semantic features . According to this notation , the‬‬
‫‪sentence is analyzed inside the context it is used in .Questions like “ How do the‬‬
‫‪people use the language ?“,“ How is the interaction of the two sides ? “ , “ What‬‬
‫“ ‪is their social status ?” ,” How are the implications implied in the sentence ?” ,‬‬
‫‪۳۲‬‬
What pattern does their speech follow in various conditions?” , and “ What is
the function of the intonation of the sentences ?” helps the researcher in the
discourse analysis.

As an instance, the analysis of the following discourse in various conditions goes

as the following:

You are not going out .

.‫ﺗﻮ ﺑﯿﺮون ﻧﻤﻲ ري‬

a) You must not go out ……( prohibiting )

‫ اﻣﺮ‬....... ‫ﺗﻮ ﻧﺒﺎﯾﺪ ﺑﯿﺮون ﺑﺮي‬

b) No, you are not going out ……… (confirming)

‫ ﺗﺎﮐﯿﺪ‬......... ‫ﻧﮫ ﺗﻮ اﺻﻼ" ﺑﯿﺮون ﻧﻤﻲ ري‬

c) So, you are not going out ……..( threatening )

‫ ﺗﮭﺪﯾﺪ‬...... ‫ﭘﺲ ﺗﻮ ﺑﯿﺮون ﻧﻤﻲ ري‬

d) You are not going out ! .......... (expressing surprise )

‫ اﺑﺮاز ﺗﻌﺠﺐ‬...... ‫ﺗﻮ ﮐﮫ ﺑﯿﺮون ﻧﻤﻲ ري‬

e) (I’m informing you) You are not going out …….. (stating)

( ‫ ) ﻣﻤﺎﻧﻌﺖ‬...... ‫) اﺟﺎزه ﻧﺪاري ( ﺗﻮ ﻧﻤﻲ ري ﺑﯿﺮون‬

.‫ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮاﯾﻦ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﮔﻔﺘﻤﺎن ﺟﻤﻠﮫ ي ﺑﺎﻻ واﺑﺴﺘﮫ ﺑﮫ ﺷﺮاﯾﻂ ﺧﺎﺻﻲ اﺳﺖ ﮐﮫ ﺟﻤﻠﮫ درآن ﺑﯿﺎن ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ‬

Therefore the analysis of the sentence above is dependent upon the condition
which it has occured in.

۳۳