Acute Stress Disorder - Humphrey
Acute Stress Disorder - Humphrey
Appendix A
Acute Stress Disorder Scale (ASDS)
Name: ______________________________ Date: _________________________________
Briefly describe your recent traumatic experience: _______________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Did the experience frighten you? Yes No
____________________________________________________________________________
Please answer each of these questions about how you have felt since the event.
Circle one number next to each question to indicate how you have felt.
1. During or after the trauma, did you ever feel 1 2 3 4 5
numb or distant from your emotions?
2. During or after the trauma, did you ever feel in a 1 2 3 4 5
daze?
3. During or after the trauma, did things around 1 2 3 4 5
you eve1 feel unreal or dreamlike?
4. During or after the trauma, did you ever feel 1 2 3 4 5
distant from your normal self or like you were
watching it happen from outside?
5. Have you been unable to recall important aspects 1 2 3 4 5
of the trauma?
6. Have memories of the trauma kept entering your 1 2 3 4 5
mind?
Acute Stress Disorder:
7. Have you had bad dreams or nightmares about 1 2 3 4 5
the trauma?
8. Have you felt as if the trauma was about to 1 2 3 4 5
happen again?
9. Do you feel very upset when you are reminded 1 2 3 4 5
of the trauma?
10. Have you tried not to think about the trauma? 1 2 3 4 5
11. Have you tried not to talk about the trauma?
12. Have you tried to avoid situations or people that
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
What Educator’s Should
remind you of the trauma?
13. Have you tried not to feel upset or distressed 1 2 3 4 5
about the trauma?
14. Have you had trouble sleeping since the
trauma?
1 2 3 4 5 Know
15. Have you felt more irritable since the trauma? 1 2 3 4 5
16. Have you had difficulty concentrating since the 1 2 3 4 5
trauma?
17. Have you become more alert to danger since the
trauma?
1 2 3 4 5 Jessica Humphrey
18. Have you become jumpy since the trauma? 1 2 3 4 5
19. When you are reminded of the trauma, do you
sweat or tremble or does your heart beat fast?
1 2 3 4 5 University of Pittsburgh, School of Education
Source: Bryant, R. A., and Harvey, A.G. (2000). Acute stress disorder: A handbook of theory, assessment,
and treatment. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. © Humphrey, 2010
24
Table of Contents References
Alat, Kazim. (2002). Traumatic events and children: How early childhood educators can help. Childhood Education,
Fall 2002, 1‑8.
What is ASD? 3
Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., Rose, S., and Kirk, M. (1999). Acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder
Common Symptoms 5 in victims of violent crime [Electronic version]. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(3), 360‑366.
Bryant, R. A., and Harvey, A. G. (2000). Acute stress disorder: A handbook of theory, assessment, and treatment.
Facts 7 Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Bryant, R. A., Moulds, M. L., Guthrie, R. M., and Nixon, R. D. (2005). The additive benefit of hypnosis and
Research 8 cognitive‑behavioral therapy in treating acute stress disorder [Electronic Version]. Journal of Counseling
and Clinical Psychology, 73(2), 334‑340.
Treatment 9 Bryant, R. A., Sackville, T., Dang, S. T., Moulds, M., and Guthrie, R. (1999). Treating acute stress disorder: An
evaluation of cognitive behavior therapy and supportive counseling techniques [Electronic version].
Kassam‑Adams, N., Garcia‑Espana, J. F., Miller, V. A., and Winston, F. (2006). Parent‑child agreement regarding
of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45(12), 1485‑1493. doi: 10.1097/01.chi.0000237703.97518.12
Child Responses to Trauma 12 Meiser‑Stedman, R., Smith, R., Glucksman, E., Yule, W., and Dalgleish, T. (2007). Parent and child agreement for
acute stress disorder, post‑traumatic stress disorder and other psychopathology in a prospective study
Classroom Exercises 14
of children and adolescents exposed to single‑event trauma. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35,
Project Reassure. (2007). Project Reassure: Printable Resources for Caretakers of Traumatized Children and Youth.
Salmon, K., and Byrant, R. A. (2002). Posttraumatic stress disorder in children: The influence of developmental
References 23
2 23
Glossary What is Acute Stress Disorder (ASD)?
Affective: emotion or feeling
Acute Stress Disorder (ASD) occurs when and individual experi‑
Comorbidity: pertaining to two things which occur together
ences posttraumatic stress reactions that occur in the initial
Depersonalization: a state in which one no longer perceives the month after a traumatic experience. Approximately 80% of peo‑
reality of oneʹs self or oneʹs environment; sense that one’s body ple, adults and children, who initially meet the criteria for ASD
subsequently develop chronic posttraumatic stress disorder
is detached or one is seeing oneself from another perspective
(PTSD) (Bryant et al., 1999).
Derealization: an alteration in perception leading to the feeling
Criteria for ASD:
that the reality of the world has been changed or lost; percep‑
The first requirement of ASD is the experience of a precipitating
tion of one’s environment is unreal, dreamlike, or occurring in stressor: the person has experienced or witnessed an event that has
a distorted time frame been threatening to themselves or another person. This event
causes the person to feel fear, helplessness, or horror.
Disorder: a disturbance in physical or mental health or func‑
The person must also display at least three dissociative symptoms
tions either at the time or trauma or in the first month posttrauma.
Dissociative symptoms include: (1) numbing: detachment from
Dissociative: disconnection or interruption of consciousness
expected emotional reactions, (2) reduced awareness of
Epidemiology: scientific study of the causes, distribution, and surroundings: being less aware than one would expect of events at
control of disease in the population the time of trauma or immediately after, (3) derealization:
perception of one’s environment is unreal, dreamlike, or occurring
Enuresis: bedwetting in distorted time frame, (4) depersonalization: sense that one’s
Ideation: process of forming ideas or images body is detached or one is seeing oneself from another
perspective, and (5) dissociative amnesia: inability to recall a
Inoculation: introduction critical aspect of the trauma.
Intrusive: to intrude; interfere; distract The trauma needs to be re‑experienced in at least one way:
recurrent images, thoughts, dreams, illusions, flashback episodes,
Maladaptive: marked by poor or inadequate adaptation or a sense of reliving the event.
Meta‑analysis: a quantitative statistical analysis of several The person must display marked avoidance of thoughts, feelings,
activities, conversations, places, and people that may remind the
separate but similar experiments or studies in order to test the
person of their traumatic experience.
pooled data for statistical significance Marked symptoms of anxiety or arousal must be present after the
Provision: providing or supplying trauma for at least two days (see Table 1).
22 3
Table 1
Diagnostic Criteria for ASD in DSM‑IV
Organizations:
Criterion ASD
American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress. 368
Stressor Both: Veterans Memorial Highway, Commack, NY 11725.
Threatening event Telephone: (631) 543‑2217 www.aaets.org
Fear, helplessness, or horror
Anxiety Disorders Association of America. 11900 Parklawn
Dissociation Minimum of three:
Numbing Dr., Ste. 100, Rockville, MD 20852. Telephone: (301) 231‑9350
Reduced awareness International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. 60 Revere
Depersonalization Drive, Suite 500, Northbrook, IL 60062.
Derealization Telephone: (847) 480‑9028 www.istss.org
Amnesia
Minimum of one:
Re‑experiencing
Recurrent images/thoughts/distress Local Resources:
Consequent distress not Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic (WPIC). 3811 O’Hara
prescribed Street Pittsburgh, PA 15213. Telephone: (412) 624‑1000
Intrusive nature not prescribed http://www.upmc.com/HospitalsFacilities/Hospitals/
Avoidance Marked avoidance of: wpic/Pages/default.aspx
Thoughts, feelings, or places Local clinicians
Arousal Marked arousal, including: Social support groups relevant to the trauma
Restlessness, insomnia, Family/ Friends/ Teachers/ Peers
irritability, hypervigilance, and
concentration difficulties
Duration At least 2 days and less than 1 month
posttrauma
Dissociative symptoms may be
present only during trauma
Impairment Impairs functioning
Source: Bryant, R. A., and Harvey, A.G. (2000). Acute stress disorder: A handbook of theory, assessment, and
treatment. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
4 21
Further Resources Common Symptoms
Children’s Books continued:
Individuals are not effected the same way by trauma. Some may
Let’s Talk About Feeling Sad
never experience symptoms and other may experience less or very
Joy Berry (Author), Maggie Smith (Illustrator)
severe trauma‑related symptoms. Evidence of ASD may not ap‑
New York: Scholastic (1996)
pear on the same day as the traumatic event. Symptoms include
ISBN 0590623877
cognitive, affective, behavioral, and/or physiological‑somatic ef‑
Age Range: Preschool
fects (Alat, 2002).
When Dinosaurs Die: A Guide to Understanding Death
Laurie Krasny Brown (Author), Marc Tolan Brown (Illustrator)
New York: Little, Brown (1998)
Cognitive effects: Many individuals believe after a traumatic
ISBN 0316109177
event the event will happen again or they feel responsible for the
Age Range: 3 to 7
event. Cognitive responses include:
The Pop‑Up Book of Phobias
confusion
Gary Greenburg (Author), Matthew Reinhart (Contributor)
ISBN 0688171958 academic difficulties
Age Range: Adolescent learning difficulties
Stress Can Really Get on Your Nerves! (Laugh and Learn) developmental delays
Trevor Romain and Elizabeth Verdict (Authors) diminished language and communication skills
ISBN 1575420783
Age Range: 9 to 12
Good Answers to Tough Questions About Trauma Affective effects: After a traumatic event, children may become
Joy Berry (Author) emotionally upset or disturbed. They may display:
Joy Berry Books (2009) Nighttime fears
ISBN 1605775010 Anger
Age Range: 9 to12 Irritability
Lower tolerance for stress
Book on Children’s Drawings: Nervousness
Koplewicz, H. S., & Goodman, R. F. (Eds.). (1999). Childhood Compulsiveness
revealed: Art expressing pain, discovery and hope. New York: Helplessness
Harry N. Abrams.
20 5
Common Symptoms
Behavioral effects: Behaviors can shift in any direction. Children Helping Children Cope with Tragedy
may display developmentally regressive behaviors such as: www.pta.org/parentinvolvement/tragedy/index.asp
Enuresis Tragic Times, Healing Words: Helping Children Cope—
Thumb sucking Sesame Street Workshop
www.sesameworkshop.org/parents/advice/
Loss of previously learned academic and social skills
article/0,4125,49560,00.html
Older children and adolescents may: Project Reassure: Printable Resources for Caretakers of Trau‑
Experiment with drugs and alcohol matized Children and Youth. Retrieved from
Attempt suicide http:www.projectreassure.com
Other behaviors may include: For Teachers:
Self‑abusiveness Health, Mental Health, and Safety Guidelines for School
Self‑destructiveness http://www.nationalguidelines.org/introFull.cfm
Behavioral patterns that reflect anxious/avoidant or anxious/ After a Disaster: A Guide for Parents and Teachers—Center for
resistant attachments Mental Health
www.mentalhealth.org/publications/allpubs.KEN‑01‑0093/
default.asp
Physiological‑somatic effects: Individuals may experience: Strategies To Assist Children Manage Stress—North Carolina
High fever State University
Vomiting www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/fcs/humandev/disas3.html
Headaches
Children’s Books:
Hyperarousal
Provides a list of children’s books that describe mental health
Low tolerance for stress
http://www.baltimorepsych.com/books.htm#Sibling%
Sleep disorders
20Issues
Fatigue
Eating disorders A Terrible Thing Happened
Biochemical alterations in the brain Margaret M. Holmes (Author), Cary Pillo (Illustrator)
Washington, DC: Magination Press (2000)
ISBN 1557987017
Age Range: 4 to 8
6 19
Resources Facts
Self‑Report Measures: ASD emerges sooner than PTSD and abates more quickly. It is caused by the
Stanford Acute Stress Reaction Questionnaire (SASRQ): immediate exposure to trauma.
Respondents indicate the frequency of each symptom that can
Trauma: A wide range of events could result in trauma including: death, motor
occur during and immediately after a trauma on a 6‑point
vehicle crash, violent crime, natural disaster, terrorism, war, physical assault,
Likert scale. physical abuse, sexual abuse, among many others. Individuals experience
Acute Stress Disorder Scale (ASDS): Respondents are asked to events different and may exhibit a wide range of behaviors and feelings after an
rate the intensity of each symptom on a 5‑point Likert scale. event.
Reproduced in Appendix A.
Prevalence: Both adults and children can exhibit symptoms of ASD and, if
untreated, PTSD. The prevalence of ASD by itself in the general United States
Web Resources: population is not known. Children of different sex and ages may display
National Institute on Mental Health (NIMH) different symptoms. Fletcher’s (1996) meta‑analysis suggests that preschool
www.nimh.nih.gov children show more circumscribed symptoms than older children. Preschool
children display fewer cognitive symptoms and little avoidance (as cited in
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) for Kids Salmon & Bryant, 2002). Older adults are less likely to develop ASD, possibly
www.fema.gov/kids because they have had more experience dealing with events.
Helping Children and Adolescents Cope With Violence and
Disasters—NIMH The National Comorbidity Survey, a major epidemiological study conducted
between 1990 and 1992, estimated that the lifetime prevalence among adult
www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/violence.cfm
Americans is 7.8%, with women twice as likely as men to be diagnosed with
Helping Children After a Disaster‑American Academy of trauma‑related stress disorders at some point in their lives (Bryant & Harvey,
Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 2000). These figures represent only a small proportion of adults. Some groups
www.aacap.org/publications/factsfam/disaster.htm are at greater risk of developing ASD or PTSD, including people living in
depressed urban areas.
Disaster: Helping Children Cope—National Mental Health and
Education Center Comorbidity: ASD is associated with a wide range of comorbid disorders, in‑
www.naspcenter.org/safe_schools/coping.html cluding other anxiety disorders, depression, substance abuse, somatoform dis‑
Reactions and Guidelines for Children Following Trauma/ orders, and personality disorders.
Disaster—American Psychological Association
Child Reports: While it is important to speak with a parent regarding their
http://helping.apa.org/daily/ptguidelines.html child’s behaviors and emotions, studies have shown that parental accounts
Helping Children Cope With Trauma—American Red Cross regarding their child’s emotions are not necessarily accurate (Kassam‑Adams,
www.redcross.org/services/disaster/keepsafe/ Garcia‑Espana, Miller, & Winston, 2006; Meister‑Stedman, Smith, Glucksman,
childtrauma.html Yule & Dalgleish, 2007). Professionals should take child reports into
consideration when assessing behaviors and emotions following a trauma.
18 7
Research
Comorbidity: This include disorders such as depression, substance
The ASD diagnosis has only been formally recognized since 1994, abuse, anxiety disorders and others. Offer support to contain
when it first appeared in the Diagnostic and Statistic Manual of preexisting disorder than resolve their traumatic experience.
Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM‑IV). Brewin, Andrews,
Rose, and Kirk (1999) validated the internal coherence of the ASD Substance Abuse: Common response conceptualized as a form of
diagnosis and symptom threshold. They also found that ASD was avoidance that assists to distract from distressing symptoms.
a strong predictor of eventual PTSD. Sobriety for several months needs to be obtained before treatment.
There are numerous techniques to treat ASD. In 1999, Bryant, Depression and Suicidal Ideation: Identify depression throughout
Sackville, Dang, Moulds, and Guthrie studied treatments of ASD. therapy process. Depression should be stabilized before treatment.
They found that early provision of cognitive‑behavioral therapy Individuals considered a suicidal risk require support, containment,
(CBT) and prolonged exposure may be the most critical and possibly medication.
component in the treatment of ASD. Bryant, Moulds, Guthrie,
and Nixon (2005) found hypnosis may be useful in facilitating Poor Motivation: In these cases, determine the level of motivation and
attempt to educate the person regarding advantages after addressing
treatment effects of CBT for posttraumatic stress. They also found
feelings. If the client is not motivated/unwilling, treatment should not
Supportive Counseling (SC) to be a useful intervention. They em‑
be conducted. A therapist should have the person take responsibility
phasized the importance of professionals utilizing SC and CBT for not proceeding with treatment and realize advantages for continu‑
when attempting to prevent or intervene with Children diag‑ ing therapy when motivated.
nosed with ASD.
Ongoing Stressors: Obstacles for treatment including: medical
Kassam‑Adams et al. (2006) and Meister‑Stedman et al. (2007)
problems, financial loses, criminal investigations, property loss, media
studied parent‑child agreements regarding children’s ASD. attention, et cetera.
A study completed by Kassam‑Adams et al. (2006) indicates that
parents’ own reactions following child injury can influence their Cultural Issues: Experiences can differentially affect people from
assessment of child symptoms. Further, Meister‑Stedman et al. different cultural backgrounds. Recognize and validate a person’s
(2007) found child‑reported ASD did predict later PTSD. Addi‑ outlook and attempt to restructure therapy with considerations.
tionally, they found that parent‑reported ASD failed to signifi‑
cantly predict later PTSD. Both studies suggest a child needs to be
screened and the child’s own feelings should be taken into ac‑ Source: Bryant, R. A., and Harvey, A.G. (2000). Acute stress disorder: A handbook of theory, assessment,
count in the aftermath of a trauma. and treatment. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
8 17
Obstacles and Suggestions Treatment
Excessive Avoidance: When a person actively avoids confronting
memories or feared situations; frequent during therapy. This can be seen
as a warning sign that the person needs support and containment rather Opportunities exist to provide early intervention for
than exposure based interventions. If a person can cope to exposure, individuals with ASD to prevent long‑term PTSD. Clinical
graded exposure may lessen avoidant behaviors. treatment studies found significant clinical gains following five sessions
lasting one and a half hours each (Bryant & Harvey, 2000).
Dissociation: When a person is able to relate to traumatic events but will
not feel any distress associated with the experience. Hypnosis has been Cognitive‑Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is the clinical resolution of
suggested to help breach dissociative reactions as it involves dissociative traumatic memories. This occurs through activation and resolution of
techniques. the fear network (how the brain stores information about what is threat‑
ening, which is activated by internal and external stimuli).
Anger: A very common response after trauma. It may serve to inhibit
anxiety after a trauma. Integrating anxiety management and CBT into Supportive Counseling (SC) provides education about trauma,
treatment has shown to be effective. general problem‑solving skills and provides an unconditionally
supportive role.
Grief: Very common condition after trauma, which is a normal
response. Grief reactions are often characterized by intrusive symptoms, Anxiety–Management Techniques are interventions used to
numbing, and a degree of avoidance. It is important to support the per‑ reduce anxiety symptoms. These can include stress inoculation training
son through the grieving phase. which consists of: education, breathing control, muscle relaxation,
thought stopping, cognitive restructuring, modeling, and role‑playing.
Extreme Anxiety: In this situation, the experience can be felt as over‑
whelming, delaying exposure. Individuals should receive anxiety man‑ Exposure Therapy leads to symptom reduction as a means to reduce
agement and be able to manage anxiety before exposure therapy is con‑ stress. Person learns that (a) reminders of trauma do not cause harm, (b)
sidered. recalling the trauma does not involve reliving the threat, (c) anxiety re‑
mains while a person has feared memories, and (d) the experience of
anxiety does not result in loss of control. Exposure takes two forms in‑
Catastrophic Beliefs: Person continues to have catastrophic thoughts
cluding:
regarding their experience. Exposure is recommended with CBT, so the
Imaginal– The individual imagines feared events or memories of the
person does not reinforce maladaptive beliefs when recalling trauma.
trauma.
In vivo– The individual remains in close proximity to the
Prior Trauma: Many who develop ASD have a history of previous
actual stimuli; reduces avoidant behaviors.
trauma. Address memories of most recent trauma first.
16 9
Children Stories
The following are possible scenario’s of how children are
exhibiting acute stress disorder symptoms: Storytelling: Stories allow children to express their fears and
thoughts. Educators may initiate activity by asking children what
Timothy, age 6, was being watched by an elderly neighbor happened before the traumatic event. Educators can ask children
who suffered a fatal heart attack. The child, unable to call for to talk about a specific topic, such as: how they felt during the
help, spent the entire afternoon with the deceased until his traumatic event, how they can help their family if another event
mother came to pick him up after work. The mother spent the happens, or what they learned from the event.
following week at home with Timothy without incident.
When his mother reported back to work, the child exhibited Writing activities: Helps children express their fears and
acute separation anxiety, showing anxious attachment to his thoughts. Children may write about a traumatic event or can
mother, afraid to let her out of his sight. Timothy’s own sleep write letters/cards to victims or rescue workers.
patterns changed dramatically, with periodic night terrors
Bibliotherapy: Bibliotherapy is the use of books for social/
and occasional bed‑wetting. He throws tantrums when going
emotional and character development, as well as for solving
near the neighbors house and seems unable to recall the
personal social/emotional problems. With the help of books,
traumatic event.
children can:
Sally, age 16, just received her learner’s permit. Her older Learn how others confronted and solved similar
brother took her out to practice when a dog ran out in front of problems
their vehicle. Sally lost control of the car and it crashed into a See how others have faced anxieties, frustrations, hopes, and
tree. Sally’s brother suffered severe injuries and Sally walked disappointments
away with nothing but a few minor scratches. Sally, who was Gain insight into alternative solutions to problems
a popular girl at school and an honor roll student, began to
exhibit out of character behavior, ostracizing friends and Projects or Multidisciplinary Units: Educators can use
family beginning a few days after the accident. She has disaster topics to integrate learning. Projects give children a
developed poor hygiene, avoidance of the street of the chance to organize thoughts, gives them a sense of mastery, and a
accident, reduced awareness of her surroundings and reports chance to make sense of confusing events. Projects could be
feeling numb. Anger/irritability issues have also developed, developed to assist with other community efforts.
along with guilt for the injuries her brother incurred. Her par‑
ents report that they have had to place the family dog with Source: Alat, Kazim. (2002). Traumatic events and children: How
relatives. early educators can help. Childhood Education, Fall 2002, 1‑8.
10 15
Classroom exercises What can educators do?
Educators are an important part of the child’s support system.
Numerous classroom exercises can help children express their Parents and teachers are usually the first to notice symptoms of
emotions and work through feelings of anxiety and stress. ASD in children. Educators need to accommodate children’s
Kazim Alat (2002) suggests: developmental factors, including knowledge, language
development, memory, emotion regulation, and social cognition
Play‑based activities: Children in an early‑education
(Salmon & Bryant, 2002).
setting need toys and other materials to reenact the event. Play can
help children integrate their experiences and express their
emotions. Materials should be selected due to their recreational Educators should actively:
and therapeutic values including: rescue vehicles, dolls and family Observe child in activities
figures. Listen
Provide reassurance and comfort
Physical activities: This exercise helps the child relieve tension and Ask questions
anxiety. Gentle physical contact may give the child a sense of secu‑ Give support
rity.
Build the child’s self‑confidence
Discussion groups: It is important to encourage children to share Be alert to the child’s ongoing and changing needs
their experiences and feelings. Children can learn from each other Smile
and validate their feeling regarding the experience. This gives the Attempt to stick to routine, and provide explanation if un
child an opportunity to share and reduce their fears and anxieties. able to
Educators are encouraged to share their own feelings and fears. Help the child develop their own coping skills
End the discussion on a positive note, promoting a sense of secu‑
rity. When you do not know what to say to a child and want to do
Art activities: Art is recommended for children to symbolically something besides listening, try the power of touch. Ask
express their feelings. Coloring and drawing activities can permission, for example to hold hands, put your arm around their
stimulate children to draw, write, or talk about their experiences. shoulder or stroke their hair.
Educators can encourage children to draw what comes to mind,
prompt them with a question or topic. Children could also develop
skits or puppet shows.
14 11
Child Responses to Trauma
Shock and Surprise Fear
Upset with changes in routine
Absentmindedness, inability to concentrate
Need to control what happens
Poor appetite; nervous eating
Wanting more frequent communication with parents
Frightened by: darkness, monsters, strangers, “bad guys”,
Asking questions repeatedly to get information about what is
reminders of the event
about to happen
Using alcohol and other drugs to calm one’s fears
Dependent on routines at school and at home
Anxious when separated from parents or caregivers
Nervousness; hypervigilance (easily startled)
Fearful of going to school
Less willing to try unpredictable social situations or new
Concerns about own health and that of loved ones
experiences, including academic assignments and tests, sports
Demanding reassurance and attention
competitions, and public performances
Moodiness
Anger
Horror
Thoughts about death and dying
Disbelief; “numb” feeling; in a daze
Helplessness Nightmares; difficulty falling asleep; other sleep disturbances
Intrusive thoughts; preoccupation with the event
Irritable when not given choices or power in decisions
Flashbacks
“Bossy” with family and friends
Fascination with morbid details of the event
Critical of others; judgmental; argumentative
Acting out aspects of the event in imaginative play
Stubbornness; insistence on having one’s own way
Questioning repeatedly the details of the event
Inflexibility; narrowed focus on self
Making jokes about the event
Showing off, risk‑taking behaviors
Sadness
Source: Project Reassure. (2007). Project Reassure: Printable Resources for Caretakers
of Traumatized Children and Youth. Retrieved from
12 13