Alumina Technology Roadmap

Sponsors
Alcan Inc.
Alcoa World Alumina
Aluminium Pechiney
Comalco Aluminium Limited
Hindalco Industries Ltd
Hydro Aluminium Metal Products
Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Corporation
Queensland Alumina Limited
Worsley Alumina Pty Ltd

U.S. Department of Energy

Office of Industrial Technologies

Australian Department of Industry, Science and Resources

Energy Efficiency Best Practice Program

in association with

The Aluminum Association

The Australian Aluminium Council Limited

coordinated by

Amira International

facilitated and prepared by

Energetics Incorporated
 Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i

Chapter 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Chapter 2 Alumina Industry Research and Technology Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Chapter 3 Moving Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Appendix A Roadmap Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

Appendix B List of Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Alumina Technology Roadmap

Alumina Technology Roadmap
 Preface
T
he origins of this roadmap began with an agreement Over the past five years, the aluminium industr y
between The Aluminum Association, acting on behalf par tnership with the DOE/OIT has been extremely
of the U.S. aluminium industr y, and the U.S. successful. In this time, over 35 cost-shared projects have
Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies been initiated with a total of more than 80 technology
(DOE/OIT), signed in October 1996. Under this agreement, partners. Assuming all these projects run to completion, a
both industry and the DOE/OIT agreed to collaborate on total of some US$100M will have been expended in the
industr y-led, government-suppor ted, pre-competitive development of technology for the aluminium industry.
research and development to increase energy efficiency Further, the technology roadmaps have communicated the
and reduce wastes in the production of aluminium. needs of the industry, focused the efforts of diverse
groups such as national laboratories, supplier companies
This “Industry of the Future” agreement called for industry and the universities on critical issues, and aligned the
to develop a vision for its future and a technology roadmap interests of all stakeholders.
to achieve that vision. The government then agreed to
provide cost-shared financial resources to help the industry Independently in the early 1990s, Australian alumina
attain that vision. The program has been sufficiently producers collaborated with joint research projects planned
successful that, following the development of the vision — under the auspices of the Australian Mineral Industries
Partnerships for the Future — not one but a series of Research Association (now AMIRA International). The
technology roadmaps has been developed. In addition to a association coordinated production of the Alumina
generic roadmap, the industry has developed roadmaps Technology Roadmap which was a joint collaboration
related to inert anodes and advanced smelter technology, between the DOE/OIT, the Australian Department of
the use of aluminium in automotive markets, the handling Industr y, Science and Resources and nine alumina
and treatment of bauxite residue, and the use of advanced companies and was facilitated by Energetics, Incorporated,
ceramics to improve aluminium production and processing. USA.
These roadmaps have been distributed globally and have
helped spawn similar strategic planning activities around
the world. The present alumina roadmap represents the
last significant portion of the production chain to be
addressed.

Alumina Technology Roadmap i

ii Alumina Technology Roadmap
 1 Introduction
his Alumina Technology Roadmap represents a

T
A steering committee of international technology experts
unique global partnership, a partnership that may guided the development of the roadmap. An essential first
well signal the future of the aluminium industry. This step was the development of critical technology goals to
roadmap partnership has involved the collaborative efforts which the industry should aspire. These ambitious goals
of industry groups from the major international companies establish the longterm vision and encompass the
operating on four continents, government representatives challenges for alumina as a commodity — energy
from both the United States and Australia, and efficiency, safety, environmental per formance,
representatives from the academic community and sustainability issues, and customer expectations — as well
industry associations (The Aluminum Association and the as the product challenges of quality, consistency, and
Australian Aluminium Council). All were drawn together per formance. The goals reflect the industr y’s
under the auspices of AMIRA International, the mineral acknowledgment of the growing impact of environmental
industry research association, to consider and develop and social issues on business practices. Improving overall
technology plans for the alumina industry through the year per formance on environment, health, and safety, for
2020. Given the globalization of the aluminium industry, example, will push the industry beyond current best
and the fact that Australia is by far the largest producer practice and enhance its long-term competitiveness. The
and exporter of alumina, it is most appropriate that the specific industry strategic goals for the year 2020 are
input for this Alumina Technology Roadmap was developed shown in Exhibit 1.
at a workshop in Fremantle, Western Australia in May
2001. The resulting roadmap outlines a comprehensive long-term
research and development plan that defines the industry’s
The alumina industry is facing similar issues as most other collective future and establishes a clear pathway forward.
global commodity producers: social and environmental It emphasizes twelve high-priority R&D areas deemed most
reporting, the challenge of sustainable operations, the significant in addressing the strategic goals. Both
image of a ‘green’ industr y, and competition from continuous improvement through incremental changes as
substitute materials. Individually each producer is well as significant advances through innovative step
addressing these challenges. However, it is now evident changes will be essential if the industry is going to respond
that some challenges are best dealt with by an industry effectively to the challenges in the years to come.
sector above and beyond the direct competitive
environment. One key outcome of a technology roadmap is The expected benefits of using the technology roadmap
identifying these collaborative areas and the steps that include increasing governments’ capacity to build strategic
must be taken to achieve the industry-wide goals. research alliances and enabling industry to capitalize on
emerging economic oppor tunities through early and

Alumina Technology Roadmap 1

improved access to leading-edge technology. It is
anticipated that the development of this Alumina
Technology Roadmap will serve to complement other
ongoing efforts to enhance the understanding of the
industry by government and other stakeholders such as the
national laboratories and universities. The Australian
industry and Government are currently putting in place a
long-term vision for the industry in Australia, under the title
of the Light Metals Action Agenda. The technology roadmap
approach has been embraced as a key component of this
strategy. The development of the Alumina Technology
Roadmap has also been a major action item under the
Government’s Energy Efficiency Best Practice program. The
participating government agencies of both the United
States and Australia are encouraged by the willingness of
alumina producers from around the world to collaborate on
a strategic plan to guide the industry’s growth and enhance
its competitiveness in the world economy over the next
several decades.

2 Alumina Technology Roadmap

 Exhibit 1. Alumina Technology Roadmap Strategic Goals

The Commodity Challenge

Through the application of technology

◆ Reduce operating costs of existing plants by 3% per annum
◆ Achieve substantial energy efficiency gains against a benchmark of reducing total energy consumption to 25%
below current bauxite specific best practice
◆ Target capital costs of new plants at <US$500/annual tonne and falling, with major expansion at half this cost,
achieved within a framework of return on investment before tax of greater than 18%
◆ Contribute to improvement of overall performance on environment, health and safety to world’s best practice and
consistent with global sustainable development principles
◆ Produce a product that meets all of our customers’ current and future needs

This indicates a need to improve over a 5 to 20 year period, with 3 year intermediate goals, through

◆ Increasing yield by 20% above current bauxite specific best practice

◆ Reducing DSP caustic consumption to 30 kg/tonne Al2O3 and reducing other losses (excluding to product) to best
practice
◆ Achieving a simple capable process by significantly reducing process variability (3 sigma of <5%) through
elimination of the effects of scaling and blockages, by more reliable equipment, better materials, process
automation, and advanced control
◆ Reducing total energy consumption through improved methods of calcination, cogeneration and process
improvements
◆ Developing and applying combustion and power generation technology from which waste heat sources can be used
for production of alumina, capable of operating at a power generation to alumina ratio that is not significantly less
than that for the benchmark of best present technology operated on natural gas, unaffected by bauxite digestion
temperature or energy source, other than its net calorific value
◆ Developing capable processes to achieve a significant reduction and recycling of all other inputs and outputs
including water, odours, VOCs, mercury, oxalates, etc.
◆ Focussing on opportunities with synergistic industries such as caustic soda and power generation
◆ Developing methods to achieve a 1,000-year ecologically sustainable storage of red mud and other solid wastes
in existing storages, and make substantial progress in storage for later reuse as well as achieve substantial
progress in the reuse of the red mud

The Product Challenge

◆ Improving consistency of alumina with 3 sigma limits of less than half of the present levels, with emphasis on
dust, particle toughness after dry scrubbing, and impurities including sodium and silica
◆ Developing, in conjunction with the aluminium industry, sufficiently good delivery systems such that adequate
dispersion is obtained at the cell, thus allowing the alumina to readily dissolve in conventional and modified
reduction cells in the temperature range 840-900C and potentially as low as 750C

Alumina Technology Roadmap 3

4 Alumina Technology Roadmap
 2 Alumina Industry
Research and
Technology Needs
T
his roadmap represents a concerted look by the alumina or a non-caustic route) must be considered as
global alumina industry at its technology challenges potential long-term solutions to eliminating problems
over the next 20 years. While most of the R&D needs associated with the Bayer process. Step change
themselves are not new, the industry has reached a approaches are also indicated in changing the process
consensus on the highestpriority issues, creating a vision chemistry to eliminate scale.
for the industry as a whole to move forward.
Resource utilization issues center on bauxite modification
Six major themes encompass the highest-priority research or beneficiation and caustic soda consumption. The
and development needs identified by the industry, as industry must take further steps to develop technologies
shown in Exhibit 2. These themes are and strategies to effectively manage its resources for the
future. The capability to use lower quality input materials –
• Bayer process chemistry and alternatives, including lower grades of bauxite, caustic, and lime – is a
• resource utilization, key part of this strategy. The challenge of substantially
• energy efficiency, reducing caustic soda consumption is not new but may
• process and knowledge management, require a significant process change. Maximizing the use of
• residue treatment and reuse, and bauxite reserves is particularly important to the future of
• safety/human exposure. the industry; the supply of economical gibbsitic ore is not
as large as ores requiring more vigorous treatment.
Changes in Bayer process chemistry can improve refinery Improvements in resource utilization create benefits that
productivity and yield, which in turn impact cost and energy ripple through to plant efficiency and environmental
efficiency. Major topics include acceleration of precipitation performance. By maximizing the alumina extracted per ton
rates, desilication product (DSP) chemistr y, scale of bauxite, refiners reduce the input of impurities per ton of
formation, and the removal and recovery of impurities from alumina and also the quantity of residue generated.
the Bayer circuit (either from the liquor or the bauxite
itself). Understanding and reducing the variations in The energy efficiency of the Bayer process can be improved
alumina quality and consistency is also a key element of directly or indirectly through the use of cogeneration, waste
improved process chemistr y. The development of heat utilization, and synergies with nearby industries, as
alternatives to the Bayer process (i.e., direct reduction of well as through equipment advances or process changes.

Alumina Technology Roadmap 5

The non-utilization of waste heat within some refineries The ensuing pages highlight the twelve priority R&D needs
represents one of the biggest energy inefficiencies in the for the alumina refining industry. The details shown
industry. Opportunities for utilizing the waste heat of include:
nearby power generators should also be considered.
Reducing residence time in the Bayer process equipment • the likely partners to be involved in each research
also reduces energy consumption, losses, and capital effort
costs while increasing production. Any operating change • the technical and economic risk of developing the
that increases productivity essentially reduces the unit technology and the potential payoff if successful
energy requirements of producing alumina. Improving the • the time frame for usable results to be developed,
thermal efficiency of refinery operations also reduces given that research could begin almost immediately
emissions of greenhouse gases. with no funding constraints
• the key challenges that the R&D activity would address
The alumina industry is not as advanced as the chemical • a list of some of the technical elements that should be
and some other industries in its use of process considered during project scoping
management techniques, particularly models and control • the potential impacts of the successful technology on
systems. Refiners often use models that have not been the five main industry goals – operating cost; capital
tailored for the specific conditions found in a refinery and cost; energy consumption; environment, safety, and
therefore do not work particularly well. Increased use of health; and product quality
Bayer-specific models and automation reduces process
variation while reducing human exposure to the caustic Following the highest priority needs is a discussion of
environment. Knowledge management systems are also thirteen R&D areas that encompass all of the additional
critically lacking in the alumina industr y, leading to research needs identified by the industry. Some of the
repeated mistakes, particularly at the operations level. items are related to those in the priority R&D list but are
Benchmarking is a mechanism by which individual sufficiently unique to warrant separate mention. As with
refineries can gauge their performance and practices the priority R&D needs, the key challenges for each R&D
against each other, and the industry can measure itself area are noted. The individual research needs are
against other industries. Benchmarking tends to be most organized by the time frame in which results could
successful in those industries where an information reasonably be anticipated: near term (1 to 3 years), mid
infrastructure already exists. term (3 to 7 years), and long term (>7 years).

The alumina industry has been investigating options for Strategic Goal Legend
residue treatment and utilization for years with limited
success. The economics of using the residue in most Operating Cost
applications are not currently favorable. Inventories of this
byproduct represent a liability for the industry that extends
well into the future, and technology is needed to find
Capital Cost
economically viable alternative uses.

Reducing human exposure to safety risks can be

accomplished through many of the topics already Energy
discussed, including reducing scale and increasing plant
automation. The push for full automation is a common goal
Environment, Safety,
throughout the industry and would promote the awareness & Health
of refineries as well-run, modern, and safe. Industry-wide
standards and criteria for safety in plant design and
operation, as well as standardized training, would help Product Quality
establish a culture of operating safety within the refining
industry.

6 Alumina Technology Roadmap

 Exhibit 2. Relationship Between Priority R&D Needs and Major Roadmap Themes

Major Themes
Priority R&D Need

Bayer Process Process and Residue

Chemistry and Resource Energy Knowledge Treatment and Safety/Human
Alternatives Utilization Efficiency Management Reuse Exposure
Alternative Methods
to Accelerate
Precipitation Rates ✔ ✔
Bauxite Residue:
Cost-Effective
Inerting and ✔ ✔
Alternative Uses
Conversion of
Monohydrate
Bauxite to a More
✔ ✔ ✔
Beneficial State
Direct Reduction of
Bauxite or Other ✔ ✔ ✔
Aluminium Materials
Full Automation/
Improved Control
Strategies
✔ ✔
Impurity Removal:
Bauxite and Bauxite
Beneficiation
✔ ✔ ✔
Impurity Removal:
Bayer Liquor ✔
Knowledge
Management and
Best Practices
Benchmarking
✔
Major Reduction in
Caustic ✔ ✔ ✔
Consumption
Scale Management
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Technical Solutions
for Refinery
Releases ✔
Waste Heat
Recovery ✔ ✔

Alumina Technology Roadmap 7

PRIORITY R&D NEEDS
Alternative Methods to Accelerate Precipitation Rates
Dissolved alumina is recovered from liquor in precipitation tanks seeded with alumina trihydrate crystals. The rate of
precipitation depends on the temperature of the process, the concentration of the alumina hydrate and the caustic soda,
the seeding process, impurities in the liquor, and other factors. Precipitation is typically very slow, necessitating the use of
many large tanks.

Potential Partners Alumina companies, academia, research organizations

Potential Payoff High

Technical/Economic Risk

Time Frame

2001 2005 2010 2020

Challenges Description Impacts

Description
Investigate alternative
methods (both chemical Lower energy costs;
and physical) to accelerate lower maintenance
precipitation rates while costs
maintaining product quality.
Develop a full
understanding of the Fewer precipitators;
precipitation mechanism. lower capital cost
• Increase Develop cost-effective per ton of alumina
precipitation catalysts. for brownfield and
rate greenfield projects
Key Technical Elements
• Improve seed • Examine process
management kinetics/activation
Increased yield is
energy
equivalent to lower
• Understand • Examine unit energy
fundamental supersaturation/ requirements
precipitation solubility
chemistry • Study alternative (non-
sodium) solvents Fewer energy-related
emissions per ton of
Comments alumina
• Significant previous
work; focus should be
on new methods See comments
• May be a challenge to under “Description”
maintain product quality

8 Alumina Technology Roadmap

 PRIORITY R&D NEEDS
Bauxite Residue: Cost-Effective Inerting and Alternative Uses
The sheer volume of bauxite residue generated at refineries, combined with its alkalinity and the cost of treatment and
handling, are major constraints in finding economical applications for this byproduct. Rendering the residue inert would
make it easier and cheaper to store in a sustainable form and would facilitate its use in many applications.

Potential Partners Alumina companies (corporate level), government, industry

associations, academia, research organizations, potential
customers

Potential Payoff Moderately high

Technical/Economic Risk

Time Frame

2001 2005 2010 2020

Challenges Description Impacts

Conduct expert brainstorming
session or workshop to scope
out potential solutions.
Investigate inerting options. Small reduction in
Coordinate with other sectors refinery operating
and industries on potential uses costs
of the residue.
Key Technical Elements
Inerting Reduced residue
• Improve • Inorganic polymers or other storage
new chemistries requirements
bauxite
• Use of sea water
residue Alternative Uses
management • Metal recovery No impact
• Absorbent for CO2
• Increase focus
• Road base/levee
on corporate construction Large reduction in
social • Soil amendment residue stockpiles;
responsibility • Treatment for acid-generating improved
materials/acid mine sustainability and
drainage environmental
• Cement kiln additive responsibility
• Effluent treatment
• Bricks/building products
No impact
Comments
• Additional information found
in Bauxite Residue
Technology Roadmap (The
Aluminum Association,
February 2000)

Alumina Technology Roadmap 9

PRIORITY R&D NEEDS
Conversion of Monohydrate Bauxite to a More Beneficial State
A significant fraction of the bauxite being refined in the world today is monohydrate bauxite (boehmite or diaspore) that
requires high-temperature digestion. Bauxite in the form of some intermediate state between monohydrate and trihydrate
(gibbsite) could be digested at lower temperatures and would require less caustic and energy.

Potential Partners Alumina companies, academia, research organizations

Potential Payoff Moderate

Technical/Economic Risk

Time Frame

2001 2005 2010 2020

Challenges Description Impacts

Estimate direct and spin-off Large reduction in

benefits of converting energy requirements
monohydrate to trihydrate or
some intermediate state.
Identify intermediaries and Eliminates need for
investigate thermally causticization,
efficient process options for oxalate destruction,
•Reduce caustic conversion. sweetening, and
consumption seed wash; fewer
Key Technical Elements
heaters required
• Perform cost/benefit
•Reduce impurity study
content of • Study mineralogy
liquor Energy savings
• Investigate thermal associated with
processing options moving to low-
•Modify bauxite
properties Comments temperature
• New conversion digestion
•Eliminate unit process(es) will
operations consume energy; overall
net effect must be Fewer energy-related
•Increase positive emissions; reduced
cogeneration • Elimination of oxalate odor
and other impurities
from the process could
indirectly lead to Improved alumina
accelerated precipitation properties with
rates fewer impurities
• Not appropriate for all
refineries

10 Alumina Technology Roadmap

 PRIORITY R&D NEEDS
Direct Reduction of Bauxite or Other Aluminium Materials
The development of a direct reduction process for producing aluminium from bauxite or other aluminium-bearing minerals
could eliminate many of the problems associated with alumina production. Direct reduction could be combined with an
aluminium refining process to produce aluminium with the desired quality. This new process would be a radical change from
the current alumina/aluminium production route with major impacts on costs and energy consumption.

Potential Partners Alumina companies, government, academia, research organizations

Potential Payoff High

Technical/Economic Risk High

Time Frame

2001 2005 2010 2020

Challenges Description Impacts

Examine the limits of the

process and establish a
baseline of fundamental Elimination of
data. Identify and evaluate caustic;
reduction process options. reduced energy
Determine the material requirements;
requirements of the reduced manpower
reaction vessel. requirements
• Develop Key Technical Elements
alternatives to • Explore pyrometallurgy
Elimination of Bayer
the Bayer options
process equipment
process • Investigate chlorination
process
• Eliminate unit • Investigate hydrate Substantial
operations reduction reduction in energy
• Develop aluminium requirements of
• Encourage metal refining process producing aluminium
management to • Develop materials
adopt long-term technology for reaction
view vessel Unknown
Comments
• Additional details on
technical options to be
developed in Unknown
cooperation with the
aluminium industry

Alumina Technology Roadmap 11

PRIORITY R&D NEEDS
Full Automation/Improved Control Strategies
The motivating factors for increased automation in the refinery are improved efficiency and productivity as well
as reduced manpower requirements. Safety considerations also represent a key driver; automation reduces
process upsets requiring human intervention in potentially dangerous environments. Automation can also lead
to better product quality and consistency.

Potential Partners Alumina companies, academia, research organizations,

equipment and instrument suppliers

Potential Payoff Moderate

Technical/Economic Risk

Time Frame

2001 2005 2010 2020

Challenges Description Impacts

Benchmark status of the Incremental

alumina refining industry improvements in
versus other industries. productivity and
Develop more reliable energy efficiency;
sensors and reduced labor
• Improve instrumentation capable of requirements
process surviving in caustic
automation and environments.
control Develop predictive models Negligible impact
for the Bayer process.
•Use more Key Technical Elements
capable • Develop new sensors Small savings from
processes and and control software better control of
(e.g., for precipitation) digestion and
elegant design
• Conduct dynamic calcination
• Improve seed modeling
management • Investigate low-cost,
online precision control Reduced human
• Minimize (e.g., liquor analyzer) interaction in
potentially dangerous
human • Develop expert systems
environments
exposure and neural networks
Comments
• Some sensing methods Better product quality
don’t work well in the and consistency
refinery environment through improved
• Continuous advances process control and
will be needed to predictive modeling
achieve the long-term
goal of full automation

12 Alumina Technology Roadmap

 PRIORITY R&D NEEDS
Impurity Removal: Bauxite and Bauxite Beneficiation
Efficient use of the world’s bauxite resources requires maximizing both the quantity and quality of the alumina that is
extracted. A major cause of Bayer process inefficiency is the introduction of impurities contained in the bauxite. The industry
lacks technically and economically viable methods for controlling and removing these impurities. The trend toward lower
grades of bauxite available in the future will only exacerbate this problem.

Potential Partners Alumina companies, research organizations, government, suppliers

Potential Payoff High

Technical/Economic Risk Moderate

Time Frame

2001 2005 2010 2020

Challenges Description Impacts

Develop a better understanding of

bauxite and estimate future
requirements. Develop methods to Increased liquor
modify bauxite in order to increase productivity (lower
the percentage of extractable caustic
alumina. Explore chemical and consumption)
• Conduct biological means for removing
economic impurities from bauxite.
bauxite Key Technical Elements Increased refinery
beneficiation • Develop technologies to output and a lower
extract organics from bauxite
capital cost per ton
• Address • Investigate thermal treatment
of alumina
declining to remove carbon and change
the mineralogy and chemistry
grades of of the bauxite
bauxite • Develop cheaper, cleaner Better energy
reserves liquor burning technologies efficiency from
• Explore in-situ heap leaching increased caustic
• Reduce of bauxite to remove certain concentration
impurity content organic and inorganic
impurities
of the liquor Maximized use of
• Explore bauxite beneficiation
•Reduce scale options, including biological bauxite reserves
methods
• Develop selective mining
techniques Less degradation of
Comments alumina quality
• Alternative is to remove
organics from the Bayer liquor
(see “Impurity Removal:
Liquor”)

Alumina Technology Roadmap 13

PRIORITY R&D NEEDS
Impurity Removal: Bayer Liquor
Almost all organic compounds enter the Bayer circuit with the bauxite. Inorganic impurities also are introduced
via bauxite as well as caustic and makeup water. The presence of significant concentrations of impurities in
the liquor has a detrimental effect on almost every aspect of the Bayer process, including digestion and
precipitation capability, liquor productivity, and product quality.

Potential Partners Alumina companies, academia, research organizations, government

Potential Payoff Moderately high

Technical/Economic Risk

Time Frame
2001 2005 2010 2020

Challenges Description Impacts

Develop a better
understanding of various
Increased liquor
organics and determine their
relative impact. Examine productivity (lower
various options for removing caustic
impurities, including consumption)
techniques to specifically
attack the worst offenders.
• Reduce Increased refinery
Key Technical Elements
impurity content • Explore alternative output and a lower
of the liquor chemistries capital cost per ton
• Investigate organic of alumina
• Improve destruction technologies
understanding • Develop improved wet
of how organics oxidation techniques Better energy
affect alumina • Explore specific efficiency from
surfactants to target increased caustic
quality and impurities concentration
yield • Consider double-layer,
hydroxide, ion exchange,
•Reduce scale electrolysis, molecular
Fewer residues,
sieve technology, and
physical techniques
increased use of
lower-grade bauxites
• Investigate biological
impurity reducers
Comments Less degradation of
• Alternative is to remove
alumina quality
organics from the bauxite
before it enters the Bayer
process (see “Impurity
Removal: Bauxite“)

14 Alumina Technology Roadmap

 PRIORITY R&D NEEDS
Knowledge Management and Best Practices Benchmarking
The alumina industry lags behind the chemical and some other industries in terms of its use of process modeling
to optimize operations, the sophistication of its control systems, its handling and treatment of raw materials and
byproducts, and its safety culture. Poor knowledge management, particularly at the operations level, inhibits
the industry’s ability to improve its performance. Benchmarking may help the refining industry identify potential
solutions to some of its key problems by learning from other industries.

Potential Partners Alumina companies, government, suppliers

Potential Payoff Moderately high

Technical/Economic Risk Low

Time Frame
2001 2005 2010 2020

Challenges Description Impacts

Benchmark operating
practices in the alumina Potential for lower
industry versus other maintenance costs,
industries (e.g., chemicals reduced manpower
and petrochemicals, power). requirements
Develop information
• Improve management tools and
process design knowledge management Potential for more
techniques. Establish elegant processes,
• Improve industry-wide cooperative fewer unit
process standards and criteria for operations
automation and engineering design.
control Key Technical Elements
Benchmark the following: Potential for more
• Reduce scale • Scale control efficient operation
• High-solids material
• Minimize handling
human • Particulate chemistry Potential to reduce
exposure • Beneficiation processes human exposure for
• Process control descaling
• Reliability
• Maintenance practices
• Safety Potential to improve
Comments product through
• Implementation of better process
existing technologies control and
from other industries in predictive modeling
the alumina industry
may be risky

Alumina Technology Roadmap 15

PRIORITY R&D NEEDS
Major Reduction in Caustic Consumption
The caustic soda used in Bayer liquor represents one of the largest operating costs in an alumina refinery. Major factors
influencing caustic requirements are the composition of the bauxite being processed and the chemistry of the desilication
product (DSP) formed during digestion. Much of the caustic soda content of DSP is currently unrecovered.

Potential Partners Industry, academia, research organizations, government

Potential Payoff High

Technical/Economic Risk

Time Frame

2001 2005 2010 2020

Challenges Description Impacts

Benchmark current caustic
consumption in terms of
locations and quantity.
Develop methods to alter the Large cost savings
chemistry of bauxite so that from reduced
less caustic is required. caustic
• Promote caustic Develop a better requirements
selfsustainability understanding of DSP and
investigate ways to alter its
• Conduct chemistry so that less
economic caustic is lost. No impact
bauxite Key Technical Elements
beneficiation • Further develop the
Sumitomo process
• Address • Develop improved bauxite No impact
declining grades characterization and
separation technologies
of bauxite
• Examine silica dissolution
reserves Reduced handling
• Investigate alternative
•Alter the DSP structures of a dangerous
• Develop methods to substance, less
chemistry of likelihood of spills
recover soda and valuable
DSP
by products from DSP
• Develop high temperature
separation technologies
No impact
• Improve mud washing
techniques

16 Alumina Technology Roadmap

 PRIORITY R&D NEEDS
Scale Management
The precipitation of sodium aluminosilicate crystals from spent Bayer liquor leads to scaling of heat exchanger vessels and
piping. Other types of scale can occur elsewhere in the plant (e.g., calcium titanate-containing scale and alumina trihydrate
scale). Maintenance personnel are required to remove scale manually, presenting a serious risk for injury because of the
corrosive environment and enclosed space. Scale leads to a significant reduction in heat transfer efficiency and liquor
throughput, resulting in increased energy and caustic soda consumption and loss of productivity.

Potential Partners Alumina companies, academia, research organizations,

suppliers, government

Potential Payoff High

Technical/Economic Risk Moderately high

Time Frame

2001 2005 2010 2020

Challenges Description Impacts

Perform scoping study of the Large reduction in

scale issues, including industry maintenance
benchmark comparison. requirements,
Conduct fundamental research improved
to eliminate scale and prevent productivity; lower
scale initiation and formation. energy requirements
Investigate chemical, biological,
mechanical, and material
solutions as well as new
Fewer heaters
process designs.
required
• Reduce scale Key Technical Elements
• Study surface chemistry
• Minimize fundamentals
Savings from higher
human • Optimize hydrodynamics
and use CFD modeling to heat transfer
exposure efficiency in the
eliminate dead spots
• Investigate scale-resistant heat exchangers
• Use more
construction materials and
capable surface coatings Reduced human
processes and • Develop chemical solutions interaction in
elegant design such as additives or smart descaling (enclosed
reagents space, caustic
• Develop robotic cleaning environment)
technology
• Investigate technologies to
remove silica and other Small benefit
impurities that cause scale through better
Comments control of silica
• Future regulations may
restrict manual removal of
scale

Alumina Technology Roadmap 17

PRIORITY R&D NEEDS
Technical Solutions for Refinery Releases

The issue of refinery releases (including air emissions, effluents, and solid wastes) is becoming more prominent
and must be viewed from a broader perspective than in the past. Cost-effective solutions are needed to deal
with caustic, organics, trace metals, particulates, and other releases. Insufficient attention has been given to
groundwater contamination in particular.

Potential Partners Research organizations, government, refineries,

industry trade associations

Potential Payoff Moderately high

Technical/Economic Risk High

Time Frame
2001 2005 2010 2020

Challenges Description Impacts

Conduct scoping study to
determine possible next
steps. Investigate technical
options. Share industry best
practices. Small reduction in
Key Technical Elements caustic consumption
• Determine environmental
• Reduce impact at the boundary of
the refinery
groundwater
• Develop non-end-of-pipe No impact
pollution removal of trace metals
(e.g., selective mining) Small opportunity
• Minimize water • Conduct mixing zone to recover low-grade
usage estimation (e.g., toxicology
waste heat from
studies, generic models)
• Minimize flue gas
• Develop better
human instrumentation and
exposure standardize design and
practices to minimize Reduction in air
spills pollutant emissions,
• Increase focus spills, and
• Develop caustic spill
on corporate management techniques groundwater
social other than concrete contamination
responsibility technology
• Model full mass balance
to track all constituents Provide “green”
Comments alumina to
• Solutions are a mix of best customers
practices and research
activities
• May be needed for future
operation/expansion

18 Alumina Technology Roadmap

 PRIORITY R&D NEEDS
Waste Heat Recovery
The alumina industry is a large sink for low-grade heat and presents significant opportunity for cogeneration.
The industry is currently not taking advantage of available waste heat, mainly because of economic and regulatory reasons.
The initial focus should be on recovering waste heat generated in the refinery.

Potential Partners Alumina companies, adjacent industries, government

Potential Payoff Moderate

Technical/Economic Risk Low

Time Frame

2001 2005 2010 2020

Challenges Description Impacts

Recover and use the waste Moderately lower

heat in the Bayer circuit. energy costs
Utilize waste heat from
nearby power plants or
other primary energy users. Recovery of refinery
waste heat–no net
Key Technical Elements
impact (fewer boilers
• Examine existing
but more heat
technologies in energy
recovery equipment)
storage or conversion
Recovery of outside
that are applicable to
• Eliminate unit refineries
waste heat–large
operations savings from fewer
• Investigate if any Bayer
boilers
process reactions can
• Increase
be done using waste
cogeneration heat (e.g., calcination
Moderate to high
alternatives)
• Integrate with savings (higher if
• Study waste heat from cogeneration is
nearby other sources
industries used)
Comments
• Linkages with other
primary energy users is
site-specific Fewer combustion-
• Will the use of waste related emissions
heat have an
associated greenhouse
gas credit?
No impact

Alumina Technology Roadmap 19

R&D AREAS
Digestion
During the digestion process, the alumina contained in the bauxite is dissolved in the Bayer liquor in the form of sodium
aluminate. R&D needs in digestion focus on reducing the energy requirements (e.g., by carrying out the process at lower
temperature or using biotechnology), facilitating the use of different grades of bauxite such as those with more reactive
silica and reducing caustic requirements. A specific activity would be research into altered desilication technologies that
reduce sodium consumption, which would have a substantial payoff for refiners processing high-silica bauxite. The success
of this effort would also significantly increase usable bauxite reserves. A true countercurrent digestion process for
extracting monohydrate grades of bauxite at low temperatures (using a vertical upflow vessel where the monohydrate is
introduced at the top and the spent liquor at the bottom) would be a valuable progression of the “best practice”
countercurrent technology currently used. The use of “free” evaporation (where entropy is used as a substitute for additional
live steam) should also be investigated.

Challenges
Achieve higher alumina extraction efficiency
Alter the chemistry of DSP
Sustain higher supersaturation in the digester
Reduce embrittlement in the digester
Lower temperatures in Bayer operations
Reduce caustic consumption
Increase use of biotechnology
Address declining grades of bauxite reserves

R&D Activities

Near Term Mid Term Long Term

◆ Flexible digestion technology ◆ Non-milling digestion ◆ Continuation of near- and mid-
to accept variable grades of technology term activities
bauxite ◆ Altered desilication technology
◆ Free evaporation using entropy with lower soda consumption
◆ Design of a real ◆ Technology for high alumina
countercurrent digestion extraction at low temperature
process to extract ◆ Selective bauxite biodigestion
monohydrates at low ◆ New digestion system for high-
temperatures silica bauxite
◆ Methods to eliminate coarse
particles from the digestion
circuit

20 Alumina Technology Roadmap

 R&D AREAS
Clarification
Bauxite residue is separated from the liquor containing the dissolved sodium aluminate in a settling process, after which
the residue is washed to recover caustic soda and any remaining aluminate liquor. Potential improvements to this process
could include the elimination of security filtration, which would improve safety while decreasing capital and operating costs.
Combining digestion and clarification into a single unit operation would improve the stability of these processes. If the
combination process is continuous, it would represent a step change in current operations. An alternative to pressure
decanter technology for the combined process would be a liquid/solid separation process utilizing membrane technology.

Challenges
Achieve better separation of components in the process
Combine unit operations to reduce capital intensity
Use more capable processes and elegant designs
Reduce wash water requirements
Reduce energy consumption

R&D Activities

Near Term Mid Term Long Term

◆ Pressure decanter to carry out ◆ Low-wash soda recovery ◆ Alternative liquid-solid
both digestion and clarification separation process for residue
at elevated temperature from liquor
◆ Alumina stabilizer that can be
easily removed from pregnant
liquor
◆ Elimination of security filtration

Alumina Technology Roadmap 21

R&D AREAS
Precipitation
Alumina hydrate crystals are precipitated from Bayer liquor in a series of tanks seeded with gibbsite. The development of
catalysts for reducing the activation energy for precipitation (as well as other Bayer process steps) could significantly
improve productivity. Computer modeling techniques should be developed to improve the efficiency of designing these
catalysts as well as other additives. An alternative to current precipitation operations would be to focus on the yield of the
precipitation process and adjust the quality of the product afterwards.

Challenges
Increase precipitation rates
Use more capable processes
Improve seed management
Reduce equipment residence time
Increase use of lower-grade reagents
Understand fundamental precipitation chemistry and physics

R&D Activities

Near Term Mid Term Long Term

◆ Continue ongoing projects ◆ Better seed management ◆ Identification of a gibbsite
aimed at incremental ◆ Molecular simulation of new precipitation catalyst
improvements reagents to promote rapid ◆ Accelerated precipitation
crystallization technology
◆ Highly energy-efficient ◆ Computer modeling to design
agitators additives
◆ Countercurrent precipitation
◆ Methods to make quality after
precipitation

22 Alumina Technology Roadmap

 R&D AREAS
Calcination
Calcination represents one of the costliest and most energy-intensive operations in alumina refining. In calcination, the
precipitated alumina hydrate crystals are sent to calciners or kilns where the water is removed. Several properties of the
alumina product are very dependent on the conditions of the calcination process. The main focus of R&D is investigating
potential means for improving the thermal energy efficiency of calcination. These efficiency gains must be sufficient to
offset the high cost of retrofitting the calciner. Refiners and smelters need to collaboratively examine whether the trend
toward decreasing smelting temperatures would affect calcination requirements. The quality of reprocessed calciner dust
and technologies that activate it for use in the Bayer process also merit more research.

Challenges
Improve energy efficiency of calcination
Lower the overall temperature in Bayer operations
Increase use of waste products

R&D Activities

Near Term Mid Term Long Term

◆ Determination of effect of ◆ Study of oxygen-enrichment ◆ Continuation of near- and mid-
lower Al smelting benefits of calcination term activities
temperatures on calcination ◆ Methods to reduce the
temperature of calcination
◆ Technology that activates
calciner dust for use

Alumina Technology Roadmap 23

R&D AREAS
New Process Chemistries and Alternative Raw Materials
The development of new process chemistries could eliminate many of the problems associated with alumina production
(e.g., scale, impurities). Some options (the use of trona, for example) have been considered in the past but were
unsuccessful. Other options include an aluminium chloride route to alumina production and the physical separation of
monohydrates and trihydrates. New physical or chemical methods to reduce the amount of reactive silica that is dissolved
or to remove kaolin from Bayer liquor before dissolution is complete are needed. The alumina industry also needs to
establish a strategy for managing its use of resources in the future. The trend toward lower grades of bauxite and higher
raw material costs will require the industry to maximize the use of its bauxite reserves, possibly through the use of
alternative raw materials.

Challenges
Develop alternatives to the Bayer process
Understand other process chemistries that may supplant Bayer
Use more capable processes and elegant design
Reduce scale
Find cheaper sources of raw materials
Address declining grades of bauxite reserves
Encourage management to adopt long-term view

R&D Activities

Near and Mid Term Long Term

◆ Study of simpler systems and analogy to the ◆ Dry particle separation for bauxite
Bayer process ◆ Physical separation of mono- and tri-hydrate
◆ Use of low-alumina laterites
◆ Economic use of trona
◆ Mechanical and chemical fine grinding technology and
kaolin immobilization
◆ Kaolin complexation technology process agent
◆ Process for converting kaolin to absorbents
◆ Viable alternative caustic source
◆ Use of other caustic salts as solvents
◆ Solvent extraction technology for Bayer liquors
◆ Investigation of a chloride route (production of aluminium
trichloride)
◆ Alternate means of inducing reactions (e.g., microwave)

24 Alumina Technology Roadmap

 R&D AREAS
Product Characteristics and Quality
Alumina refiners and aluminium smelters need to work cooperatively on a number of issues related to alumina quality and
properties. A solid fundamental understanding of alumina’s chemical and physical properties and their variations will
provide the framework for achieving consistent product quality. This will also enable refiners to tailor product characteristics
to better meet their customers’ needs. Better data on product characteristics may also indicate the potential use of
beneficial process changes (e.g., calcining at lower temperatures) while still producing an acceptable alumina. New or
revised product classification technologies are also needed, as are new measures for product quality itself. The refining
industry could also work with smelters to redesign pot feeders capable of handling variable density alumina and to redesign
dry scrubbing systems.

Challenges
Better rationalize product strength
Develop better measures of product physical quality
Improve fundamental understanding of product quality
Develop better understanding of alumina’s properties
Increase cooperation with experts from other industries
Improve coordination between suppliers and customers

R&D Activities

Near Term Mid Term Long Term

◆ Improved method for attrition ◆ Cooperative effort with ◆ Continuation of near- and mid-
index/alumina dustiness customers to redesign pot term activities
◆ Scrubbing technology that feeders to handle variable bulk
uses weak alumina densities of alumina and fines
◆ Studies of alumina dissolution
at low temperature
◆ Study of product variability

Alumina Technology Roadmap 25

R&D AREAS
Controls and Instrumentation
Advances in process controls, instrumentation, and measurement techniques are key to the long-term goal of full refinery
automation. Achieving a high level of process control without significant human labor requires instrumentation that is
precise, reliable, and robust. Reliable instruments that are specific to alumina refining are needed to measure common
parameters such as temperature, pressure, density, and flow. New on-line measurement techniques and robust sensors are
also needed for parameters specific to the Bayer process such as A/C and caustic analysis. The use of “at-line”
instrumentation — a variation of on-line instrumentation that is not in continuous use (and therefore not constantly
subjected to the corrosive stream) — could add operational flexibility by providing the feedback needed to make corrections
without the delay associated with lab results. Other research needs include the development of new in-situ techniques that
will survive in sodium chemistry; remote sensing technology (e.g., ultrasonics) that can evaluate material thickness and
defects without opening up equipment; and industry-specific control valves that are cheap, low pressure-drop, nonscaling,
and reliable for use in liquor and slurry applications.

Challenges
Improve process control and develop more on-line instrumentation and
measurement techniques
Increase process automation
Reduce manual labor requirements
Develop more process optimization tools and techniques
Improve knowledge management at the operations level
Develop efficient isolation valves
Use more capable processes and elegant design

R&D Activities

Near Term Mid Term Long Term

◆ Better plant sampling ◆ Industry-specific control ◆ Specifications for sensing of
methodologies and techniques valves, isolation valves, and common parameters (i.e.,
◆ Use of new developments in pumps for liquor and slurry temperature, pressure,
chemometrics ◆ At-line instrumentation density, flow) reliably and
◆ Bayer-specific sensors for (simple, robust, real-time, accurately
particle size, caustic, A/C operator-controlled)
◆ In-situ techniques that will
survive in sodium chemistry
◆ Remote sensing (e.g.,
ultrasonics) to examine
material or scale thickness

26 Alumina Technology Roadmap

 R&D AREAS
Models and Tools/ Process Management
Accurate, validated models can allow more effective management of the refinery from both a process and an
economic point of view. Better understanding of what is happening in each process step will help refiners
optimize operations and increase throughput. The industry needs to create tailored tools that will allow alumina
companies to achieve “best practice” status. Models that incorporate economic factors are also needed; capital
efficiency is an area where the refinery industry suffers in comparison to other industries. A refinery tool for
capital process optimization could offer the potential for large savings by sharing knowledge between
companies. In addition, the industry could develop an alumina/aluminium process model to determine whether
certain process steps could be shifted from refineries to smelter operations in order to reduce overall costs,
energy use, or waste generation.

Challenges
Develop more process optimization tools and techniques
Increase process automation
Improve knowledge management at the operations level
Optimize the efficiency of the overall process
Improve accounting of full product life cycle
Use more capable processes and elegant design

R&D Activities

Near Term Mid Term Long Term

◆ Industrial process model ◆ Life-cycle modeling (including ◆ Techno-economic model of the
(continuously updated; environmental factors and Bayer process (validated
contains equipment reliability cost) computational modeling of
data) ◆ Process model (including process steps)
◆ Capital process optimization energy and waste data) to
tool define optimal break points
◆ Use of lean manufacturing ◆ Modularization and
technology optimization of plant layout
◆ Methodology to convert
process parameters to key
performance indicators
◆ Methodology to maximize
equipment up-time

Alumina Technology Roadmap 27

R&D AREAS
Knowledge Management
Gathering and managing information on developments within the alumina industry as well as those in related industries is
critically important to improving competitiveness. The alumina industry tends to be quite insular and does not typically look
for solutions from other industries, even those facing the same issues as refiners. The development of an information
infrastructure for the industry will allow companies to avoid duplication of efforts and take advantage of shared knowledge.
Suggested actions include developing a Bayer-sector data base with common units and finding ways to utilize the wealth of
Bayer plant knowledge (particularly on instrumentation) in the Eastern Block. A potentially major event would be an
examination of the Bayer process by world-class organic chemists and separations technologists, who would be asked to
recommend improvements or even entirely new ways of producing alumina. Finally, the industry needs a guide on how to
approach local communities when moving into new countries to find bauxite reserves.

Challenges
Improve knowledge management at all levels, particularly operations
Work with all levels of plant personnel to develop solutions to problems
Develop new processes and technologies for producing alumina
Keep alumina industry ahead of the curve on dealing with new issues
(e.g., environmental)
Increase focus on corporate social responsibility

R&D Activities

Near Term Mid Term Long Term

◆ Cooperative efforts with other ◆ Study of the theoretical and ◆ Continuation of near- and mid-
industries to look for ideas and technical limits of existing term activities
synergies processes
◆ Invitation to world-class ◆ Bayer-sector common data
scientists to evaluate Bayer base
process
◆ Industry-wide process model to
manage knowledge
◆ Expert systems that capture
existing knowledge
◆ Techniques to utilize knowledge
in the Eastern Block
◆ Guide on how to approach
communities on exploration
and mining

28 Alumina Technology Roadmap

 R&D AREAS
Energy and Fuels
Energy use and process efficiency are key drivers for many process-related issues in the refinery. Reducing the
time spent on unit operations such as digestion and precipitation, increasing product yield, and adopting on-line
instrumentation all make the overall refining process more efficient. The lack of plant-wide energy balance models makes
it difficult to optimize plant thermal efficiency and use of waste heat. The development of process-specific models for
condensate and steam balance would reduce water consumption in addition to energy requirements. In terms of power
generation, on-site cogeneration is more efficient and has fewer associated greenhouse gas emissions than purchasing
power. One of the most efficient and environmentally friendly options would be the use of a coal-gasification combined-cycle
system to cogenerate electricity and process steam.

Challenges
Consider thermal efficiency on a system basis
Optimize the efficiency of the overall process
Achieve 16 MW/petajoule of cogeneration industry-wide
Reduce greenhouse gas emissions from energy use
Overcome the difficulties and cost associated with demonstrating
new technology

R&D Activities

Near Term Mid Term Long Term

◆ Improved condensate and ◆ Use of geothermal and solar ◆ Utilization of organics in
steam balance power to supplement energy bauxite for energy
◆ Full model of plant-wide energy requirements ◆ Coal combustion technologies
balance ◆ Methods to improve the that give cogeneration
efficiency of power houses capabilities (e.g., low-capital
◆ Methods to build power coal gasification)
interruptability into the plant
(e.g., different levels of gas
turbine output)
◆ Methods to apply combined
cycle system and still use coal
efficiently

Alumina Technology Roadmap 29

R&D AREAS
Bauxite Residue
Bauxite residue, or red mud, is the largest environmental concern of alumina refineries mainly because of the size of this
waste stream and its causticity. Much effort has already been put into developing improved dewatering techniques, disposal
technologies, and alternative uses. The alumina industry recognizes that it has a cradle-to-grave responsibility for the
residue and that more work is needed to develop reuse opportunities and sustainable storage options. One option may be
to neutralize the residue in-situ rather than build up large inventories. Improved methods of separating the components of
the residue may ease neutralization and reduce the need for future remediation. This may include development of processes
to extract valuable materials such as titanium or even organics from the residue. (Note: more detailed information can be
found in the Technology Roadmap for Bauxite Reside Treatment and Utilization.)

Challenges
Improve bauxite residue management
Develop economic applications for bauxite residue
Increase focus on corporate social responsibility

R&D Activities

Near and Mid Term Long Term

◆ Methods to produce a residue with high ◆ Viable technology to neutralize residue
solids content and the required rheological ◆ Single-stage washing of residue
properties ◆ Separation of residue into components to
◆ More efficient fine particle classification facilitate neutralization
◆ Further development of high-temperature
separation technology
◆ Process for extracting useful components
from residue
◆ Examination of land reclamation alternatives

30 Alumina Technology Roadmap

 R&D AREAS
Releases
Refinery odours are an issue for on-site personnel as well as refinery neighbors. Most odours are a consequence of the
emission of low-grade heat in the form of vapor, which also represents a direct energy loss. An industrywide database
defining the origins of organic vapors should be created for the worst compounds contributing to plant odours. The
toxicological effects of emissions of mercury and other compounds are not often clearly understood, creating the need for
a health assessment of all refinery emissions. Refineries consume large amounts of water; new effluent treatment
technologies and techniques to reduce groundwater pollution can help the industry minimize its water use. Better
technologies for reducing flue gas emissions are critical for those refineries burning oil or coal.

Challenges
Reduce or eliminate groundwater pollution
Minimize water usage
Better understand and control toxic emissions
Reduce mercury emissions
Eliminate refinery odours
Increase use of waste products

R&D Activities

Near and Mid Term Long Term

◆ Health assessment of all emissions ◆ Low-cost effluent treatment technologies
◆ Inexpensive way to completely detect organic
vapors
◆ Identification of specific compounds with high
levels of odour
◆ Flue gas emission reduction technology
◆ Bioremediation to address groundwater
problems
◆ In-situ barrier technology to control groundwater
◆ Downstream uses for oxalate

Alumina Technology Roadmap 31

R&D AREAS
Minimization of Human Exposure and Improved Safety: Technology and Training
Improved materials of construction and processes that are designed with a focus on eliminating human exposure
are particularly important in improving the safety of alumina refineries. Techniques to reduce workforce
requirements for maintenance will also reduce human exposure to potentially harmful conditions. Training and
education programs on safety and the development of systems for housekeeping and health will help establish
a safety culture within the alumina refining industry. The acceptance and adoption of behavioral-based safety
by plant personnel will be key. Based on the petrochemical industry model, for example, refiners can establish
industry-wide cooperative standards for ES&H in engineering design.

Challenges
Reduce human exposure
Create better safety systems and supporting culture
Reduce manual labor
Establish standards for hazardous operations
Increase focus on corporate social responsibility

Technology R&D Activities

Near Term Mid Term Long Term

◆ New materials for conveyor ◆ Designs to eliminate human ◆ Safer heat transfer medium
belts to reduce noise exposure than steam
◆ Improved materials for piping
and tanks to reduce exposure
◆ Scale removal techniques

Training R&D Activities

Near Term Mid Term Long Term

◆ Virtual reality for safety and ◆ Behavior-based safety ◆ Continuation of the near and
hazard training (education and standards) mid-term activities
◆ Education programs on safety ◆ Uniform industry cooperative
procedures standards for ES&H
◆ Standardization of pressure
vessel design and release
system criteria

32 Alumina Technology Roadmap

 3 Moving Forward
he Alumina Technology Roadmap is intended to be a

T
modification or beneficiation, in particular — would be
dynamic document. The industry will face significant limited to the point at which they become site-specific.
and varied challenges over the next 20 years. During Likewise, the grade of bauxite used at a plant may also
this period some challenges may diminish in importance dictate the extent of the benefits of some activities, such
while others — particularly social and environmental as thermal preprocessing of bauxite to remove impurities.
issues — may become more prominent. By aggressively
pursuing innovative solutions to its long-term problems, the Scoping projects may provide a low-risk mechanism for
alumina industry can favorably position itself to meet these defining potential solutions and outlining possible research
challenges as they arise. pathways for moving ahead on many problems. Step
changes in existing processes would likely be
A major objective of this roadmap is to help alumina recommended for many of the high-risk, potentially high-
companies align their pre-competitive research programs payoff technical needs. A step change innovation typically
with the needs of the global alumina industry. The research requires significant fundamental R&D involving the entire
agenda described in the roadmap can be pursued by both research community. These activities are most appropriate
individual companies and collaborative partnerships within for collaboration between multiple companies because
the industr y, as well as help guide government individual ones do not have the resources to perform the
participation. Individual companies can develop a better research themselves.
understanding of how their own strategic plans mesh with
the priorities of the industry as a whole. The roadmap can The alumina industry can greatly improve the efficiency of
also serve as a mechanism to better educate suppliers to its research efforts by sharing the costs of mechanisms
the alumina industry about its needs and integrate them already in place. Individual companies can benefit by
into collaborative R&D activities in areas such as process sharing research results, thereby increasing the industry’s
sensors and materials of construction. collective knowledge and avoiding duplication of efforts.

Solutions to some of the needs identified in the roadmap Similarly, the sharing of best practices among refiners can
already exist but are limited in their application or are not benefit all areas of plant operation as well as environment,
commercially viable. Additional research or demonstrations health, and safety aspects. In many cases technologies
may be indicated in these instances. Many of the needs existing in other industries may offer solutions to alumina
have been the subjects of earlier unsuccessful industry problems. Examining other industries’ responses
investigations and may require a fresh approach in order to to scale management, ore beneficiation, and waste heat
find a solution. recovery, for example, could help refiners develop their own
solutions to these problems.
A large portion of the needed R&D is precompetitive
and would benefit all refiners. Some activities — bauxite Sharing of best practices within the industry or application

Alumina Technology Roadmap 33

of best practices from other industries may represent the Implementing the research activities in this roadmap will
best pathway for industry needs that are considered low require a substantial effort on the part of the alumina
risk yet have potentially high payoff. It should be noted, industry to increase corporate spending on R&D, handle
however, that even though a technology may be complex intellectual property issues, and overcome other
successfully applied in another industry does not ensure difficulties and costs involved in developing and
its success in the alumina industry. demonstrating new technology. Historically, companies
have been reluctant to embrace the outcome of R&D
As part of its strategy for implementing the roadmap, the because of the perceived risk and the push for a quick
industry has formed the Alumina Technology Committee payback on investments.
consisting of representatives from major refining
companies. The committee will Implementation of this inherently collaborative technology
roadmap may be complicated by the competitive nature
• advance initiatives from the roadmap and historic secretiveness of the refining industry. While
• identify appropriate subgroups to sponsor research researchers at one company may develop information that
projects and other initiatives and monitor their progress would benefit other companies, sharing this knowledge
• establish and maintain an ongoing review of the long- may eliminate the competitive advantage gained by the
term goals of technology development for the alumina company spending the money on the research in the first
industry and benchmark technical progress towards place. Strategies to reconcile the competitive versus
these goals collaborative nature of alumina companies will be needed
• monitor and enhance the alumina research early in the roadmap implementation phase.
infrastructure to facilitate delivery of leadingedge, pre-
competitive research and suitably trained personnel for The alumina industry should make every effort to move
the industry forward with the research priorities in the roadmap so that
• inform key decisionmakers within companies and it can begin to reap the benefits. New technologies that
governments to ensure adequate understanding of the can lower costs, decrease energy consumption, reduce
priorities in alumina technology development and environmental impact, and improve worker health and
commitment to necessary research funding safety will help ensure the industry’s continued health and
• engender a long-term perspective for research needs prosperity well into the 21st century.
and delivered outcomes
• leverage industr y research funds with successful
applications to relevant government funding programs
• provide a concerted technical focus for dealings with
suppliers (chemical, equipment, engineering) to the
industry
• act in a referral role in dealings with the industry
associations on technical issues
• provide an appropriate framework for discussion of the
future technology goals of the alumina industry and
wide dissemination of information.

34 Alumina Technology Roadmap

 Bibliography
Partnerships for the Future, The Aluminum Association, Inc., March, 1996.
Aluminum Industry Technology Roadmap, The Aluminum Association, Inc., May 1997.
Inert Anode Roadmap, The Aluminum Association, Inc., February 1998.
Aluminum Industry Roadmap for the Automotive Market: Enabling Technologies and Challenges for Body
Structures and Closures, The Aluminum Association, Inc., May 1999.
Technology Roadmap for Bauxite Residue Treatment and Utilization, The Aluminum Association, Inc., February 2000.
Applications for Advanced Ceramics in Aluminum Production: Needs and Opportunities, sponsored by the United States
Advanced Ceramics Association, The Aluminum Association, and the U.S. Department of Energy, February 2001.

For further information contact:

AMIRA International Tony Bagshaw

PO Box 1368
West Perth W.A. 6872
AUSTRALIA
Tel: +61 8 9324 1090
Fax: + 61 8 9324 1190
E-mail: tbagshaw@amira.com.au
www.amira.com.au/documents/Alumina/index.htm

The Aluminum Association, Inc. Mike Skillingberg

900 19th Street NW
Washington, DC 20005-2168
USA
Tel: +1 202 862 5121
Fax: +1 202 862 5164
E-mail: mhskilli@aluminum.org

The Australian Aluminium Council David Coutts

Level 1, Dickson Square, PO Box 63
Dickson ACT 2602
AUSTRALIA
Tel: +61 2 6262 9155
Fax: +61 2 6262 9144
E-mail: aac@aluminium.org.au

Alumina Technology Roadmap 35

36 Alumina Technology Roadmap
 Appendix A
Roadmap Contributors
This roadmap was prepared by Energetics, Inc. of Columbia, Maryland with input from the following:

E. Adamek J. Green*
Alcoa World Alumina The Aluminum Association, Inc.

I. Anich* R. Greenhalgh
Alcoa World Alumina (since left) Queensland Alumina Limited

S. Healy
A. N. Bagshaw* Nabalco Pty Ltd
AMIRA International
N. Hegna
J. Barnes Hydro Aluminium Metal Products
Nabalco Pty Ltd
R. Hill
L. Bursztyn CSIRO Minerals
Western Australian Department of M. Hitchens
Resources Development Consultant

C.S.R. Chandrashakar M. Hollitt*

Comalco Aluminium Limited Comalco Aluminium Limited

H. Christensen D. Howard*
Consultant Australian Department of Industry,
Science and Resources
D. Coutts*
The Australian Aluminium Council Limited A.R. Kjar*
Gibson Crest Pty Ltd
R.A.H. Davies*
AMIRA International J. A. Larsen
Hydro Aluminium Metal Products
J. Farrow
The AJ Parker Cooperative Research Centre
for Hydrometallurgy

Alumina Technology Roadmap 37

 P. McIntosh V. Rosino
Kaiser Aluminum Eurallumina S.p.A.

J. Mordini M. Rudman
Aluminium Pechiney CSIRO Building, Construction and Engineering

R. P. Shah
C. Newton Hindalco Industries Limited
Alcan International
R. W. Shaw
D. Olsen Rio Tinto
Hydro Aluminium Metal Products
M. Skillingberg*
G. Parkinson The Aluminum Association, Inc.
The AJ Parker Cooperative Research Centre D.J. Stribley
for Hydrometallurgy AMIRA International

P. Potter* D. Sutherland*
Worsley Alumina Pty Ltd Nabalco Pty Ltd

D. Thomas
A. Rijkeboer
Queensland Alumina Ltd
Billiton International Metals BV

G. Roach
Alcoa World Alumina

S. Rosenberg
Worsley Alumina Pty Ltd

*steering committee member

Note: The following are also members of the steering committee:

R. Bitsch (Queensland Alumina Ltd)
N. Davey (Queensland Alumina Ltd)
S. Dillich (U.S. Department of Energy)
R. Roberts (Northwest Aluminum Company)

38 Alumina Technology Roadmap

 Appendix B
List of Acronyms
A/C Ratio of alumina to caustic

CFD Computational fluid dynamics

DISR Australian Department of Industry, Science and Resources

DOE/OIT U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies

DSP Desilication product

ES&H Environment, safety and health

MW Megawatt

R&D Research and development

U.S. United States

VOCs Volatile organic compounds

Alumina Technology Roadmap 39