April 2002

IFAC Study 14

Public
Sector
Committee

Transition to the
Accrual Basis of Accounting:
Guidance for Governments
and Government Entities

Issued by the
International
Federation of
Accountants
 International Federation of Accountants
535 Fifth Avenue, 26th Floor
New York, New York 10017
United States of America

Copyright © April 2002 International Federation of Accountants.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the International Federation of Accountants.

Information about the International Federation of Accountants and copies of this Study can be found
at its web site, http://www.ifac.org.

The approved text of this Study is that published in the English language.

This Study includes discussion of International Public Sector Accounting Standards and
Exposure Drafts issued as of January 2002.

ISBN: 1-998464-80-8

Acknowledgment
The Public Sector Committee is developing a set of International Public Sector Accounting
Standards (IPSASs). The IPSASs in the initial core set are based on International Accounting
Standards (IASs) published by the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC). The
International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) and the International Accounting Standards
Committee Foundation (IASCF) were established in 2001 to replace the IASC. The IASs issued
by the IASC remain in force until they are amended or withdrawn by the IASB.

IASs, Exposure Drafts and other publications of the IASC are copyright of the IASCF. “IAS”,
“IASB”, “IASC”, “IASCF” and “International Accounting Standards” are registered Trade
Marks of the IASCF and should not be used without the approval of the IASCF.

Limited quotes and extracts from the IASs are reproduced in

this publication of the Public Sector Committee of the International Federation of
Accountants with the permission of the IASB. The approved text of the International
Accounting Standards is that published by the IASB in the English language, and copies
may be obtained directly from IASB Publications Department, 7th Floor, 166 Fleet Street,
London EC4A 2DY, United Kingdom.
E-mail: publications@iasb.org.uk
Internet: http://www.iasb.org.uk
 April 2002
Study 14

IFAC
PUBLIC
SECTOR
COMMITTEE

Transition to the
Accrual Basis of Accounting:
Guidance for Governments
and Government Entities

ISSUED BY THE
INTERNATIONAL
FEDERATION OF
ACCOUNTANTS
Acknowledgment
This Study was prepared by Public Sector Performance (NZ) Ltd (http://www.pspnz.co.nz)
on behalf of the Public Sector Committee of the International Federation of Accountants.

Disclaimer
While every effort has been made to ensure accuracy, neither Public Sector Performance (NZ) Ltd
nor any principal or employee of Public Sector Performance (NZ) Ltd nor IFAC shall be liable on
any ground whatsoever to any party in respect of decisions or actions they may take as a result of
using this Study. The information contained in this publication should not be treated as a substitute
for advice concerning individual situations or circumstances.

ii
 FOREWORD

Many of the International Federation of Accountants Public Sector Committee’s (PSC’s)

constituents, including some currently reporting on a cash basis, have expressed support for the
application of the accrual basis of accounting to governmental financial reporting. This support is
based on the view that accrual information includes, supplements and enhances the cash information
currently provided and benefits both internal and external users. Many of these constituents also
sought guidance from the PSC on the process of transition from the cash to the accrual basis. This
Study has been prepared in response to that request. It identifies key issues to be addressed in the
migration from the cash to the accrual basis of accounting. It also identifies alternate approaches that
can be adopted in implementing the accrual basis of accounting in an efficient and effective manner
in the public sector.

The PSC has made significant progress in developing a core set of International Public Sector
Accounting Standards (IPSASs) to be applied when either the accrual or the cash basis of accounting
is adopted. By the end of 2002, I anticipate that the PSC will have issued twenty IPSASs on the
accrual basis of Accounting, and a comprehensive IPSAS on the cash basis of accounting. These
IPSASs establish an authoritative set of independent international financial reporting standards for
governments and others in the public sector organizations. Application of the IPSASs will support
developments in public sector financial reporting directed at improving decision-making, financial
management, and accountability. The PSC considers the IPSASs to be an integral element of reforms
directed at promoting social and economic development.

The PSC believes governments and government entities will find the Study useful as they deal with
the many and complex technical, systems and cultural issues necessary to implement an accrual
system. The Study identifies key requirements of IPSASs. It also identifies other sources of useful
guidance on issues not dealt with by IPSASs. However, readers should note this Study does not
establish new or additional authoritative requirements and should not be considered a substitute for
the IPSASs themselves. It is intended that this be a “living document” and be updated periodically as
further IPSASs are issued, and additional implementation issues and experiences are identified.

Ian Mackintosh
Chairman
Public Sector Committee
International Federations of Accountants

April 2002

iii
iv
 TRANSITION TO THE ACCRUAL BASIS OF ACCOUNTING:
GUIDANCE FOR GOVERNMENTS AND GOVERNMENT ENTITIES

CONTENTS

Page

Part I – INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 3

CHAPTER 2 MANAGING THE PROCESS ............................................................................ 19
CHAPTER 3 SKILLS ASSESSMENT AND TRAINING ....................................................... 37

PART II – GENERAL FINANCIAL REPORTING ISSUES ................................................. 49

CHAPTER 4 ACCOUNTING POLICY ISSUES ..................................................................... 51

CHAPTER 5 REPORTING ENTITY ISSUES ......................................................................... 65

PART III – FINANCIAL ELEMENTS..................................................................................... 75

CHAPTER 6 ASSETS............................................................................................................... 77
CHAPTER 7 LIABILITIES .................................................................................................... 119
CHAPTER 8 REVENUES AND EXPENSES ........................................................................ 137

PART IV – SPECIFIC TOPICS .............................................................................................. 153

CHAPTER 9 CASH................................................................................................................. 155
CHAPTER 10 INTANGIBLE ASSETS .................................................................................... 165
CHAPTER 11 FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS......................................................................... 175
CHAPTER 12 EMPLOYEE-RELATED LIABILITIES ........................................................... 185
CHAPTER 13 LIABILITIES ARISING FROM SOCIAL POLICY OBLIGATIONS............. 197
CHAPTER 14 NON-EXCHANGE REVENUE........................................................................ 207
CHAPTER 15 FOREIGN CURRENCY ................................................................................... 217

POSTSCRIPT............................................................................................................................ 223

APPENDIX 1 SUMMARY OF PSC STANDARDS PROGRAM DOCUMENTS .................. 225

APPENDIX 2 IPSAS GLOSSARY OF DEFINED TERMS...................................................... 229

v
vi
 Part I – Introduction

PART I – INTRODUCTION

This Study is intended to assist governments and government entities wishing to migrate to the
accrual basis of accounting in accordance with International Public Sector Accounting Standards
(IPSASs). It may also assist governments and government entities wishing to report on a
comprehensive cash basis of accounting, including the adoption of the major principles in any future
IPSAS which is developed from Exposure Draft International Public Sector Accounting Standard
IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash Basis of Accounting.

Part I of this Study addresses general issues associated with the transition to accrual accounting,
including factors influencing the nature and speed of the transition, options in respect of the
transition paths, and the management of the transition process. It also considers issues associated
with the identification, design and delivery of training.

The main purpose of this Study is to help entities intending to move to the accrual basis of
accounting and comply with the accrual-based IPSASs. The Study also includes discussion of certain
topics not addressed by current IPSASs or Exposure Drafts. Where the Study discusses topics not
addressed by current IPSASs or Exposure Drafts, the requirements of other authoritative accounting
pronouncements such as International Accounting Standards (IASs) are used to illustrate the
practical implementation issues associated with that topic. The IASs were prepared and published by
the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC). In 2001 the International Accounting
Standards Board (IASB) was established to replace the IASC. The IASB has stated that the standards
it will issue will be referred to as International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs). The first
seventeen IPSASs are based on IASs to the extent appropriate for the public sector. The use of
IFRSs, IASs or other standards to illustrate such topics does not necessarily reflect the views of the
PSC on any issue. The Study is not an accounting manual, nor does it attempt to establish
authoritative accounting practices or standards.

This Study should be considered a work in progress. It will be revised periodically to reflect
developments in IPSASs and input received by the PSC on the experiences of readers in migrating to
reporting on an accrual basis.

1
 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting

2
 Chapter 1: Introduction

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Key Points

• This Study will assist governments and government entities wishing to report on the accrual
basis of accounting in accordance with the accrual-based International Public Sector Accounting
Standards (IPSASs). It will also assist governments and government entities wishing to report on
a comprehensive cash basis of accounting, including the adoption of the major principles in any
future IPSAS which is developed from Exposure Draft International Public Sector Accounting
Standard IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash Basis of Accounting.
• The Study includes discussion of topics covered by current accrual IPSASs, as well as certain
topics not yet addressed by the Public Sector Committee (PSC).
• This Chapter summarizes some of the benefits associated with the adoption of accrual
accounting by governments.
• The PSC is seeking input from readers regarding their experiences in moving to accrual-based
accounting. Such input will influence subsequent editions of this Study.

Introduction

1.1 This Study was issued by the Public Sector Committee (PSC) of the International Federation
of Accountants (IFAC). IFAC is an organization of national professional accountancy
organizations that represent accountants employed in public practice, business and industry,
the public sector and education. The PSC focuses on the accounting, auditing and financial
reporting needs of national, regional and local governments, related governmental entities,
and the constituencies they serve. It addresses these needs by issuing and promoting
benchmark guidance, conducting educational and research programs, and facilitating the
exchange of information among accountants and those who work in the public sector.

1.2 The PSC has prepared this Study in order to assist governments and government entities
wishing to report on the accrual basis of accounting in accordance with IPSASs. The PSC
has identified a need for practical guidance and supporting information for governments and
government entities making the transition to the accrual basis of accounting. This Study
identifies the nature and scope of many of the tasks required during this process.

1.3 The guidance in this Study includes:

• an overview of the wider context in which the transition to accrual accounting may
occur;
• a discussion of various transition paths that entities choosing an incremental
implementation process may adopt;
• identification of the main tasks associated with recognition of assets, liabilities, revenues
and expenses, including issues associated with identification and measurement of those
elements;

3
 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
• some implications of adopting accrual-based IPSASs; and
• practical suggestions based on the experience of other entities and jurisdictions.

International Public Sector Accounting Standards

Accrual-Based Standards
1.4 The PSC is developing a set of IPSASs on financial reporting under the accrual basis of
accounting for the public sector. The full text of Standards and Exposure Drafts currently on
issue is available at http://www.ifac.org.

1.5 The main purpose of this Study is to help entities intending to move to the accrual basis of
accounting and comply with the accrual-based IPSASs. The Study also includes discussion
of certain topics not addressed by current IPSASs or Exposure Drafts. Where the Study
discusses topics not addressed by current IPSASs or Exposure Drafts, the requirements of
other authoritative accounting pronouncements such as International Accounting Standards
(IASs) are used to illustrate the practical implementation issues associated with that topic.
The IASs were prepared and published by the International Accounting Standards
Committee (IASC). In 2001 the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) was
established to replace the IASC. The IASB has stated that the standards it will issue will be
referred to as International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs). The first seventeen
IPSASs are based on IASs to the extent appropriate for the public sector. The use of IFRSs,
IASs or other standards to illustrate such topics does not necessarily reflect the views of the
PSC on any issue. The Study is not an accounting manual, nor does it attempt to establish
authoritative accounting practices or standards.

1.6 In the absence of an IPSAS, each entity is required to apply other appropriate authoritative
pronouncements to guide the development of its accounting policies. The PSC acknowledges
that generally accepted accounting practice in relation to certain topics varies between
jurisdictions. International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 1 Presentation of
Financial Statements explains that management will need to use its judgment in developing
an accounting policy that provides the most useful information to users of the entity’s
financial statements. IPSAS 1 provides guidance for management in making this judgment.

Cash-Based Standard
1.7 The PSC has also issued Exposure Draft IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash
Basis of Accounting. Although the focus of this Study is on the transition to the accrual basis,
some parts of the Study may also assist readers who are seeking information which may be
useful for complying with any IPSAS on the cash basis that is developed based on Exposure
Draft IPSAS ED 9. Appendix 2 of this Chapter explains the relevance of specific Chapters of
this Study for entities intending to comply with Exposure Draft IPSAS ED 9. In addition,

4
 Chapter 1: Introduction
Appendix 2 of Chapter 4 illustrates the accounting policies that may be required in order for
an entity to comply with Exposure Draft IPSAS ED 91.

Other Sources of Guidance

1.8 A complete list of the PSC’s publications on accrual accounting in the public sector (IPSASs,
Studies and Occasional Papers) is available on the IFAC web site (http://www.ifac.org).
Many of these publications, including Study 11, Governmental Financial Reporting, are
available electronically at no charge.

1.9 In relation to topics where no IPSAS has yet been developed, this Study uses IASs or other
national accounting standards to illustrate the types of reporting requirements an entity may
face. This does not imply a considered position of the PSC on those topics. It should be
noted in relation to this that commentary in IPSAS 1 establishes a hierarchy of guidance. In
the absence of an IPSAS on a particular issue, entities should initially refer to other IPSASs
dealing with similar and related issues, other publications of IFAC, and pronouncements of
other standard setting bodies (for example IASs) and accepted public or private sector
practice, but only to the extent that they are consistent with the IPSASs.

1.10 Where possible, web site references to sources of information have been provided. A list of
web sites containing information on aspects of financial reporting in various jurisdictions and
entities is attached as Appendix 1 to this Chapter.

Structure of the Study

1.11 A wide range of transitional paths between the cash and accrual bases is possible. This Study
is structured in a way that is intended to be useful to readers, whatever the transition path
they are contemplating. The Study also acknowledges that the extent of information
currently available on assets and liabilities and the reliability of that information will vary
greatly between jurisdictions and individual entities. Readers are encouraged to use the
Study as a tool to help them identify which steps in the transition their government or agency
has already addressed/completed and the areas in which further work is required.

1.12 The Study has four main parts as follows:

• Introduction: (Chapters 1 to 3) this part addresses general planning and project
management issues;
• General Financial Reporting Issues: (Chapters 4 and 5) this part deals with the selection,
development and approval of accounting policies, and issues associated with the
definition and identification of reporting entities;
• Financial Elements: (Chapters 6 to 8) this part outlines the broad steps required for the
identification, recognition, measurement and disclosure of assets, liabilities, revenues

1
As more IPSASs are released, the implications of certain accounting issues for the cash basis of accounting will be
considered and this may eventually lead to a revision of the IPSAS based on Exposure Draft IPSAS ED 9 (or the
subsequent IPSAS) and the disclosures required under the cash basis of accounting.

5
 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
and expenses. The broad approaches outlined in these Chapters could be adapted and
applied to particular items; and
• Specific Topics: (Chapters 9 to 15) this part highlights implementation issues associated
with two specific IPSASs, and provides guidance in relation to a selection of topics not
addressed, or only partially addressed, by existing IPSASs.
1.13 This Study does not provide comprehensive coverage of all the issues on which readers may
be seeking advice. This Study has been published in the interest of providing timely
assistance to support the adoption of accrual accounting. Readers are invited to propose
suggestions or provide material for inclusion in future editions of this Study. As noted below,
future Occasional Papers outlining the experience of various jurisdictions may also be a
useful resource.

Occasional Papers

1.14 The PSC is considering supporting this Study with a series of Occasional Papers
documenting case studies from specific jurisdictions on their transition to the accrual basis of
accounting. Occasional Papers published to date are:
• Occasional Paper 1 Implementing Accrual Accounting in Government: The New Zealand
Experience;
• Occasional Paper 2 Auditing Whole of Government Financial Statements: The New
Zealand Experience;
• Occasional Paper 3 Perspectives on Accrual Accounting; and
• Occasional Paper 4 The Delegation of Public Services in France, An Original Method of
Public Administration: Delegated Public Service.

• Occasional papers on the Modernization of Government Accounting in France and

Resource Accounting and Budgeting in the United Kingdom are currently being finalized
for publication.

1.15 The PSC invites individual public sector entities or jurisdictions to use the Occasional Papers
series to share their experiences in adopting accrual accounting. The PSC has developed an
outline illustrating the possible structure and contents of future Occasional Papers (copies
available from the PSC Secretariat).

1.16 It is envisaged that future Occasional Papers could explain the nature of a particular
jurisdiction’s transition to accrual accounting in the context of that jurisdiction’s environment
and any reforms relevant to financial management. A change to accrual accounting rarely
occurs in isolation – often the introduction of accrual accounting will be merely a subset of a
much larger reform project, and the nature of these wider reforms can often have an impact
on the speed and style of transition to accrual accounting. Changes may occur within the
context of a widespread decentralization of government functions and/or the development of
an integrated financial management system (the integration of the basic financial functions
and responsibilities within a single and coordinated system). The Occasional Papers may

6
 Chapter 1: Introduction
include explanation of the background to the introduction of accrual accounting, the nature
of accounting/management arrangements prior to the reforms, and changes to the legislative
framework, accounting system and budgeting system within a jurisdiction. An explanation of
the planned implementation strategy and reasons for selecting that strategy would be helpful
to jurisdictions trying to determine their own implementation strategy. At a more detailed
level, accounting policy issues and issues associated with the identification, recognition and
measurement of particular assets, liabilities, revenues and expenses would be of interest. In
addition, the Occasional Papers could include a description of whole-of-government
reporting issues and an explanation of the role of internal and external auditors during the
transition.

Benefits of Accrual Accounting

1.17 The PSC has commented extensively on the benefits of accrual accounting for governments
and individual public sector entities in previous Studies (Studies 5, 6, 8, 9 10 and 11) and
Occasional Papers (Papers 1 and 3). In order to provide some context for readers who are not
familiar with the PSC’s other publications, this section contains a summary of the benefits of
reporting on the accrual basis.

1.18 The information contained in reports prepared on an accrual basis is useful both for
accountability and decision-making. Financial reports prepared on an accrual basis allow
users to:

• assess the accountability for all resources the entity controls and the deployment of those
resources;
• assess the performance, financial position and cash flows of the entity; and
• make decisions about providing resources to, or doing business with, the entity.
1.19 At a more detailed level, reporting on an accrual basis:

• shows how a government financed its activities and met its cash requirements;
• allows users to evaluate a government’s ongoing ability to finance its activities and to
meet its liabilities and commitments;
• shows the financial position of a government and changes in financial position;
• provides a government with the opportunity to demonstrate successful management of its
resources; and
• is useful in evaluating a government’s performance in terms of its service costs,
efficiency and accomplishments.

Financial Position
1.20 Accrual accounting provides information on an entity’s overall financial position and current
stock of assets and liabilities. Governments need this information to:
• make decisions about the feasibility of financing the services they wish to provide;

7
 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
• demonstrate accountability to the public for their management of assets and liabilities
recognized in the financial statements;
• plan for future funding requirements of asset maintenance and replacement;
• plan for the repayment of, or satisfaction of, existing liabilities; and
• manage their cash position and financing requirements.

1.21 Accrual accounting requires organizations to maintain complete records of assets and
liabilities. It facilitates better management of assets, including better maintenance, more
appropriate replacement policies, identification and disposal of surplus assets, and better
management of risks such as loss due to theft or damage. The identification of assets and the
recognition of depreciation helps managers to understand the impact of using fixed assets in
the delivery of services, and encourages managers to consider alternative ways of managing
costs and delivering services.

1.22 Accrual accounting provides a consistent framework for the identification of existing
liabilities, and potential or contingent liabilities. The recognition of obligations meeting the
definition of a liability and the criteria for recognition:
• compels governments to acknowledge and plan for the payment of all recognized
liabilities, not just borrowings;
• provides information on the impact of existing liabilities on future resources;
• means that it is possible to allocate responsibility for the management of all liabilities;
and
• provides necessary input for governments to assess whether they can continue to provide
current services and the extent to which they can afford new programs and services.

1.23 Accrual accounting highlights the impact of financing decisions on net assets/equity and may
lead governments to take a longer term view when making financing decisions than is
generally possible when relying on cash or modified cash reports. Information on net
assets/equity also means that governments may be held accountable for the financial impact
of their decisions on both current and future net assets/equity. Changes in an entity’s net
assets/equity between two reporting dates reflect the increase or decrease in its wealth during
the period, under the particular measurement principles adopted and disclosed in the
financial statements. Under the accrual basis of accounting, the financial statements will
include a Statement of Financial position which discloses information about assets and
liabilities. Where assets and liabilities are not equal, a residual figure for net assets/equity
will be reported. Where this figure is positive it can be interpreted as the net resources that
may be applied for the provision of goods or services in the future, and therefore the
community’s investment in the reporting entity. Where the figure is negative it may be
viewed as the amount of future taxation or other revenues which are already committed to
paying off debt and other liabilities. Net assets/equity can comprise some or all of the
following components:

• contributed capital;

8
 Chapter 1: Introduction
• accumulated surpluses and deficits; and
• reserves (for example revaluation reserve; foreign currency translation reserve).

Financial Performance
1.24 Accrual accounting provides information on revenues and expenses, including the impact of
transactions where cash has not yet been received or paid. Accurate information on revenues
is essential for assessing the impact of taxation and other revenues on the government’s fiscal
position, and in assessing the need for borrowing in the long term. Information on revenues
helps both users and governments themselves to assess whether current revenues are
sufficient to cover the costs of current programs and services.

1.25 Governments need information about expenses in order to assess their revenue requirements,
the sustainability of existing programs, and the likely cost of proposed activities and
services. Accrual accounting provides governments with information on the full costs of
their activities so that they can:

• consider the cost consequences of particular policy objectives and the cost of alternative
mechanisms for meeting these objectives;
• decide whether to fund the production of services within government sub-entities, or
whether to purchase goods and services directly from non-government organizations;
• decide whether user fees should cover the costs associated with a service; and
• allocate responsibility for managing particular costs.

1.26 Accrual accounting can provide financial information on whether sub-entities are delivering
specified services, and delivering them within agreed budgets. The same information, at a
more detailed level, can also be used within sub-entities for the management of activity and
program costs.

1.27 Accrual accounting allows an individual entity to:

• record the total costs, including depreciation of physical assets and amortization of
intangible assets, of carrying out specific activities;
• recognize all employee-related costs and to compare the cost of various types of
employment or remuneration options;
• assess the most efficient way of producing their goods and services and of managing the
resources over which they have been delegated authority;
• determine the appropriateness of cost-recovery policies; and
• monitor actual costs against budgeted costs.

9
 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
Cash Flows
1.28 Accrual accounting provides comprehensive information on current cash flows and certain
projected cash flows, including the cash flows associated with debtors and creditors. It can
therefore lead to better cash management and may assist in the preparation of more accurate
cash budgets.

10
 Chapter 1: Introduction

References
Australian Accounting Research Foundation (AARF), Public Sector Financial Reporting− A
Framework for Analysis and Identification of Issues, AARF Accounting Theory Monograph 5,
1985.

Greenall, D., and Sutcliffe, P., Financial Reporting by Local Governments, AARF Discussion
Paper 12, 1988.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements ,

May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash
Basis of Accounting, May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Study 5, Definition and Recognition of Assets,

August 1995.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Study 6, Accounting for and Reporting Liabilities,
August 1995.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Study 8, The Government Financial Reporting

Entity, July 1996.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Study 9, Definition and Recognition of Revenues,

December 1996.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Study 10, Definition and Recognition of

Expenses/Expenditures, December 1996.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Governmental Financial Reporting: Accounting

Issues and Practices, Study 11, May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Occasional Paper 1 Implementing Accrual

Accounting in Government: The New Zealand Experience, October 1994.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Occasional Paper 2 Auditing Whole of Government

Financial Statements: The New Zealand Experience, October 1994.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Occasional Paper 3 Perspectives on Accrual

Accounting, May 1997.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Occasional Paper 4 The Delegation of Public

Services in France, An Original Method of Public Administration: Delegated Public Service,
http://www.ifac.org, September 2001

11
 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting

Micallef, F., Sutcliffe, P., and Doughty, P., Financial Reporting by Governments, AARF Discussion
Paper 12, 1994.

Sutcliffe, P., Micallef, F., and Parker, L.D., Financial Reporting by Government Departments, AARF
Discussion Paper 16, 1991.

12
 Chapter 1: Introduction

Appendix 1: Web Site References

Australia

Australian Accounting Standards Board

http://www.aasb.com.au
Australian National Audit Office
http://www.anao.gov.au
Australian State and Territory Governments (general entry point)
http://www.gov.au
Department of Finance and Administration: Accounting Centre for Excellence
http://www.finance.gov.au/ace
Department of Finance and Administration (Commonwealth Government of Australia)
http://www.finance.gov.au
Department of Treasury and Finance (Tasmania)
http://www.tres.tas.gov.au/domino/dtf/dtf.nsf
New South Wales Treasury: Office of Financial Management
http://www.treasury.nsw.gov.au

Canada

Government of Ontario
http://www.gov.on.ca/MBS/english/index.html
Auditor General of Canada and the Commissioner of the Environment and Sustainable Development
http://www.oag-bvg.gc.ca
Public Works and Government Services Canada
http://www.pwgsc.gc.ca
Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca
Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat: Financial Information Strategy
http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/fin/fis-sif

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
Hong Kong

Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region: Treasury

http://www.info.gov.hk/tsy

International
Asian Development Bank
http://www.adb.org
International Accounting Standards Board
http://www.iasb.org.uk
International Federation of Accountants
http://www.ifac.org
International Fund for Agricultural Development
http://www.ifad.org
International Monetary Fund
http://www.imf.org
International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions
http://www.intosai.org
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development: Public Management and Governance
http://www.oecd.org/puma
The World Bank Group
http://www.worldbank.org

Mexico
Instituto Mexicano de Contadores Públicos, A.C.
http://www.imcp.org.mx

New Zealand
New Zealand Government Online
http://www.govt.nz
New Zealand Society of Local Government Managers
http://www.solgm.org.nz

14
 Chapter 1: Introduction
Office of the Controller and Auditor-General of New Zealand
http://www.oag.govt.nz
The Treasury
http://www.treasury.govt.nz

South Africa
National Treasury
http://www.finance.gov.za
Office of the Auditor General
http://www.agsa.co.za
South African Reserve Bank
http://www.resbank.co.za
The South African Institute of Chartered Accountants
http://www.saica.co.za
The Institute for Public Finance and Auditing
http://ipfa.pwv.gov.za

Sweden
Ekonomistyrningsverket (Swedish National Financial Management Authority)
http://www.esv.se
Riksrevisionsverket (Swedish National Audit Office)
http://www.rrv.se

United Kingdom
HM Government: HM Treasury
http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk
National Audit Office
http://www.nao.gov.uk/
Resource Accounting Manual: HM Treasury
http://www.resource-accounting.gov.uk
The Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accountancy
http://www.cipfa.org.uk

15
 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
Whole of Government Accounts Programme
http://www.wga.gov.uk

United States
Defense Finance and Accounting Service
http://www.dfas.mil
Governmental Accounting Standards Board
http://www.gasb.org
Financial Accounting Standards Board
http://www.fasb.org
Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board
http://www.fasab.gov
The General Accounting Office
http://www.gao.gov

16
 Chapter 1: Introduction

Appendix 2: Relevance of this Study for Cash-Based Reporting

This appendix summarizes the relevance of various Chapters of this Study for entities wanting to
prepare comprehensive cash basis financial statements, including those intending to comply with any
future IPSAS which is developed from the Exposure Draft IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under
the Cash Basis of Accounting.

PART I – INTRODUCTION

Chapter 1 Introduction General relevance.

Chapter 2 Managing the Process General relevance – to the extent that

accounting changes are planned.

Chapter 3 Skills Assessment and The specification of competencies can

Training occur within entities applying the cash
basis. However, the guidance in the
Chapter is not generally relevant unless
significant changes in skills required
are envisaged.

PART II – GENERAL FINANCIAL

REPORTING ISSUES

Chapter 4 Accounting Policy Issues The Chapter contains examples of

accounting policies that may be
required in order for an entity to
prepare cash basis reports.

Chapter 5 Reporting Entity Issues General relevance.

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting

PART III – FINANCIAL ELEMENTS

Chapter 6 Assets Not required for cash basis reporting.

Relevant to the extent that an entity
maintains records of certain assets and
wishes to begin planning for the
introduction of accrual accounting.

Chapter 7 Liabilities Not required for cash basis reporting.

Relevant to the extent that most entities
operating under the cash basis of
accounting maintain comprehensive
records of debt and borrowings.

Chapter 8 Revenues and Expenses Not required for cash basis reporting.
Relevant to the extent that some
entities recognize certain receivables
and payables. The discussion on
classification and disclosure of
components of revenue is relevant.

PART IV – SPECIFIC TOPICS

Chapter 9 Cash General relevance.

Chapter 10 Intangible Assets Not required for cash basis reporting.

Chapter 11 Financial Instruments Not required for cash basis reporting.

Chapter 12 Employee-Related Liabilities Not required for cash basis reporting.

Chapter 13 Liabilities Arising from Not required for cash basis reporting.
Social Policy Obligations
Chapter 14 Non-Exchange Revenue Not required for cash basis reporting.

Chapter 15 Foreign Currency Not required for cash basis reporting.

Exposure Draft IPSAS ED 9 contains
proposals for the translation of cash
flows and cash balances.

18
 Chapter 2: Managing the Process

CHAPTER 2: MANAGING THE PROCESS

Key Points

This Chapter contains a discussion of:

• some of the factors that can influence the nature and speed of the transition to accrual
accounting. It also outlines some transition options;
• the adoption of accrual accounting for both the individual entities that form the public sector, and
the government as a whole;
• the role of the external auditor in any transition path;
• some of the impacts on budgeting, control and audit for countries contemplating membership of
the European Union; and
• some of the generalizations that can be made regarding the potential impact of various systems
of government and the current political environment on the transition process. The groupings
considered for this purpose are developed countries, transitional economies and developing
countries.

Introduction

2.1 This Chapter outlines some of the broader issues that can affect the speed and style of
transition to the accrual basis. Although the focus of this guidance is the management of
accounting change, the adoption of accrual accounting does not occur in isolation and the
style of transition is affected by the context within which it occurs.

2.2 Factors that may influence the nature and speed of the transition to accrual accounting
include:
• the system of government and the political environment;
• whether the reforms are focused solely on accounting change or whether they encompass
other wider scale reforms;
• whether the changes are being driven from the “top down”, or “bottom up”. For example,
changes driven by the top level of government are usually mandatory for all entities
within that government and may have fixed time frames. This Chapter discusses the
adoption of accrual accounting for both the individual entities that form the public sector
and the government as a whole (regardless of whether whole-of-government financial
statements are prepared). However, many of the comments in this Chapter are equally
relevant for individual entities planning for the transition to accrual accounting;
• the current basis of accounting used by the entity, the capability of existing information
systems, and the completeness and accuracy of existing information, particularly in
relation to assets and liabilities;

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
• the basis of accounting to be used in the preparation of budget documents. Not only does
a change in the budgeting and budget authorization process represent another component
of the overall transition, but it will also have an impact on the information systems
requirements;
• the level of political commitment to the adoption of accrual accounting; and
• the capacity and skills of the people and organizations responsible for implementing the
changes.

2.3 This Chapter contains more detailed discussion of certain key factors and how they can
influence the style of transition. It also outlines various transition options.

The Economy and the System of Government

2.4 Although each jurisdiction will have a number of distinguishing characteristics that influence
the design of its transition path, it is possible to make some generalizations regarding the
potential impact of various systems of government and the current political environment on
the transition process. The subheadings used for the purpose of discussion within this
document are:
• developed countries;
• transitional economies; and
• developing countries.

2.5 These sub-headings are used purely for the purpose of illustrating how certain factors can
influence the selection of a transition path. They are not comprehensive and in some cases
are not mutually exclusive. The types of transition paths discussed under each sub-heading
are merely examples of transition paths that may be more likely to occur within jurisdictions
that fit that classification.

Developed Countries
2.6 Restraints on resources and expertise are less problematic in developed economies than in
developing or transitional economies. However, the political systems in place in developed
economies can present barriers to reform of the financial reporting and management systems
in place in those economies. Two common systems of government within developed
countries are presidential systems and parliamentary systems.

2.7 In a presidential system, a single person is democratically elected as leader of the executive
(the arm of government that performs the day-to-day management role) for a prescribed
period of time. That person is not subject to removal by the legislature other than in
exceptional circumstances. This separation of powers between the executive and the
legislature means that the legislature provides an independent review of the merits of
proposed legislation. Such independence is a strength of the presidential system. However, it
can also lead to delays or blocks to the passage of legislation. Where proposed financial
reforms require changes in legislation, detailed planning, including the development of a

20
 Chapter 2: Managing the Process
communication strategy for the legislature, may be required to enhance the likelihood of the
legislation being passed within a certain time frame. In addition, any proposals to require
legislative review of budgets and financial statements under the revised financial system
would need to take into account the internal processes of the legislature and the possible time
required for such reviews to occur.

2.8 In a parliamentary system of government, the government is formed by the political party
that is able to gain the most votes from the members of Parliament in a one-chamber
parliament, or the governing chamber in a two-chamber parliament. The government does
not necessarily control a majority of votes in the Parliament, and therefore cannot always
guarantee that its legislation will be passed. There may be significant debate of issues within
the Parliament, but a government that wishes to proceed with financial management reforms
usually controls the executive and has sufficient numbers within Parliament to secure the
passage of legislation. A key aspect of the early stages of transition within a parliamentary
system is ensuring that there is sufficient political commitment by the governing
party/parties to the reforms. Once this support has been obtained it is also important to focus
on providing information to opposition parties to allow for informed debate of proposals and
to “buy-in” support from key opposition members. Transition times can be significantly
faster under a parliamentary system.

2.9 Parliamentary systems of government have also been associated with wide-scale financial
management reforms. The potential scope of wide-scale financial management reforms and
various approaches to such reforms are discussed in more detail later in this Chapter.

2.10 Regardless of whether a parliamentary or presidential system is in effect, some jurisdictions

operate under systems where the legislation and regulations underpinning government
budgeting and reporting are particularly detailed and are regarded as fundamental aspects of
the constitution. This can have an impact on the transition in that it may be very difficult to
bring about changes in existing legislation and regulations. In such cases, individual entities
may be encouraged to adopt accrual accounting, while maintaining existing budgetary
systems. Under this entity-by-entity approach, formal political approval of the changes may
not be required, and less centralized management of the reforms occurs. However, each
individual entity would still need to develop a set of accounting policies and may need
guidance on the source and application of authoritative accounting standards. Where
financial information from such entities is likely to be consolidated in the future, early
specification of certain accounting policies by central entities may prevent problems at a later
date.

Transitional Economies
2.11 Transitional economies are often undergoing rapid economic and institutional change and
may regard financial management reform as a necessary step in the ongoing redevelopment
of the public sector. To this extent, there may be political support for proposed changes. The
political acceptance of change means that widespread reform (for example, major changes to
the system of financial management, and the adoption of accrual accounting across all types
of government entities) is more likely.

21
 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
2.12 Transitional economies often have records of assets purchased. The existence of relatively
complete asset records makes the identification and recognition of assets a much easier task.
Asset accounting policies still have to be developed and applied (for example recognition
thresholds need to be applied to existing asset records) but much less time and resources
need to be devoted to asset identification and validation.

Developing Countries
2.13 The main constraints facing developing countries, in terms of changes to the basis of
accounting used by government entities, are likely to be the existing capability of entities in
terms of accounting systems and qualified staff, and the resources available within or outside
government to develop that capability. Such resource restrictions mean that developing
countries may be more inclined to consider step-by-step implementation paths.

2.14 There is some debate over the benefits of devolving management authority as part of
financial reforms, particularly in the context of developing countries. This debate is not
central to the adoption of accrual accounting and is therefore not addressed in this Study.
However, where devolution of management authority occurs in conjunction with the
adoption of accrual accounting, the management of the change process will be critical to the
success of the reforms.

2.15 Developing countries may be reliant upon external assistance to implement reforms. Where a
jurisdiction is reliant upon such assistance (for example, loans or donor aid) to help resource
the transition to accrual accounting, the amount and types of assistance available may
influence the transition path. For example, aid agencies may be willing to fund certain
developments within a limited number of pilot entities or may offer assistance in the form of
expert personnel. Some websites that include details of financial management assistance
projects are listed in the Appendix to this Chapter.

2.16 Developing countries may be more inclined to use training strategies that focus on the
development of in-house training and the use of entity staff to deliver training (referred to as
the “train the trainers” approach). Although the “train the trainers” approach is an option for
any jurisdiction, it is particularly useful where resources are limited or where a jurisdiction is
bi-lingual or multi-lingual.

Transition Paths

2.17 Within jurisdictions, the style and speed of the transition may vary greatly. A wide range of
approaches is possible. Possible approaches are discussed below – various combinations of
these approaches are also possible.

Application of the Reforms to Types of Entities

2.18 The reforms may be applied to all public sector entities within a government, or they may be
restricted to certain types of entities. For example, the implementation of accrual accounting
may occur on a sector-by-sector basis. It may begin with autonomous and semi-autonomous

22
 Chapter 2: Managing the Process
government entities which already have some responsibility for managing the resources
under their control and which are outside the centralized accounting system. Obtaining
political approval for changes in the basis of accounting for autonomous entities and
subsequently implementing those changes is often easier because the change is less likely to
have implications for the existing system of central budgeting and reporting. Alternatively,
the changes may focus first on budget sector entities because such entities make up the core
of government activities.

2.19 The transition to accrual accounting may be mandatory for certain types of entities, or it may
be voluntary for some or all of them. The advantages of allowing entities to choose to adopt
accrual accounting are that the individual entities are then motivated and committed to the
reform process. However, voluntary transitions can cause difficulties in that the use of
different bases of accounting by various entities within a government precludes the
preparation of consolidated financial statements for the whole-of-government entity. The use
of different bases of accounting by individual entities within a level of government may also
involve different budgeting and monitoring regimes. Voluntary choice (also referred to as
self-selection) is sometimes used when a small number of pilot entities are sought to trial the
reforms. The use of pilot entities allows a government to gain experience in how to deal with
the reforms and the problems likely to be encountered, and assists in developing a core of
trained personnel.

2.20 It is possible to design different transition paths for different types or sizes of entities. For
example, large entities may be delegated authority to design and oversee the development of
their financial information systems, whereas smaller entities may be required to follow a
centrally determined transition path, including the implementation of specific financial
information systems. For example, many Government Business Enterprises (GBEs) will
already use the accrual basis of accounting. The transition path for such GBEs would
therefore focus on ensuring consistency of accounting policies and other consolidation
issues.

Whole-of-Government Reporting
2.21 Where a government decides to implement whole-of-government reporting, there are a
number of paths it can take. The first accrual whole-of-government reports can be required at
the same time as the first accrual reports from individual entities. Alternatively, the
production of such reports may be delayed for a period to allow more time to focus on the
transition by individual entities, the boundaries of the reporting entity and other
consolidation issues. Another option is to produce consolidated accrual reports for various
sub-sectors of the whole-of-government reporting entity as an interim step, and then
complete whole-of-government reports.

Step-by-Step Implementation
2.22 Accrual accounting requires the recognition of all assets and liabilities which meet the
definition of assets and liabilities and satisfy the criteria for recognition of assets and
liabilities. However, this does not preclude an entity from choosing to move to the full

23
 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
accrual basis by recognizing assets and liabilities in stages. For example, it is possible to
focus first on the recognition of short-term assets and liabilities such as debtors and creditors.
Recognition of tangible assets would often occur next, although recognition of tangible
assets may also occur in stages with those assets that are readily identified and measured
being recognized first. The recognition of non-exchange (taxation) receivables and intangible
assets may be deferred for a period in order to resolve issues associated with the
measurement of these assets.

2.23 Similarly, the recognition of liabilities can occur in a step-by-step manner. Public debt is
often recognized first because an entity usually has reasonably accurate records of existing
borrowings. Pension and other long-term obligations may be recognized in stages.

Accrual Budgeting/Authorization
2.24 If accrual budgeting is being introduced as part of the reforms, the change in budgeting and
authorization processes may occur at the same time as the initial change to accrual reporting.
However, in a number of jurisdictions it has occurred at least one to two periods after the
introduction of accrual reports. This delay is sometimes required to provide assurance to
those responsible for authorization of budgets that the new financial systems can provide
reliable information on which to base budget authorizations.

Reform Period
2.25 Usually, the resources available or the extent of political commitment will determine the
period over which reforms occur. These periods can differ from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.
Reform periods may be short (say, one to three years), medium (say, four to six years) or
long (say over six years).

2.26 A short reform period may be appropriate where there is strong political support and a
limited number of entities. Medium reform periods provide more time for the preparation of
detailed implementation plans, the development of accounting policies and implementation
and testing of new systems. They also provide a reasonably long time for the education of
groups such as government employees and politicians regarding the changes. The benefits of
a longer implementation period need to be balanced against the risks of “reform fatigue”.
Reform fatigue occurs when those at the forefront of the changes in government entities lose
the sense of urgency and enthusiasm needed to implement the reforms, particularly if no
benefits emerge early in the process.

2.27 In selecting a time frame for the transition, a government may also establish target dates or
stages (milestones) for the achievement of various aspects of the reforms. Entities may be
required to meet certain criteria by certain dates in order to progress to the next stage of
implementation. For example, entities may be required to have recognized major /all assets
and liabilities and have operational information systems before they are permitted to
implement cash management reforms.

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 Chapter 2: Managing the Process
2.28 Governments that have adopted accrual accounting have done so over varying time frames
and in some cases, in a number of stages. For example, the United Kingdom produced its
first resource (accrual) accounts for individual departments in 1999-00 and the first request
for parliamentary approval of spending on a resource-base (accrual-base) for 2001-02. A
staged approach for the preparation of consolidated financial statements for the whole of the
public sector is planned. This process will include consolidation of unaudited central
government accounts using information from the National Accounts for 2001-02,
consolidation of central government accounts using generally accepted accounting principles
for 2003-04 and whole-of-government accounts for 2005-06.

Transition and External Audit

2.29 Many jurisdictions require the preparation of audited financial statements by the government
as a whole and/or by individual controlled entities. Depending upon the type of transition
path chosen, a jurisdiction may need to explore some options for meeting audit requirements
during the transition period. The acceptability of options will depend upon the legislative
requirements in that jurisdiction. Options for dealing with audit requirements during the
transition period include:
• continuing to prepare audited financial statements under the existing basis of accounting
until the transition is complete. This would involve the preparation of parallel reports for
a period of time;
• an audit report which states compliance with the stated basis of accounting. This option
allows an entity to phase in the requirements of accounting standards over a period of
time;
• preparing an unaudited and unpublished set of financial statements as a trial run (often in
parallel with the production of a set of audited financial statements under the existing
basis of accounting);
• publishing an unaudited set of financial statements as an interim step and for a limited
number of reporting periods; and
• publishing an audited set of financial statements with some audit qualifications. A
government may choose to give a public commitment to resolve these issues over a set
period of time.

2.30 The nature of the relationship between the executive and the external/independent auditor
will vary across jurisdictions. Although it is essential that auditors maintain their
independence, there are many benefits to be obtained from establishing a cooperative
working relationship with the auditor at the beginning of the transition process. This could
include formally consulting the external auditor over proposed transition paths. An auditor
would be unlikely to give an absolute assurance that a particular system or process would
meet audit requirements. However, the auditor may be able to provide helpful advice
regarding the criteria that would be used in assessing the system or process.

25
 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
Implementation Plans
2.31 Having selected a transition path, an entity then needs to develop an implementation plan to
enable it to achieve its goals. The Appendix to this Chapter contains the key headings for a
generic implementation plan that indicates many of the issues that need to be considered.

Successful Transition

2.32 The transition to accrual accounting is a major project for most governments. Like any large-
scale project, it requires careful planning and management. Transition is likely to be
smoother and faster when the following features are present:
• a clear mandate;
• political commitment;
• the commitment of central entities and key officials;
• adequate resources (human and financial);
• an effective project management and coordination structure;
• adequate technological capacity and information systems; and
• the use of legislation to provide formal authority and signal commitment to the changes.

Mandate
2.33 A clear mandate from the appropriate level of the government stating what the reforms will
encompass, the expected timing and the authority of various government bodies to initiate
the changes required, is important. A clear mandate gives relevant officials and entities the
power to initiate change and oversee the reforms.

Political Commitment
2.34 Political commitment from both the governing body, or those elected representatives who
oversee the governing body, and the opposing party is generally required to secure initial
approval for the proposed changes and to provide continuing support for the changes when
obstacles or opposition are encountered. Changing the basis of accounting requires
considerable resources. If political commitment is not established early in the process,
inability to overcome problems later in the process may result in scarce resources being
wasted.

Commitment of Central Entities and Key Officials

2.35 One reason the active support and leadership of top governmental officials and politicians is
required is that changes to the basis of accounting, together with other financial management
reforms such as the devolution of authority for resources, involve changes to the power
structure. Key people who are prepared to publicly stand by the changes may also fulfill the
role of “fixers” when things go wrong. Although such key people are essential, it is

26
 Chapter 2: Managing the Process
necessary to guard against the risk of the project failing if a key person withdraws support or
is no longer available. Financial reforms may also require a change in the culture of the
public service. For example, an individual may be given more responsibility for financial
management and be expected to understand and use new types of financial information. Such
culture changes take time and effort. The “buy-in” of top officials can help this process.

Adequate Resources
2.36 A variety of skills are required to manage and maintain a change to the accrual basis of
accounting. Identification of the types of skills required, and planning to ensure the
availability of those skills is critical to the success of the transition. An entity will generally
need:
• individuals with project management and change management skills;
• individuals with an understanding of and experience in accounting policy issues and
systems requirements;
• key personnel who understand the interrelationships between the different elements of
the reform process;
• individuals with the ability to record data in an accrual accounting system and to extract
and explain information from the system. This would normally involve both the
recruitment of additional staff and some additional training for existing staff (Chapter 3
Skills Assessment and Training discusses these issues in more detail); and
• adequate funding for additional resources required, including additional staffing,
acquisition of specialist skills and the development and installation of financial
information systems.

Project Management
2.37 Project management generally involves splitting the project into separate components that
can then be managed by individuals with the appropriate skills and experience. A reform
project should have:
• a documented framework/philosophy. The agreed approach needs to be documented to
form a consistent base for the communication of the reforms, to assist staff to understand
the reasons for the changes and the approach being taken, and to ensure that actual
implementation is in accordance with these decisions;
• a formal implementation plan. The nature of the implementation plan will vary
depending upon the style and scale of the reforms. Examples of implementation plans
(key headings only) for the adoption of accrual accounting are included in the Appendix
to this Chapter;
• a clear allocation of responsibility for each task and the respective roles and
responsibilities of key entities and officials;

27
 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
• project milestones together with procedures for monitoring the performance of entities
and individuals against those milestones. Some jurisdictions (for example, the
Philippines and Thailand) have developed “trigger points”, which are a series of
documented criteria that entities must meet at certain stages of the project. These trigger
points form the basis for deciding whether devolution of resources will occur, and the
audit report on each stage highlights areas where risks exist and where remedial action
may be necessary;
• an approval/sign-off process detailing who has authority for particular decisions;
• formal communication and coordination mechanisms to distribute information to and
collect information from entities; and
• a budget. Initial costs need to be clearly identified and budgeted for. If individual entities
associated with the transition are expected to manage changes within their existing
budget or within a nominal additional budget, this needs to be clearly identified at the
beginning of the project.

Technological Capacity and Information Systems

2.38 The adoption of accrual financial reporting in conjunction with other public sector reforms
often involves changes to a wide range of information systems. Entities contemplating a
transition to accrual accounting need to perform an assessment of all existing systems that
link to the financial reporting system. For example, changes may be required to the following
systems:
• revenue system;
• purchase acquisition system;
• travel system;
• grant and benefit systems;
• human resources and payroll systems;
• fixed assets system;
• property management system;
• inventory system;
• debt system;
• budget system; and
• non-financial systems.

2.39 The assessment of existing systems could include the following issues:
• What information is currently held within the systems?
• What additional information is required (including an assessment of the information
required in order to comply with accrual-based IPSASs)?

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 Chapter 2: Managing the Process
• To what extent should centralized systems be decentralized (this will be dependent upon
the policy framework underlying any wider reforms)?
• What is the current degree of integration of financial and other systems compared to the
degree of integration desired?
• Should existing systems be replaced or adapted, and if systems are to be replaced, should
the replacement be with an “off the shelf” system or a custom design system?

2.40 Where a government is planning to introduce a new financial management system, it may
need to consider redesigning its existing record keeping systems in order to make sure that
they support its financial management systems. Tools for assessing existing arrangements
and systems are described in Barata, Cain and Routledge (2001). Such tools include the use
of assessment worksheets which require the reviewer to assess matters such as whether the
record keeping system restricts access to records by unauthorized staff and whether an
auditor can easily trace transactions from originating documents, manual transaction
registers, journals and ledgers, through to successive summarization.

Use of Legislation
2.41 The process of drafting legislation and consulting key groups on the proposed changes has a
number of benefits. The use of legislation demonstrates the strength of the government’s
commitment to the changes. The consultation process that usually accompanies legislative
changes provides an opportunity to inform and educate other political parties and influential
groups within government of the benefits of the changes. The drafting of legislative
represents an additional step in the planning and development process. As such, it provides
an opportunity to review the proposed changes to ensure they are comprehensive and
consistent. As noted in paragraph 2.10, under the entity-by-entity approach, formal political
approval of changes to the system of financial reporting and financial management may not
be required.

Focusing Effort to Use Resources Wisely

2.42 Most entities planning a transition to accrual accounting have limited resources. It is
therefore essential that the entities use those resources as efficiently and effectively as
possible. Good project management, including clear identification of goals, responsibilities,
timelines and dependencies, is an important aspect of using resources wisely.

2.43 In addition, the application of materiality can have a significant impact on aspects of the
transition, particularly the speed of the transition. Information is material if its omission or
misstatement could influence the decisions or assessments of users made on the basis of the
financial statements. For example, a complete and accurate opening Statement of Financial
Position is one of the first steps in implementing the accrual basis. Identifying and valuing all
assets and liabilities can take considerable time. However, it is a fundamental step in the
process and, if an entity is seeking an unqualified audit report, the opening balances must be
supported by reliable records and appropriate valuations. In establishing the opening
balances for the Statement of Financial Position, the concept of materiality can assist with

29
 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
the identification of those assets and liabilities that will be subject to the highest level of
external scrutiny. It is therefore appropriate to devote more time and resources in the initial
stages to the identification and valuation of these assets and liabilities than others.

2.44 Less-material assets and liabilities still need to be identified and valued in a manner that is
acceptable to the internal and external auditors. However, it may be possible to produce
acceptable short-term information using approaches that require less time and resources than
the approaches used for other assets and liabilities. Possible interim solutions which may be
acceptable in some situations include:
• using an approximation of the final intended valuation method;
• using samples to determine the reliability or accuracy of information rather than
verifying the information held on each item; and
• temporarily omitting specific categories of assets or liabilities from the balance sheet.

2.45 The concept of materiality can also be used to help structure the consolidation process and
the amount of time and effort that goes into calculating the consolidation adjustments. If a
particular category of inter-entity transactions is immaterial, the transactions would not need
to be eliminated on consolidation. Similarly, if differences between accounting policies do
not have a material impact, it will not be necessary to perform adjustments to align the
accounting policies of entities within the consolidated financial statements.

2.46 Interim approaches such as those outlined above can help an entity make significant and
observable progress in short time frames. However, an entity will need to consider whether
such approaches will still allow it to meet its objectives, such as an unqualified audit opinion.
The stewardship obligations of an entity may also mean that such approaches are
inappropriate for some transactions and balances.

Accrual Budgeting

2.47 This Study focuses on the adoption of accrual financial reporting. However, a brief
discussion of accrual budgeting is included in this Chapter because a growing number of
jurisdictions are adopting accrual budgeting and authorization systems (OECD, 2000). An
accrual budget would be supported by a full set of forecast financial statements including a
projected Statement of Financial Position, Statement of Financial Performance and Cash
Flow Statement. The full set of forecast financial statements, including the assumptions used
in preparing those statements, may be subject to review by a legislative body. Formal budget
appropriations or authorizations are consistent with, or linked to, the figures presented in the
statements.

2.48 Accrual financial reporting can be implemented in conjunction with a cash-based or other
budgeting/authorization system. Even where a jurisdiction plans to change its method of
budgeting to an accrual basis, this change may be scheduled for one or two periods following
the introduction of accrual accounting. This is usually to ensure the accuracy and reliability
of the accrual data before changing the budgeting system. However, some jurisdictions that
have operated under such dual systems have noted that this may hinder the acceptance of the

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 Chapter 2: Managing the Process
accrual-based accounting. The use of dual systems also requires extensive reconciliations
between the two systems.

2.49 The success of accrual-based accounting is partly dependent upon the other incentives
provided to managers. If managers are held accountable for managing cash-based budgets,
then their focus (and the focus of politicians) may continue to be on cash resources, at the
expense of the new accrual information.

Chart of Accounts

2.50 A chart of accounts is a systematic coding system for the classification and coding of
transactions and events within the accounting system. It defines the organization of ledgers
used within the accounting system. For example, the asset classifications available within the
chart of accounts may allow assets to be classified by type, term (current or non-current),
responsibility center, location, etc. The chart of accounts may also include codes for
recording transactions against budgetary approvals.

2.51 Where a number of individual entities are required to provide information to a central entity
for the preparation of consolidated financial statements or for other reporting purposes, it is
usual to have a central chart of accounts. This central chart of accounts needs to:
• meet the needs of both individual and central entities;
• provide a uniform coding structure for coding financial transactions; and
• permit flexibility for individual entities to adapt it to their particular requirements.

2.52 The central chart of accounts needs to be developed early in the process to allow individual
entities time to tailor it to their own needs. Individual entities need to incorporate the
requirements of their chart of accounts when specifying the deliverables required from
accounting software.

Other Governmental Reporting

2.53 It is also desirable to design financial reporting systems so that they can provide the data
required for other forms of governmental reporting such as Government Finance Statistics
(GFS). The revised GFS is on an accrual basis, but there are some differences between the
systems that will require adjustments if the same data set is to be used for both sets of
financial reporting.

The Impact of EU Accession on Budgeting, Control and Audit

2.54 Where a country is contemplating becoming a member of the European Union (EU), the
impact of EU policies, rules and regulations on national budgeting, financial reporting and
auditing systems needs to be considered. Preparation for EU membership (for example,
additional staff training and the development of new information systems) can be
successfully combined with more widespread financial reforms. One implication of EU
membership is that generally more emphasis needs to be placed on internal control systems

31
 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
and internal audit. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
has published a study that describes the experience of certain member states in integrating
national and European Community budgetary procedures and requirements (OECD 1998a,
OECD 1998b). The following quote from the OECD study illustrates the lessons learned in
adapting the Swedish budgetary and financial control systems to meet the requirements of
EU membership.
It is important that national preparations start early, well before accession. In the beginning, the most
important steps are to:

• launch training programs (language and technical skills);

• establish contacts with the Commission and Member States on the expert level; and

• assess the quality of present systems for budgeting and financial control in the light of the EC
Treaty and Regulations.

The quality of systems is often improved if EU funds can be handled in the same way as national
funds. If the national system does not meet EC requirements in some respect, it may be worthwhile to
consider changes also for the national resources. In some cases, however, it is inevitable to create
specific functions or routines for the EU funds, both in policy-making and administration and control
of EU revenues and expenditures.

The complexity of and resources needed for purely technical matters, such as creation of necessary
electronic data processing (EDP) systems, must not be underestimated. Differences in powers between
EU and national inspectors and auditors may be avoided.

Good co-ordination between the Ministry of Finance and the line ministries, as well as rapidity and
timeliness, are crucial for the process to work smoothly and results to be achieved. This is equally
important in budget-related matters, as well as financial control and anti-fraud measures. The
Ministry of Finance should be given a leading role in the process to formulate the state’s position on
proposals and strategic decisions.

The set-up of systems for financial management, control and internal audit within the areas of
agriculture, Structural Funds and customs should be given high priority and careful consideration. It
is expected of all Member States to co-operate closely with the Commission’s Financial Controller
(DG XX).

The relationship between national and regional levels can be difficult if the division of responsibilities
in the management and control process is not clarified at an early stage.

EC requirements change continuously in order to improve efficiency and strengthen the protection of
the Communities’ financial interests. This is an ongoing process which probably will never cease. All
Members of the Union must therefore be prepared, and set up their systems accordingly, for further
negotiations, tighter EC rules and further adjustments in their respective national systems1.

1
OECD 1998a, page 100

32
 Chapter 2: Managing the Process

References
Asselin L., Integrated Financial Management in Latin America, as of 1995, LATPS Occasional
Paper Series Number 18 , September 1995.

Barata, K., Cain, P., and Routledge, D., Principles and Practices in Managing Financial Records: A
Reference Model and Assessment Tool, International Records Management Trust, Rights and
Records Institute, London, UK ,http://www.infodev.org/,
http://www.irmt.org/resources/mfrsr.pdf, March 2001.

Campos, E., and Pradhan, S., “Evaluating Public Expenditure Management Systems: An
Experimental Methodology with an Application to the Australia and New Zealand Reforms”,
Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, Vol. 16, No 3: 423-445, 1997.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), November 2000, Accrual
Accounting and Budgeting Practices in Member Countries: Overview, International Accrual
Accounting and Budgeting Symposium, Paris, 13-14 ,
http://www.oecd.org/ November 2000.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 1998a, Sigma Paper No 19,
Effects of European Union Accession – Part I: Budgeting and Financial Control, OCED(97)163 ,
http://www.oecd.org/puma/sigmaweb/pubs/forwards/sp20for.htm

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 1998b, Sigma Paper No 20,
Effects of European Union Accession – Part II: External Audit, OCED(97)163,
http://www.oecd.org/puma/sigmaweb/pubs/pubnos/pubno20.htm .

The Scottish Parliament, Finance Committee, 7th Report 2001, Resource Accounting and Budgeting,
FI/01/R7, 2001.

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting

Appendix: Generic Implementation Plan – Key Headings

Project Initiation
Document project and obtain project approval
Establish the steering committee
Prepare detailed project plan(s)
Establish project team
Project sponsor
Project manager
Project team (team leader/director and other staff)
Identify required resources
Obtain required resources

Detailed Scoping and Planning

Document existing processes, procedures and legislative requirements (including existing

accounting policies and systems)
Identify proposed changes or areas of change (including proposed accounting policies and
systems)
Systems planning
Identify structure/ownership of proposed systems
Identify system requirements (existing and new systems)
Identify control requirements
Identify interfaces required
Develop the chart of accounts
Develop interfaces (if applicable)
Reporting
Develop new reporting requirements
Audit
Liaise with external auditor to assess impact of changes on audit process
Identify role of internal audit during the change process

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 Chapter 2: Managing the Process
Develop communications plan
Prepare training strategies (for example, project team, accrual accounting, and computer
literacy)
Develop change management strategy

Implementation Phase

Initiate project management responsibilities and reporting structures

Implement new systems/system changes
Implement interfaces
Develop detailed accounting policies
Develop/amend supporting financial management policies and procedures
Implement roles and responsibilities
Deliver training
Obtain approval to switch to new systems
Implement other phased projects (for example, the recognition of specific categories of assets
or liabilities may be phased)

Reporting

Develop improved external and internal reporting

Develop financial and non-financial performance measures
Review controls and procedures that support the integrity of financial and non-financial
information

35
 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting

Examples of Implementation Plans

• Plan to implement accrual accounting within a jurisdiction previously using modified accrual
accounting: Financial Information Strategy (FIS) in the Canadian Federal Government
Implementation Strategy Guide, January 1999
http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca
• Plan to prepare annual financial statements: ANAO Better Practice Guide, Financial Statements
Preparation, 1996
http://www.anao.gov.au
• Plan to implement GASB Statement 34 within a State Government: The State of Michigan
GASB Statement 34 Implementation Plan Overview July 2000
• Plan to integrate financial systems: Defense Finance and Accounting Service (DFAS) Systems
Integration and Implementation Plan, October 2000
http://www.dfas.mil

Web Sites with Details of Financial Management Assistance Projects

• http://www.adb.org/Publications
• http://www.ausaid.gov.au
• http://www.sagric.com.au

36
 Chapter 3: Skills Assessment and Training

CHAPTER 3: SKILLS ASSESSMENT AND TRAINING

Key Points

• To reap the full benefits of the transition to accrual accounting, it is important that all personnel
involved understand the reasons for the change, are capable of implementing the changes in their
own entity, can operate the resultant new systems and procedures and understand the information
produced.
• Entities need to assess the impact of the changes on the competencies required in relevant
positions, and develop a strategy which includes, but is not confined to, training for upgrading
skills.
• Options for addressing gaps in competency include recruitment, consultants, development of
external courses and training for existing staff.

Introduction

3.1 This Chapter discusses issues associated with the identification, design and delivery of
training, under the following headings:
• Identification of Target Groups
• Identification of Training Needs
• Training Strategies
• Delivery of Training
• Evaluation and Assessment
• Cross-Training
• Ongoing Training
• Lessons Learned

3.2 The successful adoption of accrual accounting (in part or in full) and the associated systems
changes cannot occur without appropriately trained personnel. In addition, training on the
benefits of accrual accounting and general awareness of the reforms and expected benefits is
crucial – people need to be convinced of the benefits or they will not see the purpose of the
reforms. Such training needs to occur at all levels of government and needs to be at least
partially driven and “owned” by individual entities. The development of an effective training
strategy, and delivery of appropriate training in accordance with that strategy is an essential
element of transition risk management. The development of training strategies and the
implementation of training programs should therefore be identified as project milestones.

3.3 In common with any major reform or systems change, in order to reap the full benefits of the
change, it is important that personnel:

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
• understand the reasons for the changes, the reform design, the implementation approach
and reform implications (training is one way of implementing a communications
strategy);
• understand the practicalities of implementing the reforms in their own entity and are able
to implement the changes;
• are able to operate systems and procedures following implementation (at both a
centralized and decentralized level); and
• are able to use the information generated by new systems.

3.4 In addition to changes in the specific skills required, the implementation of changes to
financial management systems may also require cultural or “mind-shift” changes. For
example, senior public officials may be expected to assume much greater responsibility for
the financial management of an entity. It is important that both the technical and the cultural
aspects of change are addressed in the development of communications and training
strategies.

Identification of Target Groups

3.5 The identification of target groups and the development of training strategies for each target
group mean that training can be customized to the needs of specific groups. The number of
target groups identified will depend upon the size of the organization and the resources
available. When resources are limited, broader target groups and more generalized training
may be necessary.

3.6 Although the nature and composition of target groups will vary across entities, the following
examples may assist entities to identify appropriate target groups.

Examples of Target Groups Within a Central Government:

• Politicians and Legislative Users
• Public Oversight Bodies
• Central Entities (for example Audit, Personnel)
• Budget/Finance Analysts in Finance Entities
• Heads of Departments/Entities
• Senior Managers
• Operational Managers
• Finance Managers
• Finance Staff
• General Staff
• Media

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 Chapter 3: Skills Assessment and Training
Examples of Target Groups Within an Individual Entity1:
• Reform Implementation Team
• Senior Management
• Program Managers
• Administration Support to Program Managers
• Senior Finance Managers
• Finance Officers
• Internal Auditors
• System Operators
• Asset Managers (for example, Inventory and Property Managers)
• Functional Support Groups (for example, Purchasing Staff)

3.7 The purpose of training target groups may vary. For example:
• education of key leaders of the government regarding the role, purpose and objectives of
the reform will reinforce political support; and
• management and other staff need to understand their roles and responsibilities within the
context of the reforms, their responsibilities within their sub-systems, and the
relationships between the various sub-systems.

Identification of Training Needs

3.8 “Needs” assessment involves identifying discrepancies between existing capacities and the
capacities desired following the reforms, and determining the relative priority of
discrepancies.

3.9 The first stage in the identification of training needs is to look at the impact of the reforms on
the type of skills, knowledge and behavior (referred to collectively as competencies) required
for various types of positions. Many reforms include decentralization of functions and this
can have a major impact on the competencies required.

3.10 Competencies are most useful when they are expressed in terms of outputs and behavior.
Competencies may be expressed in levels (for example level 1 could be used to denote core
skills and level 2 could be used to denote advanced skills), but such levels will not
necessarily link directly to particular grades within the public sector remuneration system. A
mix of competencies, experience and responsibility usually determines grades and pay of
individuals and positions. Although the development of a competence framework may take
some time, the existence of a generic framework for certain public sector positions allows

1
Some of these target groups may also be applicable at the whole-of-government level.

39
 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
individual entities to more easily develop their own competence framework and makes it
easier to identify training needs.

3.11 Useful references for the development of competencies include:

• Financial and Accountancy Competences Framework: Report by Working Group (HM
Treasury, 2000). This document includes examples of generic competencies for various
financial and accounting positions within the public sector, and explains how those
competencies link to relevant national qualifications.
• Principles and Practices in Managing Financial Records: A Reference Model and
Assessment Tool (Barata, Cain and Routledge, 2001). This document provides a skills
matrix for assessing the skills and knowledge required at different levels for managing
financial records.
• Competence-Based Approaches to the Preparation and Work of the Professional
Accountant (IFAC, 2001). This paper explores the topic of accountant competency,
providing an analysis of approaches used by various accountancy institutes around the
world. The discussion paper seeks to define “competence” and “capabilities”, provides
guidance to accountancy membership bodies on their role in developing competencies
and capabilities, and assesses various methods. The framework within the paper draws
together an outcomes approach (accountants performing roles and tasks in the workplace
to a defined standard) and an inputs approach (knowledge, skills and abilities).

3.12 Once the skills required under the new system have been identified, these requirements can
be compared with the skills and experience available. It may be helpful to differentiate
between those skills that are commonly required in the private sector and those that relate
exclusively to the public sector. This would be of use if wide-scale recruitment from the
private sector were likely.

3.13 When an entity moves from cash accounting to accrual accounting, it experiences changes in
the types of knowledge required, and in the way in which the organization is managed and
operates. Under cash accounting, it is common for many accounting and management
functions to be centrally managed and for individual entities to have limited authority over
assets and other resources. In this type of environment, accounting skills are not in high
demand and as a consequence there may be a severe shortage of personnel with the
accounting qualifications required to implement accrual accounting.

3.14 However, training will need to focus on more than accounting skills. In the public service,
training generally has two different components:
• a technical component that reflects the knowledge and skills to be mastered; and
• an environmental or organizational component that reflects the values, policies and
practices of the public service.

3.15 In other words, it is not sufficient for personnel to master the technical aspects of accrual
accounting and information management. They must understand the reasons for its
implementation, as well as the rules, the policies and the new norms of the government. The

40
 Chapter 3: Skills Assessment and Training
adoption of accrual accounting is also usually accompanied by devolution of financial
management responsibilities to program managers. They cannot take initiative, be critical, or
feel accountable if they do not understand the foundation for the changes.

3.16 Once the gaps between the skills and experience currently available and those required to
implement and operate the new systems have been identified, the next step is to consider
alternative ways of meeting those training needs and, where appropriate, to develop training
strategies.

Training Strategies

3.17 Options for addressing the gap between the capabilities of existing staff and the capabilities
required include:
• the recruitment of qualified accountants from outside the public service;
• use of consultants/contractors;
• the development of public sector accounting and management courses in conjunction
with universities and other training organizations (or the education of university lecturers
in government reforms so that they can incorporate these reforms within existing
courses); and
• the provision of training to existing staff through:
– seminars and workshops provided by professional accounting bodies;
– formal courses offered by academic and other training institutions (such training may
be available as part of a formal study leave program);
– courses developed and offered by government training facilities (these courses may
also be made available to individual entities who wish to customize the materials);
– internal seminars, workshops and conferences by individual entities; and
• seminars and workshops by external audit entities.

3.18 The resources available will determine the appropriateness of various training strategies. For
example, limited resources may mean that training takes place over a longer time frame and
that existing staff are used to develop and deliver training programs. The types of systems
and software chosen will also impact on training strategies. For example, if “off-the shelf”
software solutions or “industry standard” approaches are used, it is likely that either the
manufacturer or other private providers will already have developed training material to
support the product or approach.

3.19 Although this Chapter focuses on issues associated with training existing staff, it also
includes a brief discussion of recruitment from the private sector and the use of consultants
and contractors.

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
Recruitment from the Private Sector
3.20 An entity’s ability to recruit qualified staff from outside the public sector will depend upon
the state of the labor market at that time and the ability of the public sector to meet private
sector remuneration and other terms and conditions of employment.

3.21 It will also depend upon whether individuals with private sector experience perceive that
they have the appropriate skills and experience to transfer to the public sector environment.
Mobility of individuals between the private and public sectors is enhanced when financial
reporting and underlying systems requirements are similar in both sectors. There will usually
be some differences in financial reporting between the two sectors. However, governments
can choose a style of reform that minimizes these differences and increases the likelihood of
people, systems and training resources transferring between sectors.

Consultants and Contractors

3.22 In the short term, the use of consultants and contractors may be an efficient way to meet
immediate resource needs or to obtain specialized assistance. Some factors to consider in
obtaining maximum benefit from consultants include:
• the early identification of skilled personnel to work alongside consultants;
• the use of a formal agreement to transfer knowledge to permanent staff;
• the development of teams and mechanisms so that this knowledge transfer can occur; and
• the use of guidelines and monitoring procedures to ensure sustainability in the
knowledge transfer.

3.23 Where there is a shortage of consultants in a particular field, the cost of using consultants
may be very high relative to the cost of training existing staff. However, even in such cases,
there can still be benefits in using a limited number of experienced consultants together with
internal staff. For example, the use of experienced systems consultants can reduce the risk of
inappropriate configurations and subsequent re-work.

Development of University (and Other) Courses

3.24 The development of customized public sector courses to be offered by academic or other
training institutions requires a significant investment in time and other resources. However,
where the number of staff requiring training warrants the development of customized
courses, the following benefits can occur:
• increased relevance of training for participants;
• knowledge learned may be directly applied – the learner is not required to assess the
extent to which the course material is applicable to the public sector environment;
• following the initial investment in time, little effort is required by the government; and

42
 Chapter 3: Skills Assessment and Training
• the course is a long-term resource which can be developed and refined to keep pace with
further public sector changes.

3.25 The courses developed in conjunction with academic or training institutions may be general
or very specific. For example, a general course such as a Stage I course in government
accounting could be developed. This type of course would then be available to existing
government employees and the wider student population, thus increasing awareness of
government accounting among potential future employees. More specific courses consisting
of a number of modules may be developed for targeted groups of employees. For example, a
program could consist of a mixture of core modules and a number of optional modules.

Training
3.26 Possible training topics include:
• overview of reforms;
• general awareness of the reforms and anticipated benefits;
• general principles of accrual accounting;
• code of ethics/code of conduct;
• corporate governance;
• accrual accounting:
– government accounting standards and policies;
– preparation of financial statements;
– meeting internal and external audit requirements;
– chart of accounts; and
– accounting for assets;
• asset management; and
• systems training.

3.27 Centrally developed material can be provided to individual entities so that the effort required
for customization is minimized. Central entities may also choose to provide details of
qualified instructors for various aspects of training. However, individual entities are often
responsible for identifying their own training needs and deciding how to meet those needs.
For example, where a number of entities are implementing the same financial systems, a
central entity or group of entities may organize customized courses and workshops specific
to that financial system. However, each entity would normally be responsible for determining
the extent of its involvement in such training and in selecting the individuals who are to
participate.

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
Delivery of Training

3.28 Entities have a number of training decisions to make, including:

• training topics and content;
• in-house or external provider (or some mix, such as “train the trainers”);
• method(s) of delivery; and
• the timing of training.

3.29 Methods of delivery could include:

• traditional instructor-led classroom training;
• multi-media computer-based courses (instructor-led or self-paced); and
• workshops.

3.30 The choice of training will need to take into account cost, time constraints and the ability of
staff to be released from work for training.

3.31 The technique of “train the trainers”, whereby an entity trains its own staff to act as trainers
for other staff is increasingly being viewed as a lower cost way of disseminating externally
developed material. Benefits of the “train the trainer” approach include:
• lower cost than using consultants;
• the training material is understood at an in-depth level by a wider number of entity staff;
• staff may be more receptive to being trained by colleagues;
• where more than one language is used within a jurisdiction this approach makes it easier
to provide bi-lingual or multi-lingual training; and
• the trainers become expert resources for the entity and are useful long after the entity has
converted to accrual accounting.

3.32 However, the “train the trainers” approach carries some risk. Possible problems with this
approach include:
• staff selected to be trainers because they have certain technical competence may not be
comfortable in a training role;
• trainers may not deliver the message as well as experienced external trainers; and
• trainers may deliver inaccurate messages.
3.33 Where the “train the trainers” approach is used, the commitment of trainers can be increased
by ensuring that they are convinced of the importance of the changes and the need for the
training.

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 Chapter 3: Skills Assessment and Training
3.34 The timing of training is important. If it is too early in the transition process, staff may forget
what they learned and need refresher courses. Although general training may commence up
to a year prior to implementation, some training (for example, systems training) will be best
delivered just prior to implementation. Topics such as using the financial information
generated by the new systems may be required both before and after implementation.

Evaluation and Assessment

3.35 A post-audit review of training can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the training and
assess the need for further training.

3.36 One indicator of the extent to which additional training is required is the amount of
assistance that external auditors have provided in order to obtain unqualified financial
statements or to minimize the extent of qualifications. Although there will often be
confidentiality considerations, entities may be willing to allow an independent reviewer
access to their audit files.

Cross-Training

3.37 In developing training strategies for various groups of staff, an entity may wish to consider
cross training certain groups of staff, for example, accounts payable and purchasing staff.
Cross training refers to the practice of training staff in two or more areas. Cross training
means that staff are more aware of the links between various activities and can work in other
areas to ease high workloads or staff shortages.

Ongoing Training

3.38 Although an initial burst of training is required to support the introduction of accrual
accounting, an entity will usually have an ongoing need to provide financial management
training to its staff. A summary of the new system and the financial management
responsibilities of various staff need to be built in to induction programs for new staff and
regular refresher courses for other staff.

3.39 Following the introduction of accrual accounting, an entity will need to develop policies and
procedures to support the operation of systems and the management of financial risks. Policy
manuals and guidelines are a form of training that assist employees in carrying out their
duties and assist with on-the-job training.

Lessons Learned

3.40 A study prepared on behalf of the Treasury Board of Canada (Hickling Corporation, 1997)
identified some key “lessons learned” from government organizations that have already
converted to accrual accounting systems. These lessons learned included the following.
• It is almost impossible to overestimate the amount of training required.

45
 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
• Anticipate staff turnover during implementation, since this increases the burden on
training and could delay project implementation.
• Training is best when using actual data because it is more meaningful to personnel being
trained.
• Try an integrated training approach which allows participants from different work areas
to discuss what they do and how they interface1.

1
(Hickling Corporation 1997)

46
 Chapter 3: Skills Assessment and Training

References
Australian National Audit Office (ANAO), Asset Management Audit Report No. 41, Financial
Control and Administration Audit Across Agency
http://www.anao.gov.au/, 1998.

Barata, K., Cain, P., and Routledge, D., Principles and Practices in Managing Financial
Records: A Reference Model and Assessment Tool, International Records Management Trust,
Rights and Records Institute, London, UK
http://www.infodev.org/, March 2001.

Barrett P.J., Financial Management in the Electronic Era: The Australian Experience, A Seminar on
Financial Management and Electronic Government, Kuala Lumpur, October 1997.

Canada Training Use, FIS Training Strategy, Oracle Cluster Group, March 2000.
http://www.pwgsc.gc.ca, January 1999.

Canadian Treasury Board, Financial Information Strategy (FIS) in the Canadian Federal
Government, Implementation Strategy Guide
http://www.pwgsc.gc.ca, 2001.

Hickling Corporation, Financial Information Strategy: Study of the Implementation of Full

Accrual Accounting in Government Organizations, Lessons Learned, Prepared for: Treasury
Board of Canada, Secretariat, Hickling Ref: 6615
http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/, August 2000.

HM Treasury, Financial and Accountancy Competences Framework: Report by Working Group

http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/ July 2001.

HM Treasury, Resource Accounting Training and Trigger Point 3 Assurance – Review Paper
http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/, July 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Competence-Based Approaches to the

Preparation and Work of the Professional Accountant , 2001.

IFAC, Competency Profiles for Management Accounting Practice and Practitioners

http://www.ifac.org, December 2001

Michaud, P., Ph.D., Taylor, M., Ph.D., People Moving Forward, A Learning Framework for the
Financial Information Strategy
http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/

United Kingdom Public Accounts Committee, 2001, Select Committee on Public Accounts Twenty-
Ninth Report
http://www.publications.parliament.uk/

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting

United States General Accounting Office (GAO), Human Capital A Self-Assessment Checklist for
Agency Leaders, Version 1, GAO/OGC-00-14G
http://www.gao.gov

48
 Part II – General Financial Reporting Issues

PART II – GENERAL FINANCIAL REPORTING ISSUES

Part II of this Study explains the role of International Public Sector Accounting Standards in
establishing accounting policies, and outlines the steps required to develop and approve accounting
policies. It also applies the guidance in International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 6
Consolidated Financial Statements and Accounting for Controlled Entities to illustrate the types of
issues that need to be addressed in identifying controlled entities for the purpose of preparing
consolidated financial statements.

49
 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting

50
 Chapter 4: Accounting Policy Issues

CHAPTER 4: ACCOUNTING POLICY ISSUES

Key Points

• International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements

defines accounting policies.
• International Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSASs) specify the required accounting
treatment for certain transactions and events. In the absence of an IPSAS an entity needs to
develop policies based on other authoritative guidance.
• The development of accounting policies includes identifying those bodies and individuals with
the authority to develop and approve policies for various reporting entities, and establishing an
appropriate process for the development and approval of such policies.
• Consultation on proposed accounting policies is a useful quality check and assists with
communication.

Introduction

4.1 This Chapter describes some of the key steps involved in developing and approving a set of
accounting policies. An early focus on accounting policies is appropriate, as accounting
policies can impact on the subsequent requirements of information systems, training
strategies and communication strategies. For example, if an entity decides to revalue certain
classes of property, plant and equipment to fair value, it will need to develop procedures for
obtaining fair values on a regular basis and ensure that the accounting information system is
designed to accept revaluations.

Definition

4.2 Accounting policies are defined in IPSAS 1 as the specific principles, bases, conventions,
rules and practices adopted by an entity in preparing and presenting financial statements.
Accounting policies clarify the application of the requirements in relevant accounting
standards to individual transactions and balances. IPSAS 1 contains guidance on the
selection of accounting policies, and requires the disclosure of significant accounting policies
in the notes to the financial statements. International Public Sector Accounting Standard
IPSAS 3 Net Surplus or Deficit for the Period, Fundamental Errors and Changes in
Accounting Policies specifies the accounting treatment for changes in accounting policies.

4.3 A number of IPSASs contain guidance on how to account for specific transactions and
events. Where an IPSAS is adopted by an entity, a summary of the accounting treatment
required by the IPSAS represents the accounting policy for that transaction or event. Some
IPSASs allow entities to select from alternative accounting treatments. Where there is
currently no IPSAS on a topic, an entity will need to develop policies based on other
authoritative guidance.

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
4.4 A summary of all significant accounting policies is included in external (published) financial
statements. This summary is often referred to as the “Statement of Accounting Policies”.
IPSAS 1, paragraph 130, states, “In deciding whether a specific accounting policy should be
disclosed, management considers whether disclosure would assist users in understanding the
way in which transactions and events are reflected in the reported performance and financial
position.” IPSAS 1 also gives examples of accounting policies that an entity might consider
presenting. Appendices 1 and 2 to this Chapter include a more extensive list of topics for
which an entity may need to develop an accounting policy or prepare a disclosure statement.

4.5 The summarized accounting policies presented in the external (published) financial
statements focus on significant accounting policies. In contrast to these “external” policies,
an entity’s “internal” policies may include a more detailed description of the accounting
treatment adopted in respect of every type of transaction or event. The detailed internal
policies would generally be prepared first, with the external policies being derived from
these detailed policies. In the case of revenue items, the more detailed policies may describe
the classification of each type of revenue, the point at which that revenue item is to be
recognized, and the method of calculating amounts receivable. Such detailed accounting
policies may be referred to as an “Accounting Policy Manual”. The United Kingdom
Resource Accounting Manual (HM Treasury, 2001) is an example of such an accounting
policy manual.

4.6 The initial accounting policies developed by an entity may also need to include an
explanation of the valuation method(s) used to obtain opening balances for certain assets and
liabilities. Further discussion of possible approaches to establishing opening balances of
assets is found in Chapter 6.

Accounting Policies and Other Policies

4.7 Accounting policies are a subset of financial management policies. Entities making the
transition to accrual accounting will need to establish a new set of accounting policies and
review existing financial management policies in areas such as debt management, cash
management, asset management and financial authorities/delegations. For example, asset
management guidelines may state who is responsible for the custody and maintenance of an
asset, what steps they are required to take to safeguard the asset, and who is responsible for
reporting loss or damage to the asset. Following the introduction of accrual accounting, asset
management policies may also state who has the authority to enter or amend data in the
financial systems.

The Development of Accounting Policies

4.8 The development and approval of accounting policies includes both process tasks and
technical specification of policies. The tasks identified in this section have been written from
the perspective of a government intending to produce whole-of-government financial
statements which are consistent with IPSASs. Many of the tasks are also relevant for
individual reporting entities within a government. In the case of an individual reporting

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 Chapter 4: Accounting Policy Issues
entity, one of the first steps would be to establish the extent of the entity’s authority to
develop its own accounting policies.

4.9 The development of accounting policies includes the following steps:

• Identify who has the authority to approve the policies. Where consolidated financial
statements will be prepared, it is desirable to have consistent accounting policies across
the reporting entity. In the absence of consistent accounting policies, adjustments are
required at the time of consolidation. For this reason, a central body commonly retains
the right to determine significant accounting policies. However, this does not preclude
individual entities from being given the authority to develop more detailed accounting
policies or policies for transactions and balances that are specific to their entity.
• Identify those responsible for developing and reviewing the policies prior to final
approval. Appropriate representatives may include the chief financial accountant, internal
auditors, financial officers, and external auditors from a range of entities (in terms of
both size and functions).
• Establish time frames for development, consultation and approval.
• Decide whether legislative backing for the accounting standards is desired, and if so,
initiate legislative changes.
• Identify authoritative accounting standards. Where there is no IPSAS on a particular
topic, identify other sources of authoritative guidance. Where there are no authoritative
accounting standards applicable to the public sector within a jurisdiction, it will be
necessary to identify and/or develop a procedure for the development and approval of
such accounting standards. IPSAS 1 explains that management will need to use its
judgment in developing an accounting policy that provides the most useful information
to users of the entity’s financial statements. IPSAS 1 provides guidance for management
in making this judgment.
• Develop a full set of accounting policies for internal use, as follows.
– Identify the transactions and balances for which accounting policies will be required
(both the controlling entity and the consolidated entity if relevant).
– Determine the style of guidance that will be required in the policies. Minimal
guidance is appropriate when employees are familiar with accrual accounting and the
accounting standards being applied. Detailed guidance could include a summary of
the key requirements of an accounting standard and examples of the application of
that standard to particular transactions and balances of the entity.
– Review existing accounting policies. Ensure that existing practices are documented
so that the financial impact of changes in policies can be assessed. Check whether
any of the existing accounting policies will be appropriate under the new basis of
accounting.
– Apply relevant accounting standards and other sources of authoritative guidance.

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
– Prepare new policies in consultation with relevant individuals and groups (including
employees with responsibility for managing transactions and balances).
– Review and approve policies internally.
• Identify the information system requirements of the accounting policies (and the
implications of this for existing systems).
• Prepare a statement of significant accounting policies for disclosure in general purpose
external (published) financial statements.
• Consult with affected groups as part of due process and as part of the communications
strategy. Consultation with the following groups may be appropriate:
– auditors;
– heads of government entities;
– finance staff from individual entities within the wider reporting entity;
– the local accounting profession;
– elected or appointed representatives including legislative committees; and
– academics.
• Develop guidance on the application of policies.
• Determine the expected impact of the policies on reported results and position and
develop an education and communications strategy to manage expectations around the
first set of published statements.

4.10 The following two suggestions may help this aspect of the transition to be completed in a
timely fashion:
• Use existing accounting standards such as IPSASs and other standards to the maximum
extent possible. Not only does this save time and require fewer resources, it also allows
more energy to be directed to the resolution of complex issues and implementation
issues.
• Attempt to minimize expectations regarding local development of accounting standards
and policies. The development of new approaches and reporting frameworks can be
extremely time consuming. Stress the benefits of conforming with independently
established accounting standards.

Accounting Policies and the Transition to Accrual Accounting

4.11 As part of the transition to reporting on the accrual basis, an entity needs to:
• consider the impact of its transition path on its reported accounting policies;
• determine the point at which it intends to assert full compliance with IPSASs;
• decide whether to take advantage of any of the transitional provisions in IPSASs; and

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• decide how to deal with adjustments to opening balances and comparative information at
the first application of IPSASs.

Transition Path
4.12 An entity may decide to defer the application of the accrual basis to the recognition of certain
transactions or balances for a set period of time. If it does so, it needs to decide how to:
• communicate this process to readers of financial statements so that they can make best
use of the reported information; and
• present changes in amounts reported due to changes in accounting policies.

Compliance with IPSASs

4.13 IPSAS 1, paragraph 26, states that “An entity whose financial statements comply with
International Public Sector Accounting Standards should disclose that fact. Financial
statements should not be described as complying with International Public Sector
Accounting Standards unless they comply with all the requirements of each applicable
International Public Sector Accounting Standard.” An entity therefore needs to decide at
what point it intends to assert full compliance with IPSASs and the impact of this date upon
the timing of the various tasks outlined in this Study.

First-Time Application of IPSASs

4.14 Entities may choose to adopt IPSASs at a time suitable for them. This will vary between
jurisdictions depending upon the approach taken to adoption of accrual accounting and the
time frame adopted. An entity can claim full compliance with accrual-based IPSASs only
when it has complied with the requirements of all IPSASs on issue.

4.15 Some IPSASs contain transitional provisions which provide temporary relief from certain
requirements in the IPSASs. For example, International Public Sector Accounting Standard
IPSAS 6 Consolidated Financial Statements and Accounting for Controlled Entities provides
temporary relief from the requirement to eliminate in full balances and transactions between
entities within the economic entity. The transitional provisions are available for the amount
of time stated in the IPSAS (in the case of IPSAS 6 the transitional provision is available for
three years), commencing on the date of first application. Where an entity decides to use a
transitional provision, this use would need to be acknowledged in the accounting policies.
The entity would also need to make sure that it develops a plan of action to enable full
compliance with the IPSAS within the required time frame.

4.16 There may be other issues which arise on first-time application of IPSASs which are not
dealt with by IPSASs currently on issue. For example, how should an entity deal with any
changes in reported figures, such as accumulated balances and comparative amounts, caused
by the first-time application of IPSASs? Entities will need to develop their own policies in
relation to such issues. Other authoritative pronouncements may be helpful in identifying and
dealing with such issues. For example, the International Financial Reporting Interpretations

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
Committee (IFRIC) of the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) Interpretation
SIC 8 First Time Application of IASs as the Primary Basis of Accounting (IASC, August
1998) provides guidance on the treatment of adjustments to accumulated surpluses/deficits
arising from the first-time application of International Accounting Standards1.

Relevance to the Cash Basis of Accounting

4.17 An entity wanting to report on a comprehensive cash basis of accounting, including the
adoption of the major principles in any future IPSAS based on Exposure Draft ED 9
Financial Reporting Under the Cash Basis of Accounting, would disclose the accounting
policies used in the preparation of its financial statement(s).

1
At the time of writing, the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) was considering the development of a standard on first-time adoption
which would replace SIC-8. Details of the proposals under consideration are available on the IASB web site.

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References
Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Finance and Administration, Financial Reporting
Requirements (FMOs) 2001-2002,
http://www.finance.gov.au/ace/, 2001.

Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Finance and Administration, Accounting and Budgeting

Manual, Requirements and Guidance for the Preparation of Financial Statements of
Commonwealth Agencies and Authorities, http://www.finance.gov.au/ace/docs/fmos.pdf, 2001.

Further Education Funding Council (FEFC), Sector Accounting Policies, Guidance and Explanatory
Notes, http://www.fefc.ac.uk/documents/circulars/fefc_pubs/9923sa.pdf, May 1999.

HM Treasury, Resource Accounting Manual,

http://www.resource-accounting.gov.uk/current/frames.htm, April 2001.

International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), International Financial Reporting Interpretations

Committee (IFRIC) Interpretation SIC 8 First Time Application of IASs as the Primary Basis of
Accounting, http://www.iasb.org.uk/, August 1998.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 3 Net Surplus or Deficit for the Period,
Fundamental Errors and Changes in Accounting Policies, May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 6, Consolidated Financial Statements and

Accounting for Controlled Entities, May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash
Basis of Accounting, http://www.ifac.org, May 2000.

New Zealand Treasury, Instructions for Government Departments,

http://www.treasury.govt.nz/instructions, July 2001.

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Appendix 1: Examples of Issues Requiring Accounting Policies: The Accrual

Basis1

This Appendix illustrates topics on which accounting policies or disclosure statements regarding
assumptions used in the preparation of the financial statements may be required. The list of policies
shown is not necessarily comprehensive. The specific policies may be based on IPSASs or, in the
absence of a relevant IPSAS, on other authoritative sources of guidance adopted by the entity. The
types of policies required will vary depending upon the type of entity; for example, a national
government may require a number of policies on various types of non-exchange revenue. By
contrast, an individual public sector entity within that government may have only one form of non-
exchange revenue. Application of the accounting policies specified in IPSASs will deal with a
number of the accounting policy issues identified in this Appendix. Accounting policies would need
to be subject to periodic review in order to ensure that they are consistent with authoritative
accounting standards and generally accepted accounting practice over time.

GENERAL
Entities to whom the policies apply
Reporting Entity
Consolidation of Controlled Entities
Combination of Associates
Joint Ventures
Reporting Period
Accrual Basis Used
Going Concern Assumption
Measurement Basis
Application of Materiality
Explanation of Changes in Accounting Policies

ASSETS

Definition and Recognition of Assets

Classifications to be used within the financial statements
Cash and Cash Equivalents

1
Note: Some policies will be applicable at the whole-of-government level only. These policies are indicative only.
Each entity would develop a policy for each relevant transaction and balance.

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 Chapter 4: Accounting Policy Issues
Accounts Receivable and Accrued Revenue (by type)
Bad and Doubtful Debts
Inventories (by type)
Prepayments
Investments (by type)
Investment Property
Property, Plant and Equipment (by type)
Leased Assets/Sale and Leaseback Transactions
Information Technology Assets (Hardware and Software)
Intangible Assets
Biological Assets
Heritage Assets

LIABILITIES

Definition and Recognition of Liabilities

Classifications to be used within the financial statements
Accounts Payable and Accrued Expenses (by type including transfers/grants payable)
Finance Lease Liabilities
Provisions for Employee Entitlements
Other Provisions
Pension Liability
Borrowings
Bonds/Stock
Unearned Revenue
Currency Issued
Social Policy Obligations (by type)

REVENUE
Definition and Recognition of Revenues
Classifications to be used within the financial statements
Application of classification system to all revenues

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
Recognition of Investment Revenue (by type, for example interest and dividend/distribution
revenue)
Recognition of Revenue from the Provision of Goods and Services (by type, examples listed)
Output revenue (under a purchaser/provider model)
User charges (exchange only)
Trading revenue
Certain government grants
Property rental
Recognition of Types of Non-Exchange Revenue (by type, examples listed)
Taxes
Levies
Fines
Certain government grants
Donations
Other Revenue
Surplus or Loss on Construction Contracts
Operating Lease Revenue
Finance Lease Revenue

EXPENSES

Definition and Recognition of Expenses

Classifications to be used within the financial statements
Application of classification system to all expenses
Employee Expenses (including contributions to superannuation schemes)
Supplies and Consumables
Depreciation
Amortization of Intangible Assets
Transfer Payments/Grants and Donations (by type)
Interest and Financing
Income Tax/Income Tax Equivalents (where appropriate)

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EQUITY/NET WORTH

Composition of Equity/Net Worth

Contributed Capital
Accumulated Surplus and Deficit
Asset Revaluation Reserve
Foreign Currency Reserve

OTHER POLICIES

General Presentation and Disclosure

Extraordinary Items
Fundamental Errors
Gains and Losses on Disposal of Non-Current Assets
Assets and Liabilities Transferred
Commitments
Contingent Liabilities
Contingent Assets
Events After the Reporting Date
Cost Accounting Policies
Comparatives
Related Party Disclosures
Foreign Currency
Accounting for Hyperinflation
Administered/Entity Transactions
Budget Reporting
Non-Financial Reporting

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Appendix 2: Examples of Issues Requiring Accounting Policies: The Cash Basis

This Appendix illustrates topics on which accounting policies or disclosure statements may be
required under the cash basis of accounting. Appropriate accounting policies for many of these
topics are specified in Exposure Draft IPSAS ED 91.

GENERAL ACCOUNTING POLICIES

Entities to whom the policies apply
Basis of Accounting Policies
Reporting Entity
Consolidation of Controlled Entities
Joint Ventures
Reporting Period
Cash Basis
Going Concern Assumption
Application of Materiality
Explanation of Changes in Accounting Policies

RECEIPTS

Definition and Recognition of Receipts2

Classification of Receipts
Whole-of-Government level
Individual entity level

PAYMENTS

Definition and Recognition of Payments

Classification of Payments
Whole-of-Government level

1
As more IPSASs are released, the implications of certain accounting issues for the cash basis of accounting will be
considered and this may eventually lead to a revision of the IPSAS based on Exposure Draft IPSAS ED 9 and the
disclosures required under the cash basis of accounting.
2
Because, under the cash basis of accounting, receipts and payments are recognized when cash is received or paid,
there is generally little need for further policies in relation to the recognition of various receipts and payments.

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Individual entity level

CASH

Definition of Cash
Cash and Cash Equivalents

OTHER POLICIES
General Presentation and Disclosure
Extraordinary Items
Fundamental Errors (if applicable)
Additional Asset and Liability Disclosures (if applicable)
Commitments (if applicable)
Contingent Liabilities (if applicable)
Contingent Assets (if applicable)
Cost Accounting Policies (if applicable)
Comparatives
Foreign Currency
Accounting for Hyperinflation (if applicable)
Budget Reporting
Non-Financial Reporting

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 Chapter 5: Reporting Entity Issues

CHAPTER 5: REPORTING ENTITY ISSUES

Key Points

• This Chapter applies the guidance in International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 6
Consolidated Financial Statements and Accounting for Controlled Entities to illustrate the types
of issues that need to be addressed in identifying entities that should prepare financial statements,
and in identifying controlled entities that should be included in the consolidated financial
statements.
• At the time of writing, International Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSASs) dealing with
the determination of the boundaries of the reporting entity and the preparation of consolidated
financial statements are:
– IPSAS 6 Consolidated Financial Statements and Accounting for Controlled Entities; and
– IPSAS 8 Financial Reporting of Interests in Joint Ventures.

Introduction

5.1 This Chapter looks at the question of how to decide which individual entities and groups
entities should prepare general purpose financial reports as reporting entities. In the case of
groups of entities, it discusses which sub-entities should be included in the group reporting
entity. For example, which entities should be included in the financial report prepared for a
whole-of-government reporting entity, a department, a state or a province?

5.2 A reporting entity is any entity that prepares general purpose financial reports for external
users dependent on information in those financial reports. A reporting entity may therefore
be an individual entity such as a department, ministry or other government entity, or it may
be an entity group such as the whole-of-government. The term “economic entity” is used to
refer to a reporting entity which comprises a number of individual entities. Therefore the
whole-of-government reporting entity is an economic entity. However, a department,
ministry or other government entity may also control other entities and therefore be a group
reporting entity. Existing reporting entities within a jurisdiction may be specified in
legislation or they may have developed over time without any legislative or theoretical
underpinning.

5.3 The Public Sector Committee (PSC) has not currently developed any authoritative guidance
on the definition of an individual reporting entity, although the PSC has previously discussed
this issue in Study 8, The Government Financial Reporting Entity (IFAC, July 1996). The
PSC has addressed the issue of identifying group reporting entities in IPSAS 6. Study 8
explains that individual reporting entities may be defined by reference to the existence of
users who are dependent on general purpose financial reports for information for
accountability and/or decision-making purposes, and who do not have the authority to
demand special purpose reports. In respect of most entities, it will be readily apparent
whether there are users who are dependent on financial reports for accountability and

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decision making purposes. In respect of other entities, it will be necessary to consider factors
such as:
• the separation of management from those with an economic interest in the entity; and
• whether users are likely to depend on financial reports for information for accountability
and/or decision-making purposes.

5.4 Consideration of factors such as the economic or political importance/influence of an entity

and its financial characteristics (the extent of its resources and obligations) may also be
relevant in determining whether it is likely that there are users dependent on an entity’s
financial report.

5.5 Most IPSASs apply equally to the financial statements of an individual entity and to
consolidated financial statements for an economic entity, such as whole-of-government
financial statements. IPSAS 6 applies to consolidated financial statements. This Chapter
outlines the key requirements in IPSAS 6 and identifies a number of steps that are required in
order to apply IPSAS 6. IPSAS 8 includes requirements for reporting of joint ventures such
as jointly controlled operations, jointly controlled assets and jointly controlled entities.
IPSAS 8 is discussed in paragraphs 5.15 and 5.17.

Boundaries of the Reporting Entity

The Concept of Control

5.6 IPSAS 6 adopts the concept of control to determine the boundaries of the reporting entity.
Under this approach the government financial reporting entity includes all those entities and
transactions which the government controls. That is, it includes all resources controlled by,
and all obligations of, the reporting entity regardless of the administrative or legal entities
created to manage those resources and obligations. IPSAS 6 defines control within a public
sector context and provides guidance on determining whether control exists. It defines
control as “the power to govern the financial and operating policies of another entity so as to
benefit from its activities.” Both the power aspect and the benefit aspect are required to be
present for control to exist. For example, if an entity had the power to appoint or remove a
majority of the members of the governing body of another entity and the power to dissolve
the other entity and obtain a significant level of the residual economic benefits, it would
control the other entity in accordance with IPSAS 6.

5.7 IPSAS 6 requires that controlling entities prepare consolidated financial statements
incorporating all controlled entities. However, in some limited circumstances IPSAS 6
allows an entity not to prepare consolidated financial statements and requires an entity to
omit certain controlled entities from the consolidation. Entities are required to be omitted
from the consolidation when control is intended to be temporary because the controlled
entity is acquired and held exclusively with a view to its subsequent disposal in the near
future, or when the entity operates under severe external long-term restrictions which prevent
the controlling entity from benefiting from its activities.

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Consolidated Financial Statements
5.8 The consolidated financial statements of each reporting entity will include all revenues,
expenses, assets and liabilities of the reporting entity meeting the respective definition and
recognition criteria. They will not include revenues, expenses, assets and liabilities that are
not controlled by the reporting entity. Examples of items not controlled by the reporting
entity may include assets held in trust for others and assets managed in an agency capacity
on behalf of another entity.

Implementation: Determining the Boundaries of the Reporting Entity

5.9 Determining the boundaries of the reporting entity involves a review of existing reporting
entities and identification of controlled entities. In this context the following steps are
necessary:
• Identify and document the existing reporting entity/entities and the legislative
requirements or decisions that have created the reporting entity/entities.
• Consider whether all entities that are currently required to report are in fact entities in
respect of which it is reasonable to expect the production and publication1 of general
purpose financial statements. As discussed in the introduction to this Chapter, the test for
this is generally whether there are external users dependent upon these financial reports
for information for accountability and/or decision-making purposes. In many
jurisdictions this will include the whole-of-government entity and each individual
department or government entity. However, the appropriate decision on whether
individual government entities should be separate reporting entities may vary between
jurisdictions.
• Consider whether there are other entities that should produce and publish general
purpose financial statements.
• Identify potential controlled entities. Examples of entities which it may be appropriate to
review for evidence of a control relationship include entities receiving regular or
substantial amounts of government funding, entities established by legislation (such as
regulatory bodies), committees or groups established under the oversight of a
government department or entity, and entities to which the government has provided
financial assistance or guarantees to prevent financial collapse. Although it is suggested
that such entities should be reviewed, many will not be controlled entities. However, it is
prudent to consider all such entities at this point.
• Apply the control criteria in IPSAS 6 to all potential controlled entities to determine
whether they are controlled entities or jointly controlled entities (note that clarification of
the legal status of some entities may be required during this process).
• Identify both the overall (consolidated/group) reporting entity and all individual
reporting entities within that entity. As part of this process it is necessary to determine
whether there is a need to prepare financial statements for the ultimate controlling entity

1
The term “publication” as used here includes “public access” in any form.

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
as an individual reporting entity. For example, should a national government preparing
consolidated financial statements also report separately on transactions and balances
which belong to the government itself, as opposed to any of its controlled entities? In the
private sector the controlling entity is referred to as the “parent” and may be a separate
reporting entity in its own right. However, in the public sector, despite the fact that some
transactions relate to the controlling entity only, this does not necessarily mean that the
controlling entity is a separate reporting entity. It is necessary to consider any legal
reporting requirements and also whether there is a body of users dependent upon such
information who are unable to demand financial information to meet their specific
information needs.
• Review existing legal reporting requirements to see if they need to be aligned with the
proposed reporting entities (determined using IPSAS 6).

5.10 The following examples illustrate the way in which two jurisdictions approached the issue of
which entities should form part of the whole-of-government reporting entity. Some of these
examples occurred prior to the issuance of IPSAS 6 and may not be entirely consistent with
IPSAS 6. IPSAS 6 contains detailed guidance on the types of tests which should be applied
to determine whether an entity is a controlled entity.
Determining the Whole-of-Government Reporting Entity

Example 1

Tests used in one jurisdiction to determine which entities outside central government
should form part of the whole-of-government reporting entity were:
• Did the government own a majority of the voting shares?
• Did the government have the power to dismiss a majority of the members of the
governing body, or where no such body existed, have the power to dismiss the chief
executive, and replace the governing body or the chief executive with a governing body
or chief executive which was primarily responsible to the government?
• Did the government have the right to more than 50% of the entity’s net assets on
disestablishment?
• Had the Parliament deemed the entities to be owned by the government?

Example 2

In one jurisdiction the government was deemed to control an entity where that other
entity was accountable to the government and the government had a residual financial
interest in the net assets of that entity.

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Determining the Whole-of-Government Reporting Entity (continued)

Example 3

A jurisdiction used the criteria in its private sector accounting standard to develop tests to
determine the boundary for the whole-of-government reporting entity. The tests were also
adopted in the determination of the central government sector for statistical reporting. No
significant differences were found between the classification of entities using the new tests
and the existing statistical classification because both are based on the concept of control.
Examples of the tests applied included:
• The Crown is a quasi-member of the undertaking and the Crown, the Monarch or
Ministers (on behalf of the Government) have the right to appoint or remove directors
holding a majority of the voting rights at meetings of the board on all, or substantially all
matters.
• The Crown has the right to exercise dominant influence over the undertaking by virtue of
provisions contained in the undertaking’s memorandum or articles, an Act of Parliament or
through the activities of the body being substantially restricted by specific legislation or by
virtue of a control contract.
• The Crown is a quasi-member of the undertaking and Ministers control a majority of the
voting rights in the undertaking.
• The Crown has a participating interest in the undertaking and it actually exercises
dominant influence over the undertaking, or it and the undertaking are managed on a
unified basis.

Consolidation

5.11 Consolidation is the process of presenting the financial statements of all entities that make up
the reporting entity as if they were the financial statements of a single entity. It involves
adding together all items on a line-by-line basis and eliminating any transactions or balances
between members of the reporting entity.

5.12 In order to consolidate the financial statements of various entities it is necessary to:
• have a system for collecting financial statements of all the entities within the reporting
entity. Some of the entities will be autonomous entities with their own accounting
policies and systems. Regardless of the manner in which they recognize and classify
transactions and balances in their own financial statements, these entities will need to
conform to the standard policies and classifications when providing financial information
for consolidation. Information for consolidation purposes may be provided in a variety of
ways. Where the various entities use a centralized accounting system or a common
reporting system it may be obtained directly, or the information may be summarized on a
spreadsheet which is then entered into a consolidation package;

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• ensure that the accounting policies used by the individual entities within the reporting
entity are consistent to the extent practicable. If they are not consistent it will be
necessary to make adjustments at the time of consolidation to align the policies (for
example, where a sub-entity accounts in accordance with a standard that is relevant for
its activities but that is not relevant to the controlling entity accounts). Some differences
between policies for immaterial items may be acceptable but this will need to be
considered in the context of other factors affecting materiality. IPSAS 6, paragraph 45,
requires that “Consolidated financial statements should be prepared using uniform
accounting policies for like transactions and other events in similar circumstances. If it is
not practicable to use uniform accounting policies (other than the bases of accounting) in
preparing the consolidated financial statements, that fact should be disclosed together
with the proportions of the items in the consolidated financial statements to which the
different accounting policies have been applied”;
• collect information on the nature and amount of inter-entity transactions and balances.
Inter-entity transactions and balances are eliminated on consolidation. Where entities
within the wider economic entity regularly transact with each other it may be appropriate
to establish additional codes for inter-entity transactions so that such transactions can be
recorded directly within the accounting system. Consideration of materiality is also
appropriate in determining the level of effort which goes into identifying inter-entity
transactions and balances. The view of external auditors on the desirability of various
methods of identifying inter-entity transactions can assist at this point. Entities preparing
group financial statements under the cash basis may already have identified a number of
inter-entity transactions;
• select the method of performing the consolidation. Where a new accounting system is
being established, or where an existing accounting system is being substantially
overhauled, it is generally possible to incorporate a consolidation component.
Alternatively it may be possible to use or adapt a standard consolidation software
package. Where there are a relatively small number of entities it may be possible to use a
spreadsheet to perform the consolidation. It is also necessary to decide whether the
consolidation is going to be done as one exercise or whether there will be a series of sub-
consolidations within the group. For example, individual government entities may
consolidate the financial statements of all their controlled entities and then all the
government entities may be consolidated; and
• capture information required to meet the disclosure requirements in various IPSASs,
including the disclosure of amounts owed to other entities within the economic entity.
The process used in one jurisdiction is explained below.

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Example of Consolidation Process Adopted in One Jurisdiction

In the preparation of the consolidated financial statements for the whole-of-government

in one jurisdiction, controlled entities are required to provide information by completing
an information pack (a return). Returns are provided through the Internet and using data
encryption devices to the entity with responsibility for compilation of consolidated
financial statements. Returns are consolidated in a Microsoft database. The information
packs have a number of validation rules to ensure that basic checks on the entry of
financial information are satisfied before being consolidated. Entities can link these
information packs to their general ledgers, which allows their information packs to be
automated off their internal reporting processes. Once an entity has the process running
smoothly it takes around three hours to complete an information pack.

Entities are required to have internal procedures to ensure that the information provided
in the returns is accurate and complete. Information submitted for consolidation must be
checked for accuracy and completeness before it is signed-off. The information provided
for use in the consolidated financial statements must agree with and be reconciled to the
entity’s financial management information system and audited financial statements.

Disclosures Required

5.13 International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 1 Presentation of Financial

Statements and IPSAS 6 require a number of disclosures to be made regarding the nature of
the reporting entity. The disclosures required include:
• the name of the reporting entity;
• whether the financial statements cover the individual entity or the economic entity (with
the economic entity being a group of entities comprising the controlling entity and any
controlled entities);
• a list of significant controlled entities and the proportion of ownership interest;
• the reasons for not consolidating any controlled entity;
• the name of any controlled entity in which the controlling entity holds an ownership
interest and/or voting rights of 50%, together with an explanation of how control exists;
• the name of any entity in which an ownership interest of more than 50% is held but
which is not a controlled entity, together with an explanation of why control does not
exist;
• the effect of the acquisition and disposal of controlled entities on the financial position at
the reporting date, the results for the reporting period and the corresponding amounts for
the preceding period; and
• in the controlling entity’s separate financial statements, a description of the method used
to account for controlled entities.

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National Accounts

5.14 Whole-of-government financial reports may be restricted to one level of government or may
include more than one level of government depending upon the way in which levels of
government have been established and are operated within a particular jurisdiction. By
contrast, statistical systems such as Government Finance Statistics and the System of
National Accounts (or regional equivalents) adopt a standard approach to the definition of
the government sector. An entity may wish to consider providing, as additional information,
an explanation of any differences in the whole-of-government reporting entity in financial
statements prepared for financial reporting purposes and the government sector in statistical
reports.

Joint Ventures and Joint Control

5.15 In some circumstances, an entity may have joint control, rather than individual or full
control, over another entity. IPSAS 8, paragraph 5, defines a joint venture as “a binding
arrangement whereby two or more parties are committed to undertake an activity which is
subject to joint control” and joint control as “the agreed sharing of control over an activity by
a binding arrangement”.

5.16 The steps outlined in this Chapter for the identification of controlled entities may also be
applied to the identification of jointly controlled entities. In order to determine the
appropriate accounting treatment for a joint venture, an entity will also need to classify the
joint ventures as jointly controlled operations, jointly controlled assets or jointly controlled
entities. IPSAS 8 establishes the accounting treatment for jointly controlled operations,
jointly controlled assets and jointly controlled entities in a venturer’s separate financial
statements and a venturer’s consolidated financial statements.

5.17 IPSAS 8 allows either the proportionate consolidation method or the equity method of
accounting for jointly controlled entities to be adopted in the consolidated financial
statements of the venturer. The discussion in this Chapter of implementation issues
associated with consolidation is also relevant to the proportionate consolidation of jointly
controlled entities. In some cases a government may have significant influence over an entity
but not control or jointly control that entity. IPSAS 7 Accounting for Investments in
Associates includes requirements for accounting for these arrangements.

Relevance to the Cash Basis of Accounting

5.18 For those preparing consolidated cash basis reports, the determination of the reporting entity
and the preparation of a consolidated primary financial statement involve the same process as
for the accrual basis. The consolidation requirements for the cash basis of accounting will be
addressed in the future IPSAS based on Exposure Draft International Public Sector
Accounting Standard IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash Basis of Accounting.

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 Chapter 5: Reporting Entity Issues

References
Financial Reporting Advisory Board, The Financial Reporting Advisory Board to the Treasury,
Report for the Period April 2000 to March 2001
http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/mediastore/otherfiles/28.pdf

HM Treasury, Central Government Accounts Milestone One – Intra-Group Balances as at 31 March

2001. http://www.wga.gov.uk/pages/guidance.html, May 2001

HM Treasury, Whole of Government Accounts – Progress to December 2000 – Memorandum to the

Committee of Public Accounts and the Treasury Select Committee – Introduction and Background
to the Whole of Government Accounts Programme, http://www.wga.gov.uk/pages/section1.html,
December 2000.

HM Treasury, Classification of Expenditure, Public and Private Sectors: New Bodies, Partnership,
Joint Ventures, Privatisation and Nationalisation, Class (2000)1, November 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements, May

2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 6 Consolidated Financial Statements and

Accounting for Controlled Entities, May 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 7 Accounting for Investments in Associates,

May 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 8 Financial Reporting of Interests in Joint

Ventures, May 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash
Basis of Accounting, May 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Study 8, The Government Financial Reporting

Entity, http://www.ifac.org, July 1996.

New Zealand Treasury, Full Consolidation Project, http://www.treasury.govt.nz/consolidation,

August 2001.

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Appendix: Accounting Policies

This Appendix illustrates the accounting policies which are to be used to determine the reporting
entity. The policies are the internal accounting policies developed by a central entity for application
in the preparation of whole-of-government financial statements for a hypothetical national
government. They could also be used by individual government entities that control other entities. In
some jurisdictions, the entities required to prepare financial statements for external users will be
defined in legislation. In such cases, if the reporting entity wishes to assert compliance with IPSAS 6,
it will need to assess whether the legal reporting entity is consistent with the application of IPSAS 6.

Reporting Entity
The financial statements are to disclose the entities controlled or jointly controlled by the entity and
forming part of the consolidated financial statements.

Consolidation of Controlled Entities

The consolidated financial statements are to include all controlled entities required to be included by
International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 6 Consolidated Financial Statements and
Accounting for Controlled Entities. If a controlled entity is acquired and held exclusively with a view
to its disposal in the near future, it should be excluded from consolidation and accounted for as an
investment.

Controlled entities are to be consolidated using the purchase method of combination in accordance
with IPSAS 6. All material transactions and balances between sub-entities are to be eliminated on
combination.

Uniform accounting policies are to be applied in the preparation of consolidated financial statements.

The entity will ensure that details of material transactions (and any resulting balances) between the
reporting entity and any other reporting entities within the whole-of-government reporting entity are
recorded.

Combination of Associates
Entities over which the reporting entity has significant influence are to be accounted for as associates
using the equity method of accounting in accordance with International Public Sector Accounting
Standard IPSAS 7 Accounting for Investments in Associates.

If an investment is acquired and held exclusively with a view to its disposal in the near future, it is to
be accounted for under the cost method in accordance with IPSAS 7.

Joint Ventures
The reporting entity’s interest in joint ventures (jointly controlled operations, jointly controlled assets
and jointly controlled entities) is to be recognized and accounted for in accordance with International
Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 8 Financial Reporting of Interests in Joint Ventures.

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 Part III – Financial Elements

PART III – FINANCIAL ELEMENTS

Part III of this Study outlines the main types of assets, liabilities, revenues and expenses that occur in
public sector entities. It identifies International Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSASs)
dealing with the definition, recognition, measurement and disclosure of these items. The Study
outlines the requirements of key IPSASs (or, in the absence of an IPSAS, other sources of
authoritative guidance) and the types of implementation tasks associated with recognizing these
items and complying with IPSASs or other accounting standards.

The Chapters in this Part of the Study focus on selected assets, liabilities, revenues and expenses. For
example, Chapter 6 focuses on issues associated with the recognition of property, plant and
equipment. The implementation tasks and issues that are illustrated in these Chapters may also be
able to be applied more generally to other assets, liabilities, revenues and expenses.

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 Chapter 6: Assets

CHAPTER 6: ASSETS

Key Points

• At the time of writing, International Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSASs) dealing with
the definition, recognition, measurement or disclosure of assets are:
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 2 Cash Flow;
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 5 Borrowing Costs;
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 11 Construction Contract;
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 12 Inventories;
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 13 Leases;
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 15 Financial Instruments:
Disclosure and Presentation;
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 16 Investment Property; and
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 17 Property, Plant and Equipment.
• Asset topics for which IPSASs are currently not developed include:
– receivables associated with non-exchange revenue (discussed in Chapter 14);
– measurement of financial instruments (discussed in Chapter 11);
– intangible assets (discussed in Chapter 10);
– impairment of assets; and
– biological assets.
• This Chapter considers issues associated with the initial and ongoing recognition of inventories,
construction contracts, receivables, and property, plant and equipment.
• Although the main focus of this Chapter is on the identification, recognition and measurement of
assets for financial reporting purposes, one of the key reasons that entities adopt accrual
accounting is in order to obtain better information on assets for management purposes. An entity
could choose to maintain only that data required for financial reporting purposes, but it would
then be missing out on one of the main benefits of adopting accrual accounting. This Chapter
therefore contains a brief description of some of the policies and procedures and system
requirements for good asset management.

Introduction

6.1 International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 1 Presentation of Financial

Statements, paragraph 6 defines assets as “resources controlled by an entity as a result of past
events and from which future economic benefits or service potential are expected to flow to

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the entity”. Assets are recognized for financial reporting purposes when they meet all
elements of this definition, when it is probable that future economic benefits or service
potential will flow to the entity, and when the asset has a cost or value that can be measured
reliably.

6.2 Examples of assets held by governments and government entities include:

• financial assets:
– cash and cash equivalents;
– revenues receivable;
– loans and advances to other governments;
– other loans and advances;
– investments; and
– derivatives;
• physical assets:

– inventories;
– heritage assets and property, plant and equipment, including infrastructure assets and
defense or military assets;
– investment properties; and
– natural resources; and
• intangible assets

6.3 This Chapter discusses the tasks and issues associated with the initial identification,
recognition and measurement of assets, and the systems and procedures required to support
the ongoing preparation of accrual financial statements. It considers issues associated with
inventories, receivables and property, plant and equipment. Issues associated with cash and
intangible assets are covered in Chapters 9 and 10 respectively.

6.4 Much of the Chapter is devoted to consideration of property, plant and equipment. Reasons
for this emphasis on property, plant and equipment include:
• the fact that most entities have some property, plant and equipment;
• the relative significance of property, plant and equipment as a proportion of an entity’s
total assets; and
• that many of the issues covered in relation to property, plant and equipment are also
relevant to other non-current assets.

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 Chapter 6: Assets
General Asset Issues

6.5 In order to prepare an implementation plan for the recognition of assets, an entity needs to
have some idea of the scope of the tasks involved and the likely amount of resources that
these tasks will take. The amount of work required to recognize assets depends on the extent
to which an entity already has information available on those assets. General steps in the
recognition of assets include:
• compilation of an asset register for all types of assets held by the entity;
• determination of the categories of assets that will be used in the chart of accounts and the
financial statements;
• preparation of accounting policies for each category;
• assessment of the accuracy and completeness of existing information on each category;
• compilation of accurate opening balances for each category (identification, application of
definition of asset, and measurement); and
• establishment of systems to support the ongoing requirements of accrual accounting.

6.6 These steps are discussed in more detail in paragraphs 6.36 to 6.62 in relation to property,
plant and equipment. Depending upon the basis of accounting previously used by an entity
and the nature of supplementary information held, the amount of work required may vary
considerably between entities and jurisdictions.

Inventories

6.7 This section highlights some issues that need to be addressed as part of the planning for the
identification and measurement of inventories, and explains the application of IPSAS 12
Inventories. IPSAS 12 defines inventories as assets:
• in the form of materials or supplies to be consumed in the production process;
• in the form of materials or supplies to be consumed or distributed in the rendering of
services;
• held for sale or distribution in the ordinary course of operations; or
• in the process of production for sale or distribution.

6.8 Within the public sector, inventories are often held for use in service delivery or the
production and sale of goods. Examples of inventories include:
• ammunition;
• consumable stores;
• maintenance materials;
• spare parts for plant and equipment other than those dealt with under IPSAS 17;
• strategic stockpiles (for example, energy reserves);

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• stocks of unissued currency;
• postal service supplies held for sale (for example, stamps);
• work in progress, including:
– educational/training course materials; and
– client services (for example, auditing services) where those services are sold at arm’s
length prices; and
• land/property held for sale.

6.9 For the purpose of external reporting, entities can choose to classify inventories by type or by
stage of completion (for example, raw materials, work in progress and finished goods).
IPSAS 1 encourages the classification of assets (including inventories) as either current/non-
current or in broad order of their liquidity. A distinction between inventories held for sale or
not intended for sale may also be made.

6.10 Therefore, two of the first tasks in relation to inventories are to identify all inventories that
meet the definition in IPSAS 12 and to decide what categories of inventories will be used
within internal systems and in the external financial statements.

Inventories – Recognition
6.11 Tasks associated with the recognition of inventories include:
• the establishment of recognition thresholds;
• identification of the point at which title to various types of inventories passes to the
entity; and
• the establishment of systems and procedures to track costs associated with inventories in
order to recognize inventory on hand at the end of the period.

6.12 Goods or services purchased by the entity are usually recognized when title to the goods has
passed to the entity or the services have been rendered, and there is a legal obligation to pay
for the goods or services. The recognition of goods in transit will depend upon the terms of
the agreement under which the inventories were purchased.

6.13 The recognition of consumable items (for example, stationery) as inventories will depend
upon the materiality of the items (both in terms of purchases and the amounts on hand at
period end). Inventory items that fall below the established threshold level for the
recognition of inventories (both individually and collectively) would be expensed on
acquisition.

6.14 Recognition of work in progress is outlined in the Appendix to this Chapter. Systems for
tracking costs and stocktaking procedures are discussed below.

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Inventories – Systems
6.15 In order to meet the objectives of inventory control, an entity needs to establish systems for
ordering, storing, using or selling inventories and accounting for these activities. The
objectives of inventory management are to ensure that inventories are:
• adequate to meet the needs of ongoing activities without disruption;
• managed to reduce funds tied up in inventories and storage costs; and
• subject to a good system of internal controls to minimize loss through damage,
deterioration, unauthorized use or theft.

6.16 In developing an accounting system for inventories, an entity will need to decide whether to
operate a perpetual or periodic system. Under a perpetual system, inventory records are
updated each time goods are received, used or sold. Under a periodic system, information on
the levels of goods held is obtained by way of periodic stocktakes. Where an entity is
tracking the cost of particular processes or activities, the accounting system will also need to
record the area or activity to which inventory is to be charged. Where inventories are
significant, computer-based inventory management systems, purchasing systems and
accounts payable systems may be required. Inventory management systems need to be linked
with, or regularly reconciled to, the general ledger.

Inventories – Stocktaking
6.17 Stocktakes are required to provide sufficient evidence of the existence and condition of
inventories. The great majority (by value) of inventories should be covered by an annual
stocktake at period end. External auditors will need to review stocktaking procedures to
ensure that they can rely on the information collected, and will generally want to witness
some stocktaking procedures. The entity should document all discrepancies identified and
any action taken such as write-offs and/or amendments to inventory records. A regular
review of such discrepancies and the action taken may assist the entity in continually
improving its inventory management procedures.

Inventories – Assignment of Cost

6.18 IPSAS 12 allows cost to be assigned to inventories sold, or removed from inventories for
use, by one or more of the following methods:
• specific identification (for items that are not ordinarily interchangeable and goods or
services produced and segregated for specific projects); or
• first-in first-out (FIFO) or weighted average cost.
6.19 Although IPSAS 12 allows some choice of method for the assignment of cost, it requires that
an entity should use the same cost formula for all inventories having similar nature and use
to the entity.

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Inventories – Obsolescence and Damage
6.20 IPSAS 12 requires inventories to be carried at the lower of cost or net realizable value. This
means that regular (at least annual) checks for damage and obsolescence are required. Where
items are written down to net realizable value, it is necessary to keep a record of the
information on which the assessment of net realizable value has been based.

Biological Assets

6.21 There is currently no IPSAS that deals with biological assets. Agricultural products are
specifically excluded from the scope of IPSAS 12 and natural increases in agricultural
products are excluded from the scope of International Public Sector Accounting Standard
IPSAS 9 Revenue from Exchange Transactions. In the absence of an IPSAS, one source of
authoritative guidance is International Accounting Standard IAS 41, Agriculture (IASC,
December 2000). The Public Sector Committee (PSC) has not yet addressed the application
of this Standard to public sector entities.

6.22 IAS 41 prescribes the accounting treatment, financial statement presentation and disclosures
related to agricultural activity. It does not deal with processing of agricultural produce after
harvest – IPSAS 12 should be applied to such inventories. IAS 41 does not establish any new
principles for land related to agricultural activity. Instead, IPSAS 17 or IPSAS 16 Investment
Property would be applied as appropriate.

Bullion

6.23 Gold and silver bullion may be held for speculative purposes or because an entity is
responsible for the production and storage of bullion. When it is held for speculative
purposes, or where the quantity exceeds that which is required for the ongoing production of
coins, it may be valued in the same way as marketable securities. Where an entity is
responsible for the production of bullion it is treated as inventory.

Construction Contracts

6.24 Where an entity holds assets as inventories for sale, distribution or use as defined in
IPSAS 12, it will account for work-in-progress of these assets in accordance with IPSAS 12.
However, in some cases an entity such as a works and services department may enter a
contract to construct an asset for another entity. Where work in progress relates to a
construction contract as defined in IPSAS 11 Construction Contracts, the work in progress
should be accounted for in accordance with IPSAS 11. The cost of construction work in
progress includes:
• costs that relate directly to the specific contract;
• costs that are attributable to contract activity in general and can be allocated to the
contract on a systematic and rational basis; and
• such other costs as are specifically chargeable to the customer under the terms of the
contract.

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6.25 IPSAS 11 requires contract revenue and contract costs to be recognized as revenue and
expenses by reference to the percentage of completion of the contract where this can be
reliably estimated. The gross amount due from customers for contract work is recognized as
an asset and the gross amount due to customers for contract work is recognized as a liability.

Receivables

6.26 Receivables consist of amounts owed to the entity by others, including other government
entities and the public. Types of receivables include:
• interest receivable;
• amounts due in relation to goods and services provided to others;
• amounts due in relation to fines and penalties levied by the entity;
• amounts due from another government entity or a different level of government in
relation to non-reciprocal transfers to the entity; and
• taxation receivables.

6.27 Prepayments are not receivables – however, unless they are material they are often presented
together with receivables. At the end of the reporting period the entity may have paid for
some services in advance of receiving or using the services (for example, rent may be paid
one month in advance). In checking for the existence of prepayments, entities would need to
review the terms and conditions of its agreements with suppliers.

6.28 This Chapter provides a brief discussion of some implementation issues associated with the
initial recognition of receivables and the ongoing identification and review of receivables.
The recognition points for related revenues are discussed in Chapters 8 and 14.

Receivables – Opening Balances

6.29 Determination of opening balances of accrued revenues and accounts receivable involves a
thorough examination of all recorded amounts receivable. The entity needs to:
• compile an aggregate list of all recorded amounts receivable (the same process can be
applied to short-term loans and advances and amounts receivable in relation to unpaid
user fees and charges);
• check that the amount recorded is correct and is not in dispute;
• check that the item is legally enforceable. If it is not legally enforceable this may reduce
the likelihood of collecting the amount owed;
• assess the likelihood of recovering the amount owed – check that contact details for the
individual or entity are correct and assess whether the individual or entity has sufficient
funds to pay the amount owed;
• in the case of amounts in dispute or where the individual or entity is experiencing
financial difficulties or cannot easily be traced, the entity needs to consider whether it is

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worth the cost of taking legal or other action to recover the amount owed. In some cases
the entity may decide that it is not politically acceptable to recover an amount – this is
sometimes the case with extremely old debts; and
• where a write-off, write-down or waiver is proposed, the entity needs to carry out any
procedures required before such action, document the recommended action, record
details of any approval obtained and update the financial records.

6.30 The entire process needs to be thoroughly documented to enable opening balances to be
established and to provide an audit trail.

Receivables – Write-offs and Waivers

6.31 An entity needs to develop or review its policy and procedures on write-offs of receivables
and waivers of amounts receivable, including:
• the circumstances in which they may occur;
• who has the authority to recommend the write-off or waiver;
• who has the authority to authorize the write-off or waiver;
• the type of proof or documentation required to support the recommendation;
• the documentation required to record the action; and
• any disclosure required (for example, there may be legislative disclosure requirements).

6.32 The type of proof or documentation required to support a recommendation for a write-off of
a debt could include:
• debtor’s name and details;
• details as to why the entity may need to write-off the debt; and
• due date for payment and number of days overdue.

6.33 The policy and procedures may need to set out the process to be followed for the initial
review of balances, which may occur at a central level, and the ongoing review of balances,
which should occur each year. Recorded amounts of balances owed can be significantly more
than amounts likely to be collected. This is often the case where memorandum records of
amounts owed have been recorded under a cash accounting system but there has been no
regular review of amounts for collectability. Writing-off large amounts can be a politically
sensitive issue. In order to help this process go smoothly it is helpful to obtain early approval
for these policies and procedures. It is also helpful to ensure that elected and appointed
representatives understand the process and the likely impact of the process.

6.34 Write-offs can occur in the following situations:

• an error in the original amount recorded;

• proven insolvency of the debtor;

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 Chapter 6: Assets
• untraceable debtor;
• a change in government policy or a government directive; and
• administrative write-offs of small amounts. For example, amounts under a certain
monetary threshold may not warrant further action.

6.35 Although an entity may have decided that an amount is not collectible and may have written
it off in the financial statements, the entity has not forgone any legal rights to recover the
amount. An entity may maintain memorandum records of amounts written-off that it intends
to continue trying to collect.

Property, Plant and Equipment

6.36 The following topics in relation to property, plant and equipment are discussed below:
• the definition and recognition of property, plant and equipment;
• a list of steps in the initial recognition of property, plant and equipment;
• recognition thresholds for property, plant and equipment;
• identification of classes of property, plant and equipment;
• depreciation and useful life issues;
• asset management practices;
• asset registers and information systems requirements;
• valuation issues;
• financial statement issues;
• implementation issues and transitional provisions; and
• lessons learned.

Property, Plant and Equipment – Definition and Recognition

6.37 IPSAS 17, paragraph 12, defines property, plant and equipment as “tangible assets that: (a)
are held by an entity for use in the production or supply of goods or services, for rental to
others, or for administrative purposes; and (b) are expected to be used during more than one
reporting period.” An item of property, plant and equipment will be recognized on the face of
the financial statements as an asset when it is probable that benefits embodied in the asset
will be realized and that the asset has a cost or other value that can be reliably measured.
Before an item is recognized as property, plant and equipment for financial reporting
purposes it must satisfy the definition of an asset and the definition of property, plant and
equipment.

6.38 Items of property, plant and equipment meeting the definition but not the recognition criteria
cannot be recognized within the financial statement totals. However, such items may meet
the definition of contingent assets. A contingent asset is “a possible asset that arises from

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
past events and whose existence will be confirmed only by the occurrence or non-occurrence
of one or more uncertain future events not wholly within the control of the entity” (Exposure
Draft of International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS ED 21 Provisions,
Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets, paragraph 18). A contingent asset is disclosed
where an inflow of economic benefits or service potential is probable.

6.39 The first step in the identification and recognition of property, plant and equipment is the
preparation of an implementation plan. The implementation plan for initial recognition of
assets and the development of systems to support ongoing accrual accounting for those assets
may be a subset of the main implementation plan or a separate plan. The plan needs to
identify:
• all the required tasks including development of policies, identification and valuation of
assets and development of asset management policies and procedures;
• the person/position responsible for each task;
• the person/position responsible for management of this aspect of the plan;
• project milestones and deadlines;
• dependent items within the asset recognition plan and between asset recognition and
other parts of the wider project; and
• process and timeframe for resolution of issues.

6.40 The tasks likely to flow on from the implementation plan are set out in the diagram below.
The steps outlined in this diagram can be applied to most types of non-current assets.
Although the steps are shown sequentially, some of the steps could, and may need to, occur
concurrently.

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Figure 6.1 Recognition of Property, Plant and Equipment

Step 1 Develop policies:

• identify authoritative standards and regulations, including
definitions and recognition criteria;
• develop capitalization thresholds for each class;
• identify measurement policies (including revaluation
policy if applicable) for each class;
• develop policies for expensing or capitalizing subsequent
expenditure on upgrades, improvements and repairs and
maintenance;
• develop depreciation policies and select depreciation
method for each class; and
• develop impairment policies.

Identify information requirements associated with these policies and

Step 2 other related information desired for internal management purposes.
Plan timeframes for collection and verification of data and
development/ implementation of systems.

Step 3 Develop asset register:

• identify asset classes;
• identify assets; and
• validate data/resolve issues.

Step 4 Determine opening balances:

• develop methods of obtaining historic cost information or
valuations;
• obtain historic cost information as required; and
• obtain valuations as required.

Ongoing Ongoing matters:

• maintain systems including a record of all asset movements
and information required for additional disclosures;
• calculate depreciation;
• perform regular revaluations (if applicable); and
• perform regular impairment reviews.

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
6.41 Further discussion of some of the key steps outlined in the above diagram follows.

6.42 Step 3, the development of an asset register, will also involve a review of current systems
and asset management practices. An entity will need to:
• decide whether to retain/modify existing asset records/systems or develop new systems;
• decide whether an asset register is to be integrated with the general ledger;
• design and implement systems;
• decide which managers within the entity have responsibility for asset management; and
• review/develop asset management practices.

6.43 The development of the asset register also involves:

• complete identification of all potential assets;
• collection of data;
• application of definitions of assets and property, plant and equipment;
• application of recognition criteria;
• application of capitalization thresholds;
• verification of ownership where necessary;
• identification of restrictions/covenants over ownership;
• identification of asset classes and components;
• assessment useful lives; and
• validation of data (ongoing).

6.44 Step 4, the determination of opening balances, includes the collation of historic cost data and
the valuation of any assets if they are to be measured at other than historic cost, as required
by valuation policies. Collation of historic cost data includes the identification of all costs to
make an asset operational and the estimation of historic cost where such actual historic cost
is not available. The valuation of assets includes:

• deciding whether to value all assets or whether to use a sampling approach;

• the identification of appropriate valuers for each class of asset;
• the preparation of instructions for valuers;
• the collection of information required by valuers; and
• a management review of valuations.

6.45 The identification of opening balances for property, plant and equipment is merely the first
step in the process of preparing accrual-based financial statements. Other steps are the:

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• identification of closing balances
• identification of all movements during the period;
• calculation of depreciation;
• identification of audit issues and the development of plans to resolve these issues;
• development and testing of interfaces between the asset register and general ledger; and
• identification and collection of other asset information required to be disclosed in the
financial statements.

Property, Plant and Equipment – Recognition Thresholds

Capitalization/Reporting Threshold
6.46 Each entity needs to determine the value above which assets are capitalized and reported in
the financial statements. Assets below the relevant threshold are expensed in the period of
purchase and those above the threshold are recognized as assets in the Statement of Financial
Position. The use of capitalization thresholds reduces the cost of gathering data because it
decreases the total number of fixed assets that have to be recorded and tracked. This saving
to the entity must be considered in relation to the significance of the data to users of the
financial statements. One method sometimes used by entities to set an initial capitalization
threshold (sometimes referred to as the de minimis level) is to require that a certain
percentage (for example, at least 95%) of estimated total assets by value are reported in the
financial statements. This method requires that the entity is able to make a reasonable
estimate of total assets. Different thresholds will be appropriate for different entities –
although, for consolidation purposes the controlling entity will establish a level above which
assets must be capitalized. Different thresholds may be established for different classes of
assets.

6.47 Despite the use of capitalization thresholds for most classes of assets, an entity may still
report all of a particular type of asset if it considers that this is appropriate. For example, an
entity may choose to record and report all land, regardless of whether its recorded value is
below the capitalization threshold.

Capitalization of Assets Below the Reporting Threshold

6.48 Some assets may have a lower value, per unit, than the capitalization threshold. However,
such assets may be material as a group. In this case, the assets are generally recorded as a
single group asset, with one combined value. Examples where the recognition of assets as a
single group may be appropriate include:
• computer networks;
• furniture and fittings;

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• certain types of equipment; and
• professional libraries.

6.49 Despite the fact that such items may be recorded as a single asset in the financial systems, an
entity is still able to monitor or control the use and maintenance of these assets via a
subsidiary system. For example, each personal computer may be recorded as an element of
the computer network.

Recording Threshold
6.50 An entity may choose to record certain items that fall below the capitalization/reporting
threshold. In accordance with the capitalization policy, these items would be expensed when
purchased. However, a description of the items and their location may be recorded. For
example, these items may be bar-coded and recorded in a separate asset register. This type of
recording is appropriate for items such as video recorders, scanners, fax machines, mobile
telephones and certain tools. These items are sometimes referred to as “portable” items.
Regular checks of such items, as part of the annual stocktake, can assist in better
management of the items and reduce the risk of theft.

Capitalizing Upgrades and Improvements

6.51 In accordance with IPSAS 17, subsequent disbursements on property, plant and equipment
are only recognized as an addition to an asset when the disbursement improves the condition
of the asset, measured over its total life, beyond its most recently assessed standard of
performance. A monetary (or other) threshold may also be applied to upgrades and
improvements (note: this threshold does not have to be the same as the one used for the
initial capitalization of the relevant asset). For example, an entity may decide to recognize
any modification or enhancement that increases capacity or efficiency by more than 10%.

6.52 Any assets or components of assets which are replaced as part of an upgrade or improvement
program need to be removed from the asset register and any other relevant records. Any
residual carrying value for such assets or components would need to be written-off at that
point.

6.53 The entity may need to develop guidelines and examples (and provide training) for managers
with asset responsibility, illustrating the types of transactions that would normally be
capitalized or expensed.

6.54 The following two diagrams summarize the application of capitalization thresholds to asset
purchases and to spending subsequent to purchase.

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Figure 6.2 Recording Threshold

Purchase of asset

Is the value greater Record and

than the Yes report as an
capitalization asset.
threshold?

No

Record and
Is the asset a report as a
group asset? Yes group asset.

No

Does the entity want

to maintain records Expense and
of the asset e.g., maintain records.
portable asset? Yes

No

Expense and do
not maintain
records.

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting

Figure 6.3 Capitalizing Upgrades and Improvements

Significant
spending on asset
subsequent to
purchase

Remove old asset/

Has an asset or a component from
component of an records. Recognize
asset been replaced? Yes
any gain or loss on
No disposal.

Is the spending in
relation to repairs Expense.
and maintenance? Yes

No

Does the spending

meet the criteria for
capitalization of Capitalize.
upgrades and Yes
improvements?

No

Expense.

Borrowing Costs
6.55 In accordance with International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 5 Borrowing
Costs, borrowing costs that are incurred either can be recognized as an expense (benchmark
treatment) or, where they have been incurred on a qualifying asset, can be capitalized
(allowed alternative treatment). Qualifying assets are considered to be assets that because of
their nature take a long period to get ready for their intended use or sale, for example, office
buildings, hospitals and roads.

6.56 When the allowed alternative treatment is adopted by an entity, it should be applied
consistently to all borrowing costs that are directly attributable to the acquisition,
construction or production of all qualifying assets.

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Property, Plant and Equipment – Identifying Asset Classes and Components

6.57 The following list from IPSAS 17 is a useful starting point in the identification of classes of
property, plant and equipment:
• land;
• operational buildings;
• roads;
• machinery;
• electricity transmission networks;
• ships;
• aircraft;
• specialist military equipment;
• motor vehicles;
• furniture and fixtures;
• office equipment; and
• oil rigs.

6.58 This list is not comprehensive. Other common assets for public sector entities include sewer
systems, water and power supply systems, communication networks. In addition, an entity
may decide to recognize the following as separate classes of assets:
• surplus assets;
• obsolete items; and
• assets acquired by way of finance lease.

6.59 IPSAS 17 does not require that an entity recognize heritage assets. However, an entity may
choose to recognize heritage assets. Some jurisdictions distinguish between operational (for
example, historic buildings used as office accommodation) and non-operational heritage
assets (for example non functional bridges and buildings that have only historical
significance). The specific classes of property, plant and equipment will vary between
entities, depending upon the type of assets held and the materiality of particular types of
assets. Each class of assets may also have sub-classes.

6.60 Some assets have a number of components. For example, the components of a water system
may include the:
• pipes;
• reservoirs;
• pumping station; and

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
• service connections.
6.61 An entity needs to decide whether it is appropriate to recognize the components as separate
assets or collectively as part of the larger asset. Components are accounted for as separate
assets when they have useful lives that are different from those of the items of property, plant
and equipment to which they relate. Provided the recognition criteria in IPSAS 17 are
satisfied, replacement or renewal of a component is accounted for as the acquisition of a
separate asset and the replaced asset is written-off. The recognition of components will be
influenced by factors such as:
• the recognition threshold;
• materiality (for example, whether the separate recognition of a component will have a
material impact on depreciation);
• whether the component performs a separate function; and
• whether the component’s useful life differs from that of other components.

6.62 As part of accounting for network or system assets an entity may need to:
• construct an asset management database;
• identify appropriate components of the system or network;
• ascertain the age and condition of the components;
• assess the remaining useful life of existing asset components;
• identify features of the component, for example type of surface or method of
construction for a road;
• identify the level of use that particular parts of the system or network are subject to;
• establish a method for distinguishing between maintenance and upgrades or
improvements for that component;
• determine the valuation of assets for inclusion in the financial records;
• calculate the amount of decline in service potential (depreciation) for the financial
period;
• plan for a cycle of inspection to check accuracy of records against actual conditions; and
• link the underlying data to asset management plans, and link asset management plan
information to the financial records and financial statements (that is, reconcile to general
ledger information).

Property, Plant and Equipment – Assessment of Useful Lives

6.63 The useful life of an asset will vary depending upon the purpose for which the asset is used,
the level of use, the nature and amount of maintenance and the climatic conditions. For
example, the useful life of buildings is often shorter in tropical areas, due to the impact of

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high humidity, than in temperate climates. Relevant sources of information for determining
asset lives include:

• discussions with the people responsible for the use and maintenance of assets;
• the useful lives of similar assets used by other entities and jurisdictions (the useful lives
of major classes of assets are disclosed in annual reports);
• past records of asset acquisition and disposal; and
• the useful lives implicit in the depreciation rates approved by taxation authorities for
income determination. Although these figures are established for the purpose of
determining taxable income for private sector business activities, they may nonetheless
provide a useful starting point or point of comparison. However, useful lives approved by
taxation authorities may be consistently lower than actual useful lives.

6.64 The following considerations may be helpful in deciding how much time and effort to spend
assessing the useful lives of assets:
• Initial assessments of useful lives could be used for a set period and then reviewed.
• To what extent will the uncertainty regarding the useful life of an asset impact on
depreciation expense and, if relevant, a charge for the use of capital?

6.65 Useful lives need to be reviewed periodically. For example, the existence of a large number
of completely written-down assets still in use by an entity would indicate that the estimates
of useful life are too short.

Property, Plant and Equipment – Asset Management Practices

6.66 A key factor in the development of asset management policies and procedures is “who will
be responsible for the condition, use and performance of assets?” For example, some classes
of assets may be centrally managed and individual operational managers may require little
information about those assets. In other cases, responsibility for assets may be devolved to
operational managers. In this case, each person with responsibility for asset management
needs to know exactly what the responsibility entails and who has the authority to make
changes to the accounting records.

6.67 Ideally, an entity will have asset policies and procedures that cover all aspects of asset
management, including:
• general accounting procedures (refer below for examples);
• planning (for example, the development of policies on the provision of operational
facilities and other staff amenities such as canteens and gyms);
• acquisition;
• operation (refer below for examples); and
• disposal.

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
6.68 General accounting procedures for property, plant and equipment include:

• recording assets in fixed asset registers with an identifiable audit trail (for example a bar-
coded sticker on each asset and unique reference numbers);
• regular reconciliation of the asset register to general ledger balances;
• annual management checks for existence, continuing use, remaining life, obsolescence;
• annual reviews for impairment;
• regular reviews of useful lives;
• proper purchasing procedures to ensure that all additions are identified and recorded; and
• proper sales or write-off procedures to ensure all disposals are managed and recorded.

6.69 Operating procedures for assets could include:

• establishing performance indicators (for example, levels of under-used space);
• developing operation and maintenance plans (including cost maintenance priorities
highlighting essential and urgent work);
• procedures for monitoring the condition and use of assets;
• developing maintenance plans;
• tracking assets that are off-site, for example, transfers, loans and off-site repairs; and
• safeguarding and protection of assets.

6.70 Not all of these policies and procedures need to be in place at the beginning of the transition
to accrual accounting. Some of them will evolve as managers become more familiar with the
impact of assets on financial reporting, and asset management issues. However, these
policies and procedures have an impact on the type of asset management systems that are
required and in particular, the structure and content of the asset register (refer next section).
It is therefore helpful if they are considered (even if not developed) at an early stage of the
transition.

6.71 The type of operating policies required also depends upon the extent of an entity’s
responsibility for asset management. Where procurement, maintenance and disposal
functions are centrally managed, an entity will be responsible for following the procedures
established by central entities rather than developing its own procedures.

6.72 In order to comply with IPSAS 17, adequate asset management plans or other appropriate
information systems are necessary to reliably estimate the decline in service potential
(depreciation), and to ensure reliable reporting of the carrying value of those assets.

6.73 In the absence of an asset management plan the following problems can occur:
• poor use of assets;

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• failure to rationalize surplus assets;
• significant variation in running costs between locations;
• inadequate management information;
• deteriorating physical condition of stock; and/or
• continuing maintenance of uneconomic assets.

Property, Plant and Equipment – Asset Registers

6.74 An asset register is a complete and accurate list of assets owned by an entity that is regularly
updated and validated. It records the opening and closing balances of classes of property,
plant and equipment and is used to support the reported figures in the financial statements.
The compilation of an asset register for property, plant and equipment is one of the major
steps in the adoption of the accrual basis. It is a critical part of an asset management
information system and will normally contain information beyond that required for financial
reporting.

6.75 The size and complexity of an asset register will depend on:
• the number and type of assets held by the organization; and
• the volume of purchases, transfers and disposals.

6.76 In its simplest form an asset register may be a manual document or a spreadsheet.
Alternatively, it can be a computerized system that interfaces directly with the general ledger
(most computerized accounting systems have this facility). However, an asset register does
not have to be a single computerized system or document. It can be a series of sub-systems
with linkages and a common directory. The design of an asset register will to a large extent
be influenced by the content of existing asset management systems and databases.

6.77 The following diagram illustrates how a number of systems can link to form an asset register.

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting

Figure 6.4 Asset Register

Plant and
Vehicle
Information
System

Equipment
Inventory

Insurance Asset Register Financial

Register Information
Systems

Art and
Artefacts
Records

Operational
Buildings
Information

Engineering and
Maintenance
Databases

6.78 Key issues in the design and development of an asset register are:
• what information does it need to contain; and
• should it be integrated with the general ledger/other systems?

6.79 For each asset, an effective asset register needs to contain the following details (where
applicable):
• name of asset;
• physical description;
• serial number;
• date of acquisition (purchase, creation, donation, forfeiture);
• location;

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• person/position responsible for custody and maintenance of asset;
• due date for replacement;
• expected useful life:
– original life;
– expired life; and
– remaining life;
• date asset life last reviewed;
• any evidence of impairment;
• historic cost or valuation (initially if known and subsequently as valuations are
completed);
• depreciation method and rate (once determined);
• book value; and
• date of disposal.

6.80 An asset register could also contain (or be linked to) other relevant information such as
insurance details and planned maintenance. Features of a good asset register include:
• asset data is updated as transactions and events occur;
• the data is regularly reconciled with acquisition data, any subsidiary systems and the
general ledger;
• the data is readily available to asset managers, at the level of detail they require,
preferably “on-line”; and
• the data is structured to allow different classifications of assets to be distinguished.

6.81 Possible sources of data for asset registers include:

• existing asset lists and systems (details of vehicles and computer equipment are often
available);
• insurance lists;
• lists of properties where the entity pays property taxes, electricity, water or other utilities;
and
• information on land and buildings held by government entities responsible for cleaning
or maintenance.

6.82 These records can often be the starting point for the compilation of an asset register. These
sources of data may be used as the primary data or used to reconcile information held on
assets within different systems. It is essential, however, that at some point these records are
checked for accuracy and completeness. Such records will not generally have been an

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
integral part of the accounting system, and they may have been updated periodically rather
than as transactions occurred.

6.83 In compiling the initial list of assets, it is often helpful to reconcile information in various
systems with each other and with financial records. Where the information in a fixed asset
register is drawn from a number of different systems, it is essential that the underlying
records for all items are reliable. In order to be able to rely on the information in existing
systems, details of additions and disposals must have been correctly recorded in preceding
years. Errors identified in existing systems need to be resolved and corrected. If the accuracy
and completeness of existing systems is in doubt, complete or partial stocktakes will be
required. Poorly performed stocktakes do not provide reliable information. It is important to
get this step right, or, in order to get reliable information and a clean audit opinion, it will
need to be done again.

6.84 Once accrual accounting has been adopted, stocktakes need to be performed regularly.
Cyclical coverage of assets can vary between types of assets depending upon their risk
profiles and degree of physical security. Not all stocktakes need to be performed manually. It
is possible to purchase or design software that performs automated stocktakes of information
technology equipment attached to a local area or other network. The following illustrates
how a department developed stocktaking instructions which were clear and thoroughly
explained to those involved.
Illustration Clarifying and Communicating Stocktaking Instructions

Department A had established a computerized asset register. However, the data in the
asset register was not very accurate and resulted in an audit qualification. To resolve
the problem the department conducted a complete stocktake of all fixed assets and
re-entered all the asset data. In order to ensure that the stocktake resulted in the
collection of complete and accurate data, the department created teams of
experienced staff, led by an accountant. The stocktake instructions were re-drafted so
that they were clearly understood by all people participating in the stocktake. As part
of the process, the department made a video showing people how to perform the
stocktake. The video showed all types of equipment held by the department,
described the name and function of each piece of equipment and showed the location
of the serial number.

6.85 Ownership of assets, especially land, needs to be checked and resolved. Items that may need
special attention include:
• land requisitioned for a particular purpose but never returned to the original owners;
• forfeited assets (which may or may not belong to the entity); and
• donated assets and assets held in trust (which may include assets owned by the entity but
required to be used for a particular purpose).
6.86 Where there are problems with the accuracy of data (for example, quantity, location, age), or
ownership cannot be immediately resolved, options include:

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• loading the data into the asset register (together with information on the issues to be
resolved) and clearly flagging the issue; and
• noting the discrepancies and referring the issue to more specialized staff (for example,
legal advisers) for resolution.

6.87 At the stage that the entity begins to collect information for the asset register, the software
and systems to be used to account for fixed assets may not have been selected or designed.
Ideally, information would be collected in a form compatible with the software. Even in the
absence of such decisions, it is still possible to compile the basic data required for the asset
register. At some point, asset register information may need to be transferred from one
format to another. The benefits of making early progress on the asset register need to be
compared to the likely time and cost of transferring information into a different system.

6.88 An asset register may be compiled in stages. The first stage may consist of compiling a list of
all property, plant and equipment controlled by the reporting entity. This information can be
collected prior to the finalization of accounting policies, as valuation and measurement
issues can be resolved at the second stage. In addition, where information on particular
classes of assets is difficult to obtain or determining control will be difficult, the collection of
information on such assets can be treated as a separate exercise. Alternatively, identification
and valuation can proceed on a class-by-class basis.

Integration of Asset Registers with the General Ledger

6.89 Asset registers may be separate systems or they may be integrated with the general ledger
and other systems. If they are separate, then information from the asset register needs to be
periodically transferred (using a manual or computerized interface) into the general ledger
for the preparation of the financial statements. If the asset register is integrated with the
general ledger, then the opening and closing balance information can automatically flow
through into the general ledger, and automatic journal entries for depreciation can be created.

6.90 Integration of the asset register with other systems has clear advantages. For example,
integration of the asset register with the purchasing, capital planning, preventative
maintenance, accounts payable (to capture acquisitions) and general ledger systems:
• minimizes manual intervention;
• reduces the possibility of corruption of data, or error;
• reduces the number of reconciliations required;
• prevents duplicate data entry and processing; and
• allows journals for depreciation and asset revaluations to be automatically generated.
6.91 An asset register may also be integrated with the human resource management information
system. This allows the tracking of employee possession of attractive and portable items.

6.92 However, during the initial stages of implementation, an entity may be constrained by the
nature of existing systems and the time and cost to re-design or replace these systems.

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Manual or computer interfaces between existing systems and the general ledger will
therefore be required. Such interfaces are a potential source of errors, not least the possibility
that not all data on assets may be transferred. In order to avoid problems arising from
interfaces, careful design, training and testing are required.

Validation of Asset Registers

6.93 Validation of asset registers involves conducting checks to show that the information in the
register is complete and accurate as at a certain date. Compilation of a register can take one
to two years, and during that time assets will have been acquired, enhanced and disposed of.
Validation of figures to be used for opening balances is therefore required. Lists of additions,
enhancements, and disposals should be generated and centrally reviewed for reasonableness.
Validation is also required on an ongoing basis.

6.94 In most cases, there will be some asset movements (additions, enhancements and disposals)
between the original valuation and loading of information into the asset register and the
reporting date.

6.95 Methods of validating figures to be used for opening balances include:

• for land and buildings – documenting the source of information and procedures followed
to establish the completeness of the records; and
• for other fixed assets – circulating information held on the asset register to employees
responsible for physical custody of assets asking for confirmation of the accuracy and
completeness of the records.

6.96 Good validation procedures include:

• assigning responsibility for validation of information on each class of assets to one
person/position;
• ensuring that physical existence checks are conducted by staff independent of those
responsible for custody of the assets;
• requiring written confirmation of any amendments;
• requiring written statements confirming the accuracy of asset register information
(subject to any amendments provided);
• retaining records of any adjustments made to the asset register following receipt of
proposed amendments; and
• keeping records of which parts of the register have been validated and the dates on which
the data was validated.

6.97 If it is not possible to conduct all verifications at the reporting date, it would be prudent to
confirm the acceptability of a phased program of verification with the external auditor.

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6.98 Due to time constraints, an entity may initially omit some immaterial categories of assets
from the asset register. Subsequently, these assets will need to be identified (by component),
valued, entered into the asset register and recognized in the financial statements. The
subsequent recognition of such assets will generally lead to both an increase in assets and net
assets/equity.

Asset Registers – Summary

6.99 The following key points will be useful for entities developing an asset register:
• If preparing for converting to accrual accounting, start collecting basic information on
assets immediately, even if this information is simply collected on a spreadsheet.
• Make sure stocktake instructions are clear and thoroughly explained to those conducting
the stocktake.
• Start small – it is better to create a simple but workable asset register which has the
minimum data required for all assets than to attempt and never finish a more complex
register.
• Communicate with users to make sure registers are usable and used.
• Provide training for users of the asset management systems and asset register – a slow
take up by users requires follow up action.
• Allow sufficient time for researching proof of ownership, including reconciling historical
documents of ownership to more recent records – this task can be very time consuming.
• Establish a process for dealing with assets where ownership is disputed or cannot be
resolved prior to reporting date.
• Remember to develop systems to track items (such as major components/spare parts) that
are owned by the entity but are held by contractors for the repair, overhaul or
modification of assets.
• Properties identified for disposal must be checked to ensure that they are valued in
accordance with the policy on valuation of properties for disposal.
• Do not spend more to obtain information than the information is worth.

Property, Plant and Equipment – Valuing Assets

6.100 IPSAS 17 deals with both the initial measurement of property, plant and equipment and
measurement subsequent to recognition. Valuations may be required at the time of initial
recognition where the item’s cost cannot be determined reliably, or is not relevant. IPSAS 17
requires the item to be valued at cost as at the date it is acquired. Where an asset is acquired
at no or nominal cost, its cost is its fair value. Fair value is defined as “the amount for which
an asset could be exchanged, or a liability settled, between knowledgeable, willing parties in
an arm’s length transaction” (IPSAS 17, paragraph 12). The relevant method will depend
upon the circumstances. For example, different valuation methods are usually applied to

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
items that will continue to be used and items that have been identified as surplus or otherwise
intended for disposal. Valuation methods that may be relevant in assessing fair value include:
• open market value;
• market-based value; and
• depreciated replacement cost.

6.101 The International Valuation Standards Committee issues internationally accepted valuation
standards. These standards seek compatibility with International Financial Reporting
Standards (IFRSs) (formerly International Accounting Standards (IASs)) and include
references to relevant IFRSs.

6.102 Steps in valuing assets include:

• develop valuation policies, including the valuation method, for each class of asset;
• decide whether assets within those classes are to be valued;
• prepare instructions for valuers;
• collate information required by valuers;
• select valuers; and
• perform management review of valuations.

Valuation Policies
6.103 The following example of an accounting policy illustrates the use of valuations in the
determination of opening balances.
Example: Accounting Policy – Initial Recognition of Property, Plant and Equipment

Items purchased or acquired before [date] or whose cost cannot be determined or is not
reliable, are to be recorded at depreciated replacement cost (adjusted to take into account
any major differences between the actual asset and the replacement asset). That is, the
depreciated replacement cost is to be based on the estimated present cost of constructing
the existing component of the asset by the same or (similar method) of construction.

6.104 In some cases, the original cost of the item may be available but significant development
work may have been carried out since that date. For example, aircraft may have significant
capitalized development costs. If original contract details for this work are not available,
valuations of parts and estimations of development costs can be used to determine opening
balances.

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Full Population or Sample
6.105 It is possible to use stratified sampling when establishing the value of assets. This method
was used in New Zealand for the valuation of archived material.

Instructions for Valuers

6.106 Valuers require detailed instructions as to the valuation policies and specific details of assets
to be valued. An example of the considerations which should be taken into account when
compiling detailed instructions for valuers is contained in the United Kingdom National
Audit Office’s Resource Accounts: Preparing for Audit (United Kingdom National Audit
Office, November 1997). In particular, it is important to be aware that the effectiveness of a
valuation exercise will be largely dependent upon the quality of the instructions.

6.107 Suggestions for developing instructions for valuers include:

• requiring valuers to establish the completeness of the list of assets at a given site;
• requiring valuers to provide a value and an estimated useful life for each asset;
• using a relatively low capitalization threshold for valuations and applying this threshold
to gross values (as opposed to net values). The threshold used in the asset register can be
higher than this, but sufficient data is required to make an informed judgment;
• being explicit about whether valuations are to include or exclude relevant taxes or duties;
and
• stating which set of professional valuation guidelines is applicable.

Information Required by Valuers

6.108 The data required by valuers for land is likely to include:
• area;
• ownership and title;
• planning consents and agreements;
• restrictive covenants, easements and rights of way;
• use(s); and
• access.

6.109 The data required by valuers for buildings is likely to include:

• type of building, roof and heating system;
• year of construction;
• gross external area;
• net internal area;

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• number of stories;
• estimated replacement cost for insurance purposes;
• condition surveys; and
• maintenance records and expenditure.

Selection of Valuers
6.110 Qualified external valuers are generally used to obtain reliable and independent valuations.
However, the cost of obtaining valuations may mean that internal staff may be used to value
some assets. The use of internal staff may be more appropriate where computer-based
models, price indices and catalogues are being used to obtain approximations of historic cost
or current value. Where internal staff are used to perform valuations, it is important that the
valuations are in full accordance with the best practice followed by firms of professional
valuers and that sound audit trails (including references to price indices and catalogues used)
are established.

Management Review of Valuations

6.111 Management is still responsible for the accuracy of valuations, even when performed by
external valuers. Before valuations are entered into asset registers, management therefore
needs to review them for completeness and reasonableness. Management should document
that this review has occurred, any issues identified and subsequent action taken. Some of the
problems that can arise include:
• assets not owned by the entity being included in the entity’s records;
• assets owned by the entity not being included; and
• assets identified as being held for disposal being valued on a continuing use basis.

6.112 Reconciliation between management records, the asset register and valuations is a useful
check to ensure that all assets owned have been valued and that all assets valued are indeed
owned. Evidence of such reconciliations is important audit evidence.

6.113 After the valuation data has been inserted in the asset register, only those transactions that
took place after the valuation date should be reflected in the asset register. Subsequent
valuations should be reviewed for consistency. Copies of valuation reports form supporting
documentation for opening balances.

Examples of Approximations
6.114 Where historic cost is the valuation method adopted, but such information is not available for
each asset, valuations are normally required to determine opening balances. The transitional
provisions of IPSAS 17 allow entities to recognize property, plant and equipment at cost or
fair value at the date of its acquisition. Some jurisdictions have adopted such methods of

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estimating historic cost, for example, one jurisdiction has developed a computer-based model
that will provide an estimate of historic cost for real property and infrastructure assets.

6.115 Where valuations are used to establish opening balances of assets, depreciated replacement
cost of an asset may be established by reference to the buying price of a similar asset in an
active and liquid market. Depreciated replacement cost may be approximated by using
historic cost updated by price indices (and depreciated to reflect remaining useful life), or by
using prices in current catalogues.

6.116 Another method of reducing the time and effort required in obtaining opening balances is to
extrapolate values obtained from external valuers to assets not included in the valuation
exercise. It would be prudent to obtain the views of the external auditors on the use of this
method beforehand.

Property, Plant and Equipment – Financial Statement Issues – External Audits

6.117 This section considers how an entity can ensure that it is well prepared for an external audit.
The main objective of this Study is to provide practical guidance to entities intending to
report on an accrual basis, and intending to adopt IPSASs as part of that process. Many of
the entities using this guidance will also have the objective of preparing external financial
statements that receive an unqualified audit opinion. In order to help entities reap the benefits
of the work they have put into the transition, this section discusses a selection of audit issues
associated with property, plant and equipment. Although the focus is on property, plant and
equipment, some of the discussion is also applicable to other areas. This section is not
comprehensive. It is intended to provide examples of the types of planning and preparation
that may be required to attain the goal of an unqualified audit opinion.

6.118 There are a number of steps that management and staff can take to help the audit go
smoothly and to minimize the risk of a disclaimer or a qualified audit report. They include:
• understanding the auditor’s objectives;
• maintaining audit trails;
• having supporting information and schedules ready; and
• being aware of common audit issues and taking steps to avoid their occurrence.

6.119 An auditor is interested in assessing whether the entity’s systems, controls, validations and
management reviews provide assurance regarding the following general audit objectives:
• completeness – there are no unrecorded assets, events or other undisclosed items relating
to assets;
• existence – the asset exists at a given date;
• rights and obligations – the asset properly pertains to the entity at a given date;
• valuation – the asset is recorded at an appropriate carrying value; and

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• presentation and disclosure – an item is disclosed, classified and described in accordance
with the applicable accounting standards/regulations.

6.120 An audit trail consists of a positive set of links for each transaction or balance from source to
account, and back. It is the ability to track from the financial statements back through the
prime accounting records to the underlying transactions and events (and back again) so that
management and the auditor may substantiate the individual account figures. Audit trails
include the use of control totals and trail data when obtaining information from other
computerized systems, and the use of documentation to support all decisions and
assumptions. Examples of audit trails and system controls can be found in auditing textbooks
and in-house system manuals. See for example United States Defense Finance and
Accounting Service (1998).

6.121 Supporting schedules required for the preparation and audit of the financial statements
include:
• a copy of the asset register by asset category;
• a reconciliation of opening and closing balances of each class of asset;
• a copy of the stocktake procedures and the stocktake report;
• a reconciliation of the stocktake report to the asset register;
• a list of write-offs/write-downs;
• a schedule of spending subsequent to purchase showing which spending has been
capitalized in accordance with the policy on capitalization;
• a schedule of any revenue or expense to be recognized in the statement resulting from the
sale of assets; and
• valuation reports, where applicable, including the basis, date and name and qualifications
of the valuer.

6.122 An entity can expect an auditor to verify:

• selected opening balances:
– historic costs or other appropriate cost base; and
– useful life and amortization policy;
• selected acquisitions, disposals, repairs and maintenance expenses, write-downs and
write-offs during the period; and
• the depreciation or amortization charge for selected assets.
6.123 In addition, the auditor will require a discussion of the methodology used, by asset class, to
identify and value opening balances, and will be checking that regular reconciliations
between the asset register and general ledger are performed.

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Opening Balances
6.124 Evidence to support opening balances of assets can be provided by way of the following
documents and procedures:
• a reconciliation of the initial asset register totals to valuation reports;
• copies of confirmations from asset holders that asset registers are accurate and complete;
• a record of adjustments made to the asset register following review by asset holders;
• lists of fixed asset additions, enhancements and disposals, with documentation of
validation procedures performed on them; and
• reasonableness checks on depreciation and revaluation (to include comparisons with any
prior period figures available).

6.125 Opening balances need to:

• be recognized and valued according to the chosen accounting policies;
• be accurately entered into the accounting system;
• be consistent with any figures brought forward from the cash-based accounts, for
example, suspense accounts;
• have clearly identifiable, documented sources;
• have evidence of management review for ownership, accuracy and completeness; and
• have evidence of physical verification, where appropriate.

Financial Statement Disclosures

6.126 An entity will need to ensure that its financial systems and records can provide the
information required in order to meet the disclosure requirements of accounting standards, to
monitor and assess potential financial risks associated with assets (for example,
environmental clean up costs) and to provide data for voluntary disclosures.

6.127 Examples of disclosures required by accounting standards include:

• any class of property, plant and equipment not recognized under the transitional
provisions in IPSAS 17;
• the existence and amounts of restrictions on title for property, plant and equipment
pledged as securities for liabilities (IPSAS 1);
• the amount of disbursements on property, plant and equipment in the course of
construction (IPSAS 11); and
• the amount of commitments for the acquisition of property, plant and equipment
(IPSAS 1).

6.128 Additional asset disclosures could include:

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• any properties where dangerous/toxic substances are associated with the land or the
buildings (refer to Chapter 7 for a discussion of contaminated land and landfill sites); and
• any rights or obligations that attach to ownership or occupation and will transfer with the
properties.

6.129 In addition to those disclosures required by accounting standards, an entity may choose to
disclose:
• physical descriptions of certain assets (for example state highways, national forests,
recognized and unrecognized mineral deposits); and
• descriptions of heritage assets.

Problems Identified During Audit

6.130 Issues that have been identified by auditors, across a range of jurisdictions, include:
• physical stocktakes not being performed according to instructions (including breach of
internal control by using staff with responsibility for assets to perform the stocktakes);
• deficiencies in stocktake procedures and unresolved discrepancies;
• items that form part of a larger asset (for example, a building) being recorded as single
assets rather than as a series of components. This can lead to the age and condition of
components being misstated as the components may have been upgraded or replaced
since initial recognition of the assets;
• poor implementation of bar coding and scanning;
• stickers used for recording asset register references on assets such as furniture and
equipment being incorrect or not visible;
• policies, procedures, and training not being in place to ensure the sustainability of the
asset register (or components of it);
• assets being recorded at incorrect locations;
• depreciation rates and useful lives not reviewed regularly (leading to large numbers of
assets fully depreciated despite having future value);
• acquisitions and disposals not recorded in a timely manner in asset registers or not
processed in the general ledger;
• missing disposal documentation;
• lack of documentation to support the figures in the asset register;
• figures presented for audit not subjected to any prior management review;
• incomplete data on dates of acquisition (required for depreciation calculations);
• asset registers not regularly reconciled to subsidiary records; and
• asset registers not regularly reconciled to the general ledger.

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6.131 This list shows that, although difficulties in valuation may be perceived as the major audit
issue, poor implementation of stocktakes, incomplete documentation and a lack of regular
reconciliations are just as likely to lead to an audit qualification.

Property, Plant and Equipment – Transitional Provisions

6.132 IPSAS 17 recognizes that due to the amount of work involved in identifying and obtaining
the cost or valuation of all categories of property, plant and equipment, some entities may
wish to recognize categories of assets progressively. It therefore provides a temporary
provision for an entity to recognize some, but not all classes of property, plant and
equipment. The provision is available for a maximum of five years from the date of adoption
of accrual accounting in accordance with IPSASs. In addition, IPSAS 17 does not require
entities to recognize heritage assets, nor does it require entities to apply the normal
measurement requirements if entities elect to recognize heritage assets.

Property, Plant and Equipment – Lessons Learned

6.133 General lessons learned regarding the recognition of assets include the following:
• Start early – sufficient lead – time is critical.
• Obtain support from all concerned.
• Work very closely with auditors.
• Be prepared to make some mistakes.
• Be pragmatic.
• The process is evolutionary.
• Phased recognition of classes of assets has both advantages and disadvantages.
• Integrated systems avoid a number of audit issues arising from interfaces.
• Ensure there is a good audit trail including documentation for estimates and assumptions.

Relevance to the Cash Basis of Accounting

6.134 The issues identified in this Chapter are relevant for entities intending to comply with any
future IPSAS based on IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash Basis of
Accounting if they wish to provide additional note disclosure on the nature and amount of
various categories of assets. Although an entity may provide additional disclosures within
the financial statements or as supplementary information, such amounts cannot be included
in the amounts shown on the face of the primary financial statements.

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References
Australian National Audit Office (ANAO), Asset Management Guide
ANAO, Asset Management Handbook, June 1996.

ANAO, Audit Report No. 27 of 1995-96, Asset Management 1995/1996 , June 1996.

ANAO, Better Practice Guide Financial Statements Preparation, http://www.anao.gov.au, 1996.

International Accounting Standards Board (IASB/IASC), IAS 41, Agriculture,

http://www.iasb.org.uk/

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements, May

2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 2 Cash Flow Statements, May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 5 Borrowing Costs, May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 9 Revenue from Exchange Transactions,

June 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 11 Construction Contracts, June 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 12 Inventories, June 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 13 Leases, December 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 15 Financial Instruments: Disclosure and

Presentation, December 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 16 Investment Property, December 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 17 Property, Plant and Equipment,

December 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash
Basis of Accounting, May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS ED 21 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities

and Contingent Assets , February 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Study 11, Governmental Financial Reporting

http://www.ifac.org, May 2000.

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International Valuation Standards Committee (IVSC), 2001 International Valuation Standards
http://www.ivsc.org, 2001.

New Zealand National Asset Management Steering Group, New Zealand Infrastructure Valuation
and Depreciation Guidelines, 2001. , May 2000. , November 1997
http://www.ingenium.org.nz, November 1997.

New Zealand National Asset Management Steering Group and Institute of Public Works Engineering
Australia, International Infrastructure Management Manual, Version 1.0
http://www.ingenium.org.nz
http://www.ipwea.org.au/

United Kingdom National Audit Office (NAO), Resource Accounts: Preparing for Audit
http://www.nao.gov.uk, November 1997.

United States Defense Finance and Accounting Service, A Guide to Federal Requirements For
Financial Management Systems, http://www.dfas.mil, 1998.

United States General Accounting Office, Financial Management Series, Inventory System Checklist,
GAO/AIMD-98-21.2.4, http://www.gao.gov/special.pubs/ai2124.pdf, May 1998.

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Appendix: Accounting Policies

This Appendix illustrates examples of accounting policies for inventories, receivables, bad debts and
write-offs, and property, plant and equipment. These policies are examples of policies that might be
developed by a central entity for application by all individual entities forming part of a whole-of-
government reporting entity. The policies are consistent with the requirements of IPSAS 12 and
IPSAS 17. However, it is possible that other policies that are consistent with these standards could
also be developed. The policy for property, plant and equipment does not take advantage of any of
the transitional provisions in IPSAS 17. The main choice available to entities under IPSAS 17 is
whether to measure assets at depreciated historic cost or at fair value. The policy illustrated uses
initial cost, with subsequent revaluations to fair value for certain assets.

Inventory – Measurement, Cost Assignment

In accordance with International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 12 Inventories,
inventories are to be measured at the lower of cost and net realizable value (NRV) on an item-by-
item or group basis1. Inventories held for distribution at no charge, or for a nominal charge, are to be
measured at the lower of cost and current replacement cost.

When inventories are sold or consumed, the carrying amount of those inventories is to be recognized
as an expense in the period in which the related revenue is recognized.

The amount of any write-down of inventories to NRV (due to obsolescence, damage, or other
reasons) and all losses of inventories are to be recognized as an expense in the period the write-down
or loss occurs.

Costs are to be assigned to inventories using specific identification or FIFO as appropriate.

Inventory – Work in Progress

Work in progress is to be measured at the lower of cost and NRV.

Where work in progress of an entity relates to the provision of non-capital items or services, work in
progress is to be determined on the basis of costs to date based on the stage of completion. Accurate
records of work in progress will therefore require an auditable costing system to track costs,
including records of labor input, overhead absorption rates and additional direct costs.

Receivables
Receivables relating to goods and services are to be recognized at the time goods or services are
provided, in accordance with the policies on revenue recognition. The raising of an invoice,
assessment or any other obligation to pay usually evidences the recognition of an account receivable.
Amounts invoiced to clients where the entity has not yet provided the goods or services, are to be
recognized as both accounts receivable and unearned revenue. All accounts receivable are to be
recorded at the amounts expected to be ultimately collected.

1
IPSAS 12 does not deal with work in progress of services which are to be distributed for no or nominal consideration directly in return from the
recipients. The entity is not expected to have any such services. However, if such services do occur, the costs of producing the service are to be
expensed as they occur.

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Receivables relating to non-exchange revenues are to be recognized in accordance with the policy on
recognition of the relevant non-exchange revenue.

Interest receivable is to be recognized in accordance with the policy on recognition of interest

revenue.

Bad and Doubtful Debts

All bad debts are to be written-off and an adequate provision is to be made for doubtful debts.

Bad debts are to be written-off as soon as the entity becomes aware that the amount is unlikely to be
collected in full. Where the bad debt was previously provided for as a doubtful debt, the bad debt is
to be written-off against the provision. Where the bad debt was not previously provided for, the bad
debt is to be expensed.

If, at any time, the debt is recovered, the write-off is to be reversed.

Property, Plant and Equipment – Recognition

Items of property, plant and equipment that meet the recognition criteria for assets and have a value
greater than [each entity to select an appropriate amount having regard to materiality] are
capitalized and depreciated in accordance with International Public Sector Accounting Standard
IPSAS 17 Property, Plant and Equipment.

Property, Plant and Equipment – Cost

Items of property, plant and equipment are initially to be recorded at cost.

On initial application of IPSAS 17, assets not previously recognized are to be recognized either at
cost where cost is considered to be relevant, or in other cases at their fair value as at the date of first
recognition.

The cost of an item of property, plant and equipment includes:

• the purchase price (including relevant taxes and duties, less trade discounts and rebates);
and
• the directly attributable costs of bringing the asset to working condition for its intended
use (including the cost of site preparation, initial delivery and handling costs, installation
costs, professional fees such as for architects and engineers, and the estimated cost of
dismantling the asset and restoring the site if required).

Self-constructed plant and equipment is accounted for in accordance with IPSAS 17 as follows:
• the cost of materials, labor and other inputs used during the construction process is
obtained from transactions with parties external to the entity;
• the cost of abnormal amounts of wasted material, labor or other resources is not included
in the cost of the asset; and

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• administration and other general overhead costs are not included unless they can be
directly attributed to the construction of the asset or bringing it to its working condition.

Property, Plant and Equipment – Following Acquisition

Following acquisition, property, plant and equipment is accounted for in accordance with IPSAS 17
as follows:
• recorded at cost (less any accumulated depreciation and any accumulated impairment
loss) or revalued amount (fair value at date of revaluation less any subsequent
accumulated depreciation and any accumulated impairment loss);
• reviewed regularly for evidence of impairment;
• subsequent expenditure is capitalized only when it is probable that future economic
benefits or service potential over the total life of the asset (in excess of the most recently
assessed standard of performance of the existing asset), will flow to the entity. All other
subsequent disbursements are recognized as expenses in the period in which they are
incurred; and
• gains or losses arising from the retirement or disposal of an item are accounted for as
gains and losses on disposal of non-current assets.

Property, Plant and Equipment – Revaluation

Land, buildings, leasehold improvements and infrastructure are to be revalued every five years
except where more frequent valuations are necessary to comply with IPSAS 17. Other assets are not
to be revalued.

Revaluations are to be accounted for in accordance with IPSAS 17 as follows:

• entire classes of assets are to be revalued;
• revaluations are to be made with sufficient regularity that the carrying amount does not
differ from that which would be determined using fair value at the reporting date;
• valuations are to be undertaken by registered valuers [reporting entities will list
registered valuers as appropriate for each class];
• where no market value exists, value is to be assessed in relation to other similar assets or
depreciated replacement cost;
• any accumulated depreciation in respect of the class of assets is first credited to the assets
to which it relates;
• a revaluation increase for a class of assets is directly credited to an asset revaluation
reserve (except that a revaluation increase is recognized as revenue to the extent that it
reverses a revaluation decrease of the same class of assets previously recognized as an
expense);
• a revaluation decrease for a class of assets is recognized as an expense (although a
decrease should be charged directly against any related revaluation surplus to the extent

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that the decrease does not exceed the amount held in the revaluation surplus in respect of
that same class of assets); and
• revaluation increases and decreases relating to individual assets within a class of
property, plant and equipment are offset against one another within that class (but are not
offset in respect of assets in different classes).

The initial recognition of an item of property, plant and equipment at its fair value, in the absence of
a determinable or reliable cost, does not constitute a revaluation.

Property, Plant and Equipment – Infrastructure Assets

Each component of an infrastructure asset with a materially different useful life from other
components is accounted for as a separate asset and depreciated over its useful life.

Where the initial cost of construction is not known, a proxy such as depreciated replacement cost is
to be used.

In common with other classes of property, plant and equipment, infrastructure assets are revalued in
accordance with IPSAS 17.

Property, Plant and Equipment – Leased Assets

Assets acquired under finance leases are accounted for in accordance with International Public
Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 13 Leases. They are recognized as assets. The associated lease
obligations are recognized as liabilities. Leased assets are depreciated in the same manner as other
similar assets owned by the entity.

The assets (and liabilities) are recognized at amounts equal at the inception of the lease to the fair
value of the leased property or, if lower, at the present value of the minimum lease payments.

Assets leased by way of an operating lease are accounted for in accordance with IPSAS 13.

Property, Plant and Equipment – Heritage Assets

Heritage assets are not required to be recognized under the provisions of IPSAS 17. Where an entity
does recognize heritage assets it is not required to apply the measurement requirements of
IPSAS 17. However, where an entity recognizes and measures heritage assets, it is required to make
disclosures in accordance with IPSAS 17.

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 Chapter 7: Liabilities

CHAPTER 7: LIABILITIES

Key Points

• At the time of writing, International Public Sector Accounting Standards IPSASs (and Exposure
Drafts) dealing with the recognition, measurement or disclosure of liabilities are:
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 1 Presentation of Financial
Statements;
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 4 The Effects of Changes in Foreign
Exchange Rates (the reporting of liabilities denominated in foreign currencies);
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 9 Revenue from Exchange
Transactions (accounting for unearned revenue);
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 13 Leases (liabilities associated with
leased assets);
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 15 Financial Instruments:
Disclosure and Presentation (financial instruments); and
– Exposure Draft International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS ED 21 Provisions,
Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets Arising From Exchange Transactions
(liabilities of uncertain timing and amount, potential liabilities and liabilities not meeting the
criteria for recognition).
• Liability topics for which IPSASs are currently not developed include:
– recognition and measurement of financial instruments (discussed in Chapter 11);
– payables associated with non-exchange revenue (discussed in Chapter 14);
– provisions and contingent liabilities arising from non-exchange transactions (discussed in
Chapter 14);
– employee benefit liabilities (discussed in Chapter 12); and
– social policy obligations arising from non-exchange transactions (discussed in Chapter 13).
• This Chapter discusses implementation issues associated with the adoption of accrual accounting
for accounts payable and accrued expenses, debt, accrued interest, currency issued and
environmental liabilities. (Illustrative accounting policies that might be adopted for certain
classes of liabilities are included as an Appendix to the Chapters of this Study that deal with
specific types of liabilities.)
• The nature of existing systems and the assessment of the completeness and accuracy of
information within those systems will affect the amount of work required to determine opening
balances and establish systems that support reporting on an accrual basis.

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Introduction

7.1 IPSAS 1, paragraph 6, defines liabilities as “present obligations of the entity arising from
past events, the settlement of which is expected to result in an outflow from the entity of
resources embodying economic benefits or service potential.” Liabilities are recognized for
financial reporting purposes when the definition of a liability and the recognition criteria for
liabilities (probability and measurability) are satisfied.

7.2 IPSAS 1 has implications for the classification of liabilities. It requires the disclosure of:
• taxes and transfers payable;
• payables under exchange transactions;
• provisions;
• non-current liabilities; and
• further sub-classification of line items presented on the face of the financial statements.

7.3 The liability classifications required by an entity will depend on the types of liabilities that
the entity incurs. In some cases, central organizations or the controlling entity may assume
responsibility for certain liabilities. A national government is likely to have the following
types of liabilities:
• accounts payable arising from the purchases of goods and services;
• accrued interest payable;
• accrued salaries and wages;
• accrued vested vacation pay or other accrued compensated absences;
• employee pension obligations and other accrued employee benefits, including any
accrued termination benefits;
• amounts payable under guarantees and indemnities (where sufficient evidence is
available to indicate that it is more likely than not that the amounts will be payable);
• liabilities relating to unearned revenues;
• transfer payments payable;
• lease obligations related to finance leases;
• bank loans and other short-term borrowings;
• long-term debt (both to the private sector and to other government entities);
• environmental liabilities; and
• obligations under accident compensation schemes.

7.4 At a whole-of-government level, debt and borrowings and unfunded pension liabilities are
likely to be the most significant non-current liabilities. Within individual public sector

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entities, employee-related liabilities and provisions may be the most significant non-current
liabilities.

7.5 The amount of work required to recognize liabilities depends on the extent to which an entity
already has information available on those liabilities. General steps in the recognition of
liabilities include:
• compiling a list of all types of liabilities incurred by the entity;
• determining the categories of liabilities that will be used in the chart of accounts and the
financial statements;
• preparing accounting policies for each category;
• assessing the accuracy and completeness of existing information on each category;
• compiling accurate opening balances for each category (identification, application of the
definition of a liability, and measurement); and
• establishing systems to support the ongoing requirements of accrual accounting.

7.6 This Chapter discusses implementation issues associated with the adoption of accrual
accounting for:
• accounts payable and accrued expenses;
• debt and accrued interest;
• currency issued; and
• environmental liabilities.

7.7 Liabilities are also discussed in other Chapters as follows:

• accruals for employee-related expenses, including salary and wages, vacation leave and
pension obligations (Chapter 12 Employee-Related Liabilities); and
• transfers payable and other social policy obligations (Chapter 13 Liabilities Arising from
Social Policy Obligations).

7.8 In common with the International Accounting Standards (IASs) on which they are based,
IPSASs do not specifically address issues associated with Islamic financial services that do
not fit with the notions in IPSAS 15 Financial Instruments: Presentation and Disclosure.
For example, while IPSAS 15 may apply to a range of contracts or components of contracts
that arise within Islamic law, its requirements regarding disclosure of interest will not be
relevant. The Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions
prepares accounting standards for Islamic financial institutions. These standards are regarded
as complementing IASs in areas where IASs are insufficient to meet the Islamic Law
requirements to which Islamic financial institutions adhere in their business transactions.

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Accounts Payable and Accrued Expenses

7.9 Accounts payable (also referred to as creditors) consist of amounts owed by the entity to
others, including other government entities and the public. Types of accounts payables
include:
• those which occur when goods and services have been purchased on credit, and an
invoice has been received (or the amount is payable under the terms of an ongoing
contract or agreement) but not paid as at the end of the period such as the purchase of
office equipment;
• amounts due to individuals in relation to non-exchange transfers such as welfare benefits;
and
• amounts due to other government entities or different levels of government in relation to
non-exchange transfers such as grants.
7.10 Accrued expenses arise when goods and services have been purchased on credit from other
parties during the period, and an invoice has not been received as at the end of the period or
the amount is not yet due to be paid under the terms of a contract or agreement. Accrued
expenses often have separate codes in the chart of accounts, but for purposes of disclosure in
the financial statements they are often aggregated with accounts payable.

7.11 Determination of opening balances of accounts payable and accrued expenses involves a
thorough examination of all ongoing expenses. The entity needs to:
• compile a list of all recorded amounts payable;
• check that the amounts recorded for specific transactions are correct;
• check that the recorded amounts are complete – this may involve seeking confirmation
from regular suppliers; and
• review all expenses to see if there are likely to be accrued expenses at period end.

7.12 The process followed needs to be documented to enable opening balances to be established
and to provide an audit trail.

Debt and Accrued Interest

7.13 This section outlines key issues in accounting for debt and debt servicing costs on an accrual
basis. Some of the issues discussed in this section are not directly linked to the adoption of
accrual accounting. However, the adoption of accrual accounting is often linked to a review
of debt management policies and procedures and other changes designed to improve the
management of public debt.

7.14 Debt is a form of liability that represents money borrowed from individuals, banks or other
institutions. The terms used to describe debt securities and other forms of borrowing vary
across jurisdictions. Some of the terms used are shown in the table below.

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Interest bearing/non- Indicates whether the security bears interest.
interest bearing
Marketable/non- Indicates whether the securities may be traded in financial
marketable securities markets or whether the holder has to keep the security until
maturity.
Bills Short-term obligations. Depending upon the jurisdiction the
term may be up to one year or up to 90 days.
Notes Medium-term obligations. Depending upon the jurisdiction
the term may be between one year and ten years. In some
jurisdictions notes may be used to describe securities with a
term of less than one year.
Bonds/debentures Long-term obligations. Depending upon the jurisdiction, the
term may be more than 10 years. In some jurisdictions
bonds/debentures may be any security over one year.
They give the holder the unconditional right to a fixed or
contractually determined variable money income in the form
of coupon payments and/or a stated fixed sum on a specified
date or dates when the security is redeemed.
Loans and advances These may include loans and advances from other levels of
government, other governments, multi-lateral and bi-lateral
agencies and bank loans.

7.15 Bonds or debentures may have regular interest or coupon payments, they may be “zero-
coupon” or they may have an inflation-adjusted premium payable on maturity. They may be
issued at a premium or a discount.

Information Available Prior to the Transition

7.16 The amount of work required to recognize debt and debt servicing costs on an accrual basis
will depend on an entity’s existing basis of accounting used for financial reporting and
existing systems. For example, governments reporting on the modified accrual basis may
already account for debt and interest expense in accordance with the accrual basis.
Governments reporting on the cash basis will not recognize debt as a liability, but they
normally have some system to record debt transactions and manage debt. The nature and
reliability of these systems can vary immensely. Types or aspects of systems which may be
used to record and manage debt transactions and balances include:
• manual records. These may include details of the initial debt, scheduled repayments, the
current balance outstanding, dates interest is due, currencies, terms and conditions.
Manual records may suffice where debt consists solely of loans and advances and there
are a limited number of such obligations;
• spreadsheets incorporating the details listed in the above bullet point. The spreadsheets
may also perform interest calculations and be used to generate cash flow budgets;

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• the general ledger of an accounting system. This may be used to record some debt
transactions (refer also the section on systems below);
• specific software developed to maintain and forecast debt service requirements under the
cash basis. These packages may link to other software applications that assist
jurisdictions to monitor the sustainability of their debt (for example, the World Bank’s
Debt Sustainability Model). Such systems may or may not have the capability to
integrate borrowing and investments to obtain consolidated cash flows; and
• treasury and cash management systems that can be used to manage both the debt and all
the cash flows of a government. Such systems may also be able to generate the
accounting entries required under cash accounting or accrual accounting (both modified
historic cost and mark-to-market). Governments using such systems could be managing
their debt portfolio on a mark-to-market basis while reporting on a cash basis.

7.17 Entities therefore need to identify:

• the requirements associated with reporting on the accrual basis;
• the information available from and the capabilities of their existing systems;
• the differences between what is required and what is available; and
• possible solutions, which may involve modifying existing systems or developing new
systems.

7.18 The adoption of accrual accounting has a number of implications for the calculation of debt
servicing costs, including the following:
• the calculation of interest expense (including accrued interest) becomes more complex.
For example, the accrued interest on bonds is generally calculated on a yield-to-maturity
basis.
• the discount is usually amortized over the term of the instrument and is recognized as an
additional debt servicing expense. By contrast, under cash accounting the discount on
issue of debt securities may be excluded from debt servicing costs and shown as a below
the line adjustment to the recorded level of gross debt, or recognized in the accounts on
the day of issue.
• premiums payable on redemption of index-linked bonds are recognized as a debt
servicing expense over the life of the instrument. Under the cash basis, such premiums
are not generally treated as debt servicing costs.
• the date of issue of debt has a much greater impact on the calculation of interest. This has
implications for preparing and monitoring accrual budgets.
• where a government has foreign currency debt, the gains and losses arising as a result of
currency movements on that debt will impact directly upon the Statement of Financial
Performance. A risky portfolio will lead to increased volatility in the Statement of
Financial Performance.

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7.19 Entities adopting accrual accounting need to assess the completeness and accuracy of
existing information. The purpose of the evaluation is to determine whether existing
information is sufficiently accurate to provide information on opening balances. In addition,
the evaluation should provide an indication of the extent to which systems operating under
the existing basis of accounting correctly record transactions and events during the period.
As a starting point, the accuracy and completeness of the following will need to be assessed:
• amount borrowed (including premium or discount on issue), repaid and still outstanding;
• dates for repayment of principal or redemption of instruments;
• interest rates and dates/coupon rates and dates;
• the existence of index-adjusted instruments and the likely impact of such changes on the
final amount to be repaid; and
• the currency in which debt is repayable.

7.20 This step is more important where manual systems or a number of systems have been used to
record information, particularly where controlled entities have the authority to borrow. A
review of existing systems and the specification of functionality requirements for future
systems (as discussed below) is also required.

Review of Systems
7.21 In preparing for the adoption of accrual accounting, entities using the cash basis should
review all existing systems to determine the extent to which existing systems can be adapted
to meet the needs of accrual accounting. If this is not possible, new systems will be required.
Entities using the cash basis may have, or be considering purchasing, an entity management
system with some of the standard accounting modules such as purchasing, order entry,
payables, receivables, payroll and general ledger. Such systems may also offer a “treasury”
module. If such modules meet all the functionality requirements, they have the advantages of
fully integrated systems. However, to the extent that they do not provide this functionality
(for example risk management) or capture all the relevant transaction flows, interfaces with
other systems would need to be developed.

7.22 The other alternative is to purchase a separate treasury/debt management system. Most
treasury/debt management systems can generate accounting entries and then use an interface
to incorporate those entries into the general ledger.

7.23 The costs and balances (assets and liabilities) associated with running the debt management
activity itself may be recorded in a separate system.

Development of Accounting Policies for Debt and Borrowings

7.24 Before debt is recognized as a liability it must:
• meet the definition of a liability;
• be probable that an outflow of benefits will be required; and

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• be capable of reliable measurement.

7.25 Items not meeting these criteria may meet the definition of a contingent liability. Contingent
liabilities are defined in Exposure Draft IPSAS ED 21. Contingent liabilities are not
recognized. Details of contingent liabilities are disclosed in the notes to the financial
statements. In accordance with Exposure Draft IPSAS ED 21, paragraph 38, “If it becomes
probable that an outflow of future economic benefits or service potential will be required for
an item previously dealt with as a contingent liability, a provision is recognized in the
financial statements of the period in which the change in probability occurs (except in the
extremely rare circumstances where no reliable estimate can be made).”

Figure 7.1 Decision Tree – Recognition of Provisions

Start

Present
obligation as a result of an No Possible obligation? No
obligating
event?

Yes Yes

Probable outflow? No Remote? Yes

Yes

No (rare)
Reliable estimate?

Yes

Provide Disclose contingent liability Do nothing

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7.26 The decision tree in Figure 7.1 summarizes the main recognition requirements of the
standards for provisions and contingent liabilities that fall within the scope of Exposure Draft
IPSAS ED 21. The decision tree does not form part of the standards and should be read in
the context of the full text of the standards. In some cases, it is not clear whether there is a
present obligation. In these cases, Exposure Draft IPSAS ED 21 explains that a past event is
deemed to give rise to a present obligation if, taking account of all available evidence, it is
more likely than not that a present obligation exists at the reporting date. The decision tree
indicates that if an outflow is not probable then disclosure of a contingent liability is required
unless the probability of an outflow is remote, in which case the entity neither recognizes a
provision nor discloses a contingent liability.

7.27 IPSAS 15 contains requirements regarding the disclosure and presentation of financial
instruments (discussed further in Chapter 11). However, there is no specific IPSAS dealing
with the recognition and measurement of debt. In the absence of an IPSAS, entities will need
to identify authoritative sources of guidance. International Accounting Standard IAS 39,
Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement is one possible source of such
guidance.

7.28 IAS 39 is likely to be updated and may be replaced by a more comprehensive standard at
some time in the future. As discussed later No
in Chapter 11, a group of international and
national standard setters has prepared a Draft Standard outlining proposals for a more
comprehensive standard (Financial Instruments Joint Working Group, December 2000).

7.29 The major issue regarding domestic currency liabilities is whether they should be measured
at face value (cost less principal repayments and amortization) or fair value (market values).
The Joint Working Group Draft Standard, referred to in paragraph 7.28 above, proposes
measurement of virtually all financial instruments at fair values.

7.30 If international and national standard setters adopt the proposals in the Joint Working Group
Draft Standard the proposals could have a significant impact on the accounting policies used
for external financial reporting of financial instruments, including debt. However, as mark-
to-market information is commonly used to manage debt portfolios, the implications for debt
management systems may be far less (many entities currently recognize debt on a cost basis
and disclose fair values as additional information). Although at the time of writing, these
proposals are still at a consultation stage, when considering the functionality requirements
for debt management systems it would be prudent to allow for the generation of accounting
entries on a mark-to-market basis.

Premiums and Discounts on Issue

7.31 Discounts/premiums arising on the issue of a debt instrument are generally treated as an
increase/decrease in the cost of borrowing. Discounts and premiums are recognized in the
Statement of Financial Position on issue (government securities are measured at their
nominal value adjusted for the unamortized portion of the premium or discount on issue).
Unamortized premiums are added to the reported amount and unamortized discounts are
subtracted from the reported amount.

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7.32 Discounts/premiums are generally amortized over the period of the instrument on a yield-to-
maturity basis (for floating rate debt instruments the amortization may be over the first
interest period).

Accrued Interest
7.33 For the purpose of financial reporting under the accrual basis, interest is calculated as it is
incurred. This includes interest which is due and payable, as well as the amount of interest
which would be payable if interest were required to be settled at the reporting date. A brief
summary of the relevant method of calculation is provided below.
Interest on Multiply the relevant rate of interest by the principal
deposits, loans outstanding for the reporting period.

Interest on bills The difference between the face value and the price paid at the
and similar short- time of issue (i.e. the discount) measures the interest payable
term instruments over the life of the bill. Interest is measured on a yield-to-
maturity basis.

Interest on bonds For ordinary bonds interest expense is the accrued portion of the
and debentures coupon payment due.

For zero-coupon bonds interest expense is the difference

between the redemption price and the issue price. Interest is
calculated on a yield-to-maturity basis.

For index-linked bonds the change in the value of the principal

outstanding between the beginning and the end of a particular
reporting period due to the movement in the relevant index is
treated as interest accruing in that period, in addition to any
interest due.

7.34 Entities reviewing their accounting policies and systems as part of the move to accrual
accounting may also wish to review the method of compiling data for statistical systems such
as the System of National Accounts (SNA) and the European System of Accounts (ESA).
There has been some debate regarding the method of calculating interest within statistical
systems. Details of this debate, including the various options (the debtor approach, the
acquisition approach and the creditor approach) and some responses by various countries, are
outlined in Accrual Recording of Interest: Is There a Case for Revising the 1993 SNA? (IMF,
1999).

Derivatives
7.35 Financial derivatives used by debt managers include interest rate swaps and cross-currency
swaps. Interest rate swaps allow debt managers to adjust the debt portfolio’s exposure to
interest rates; for example, by synthetically converting a fixed rate obligation into a floating

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rate one. Similarly, a cross-currency swap can be used to synthetically change the currency
exposure of a debt obligation. Accounting for derivatives is discussed in Chapter 11
Financial Instruments.

Traded Debt
7.36 Where debt instruments are traded, they are frequently recorded at fair (market) value.
Entities with traded debt may need to identify the portfolio of debt instruments that are
traded to enable the correct accounting policy to be applied.

Currency Issued

7.37 While no IPSAS addresses this issue, “currency issued” is often recorded. The revenue
received from issuing currency may be referred to as “seigniorage”. Where the central bank,
often called a “reserve” or “federal” bank, forms part of the reporting entity, currency issued
may be recorded as a liability, although this varies across jurisdictions. The rationale for this
treatment is that it is similar to banks recording deposits as liabilities.

7.38 Entities adopting accrual accounting will therefore need to:

• determine whether the central bank forms part of the consolidated reporting entity;
• decide whether to recognize a liability for issued currency and, if this approach is
adopted, obtain accurate information regarding the opening balance of issued currency;
• decide whether interest earned on the proceeds of currency will be separately classified;
and
• ensure that the chart of accounts includes relevant codes.

Environmental Liabilities
7.39 This section addresses accounting issues associated with certain types of environmental
obligations. Depending upon the nature of the obligation and the legislative environment
within which a jurisdiction operates, these obligations may meet the definition of a
provision. Guidance on accounting for provisions (other than those arising from social policy
obligations) is found in Exposure Draft IPSAS ED 21. Environmental risks or obligations
include:
• landfills;
• other contaminated sites; and
• other obligations.

7.40 Under accrual accounting all environmental obligations that meet the definition and
recognition criteria for liabilities should be recognized. This involves:
• identification of the nature of any possible obligation or risk;

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• identification by the entity of possible obligations and the source of those obligations;
and
• identification of possible/probable future cash flows and the factors influencing the size
and timing of those cash flows. For example, clean up costs will be influenced by the
possible types of action to address a problem (removal, containment or redemption) and
the current technology available.

7.41 Determination of the obligating event can be a difficult issue for some environmental
obligations. Obligations may be legal or constructive. Legal obligations can be evidenced by
legislative requirements and legally enforceable contracts. A constructive obligation is
defined in Exposure Draft IPSAS ED 21, paragraph 18, as:
an obligation that derives from an entity’s actions where:
(a) by an established pattern of past practice, published policies or a sufficiently specific current
statement, the entity has indicated to other parties that it will accept certain responsibilities; and
(b) as a result, the entity has created a valid expectation on the part of those other parties that it will
discharge those responsibilities.

7.42 In the absence of a legal obligation, an entity needs to try and determine whether there is
sufficient evidence to indicate the existence of a constructive obligation.

Landfills
7.43 Entities may have a constructive or legal obligation under statute to avoid, remedy, or
mitigate the environmental effects of landfills. There may be requirements regarding
standards for the day-to-day operation of landfills, requirements for closure and post-closure
care. Post-closure care can require monitoring the site for up to 30 years after closure, the
costs of which can be significant.

7.44 Recognition of landfill obligations would involve measuring the liability based on the
expenditure required to settle the obligation at reporting date (taking into account the time
value of money).

7.45 An entity will need to maintain data on landfills in order to assess the likely timing and
amount of future obligations. Relevant data includes:
• adequate identification to permit the site to be located;
• a description of the landfill closure and post-closure care requirements;
• the basis of recognition and measurement of the liability;
• the reported liability for closure and post-closure care at the reporting date, the estimated
total cost of closure and post-closure care, and the amount remaining to be recognized;
• the remaining capacity of the site and the estimated remaining landfill life in years;
• the estimated length of time needed for post-closure care; and
• costs incurred to date, by year.

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Other Contaminated Sites
7.46 Entities may be responsible for managing contaminated sites. Contamination may be caused
by the following:
• asbestos remediation;
• old gasworks sites;
• meat processing sites;
• timber treatment plants;
• quarries;
• sawmills;
• garbage disposal sites (other than landfills);
• pesticide and poison storage sites;
• effluent treatment and disposal; and
• fuel storage and retail sites.

7.47 Depending upon the nature of the obligation to clean up and manage a contaminated site, the
actual or probable costs may be accounted for as a liability or a contingent liability.

Other Environmental Obligations

7.48 Other types of possible environmental obligations include stormwater drainage and
treatment, sewage treatment, contaminated water supply, erosion protection, and coastal
hazards. Each of these issues needs to be researched to determine whether it is appropriate
to:
• recognize the costs when incurred;
• recognize a liability; or
• disclose a contingent liability.

Register of Contaminated Sites

7.49 An entity will need to maintain a record of contaminated land in order to manage the sites
and to assure auditors that it is monitoring any liabilities (actual and potential) arising from
such contamination. This information (often referred to as a register) is an important tool in
managing the clean-up of sites.

7.50 Information that may be required in relation to land that is contaminated or has associated
liabilities includes:
• adequate identification to permit the site to be located;
• description of contamination or suspected contamination;

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• action plan for site restoration or monitoring;
• estimated cost for further monitoring or restoration (including dates of estimates and
assumptions underlying the estimates);
• classification as liability or contingent liability (and assumptions or facts supporting the
classification); and
• costs incurred to date, by year.

Debt Management Objectives

7.51 Although the adoption of accrual accounting is not required in order to initiate a review of
debt management objectives and practices, it is often a catalyst for such a review. The
establishment or review of debt management objectives is appropriate prior to the
introduction of accrual accounting as it may have implications for systems and accounting
policies. For example, the debt management objectives may mean that the debt portfolio is to
be managed on a mark-to-market basis. If the debt is to be formally reported on a modified
historic cost basis, the systems chosen should be able to cope with both bases of accounting.

7.52 Debt management objectives are influenced by a government’s public policy framework (that
is, the government’s monetary, fiscal and exchange rate policies) and the government’s risk
management framework. Examples of risks associated with debt portfolios include market
risk, funding risk, credit risk, liquidity risk, portfolio concentration risk and operational risk.
Debt management objectives and the risk management framework may have implications for
the most appropriate organizational structure and systems.

7.53 The main objective of public debt management is to ensure that the government’s financing
needs and its payment obligations are met at the lowest possible cost over the medium to
long run, consistent with a prudent degree of risk. Other examples of objectives include
developing a domestic debt market and maintaining certain percentages of foreign currency
debt in specified currencies.

7.54 In order to assist countries in their efforts to reduce financial vulnerability, the International
Monetary Fund and the World Bank, in cooperation with national debt managers, have
developed a set of guidelines on public debt management. The Guidelines for Public Debt
Management (IMF and World Bank, 2001) are designed to assist policy makers in
considering reforms to strengthen the quality of their public debt management and reduce
their country’s vulnerability to international financial shocks. They seek to identify areas in
which there is broad agreement on what generally constitutes sound practices in public debt
management. They focus on principles applicable to a wide range of countries at different
stages of development and with various institutional structures of national debt management.
The Guidelines should assist policy advisers and decision-makers involved in designing debt
management reforms. They include discussion of risk management frameworks.

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Review of Organizational Structure and Internal Controls

7.55 Although a review of organizational structure and internal controls is not strictly required in
order to adopt accrual accounting, both of these factors can have an impact on the efficiency
of operations, the reliability of information produced and the potential for fraud. On a broad
level the entity must determine who has responsibility for the management and reporting of
all types of liabilities. The issues associated with management of internal operations are
outlined in the following extract from The Guidelines for Public Debt Management (IMF
and World Bank, 2001, page, 17).
33. Risks of government losses from inadequate operational controls should be managed according to
sound business practices, including well-articulated responsibilities for staff, and clear monitoring and
control policies and reporting arrangements. Operational risk, due to inadequate controls and policy
breaches, can entail large losses to the government and tarnish the reputation of debt managers. Sound
risk monitoring and control practices are essential to reduce operational risk.

34. Operational responsibility for debt management is generally separated into front and back offices with
distinct functions and accountabilities, and separate reporting lines. The front office is typically
responsible for executing transactions in financial markets, including the management of auctions and
other forms of borrowing, and all other funding operations. It is important to ensure that the individual
executing a market transaction and the one responsible for entering the transaction into the accounting
system are different people. The back office handles the settlement of transactions and the maintenance of
the financial records. In a number of cases, a separate middle or risk management office has also been
established to undertake risk analysis and monitor and report on portfolio-related risks, and to assess the
performance of debt managers against any strategic benchmarks. This separation helps to promote the
independence of those setting and monitoring the risk management framework and assessing performance
from those responsible for executing market transactions. Where debt management services are provided
by the central bank (e.g., registry and auction services) on behalf of the government’s debt managers, the
responsibilities and accountabilities of each party and agreement on service standards can be formalized
through an agency agreement between the central bank and the government debt managers.

Relevance for the Cash Basis of Accounting

7.56 The issues identified in this Chapter are relevant for entities intending to comply with the
requirements of any future IPSAS based on International Public Sector Accounting Standard
Exposure Draft IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash Basis of Accounting only
if they wish to provide additional disclosure on the nature and amount of various categories
of liabilities. Although an entity may provide additional disclosures within the financial
statements or as supplementary information, non-cash amounts cannot be included in the
amounts shown on the face of the primary financial statement. Although borrowings are not
recognized as liabilities under the cash basis, separate schedules of borrowings and details of
securities over assets are often disclosed. Any cash inflow from borrowings will also appear
as cash receipts in the primary financial statement.

7.57 Although the use of cash accounting does not preclude the use of additional records and
systems, entities using the cash basis may not have developed systems that provide the full
range of information useful for debt management purposes. For example, an entity may have
manual records showing the currency of specific borrowings but may not have readily
accessible data on the currency exposure associated with its debt. A preliminary assessment

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of some of the exposures an entity wishes to manage may assist an entity in determining the
importance of certain functions within the debt management system.

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References
Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board’s Accounting and Auditing Policy Committee
(AAPC), 1998, Determining Probable and Reasonably Estimable, For Environmental Liabilities
in The Federal Government, Federal Financial Accounting and Auditing, Technical Release
Number 2, http://www.fasab.gov

Financial Instruments Joint Working Group, December 2000, Draft Standard and Basis for
Conclusions – Financial Instruments and Similar Items, http://www.iasb.org.uk/

International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), January 2001, IAS 39, Financial Instruments:
Recognition and Measurement

International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), January 2001, IAS 39 Implementation Guidance:
Questions and Answers, http://www.iasb.org.uk/

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), May 2000, IPSAS 1 Presentation of Financial

Statements

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), May 2000, IPSAS 4 The Effects of Changes in
Foreign Exchange Rates

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), June 2001, IPSAS 9 Revenue from Exchange
Transactions

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), December 2001, IPSAS 13 Leases

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), December 2001, IPSAS 15 Financial Instruments:

Disclosure and Presentation

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), May 2000, IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under
the Cash Basis of Accounting

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), June 2001, IPSAS ED 21 Provisions, Contingent

Liabilities and Contingent Assets
http://www.ifac.org

International Monetary Fund (IMF), 1999, Accrual Recording of Interest: Is There a Case for
Revising the 1993 SNA?, Discussion Paper Prepared by the Statistics Department International
Monetary Fund, http://www.imf.org/

IMF and World Bank, March 2001, The Guidelines for Public Debt Management, Prepared by the
staffs of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, http://www.imf.org/fps/guidelines

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World Bank, Polackova Hana, September 1998, Government Contingent Liabilities: A Hidden Risk
to Fiscal Stability, http://econ.worldbank.org/

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 Chapter 8: Revenues and Expenses

CHAPTER 8: REVENUES AND EXPENSES

Key Points

• At the time of writing, International Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSASs) and Exposure
Drafts dealing with the recognition, measurement and presentation of revenue and expenses are:
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 1 Presentation of Financial
Statements (presentation and disclosure);
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 5 Borrowing Costs (the expensing or
capitalization of borrowing costs);
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 9 Revenue from Exchange
Transactions (including revenue from the rendering of services, the sale of goods, interest,
royalties, dividends and their equivalents, and exchanges of goods);
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 11 Construction Contracts (revenue
from construction contracts);
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 12 Inventories (the initial
recognition of purchases as inventories or expenses and the subsequent expensing of
inventories used);
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 13 Leases (revenue and expenses of
lessors and lessees);
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 16 Investment Property (investment
properties); and
– International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 17 Property, Plant and Equipment
(depreciation of property, plant and equipment).
• Revenue and expense topics for which IPSASs are currently not developed include:
• non-exchange revenue (discussed in Chapter 14);
• employee expenses (discussed in Chapter 12);
• expenses arising from social policy obligations (liabilities arising from social policy obligations
are discussed in Chapter 13);
• the measurement of revenues and expenses arising from gains and losses on financial
instruments (discussed in Chapter 11); and
• amortization of intangible assets (discussed in Chapter 10).

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Introduction

8.1 IPSAS 1, paragraph 6, defines revenue as “the gross inflow of economic benefits or service
potential during the reporting period when those inflows result in an increase in net
assets/equity, other than increases relating to contributions from owners.” IPSAS 1,
paragraph 6, defines expenses as “decreases in economic benefits or service potential during
the reporting period in the form of outflows or consumption of assets or incurrence of
liabilities that result in decreases in net assets/equity, other than those relating to distributions
to owners.” Revenue and expenses are recognized for financial reporting purposes when all
elements of the definitions and the recognition criteria (probability and measurability) for
revenue and expenses are satisfied.

8.2 Common types of revenue for national governments include:

• Non-exchange revenues:
– direct and indirect taxes;
– duties;
– fees and fines; and
– other non-reciprocal transfers;
• Exchange revenues:
– sales of goods or services;
– dividends;
– interest; and
– net gains arising from the sale of assets; and
• Other gains.

8.3 Common types of expenses for national governments include:

• personnel (employee-related) expenses;
• cost of goods sold/services provided;
• physical asset use (depreciation and loss of service potential);
• rental and leasing costs;
• maintenance;
• interest;
• expenses relating to financial assets;
• transfers (including grants and donations) to other governments, organizations and
individuals; and

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• other losses:
– changes in market value; and
– foreign exchange losses.

8.4 The amount of work required to recognize revenues and expenses on an accrual basis
depends on the extent to which an entity already has information available on those assets.
General steps in the recognition of revenues and expenses include the:
• compiling a list of all types of revenues and expense relevant to the entity;
• determining the categories of revenues and expense to be used in the chart of accounts
and the financial statements;
• preparing accounting policies for each category of revenue and expense;
• assessing the accuracy and completeness of existing information on each category;
• establishing systems to support the recognition of revenue and expense items or
developing interim measures to provide reasonable estimates of revenue and expense
items. The establishment of systems may be evolutionary. An entity may gradually adapt
its recording systems to improve the accuracy and reliability of information concerning
revenue and expense items.

8.5 Topics covered in this Chapter include:

• classification of revenues and expenses;
• development of accounting policies;
• recognition point for revenues and expenses;
• purchasing and payment systems;
• allocation/costing systems; and
• internal controls.

8.6 The Appendix to this Chapter includes examples of accounting policies for a range of
revenue and expense items.

8.7 Related topics covered in other Chapters include:

• depreciation of property, plant and equipment (Chapter 6);
• impairment of assets (Chapter 6);
• accounts receivable and accrued revenue (Chapter 6);
• amortization of intangible assets (Chapter 10);
• interest cost (Chapter 11);
• employee-related expenses (Chapter 12);

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• expenses associated with social policy obligations (Chapter 13); and
• revenue from non-exchange transactions, including taxation revenue, grants and
donations (Chapter 14).

8.8 Accrual accounting requires the recognition of revenue when it is earned and expenses when
they are incurred, rather than when the associated cash or consideration is received or paid.
This leads to the recognition of accounts receivable (debtors), accounts payable (creditors)
and accrued revenue and expenses. The recognition of these assets and liabilities has been
briefly discussed in Chapters 6 and 7. Assets associated with the recognition of taxation
receivable and accrued taxation revenue are discussed in Chapter 14.

Classification

8.9 Each entity needs to develop a classification system for revenues and expenses for use in the
chart of accounts, the face of the financial statements, the notes to the financial statements
and internal reports. The chart of accounts is often developed by a central entity, although
individual entities may have flexibility to add items.

8.10 Useful sources of information in establishing revenue and expense classifications include:
• the disclosures required by IPSASs and any other authoritative accounting standards;
• existing classification systems used under the current basis of accounting;
• the classifications required for statistical reporting (for example, refer International
Monetary Fund, December 2000); and
• the classifications required by any external agency or legislative body.

8.11 Where an entity has been using a basis of accounting other than the accrual basis, it will need
to ensure that the classification system is extended to take account of accrued revenue and
expenses.

8.12 Classifications specifically required in order to meet the requirements of IPSASs include:
• within the consolidated reporting entity there will need to be provision for identification
of revenues and expenses by each government entity and by each program, area of
activity or other component required by legislation or government directive;
• revenues and expenses controlled by the entity need to be identified separately from
revenues and expenses controlled by the government as a whole or by another entity.
This split is required in order to satisfy the definitions of revenue and expense
(IPSAS 1);
• significant categories of revenue (IPSAS 1), including separate identification of revenue
arising from:
– the rendering of services;
– the sale of goods;

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– interest, royalties and dividends or their equivalents; and
– exchanges of goods (IPSAS 9);
• separate identification of exchange and non-exchange revenue and the associated
receivables (IPSAS 1);
• separate identification of expenses by the nature of the expense (input type) or by
function (IPSAS 1). Operating costs applicable to revenues, recognized as expenses
during the period are to be classified by nature (IPSAS 12);
• separate identification of:
– depreciation or amortization expense;
– salaries and employee benefits; and
– finance costs (IPSAS 1);
• separate identification of borrowing costs so that they may be reviewed to see whether
they meet the conditions for capitalization to qualifying assets (IPSAS 5);
• the amount of revenue recognized in relation to inventories sold, exchanged or
distributed during the period (IPSAS 12);
• the carrying amount of inventories sold, exchanged or distributed during the period, or
operating costs (raw materials, consumables, labor costs, other operating costs and the
net change in inventories) applicable to revenue (IPSAS 12); and
• separate identification of write-downs or losses associated with inventories occurring
during the period and any reversals of write-downs during the period (IPSAS 12).

Accounting Policies

8.13 An entity will require policies on:

• classification of inflows as revenue of the entity or revenue of another entity such as the
government as a whole;
• recognition and measurement of each type of exchange revenue (for example,
sale/distribution of goods and services, interest, gains and losses on investment
properties);
• the treatment of various types of appropriations or funding provided by way of other
legislative authority in the financial statements;
• recognition and disclosure of non-exchange revenue, including revenue derived from
coercive powers, resources provided and received free of charge including grants and
donations, and liabilities assumed by another entity (refer Chapter 14);
• methods adopted to determine the stage of completion of transactions involving the
rendering of services;

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• the measurement of inventories, including the method(s) used to allocate costs to
inventories;
• recognition of inventory expense and the treatment of supplies and consumables;
• identification, measurement and disclosure of asset impairments (refer Chapter 6);
• recognition and measurement of depreciation (refer Chapter 6);
• recognition and measurement of interest (refer Chapter 7) and the method of accounting
for borrowing costs;
• recognition and measurement of employee-related expenses (refer Chapter 12);
• identification and recognition of bad and doubtful debts;
• recognition and disclosure of grants, donations and transfers made or received (refer
Chapter 13);
• the treatment of gains and losses on disposal or revaluation of assets (refer Chapter 6);
and
• the treatment of foreign currency gains and losses (refer Chapter 15).

8.14 The above list of accounting policies required is not necessarily complete. A complete list of
policies required can be determined by working through applicable accounting standards and
identifying where an accounting standard addresses recognition, measurement or disclosure
of a financial element relevant to the entity. A potential list of policies is included in
IPSAS 1. Another way of identifying accounting policies required is to review the
accounting policies of other jurisdictions which have adopted accrual accounting – both the
published statement of accounting policies, which is usually in summary form, and the more
detailed accounting policy manuals.

Recognition Points for Revenues and Expenses

8.15 The general recognition criteria of measurability and probability underlie the recognition of
all revenues and expenses. However, the application of these general principles to specific
types of revenue and expenses means that an entity needs systems to identify the appropriate
recognition point for such revenues and expenses. Examples of the type of information
required include:
• rendering of services – reliable measurement of stage of completion, costs associated
with that stage of completion and costs to complete the transaction;
• sale of goods – identification of the point at which significant risks and rewards of
ownership of the goods have passed to the purchaser and reliable measurement of costs
incurred or to be incurred in relation to the transaction;
• interest revenue – the effective yield on assets, due dates, the proportion of time elapsed
during the reporting period compared to the proportion of time until the next due date;

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• dividends/distributions receivable – the point at which the right to receive payment is
established;
• rental revenue – due dates and a method of calculation; a method of allocating both
direct and indirect expenses associated with investment properties to specific properties;
and
• inventories sold, exchanged or distributed – a system for recognizing the cost of
inventories consumed in relation to transactions; systems for billing for chargeable
services.

8.16 Entities need to identify which types of revenues and expenses will require accruals, and
develop or review systems that allow for the systematic and accurate identification of such
accruals.

8.17 In developing systems an entity needs to consider:

• whether to record payables/creditors at the time of actual delivery or at time the invoice
is received and certified. Some public sector entities may not formally invoice for goods
or services supplied. In such cases the purchasing entity needs to identify the point at
which it is obliged to make payment;
• whether some receivables/debtors should be recorded in the accounting system at the end
of the reporting period or on a more regular basis – the entity has the option of
maintaining memorandum accounts during the period and formally acknowledging the
debtor at the end of the period; and
• whether funding from a central government body or another level of government is
required to be matched against particular services, or whether it is recognized as one
lump sum.

8.18 Entities need to develop end-of-period procedures for the identification of doubtful debts and
bad debts. Doubtful debts expense is an estimate of the amount of receivables outstanding at
the end of the reporting period that the entity anticipates it will not recover, but has not
written-off as a bad debt.

Purchasing and Payment Systems

8.19 Prior to the introduction of accrual accounting, purchasing and payment systems and
procedures need to be reviewed. Key requirements are that:
• the entity has good controls over the authorization of spending;
• public money is spent for the purpose intended and in accordance with budgetary and
legislative authorities;
• payments are made on time; and
• systems provide comprehensive, accurate and timely information.

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8.20 Purchasing and payment systems may be centralized across the whole-of-government or
decentralized to the extent that each reporting entity has the authority to determine its own
arrangements. Where entities have delegated authority to determine their own systems and
procedures they may decide to have one centralized system for the entity as a whole or to
allow individual geographic locations or sub-units to operate their own systems. Decisions
regarding the appropriate degree of centralization will be influenced by how well existing
arrangements work in terms of efficiency, effective control and meeting user requirements.

8.21 Some of the advantages of operating well-structured, centralized purchasing and payment
systems which interface to the general ledger are that:
• greater control can be exercised over the use of suppliers (the system may have a list of
preferred suppliers with set items at set prices);
• it is easier to implement policies regarding controls over certain types of spending (for
example, travel and accommodation);
• they result in fewer bank account transactions;
• most accounting entries (for example, creditors) for goods and services purchased using
the system can be automatically generated;
• manual entries are required only for goods and services purchased outside the system;
• employees purchasing items require less training on accruals; and
• coding systems can be used to automatically allocate the cost of purchases to budgets.
Where individuals with budget responsibilities have on-line access to their financial
information they can then track actual spending against budgets during the reporting
period.

8.22 These advantages would need to be considered against the need within the entity for
flexibility in selecting and changing suppliers.

Allocation/Costing Systems

8.23 Where an entity is required to report revenue and expenses for particular locations, branches,
programs, outputs etc, it will require systems to allocate revenues and expenses. This topic is
not specifically addressed within this Study. A number of jurisdictions and entities have
published documents that provide guidance on allocation issues facing public sector entities.

8.24 Because employee-related costs are one of the key expenses for many public sector entities,
time recording is often required to support such systems. In some cases, this can involve
significant cultural change. Where new time recording systems are introduced, care should
be taken in trying to keep requirements simple (at least at first) so that information can be
collected in a timely manner. Complex requirements can result in non-compliance, delays in
processing (and preparation of financial statements) and inaccurate information.

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Internal Controls

8.25 Examples of internal controls required to support the accruing of revenues and expenses
include:
• clear identification of authorities for setting charges and fees;
• clear identification of the authority to charge other government organizations;
• regular reviews of charges and fees;
• the establishment of guidelines for providing credit;
• regular reconciliations between subsidiary and control ledgers;
• active management of amounts owed to the entity;
• regular review of bad debts;
• accurate and complete records of debtors;
• periodic reviews of costs (against charges where relevant);
• active management of creditors to ensure payments are made in accordance with the
policy on payment (for example, on or by due date);
• consistent application of accounting policies and regular review of the application of
accounting policies (for example, the review of whether costs associated with the
construction of assets or creation of inventories have been appropriately capitalized or
expensed);
• establishment of policies and procedures for purchasing;
• the establishment of tendering policies and procedures;
• the establishment of policies for contracting out of services (if appropriate);
• regular review of suppliers to ensure suppliers are meeting the needs of the entity and are
acting in accordance with any supply agreement; and
• the establishment of procedures to verify the receipt of goods and services against
purchase orders, authorize invoices for payment and pay for goods and services.

Relevance to the Cash Basis of Accounting

8.26 The issues identified in this Chapter are relevant for entities intending to comply with the
requirements of any future IPSAS based on Exposure Draft International Public Sector
Accounting Standard IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash Basis of Accounting
only to the extent that they wish to provide additional disclosure on the nature and amount of
accrued revenues and expenses. Although an entity may provide additional disclosures
within the financial statements or as supplementary information, such amounts cannot be
included in the amounts shown on the face of the financial statements.

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References
International Accounting Standards Board (IASC/IASB), IAS 36, Impairment of Assets
http://www.iasb.org.uk/, April 1998.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements, May

2000.
International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 5 Borrowing Costs , May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 9 Revenue from Exchange Transactions,

June 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 11 Construction Contracts, June 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 12 Inventories, June 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 13 Leases, December 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 16 Investment Property , December 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 17 Property, Plant and Equipment ,

December 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Invitation to Comment, Impairment of Assets , June

2000.
International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash
Basis of Accounting
http://www.ifac.org, May 2000.

International Monetary Fund (IMF), A Manual on Government Finance Statistics

http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/gfs/manual/index.htm, Draft as of December 2000.

New Zealand Treasury, Departmental Internal Control Evaluation

http://www.treasury.govt.nz/dice, 2001.

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Appendix: Accounting Policies

This Appendix illustrates examples of accounting policies for a selection of revenue and expense
items. These policies are examples of policies that may be developed by a central entity for internal
application by all individual entities forming part of a whole-of-government reporting entity.
Because of the wide variation in types of revenue and expense items which exist between various
types of entities and jurisdictions, some potential policies (for example, revenue classifications) have
not been illustrated.

These policies comply with relevant IPSASs such as IPSAS 9, IPSAS 11 and IPSAS 12.

However, it is possible that other policies that are consistent with these standards could also be
developed – the appropriateness of a particular policy for a revenue or expense item depends on the
exact conditions under which the revenue is earned or the expense is incurred. Recognition points for
revenue and expense items may therefore vary between entities within a jurisdiction and between
jurisdictions. In the absence of an IPSAS on impairment, this entity has chosen to base its policy
directions on International Accounting Standard IAS 36, Impairment of Assets, with some adaptation
to reflect the fact that some of its assets are not held for their ability to generate net cash inflows.
Other sources of authoritative guidance on impairment may be available within particular
jurisdictions. The Public Sector Committee has signaled that it intends to consider impairment of
assets in its future work program.

Revenue
The definition of revenue in International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 9 Revenue from
Exchange Transactions is to be applied.

Exchange revenue is to be recognized when an increase in future economic benefits related to an

increase in an asset or a decrease of a liability has arisen that can be measured reliably in accordance
with IPSAS 9.

Revenue received but not yet earned at the end of the reporting period is to be recognized as a
liability (unearned revenue).

Revenue that has been recognized and that is subsequently written-off or waived is to be recognized
as an expense.

Classification of Revenue
[The central agency will identify the categories of revenue to be used on the face of the financial
statements. Each reporting entity will identify the types of revenue included within each category.]

Interest
Interest revenue is to be recognized on a time proportion basis that takes into account the effective
yield on the asset. Interest earned but not received is to be accounted for as accrued revenue.

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Royalties
Royalties are to be recognized when the royalty payment is due.

Dividends/Distributions
Dividends/distributions are to be recognized when the right to receive a dividend/distribution has
been established.

Sale of Goods or Rendering of Services

Revenue from the sale of goods and services and the rendering of services is to be recognized in the
Statement of Financial Performance as it is earned.

Revenue from partially completed services is to be recognized by reference to the stage of

completion of contracts or in accordance with the underlying agreement or contract. The stage of
completion is determined according to the proportion that costs incurred to date bear to the estimated
total costs of completion.

Surplus or Loss on Construction Contracts

Revenue from construction contracts is to be accounted for in accordance with IPSAS 11
Construction Contracts.

Contract revenue is to include:

• the initial amount of revenue agreed in the contract; and
• variations in contract work, claims and incentive payments to the extent that:
– it is probable that they will result in revenue; and
– they are capable of being reliably measured.

Contract costs are to include:

• costs that relate directly to the specific contract;
• costs that are attributable to contract activity in general and can be allocated to the
contract on a systematic and rational basis; and
• such other costs as are specifically chargeable to the customer under the terms of the
contract.

When the outcome of a construction contract can be estimated reliably, contract revenue and contract
costs associated with a construction contract are to be recognized as revenue and expenses
respectively, by reference to the stage of completion of the contract activity at the reporting date.

When the outcome of a construction contract cannot be estimated reliably:

• revenue is to be recognized only to the extent of contract costs incurred that it is probable
will be recoverable; and

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• contract costs are to be recognized as an expense in the period in which they are
incurred.

When it is intended at the inception of a construction contract that contract costs are to be fully
recovered from the parties to the construction contract, any expected deficit on the construction
contract is to be recognized as an expense immediately.

Rent
Rent revenue is to be recognized as it is earned.

Finance Leases
Finance lease revenue is to be accounted for in accordance with International Public Sector
Accounting Standard IPSAS 13 Leases. The recognition of finance lease revenue is to be based on a
pattern reflecting a constant periodic rate of return on the lessor’s net investment outstanding in
respect of the finance lease.

Assets acquired by way of finance lease are to be amortized over the period of the lease. Lease
payments are allocated between the principal component and the interest expense.

Expenses
The definition of expenses in IPSAS 1 is to be applied.

Expenses are to be recognized when a decrease in future economic benefits related to a decrease in
an asset or an increase of a liability has arisen that is probable and can be measured reliably.

Expenses are to be recognized in the period to which they relate.

Classification of Expenses
[The central agency will identify the categories to be used on the face of the financial statements.
Each reporting entity will identify the types of expense included within each category.]

Inventories
In accordance with International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 12 Inventories, the
carrying amount of inventories sold, exchanged or distributed is to be recognized as an expense in
the period in which the related revenue is recognized. If there is no related revenue, the expense is to
be recognized when the goods are distributed or related service is rendered. IPSAS 12 does not apply
to work in progress of services which are to be distributed for no or nominal consideration directly in
return from the recipients. The entity is not expected to have any such services. However, if such
services do occur, the costs of producing the service are to be expensed as they occur.

The amount of any write-down of inventories and all losses of inventories are to be recognized as an
expense in the period the write-down or loss occurs.

The amount of any reversal of any write-down of inventories is to be recognized as a reduction in the
amount of inventories recognized as an expense in the period in which the reversal occurs.

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Inventories allocated to other asset accounts, (for example, to other forms of inventory or to self-
constructed property, plant or equipment are to be accounted for in accordance with the policy on
those assets).

Supplies and Consumables

Supplies and consumables (including other office costs) are to be recognized as expenses when
incurred.

Bad and Doubtful Debts

At each reporting date an estimate of the amount of receivables that are unlikely to be collected is to
be recognized as doubtful debts (doubtful debt expense and provision for doubtful debts).

As soon as it is probable that full or part payment of a receivable will not be received1, the receivable
is to be written-off as a bad debt. In the case of bad debts that have already been provided for by way
of the provision for doubtful debts, the write-off is to be against the provision for doubtful debts.
Where no provision was previously established for the doubtful debt, the write-off is to be
recognized as a bad debt expense. If the debt is recovered in the future then the write-off is reversed.

Complete records of specific debts identified as bad or potentially non-collectable and approvals to
write-off bad debts are to be maintained.

Operating Leases
Operating lease payments are to be accounted for in accordance with IPSAS 13. Operating lease
payments are to be recognized as an expense in the operating statement on a straight-line basis over
the lease term, where this is representative of the pattern of benefits to be derived from the leased
property.

Depreciation
All depreciable property, plant and equipment (including revalued assets where appropriate) is to be
depreciated.

The depreciation charge for each period is to be recognized as an expense unless it is included in the
carrying amount of another asset.

Assets are to be depreciated in accordance with the methods and rates shown below: [Each reporting
entity will identify the methods and rates for categories of assets – these may vary between entities
and jurisdictions depending upon the type of use, extent of maintenance and climatic conditions.]

Leasehold improvements are to be depreciated either over the unexpired period of the lease or the
useful lives of the improvements, whichever is the shorter.

1
Managers should ensure that the write-off of a bad debt is in accordance with any detailed criteria or instructions
governing the circumstances in which a write-off of such receivables is permissible.

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Borrowing costs
Borrowing costs include: [Each reporting entity will list relevant types of borrowing costs, for
example, interest on bank overdrafts and borrowings].

Borrowing costs meeting the criteria for capitalization as part of the cost of a qualifying asset are to
be capitalized in accordance with International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 5
Borrowing Costs.

All other borrowing costs are to be recognized as an expense in the reporting period in which they
are incurred.

Impairment
An impairment loss is to be recognized as an expense for assets carried at cost, and as a revaluation
decrease for assets carried at revalued amounts to the extent of its revaluation reserve surplus.

The following factors may be used as possible indicators of impairment1.

Where an indicator of impairment exists, an impairment test is to be applied:

• a change in the extent to which an asset is used;
• a change in the manner in which the asset is used;
• significant technological development;
• physical damage;
• a decline in, or cessation of, the demand or need for services provided by the asset;
• a decision to halt the construction of the asset before it is complete or in a usable
condition;
• a change in the law, government policy or environment that limits the extent to which the
asset can be used; or
• a significant decline in the observable market value of the asset.

Where an asset is held for its ability to generate net cash inflows, impairment is to be measured in
accordance with International Accounting Standard IAS 36, Impairment of Assets. Impairment is to
be measured by reference to the higher of net selling price and value-in-use (present value of future
cash flows).

Where an asset is not held for its ability to generate net cash inflows, the observable market value of
the asset is to be used in measuring any impairment loss.

1
The Invitation to Comment, Impairment of Assets (IFAC, June 2000) included these factors as possible indicators of
impairment and measurements of impairment losses. The PSC has not yet issued an IPSAS which deals with these
matters.

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Where an asset does not have an observable market value and the asset continues to have utility for
the entity, its depreciated replacement cost is to be used in measuring any impairment loss. Where an
asset does not have an observable market value and the asset no longer has utility for the entity, or its
ability to utilize the asset has been significantly restricted, a disposal value (net selling price) should
be used.

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PART IV – SPECIFIC TOPICS

Part IV of this Study discusses implementation issues arising from the recognition of certain assets,
liabilities, revenues and expenses that are not covered in Part III. These topics have been dealt with
separately in order to allow the reader to focus on the issues associated with these topics in more
depth than would have occurred in Part III.

The Chapters focusing on specific asset topics are:

• Chapter 9 Cash; and
• Chapter 10 Intangible Assets.

Chapter 11 Financial Instruments deals with issues in financial reporting of financial assets and
liabilities.

The Chapters focusing on specific liability topics are:

• Chapter 12 Employee-Related Liabilities; and
• Chapter 13 Liabilities Arising From Social Policy Obligations.
The issues discussed in these two Chapters also relate to the recognition of the associated expenses.

Chapter 14 Non-Exchange Revenue focuses on the major source of revenue for many public sector
entities.

Chapter 15 Foreign Currency explains the implications of adopting International Public Sector
Accounting Standard IPSAS 4 The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates to account for
foreign currency gains and losses.

The Public Sector Committee (PSC) intends to revise this Study periodically to include explanations
of the requirements of recently issued International Public Sector Accounting Standards. This
revision process will not be continuous and at any point in time IPSASs additional to those included
herein may be on issue. Consequently, readers will need to monitor IPSASs as they are issued on the
IFAC website (www.ifac.org). As part of the revision process the PSC may develop further Chapters
for inclusion in this Part or amend these Chapters. Readers are invited to provide suggestions for
specific topics, along with examples of implementation strategies or issues that have arisen in their
jurisdictions.

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 Chapter 9: Cash

CHAPTER 9: CASH

Key Points

• The adoption of International Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSASs), particularly

International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 2 Cash Flow Statements, means that an
entity would have to report on both cash and cash equivalents in its Cash Flow Statement.
• This Chapter discusses the requirements of IPSAS 2, in particular the definition and recognition
of cash, the information requirements for completion of a Cash Flow Statement, and the
determination of control of cash.
• Existing administrative arrangements which involve the use of special types of bank accounts
such as deposit accounts, trust accounts, advance accounts and imprest accounts, would need to
be reviewed to determine whether the balances in these accounts are controlled by the entity.

Introduction

9.1 Most governments and government entities will already have good records of most of their
cash payments, cash receipts and cash balances. Because most cash balances are readily
identifiable, cash may be regarded as an “easy” asset to account for. However, there are still
a number of issues that need to be considered when planning a transition to accrual
accounting and the adoption of IPSASs. Some of these issues are explained below.
• IPSAS 2 requires a Cash Flow Statement to include both cash and cash equivalents.
Some cash equivalents may not have previously been reported as part of opening and
closing cash balances.
• The Glossary of Defined Terms IPSAS 1 to IPSAS 12 (IFAC, June 2001) states that assets
are “resources controlled by an entity.” As cash is an asset, all cash reported as part of the
entity’s opening and closing cash balances should meet this test. This raises two issues:
– are all cash balances currently reported by the entity controlled by it or are some of
those balances trust or other funds which are administered rather than controlled; and
– are there any cash balances controlled by the entity which are not currently included
in the entity’s reported cash balances?
• International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 6 Consolidated Financial
Statements and Accounting for Controlled Entities, paragraph 39, notes that “in preparing
consolidated financial statements, the financial statements of the controlling entity and its
controlled entities are combined on a line-by-line basis by adding together like items of
assets, liabilities, net assets/equity, revenue and expenses.” Entities required to produce
consolidated financial statements will therefore need to identify any inter-entity cash
flows and cash balances.
• Cash is included within the definition of a financial asset in International Public Sector
Accounting Standard IPSAS 15 Financial Instruments: Disclosure and Presentation, and
is therefore subject to the disclosure requirements in that Standard.

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• Some items currently recognized as cash balances may not meet the definition of cash in
IPSAS 2. For example, entities using a modified form of the cash basis may have been
accustomed to recognize certain receivables and payables as cash balances. Such items
do not meet the definition of cash under the accrual basis.

9.2 Unless the context suggests otherwise, references to “cash” in this Chapter should be read as
including “cash equivalents”.

Definitions

9.3 The definition of cash used in IPSASs includes “cash on hand and demand deposits”
(Glossary of Defined Terms IPSAS 1 to IPSAS 12, IFAC, June 2001). Cash on hand includes:
• bank account balances (both domestic and foreign);
• cash awaiting banking;
• petty cash/imprest floats; and
• cash in transit.

9.4 Cash held in bank account balances may refer to specific accounts in a named bank.
However, where a reporting entity has a number of controlled entities and operates a
centralized cash management system, the bank accounts of controlled entities may be real or
notional. The term “notional bank accounts” refers to a system where there is one central
bank account, but the cash flows of each entity are separately identified and each entity
knows its notional cash balances. The entity operating the central bank account becomes, in
effect, a banker for the other entities.

9.5 The cash on hand of a government department may include its ledger balance of funds
“drawn down” from the government and available for use. It would consist only of the
amount actually drawn down or otherwise available for immediate use – not the total annual
amount appropriated or authorized.

9.6 Cash equivalents are “short-term, highly liquid investments that are readily convertible to
known amounts of cash and which are subject to an insignificant risk of changes in value”
(Glossary of Defined Terms IPSAS 1 to IPSAS 12, IFAC, June 2001). Cash equivalents
therefore include:
• short-term deposits;
• deposits at call; and
• other highly liquid investments that are readily convertible to cash on hand at the entity’s
option.

9.7 Cash equivalents are items that are immediately available or repayable on demand. They
differ from debtors/accounts receivable in that although debtors/accounts receivable are
payable to the entity, they are not payable on demand.

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Recognition

9.8 In common with the recognition of other assets, cash and cash equivalents are recognized
when they are measurable and probable. There are generally no difficulties in establishing
the measurability and probability of cash and cash equivalents.

Information Requirements

9.9 IPSAS 2 requires that an entity:

• report consolidated cash flows and cash balances;
• separately disclose cash and cash equivalents;
• include an explanation, in the accounting policies, of the items which make up cash and
cash equivalents; and
• disclose any cash balances not available for use by the entity.

9.10 An entity complying with IPSAS 2 would need to:

• identify all bank accounts and other forms of cash or cash equivalents;
• identify any cash balances with restricted use;
• establish who has control (the ability to use cash for their own purposes) of the cash
within each bank account; and
• establish a system for collecting cash flow and cash balance information from all entities
within the reporting entity.

9.11 The implications of complying with IPSAS 6 have been previously considered in Chapter 5
Reporting Entity Issues.

9.12 Some of the issues that can arise in identifying the cash and cash equivalent balances of an
entity are discussed in the following sections.

Control of Cash

9.13 Only those cash balances controlled by the entity meet the definition of cash for that entity.
The concept of control is applied to determine whether receipts collected and payments made
by the entity are in fact controlled by the entity and therefore represent cash. Frameworks for
governing the collection of receipts and making of payments will vary between jurisdictions
but the following discussion may be useful in this exercise.

9.14 Two possible scenarios (illustrated using receipts only) are described below.

• Receipts that are controlled by the entity are generally considered to be either revenue or
a receivable of the entity. They are available to be used by the entity and the bank
account in which they are held represents cash of the entity.

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• Receipts that are not controlled by the entity are not cash of the individual entity
collecting the funds for example, a government department collecting taxes on behalf of
the government, which it is not entitled to spend, or receipts collected on behalf of
another government controlled entity in an agency or administering capacity.

9.15 The above two scenarios illustrate two relatively clear instances where cash is controlled or
not controlled. However, in the latter scenario arrangements and controls over such funds
may vary. In some cases the amounts will be required to be held in a separate bank account
and may clearly belong to the other entity. In other cases the funds may be intermingled with
the funds of the collecting entity, and available for use by the reporting entity with the
amounts collected being remitted at regular intervals. If the reporting entity controls the
funds, the funds form part of its cash balances, but a liability to the other party may also
exist.

9.16 IPSAS 2 allows cash flows to be reported on a net basis when the cash receipts collected and
payments made on behalf of customers, taxpayers or beneficiaries reflect the activities of the
other parties rather than those of the entity.

9.17 Money held in trust is discussed separately below.

Deposit Accounts/Holding Accounts

9.18 An entity preparing for transition to the accrual basis may have a range of special accounts
that it has used as a means of separately identifying funds of a specific nature or purpose that
are not available for its general use. These accounts need to be reviewed to see if they should
form part of the reported cash balances of the entity.

9.19 Examples of the types of cash that may be held in such accounts include:

• bonds or deposits, for example, tenancy bonds or Customs bonds; and

• funds held for a specific purpose.
Each of these examples is discussed further below.

Bonds or Deposits
9.20 A Government may require people entering the country with disposable consumer goods
(that would be subject to duty if sold within the country) to pay a refundable bond or deposit.
If the goods are subsequently taken out of the country, the Government would refund the
deposit. If the goods are not taken out of the country within a specified time, the Government
may take the bond or deposit in lieu of customs duty. The issue here is at what point the bond
or deposit is controlled by, and should therefore be recognized as cash of, the individual
entity responsible for collection of customs duty and/or the government as a whole.
Identification of this point will depend on the circumstances in each case. Prior to the point
at which such amounts are controlled, they may be more appropriately accounted for as trust
money.

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Funds Held For A Specific Purpose
9.21 Funds held for a specific purpose may have come from a higher level of government or
private individuals or organizations. The main issue is whether such funds were a grant,
donation or other form of revenue that is now controlled by the entity or whether the funds
are still controlled by the “donor”. If the funds are controlled by the entity, they should be
treated as part of the entity’s cash balances. In the case of funds subject to restrictions and
conditions, separate note disclosure of the amount of the restricted cash balance may be
appropriate, and in some cases a liability may exist. If the funds are still controlled by the
donor then they belong to the donor.

Trust Accounts

9.22 Under the accrual basis, cash that is held in trust for another party is not controlled by the
entity and therefore does not meet the definition of an asset of the entity. An example of cash
held in trust is the cash held by a government entity on behalf of prisoners detained by the
government.

9.23 As part of the identification of cash balances controlled by the entity it will be necessary to:
• review all trust accounts that are believed to hold trust money to determine who controls
the cash in the accounts; and
• review all bank accounts controlled by the entity to identify whether such accounts
include any cash that should be accounted for as trust money.

9.24 Because the controls over trust accounts may be different from those over other centralized
bank accounts, entities using the cash basis sometimes use trust accounts for other purposes.
For example, some jurisdictions using the cash basis have treated trust accounts as a
mechanism to allow government-owned trading activities to operate and spend trading
receipts without requiring an appropriation. Others have used trust accounts as a means of
separating funds tagged for a specific purpose and to allow the funds to be spent over a
period of time without requiring a separate annual appropriation each year. In neither case is
the cash in the bank account held in trust for another individual or organization.

9.25 As part of the identification of cash balances controlled by the entity it will be necessary to:
• review all trust accounts that are believed to hold trust money to determine who controls
the funds; and
• review all bank accounts controlled by the entity to ensure that such accounts do not
include any trust money.

9.26 As part of the transition to accrual accounting many entities find it appropriate to review the
treatment of trust money. This may include creating a legislative definition of trust money,
and establishing who has authority to manage trust money, the banking arrangements for
trust money and the type of reporting that is required for trust money. For example, the
definition of trust money may be limited to situations where there is a trustee/beneficiary

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relationship. In addition to reviewing the management of trust money, entities will also need
to consider whether they manage any assets or liabilities on a trust basis and the most
appropriate form of control and reporting with respect to those assets and liabilities.

Advance Accounts

9.27 Some jurisdictions may operate advance accounts whereby amounts paid from the bank
account are deemed not to be cash payments because they are immediately repayable.
Advance accounts may be used to forward money to individual controlled entities or
individual employees for specified purposes, for example, staff travel. Advance accounts
may operate as a separate bank account or a separate ledger. When an entity adopts the
accrual basis, such arrangements may need to be reviewed. Under the accrual basis, any cash
payment needs to be recognized as a reduction in the cash balance. The entity then needs to
decide if the reduction in the cash balance represents an expense or a receivable/loan.

9.28 The review of advance account arrangements may result in the collection of amounts
currently outstanding, the write-off of amounts unlikely to be recovered, or the formal
recognition of amounts receivable.

Imprest Accounts

9.29 Where a government or other controlling entity using the cash basis has a centralized bank
account and operates a system of cash appropriations, it may take some time for requests for
payment to be authorized and processed through the system by the central processing entity.
Individual entities can find this type of system restrictive and so may be granted limited
access to cash, subject to retrospective approval of the spending. Such access to cash is often
granted by way of imprest accounts or suspense accounts. These operate in a similar way to a
petty cash float. They have a limited balance available for certain purposes and all items
must be retrospectively approved before any further funds are advanced to the account.

9.30 Cash balances held in imprest accounts form part of the cash of the consolidated reporting
entity and would therefore be included in any consolidated financial statements. Where the
individual entity with access to the imprest account also prepares financial statements, it
needs to decide if the cash in the imprest account meets the definition of an asset – that is,
does it control the cash? If the answer is “yes”, then the cash in the imprest account would be
reported as part of its cash balances. If the answer is “no”, then the imprest account would be
accounted for by the entity that has control.

9.31 The need for imprest accounts disappears if individual entities have access to their own bank
accounts (either real or nominal) and are able to write their own checks or otherwise make
their own payments. However, most entities retain the use of a petty cash system for
inconsequential cash spending.

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Foreign Currency Bank Accounts

9.32 Under the cash basis, entities with funds in foreign currency bank accounts will generally
have reported these balances as part of their cash balances at year-end. Under the accrual
basis, differences between opening and closing balances due to the movement in rates are
separately disclosed within the Cash Flow Statement. The method of translating foreign
currency bank accounts under the accrual basis of accounting is set out in International
Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 4 The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange
Rates.

Stamps and Postal Orders

9.33 Where an entity other than the entity responsible for the production of such items, holds
material balances of items that are readily convertible to cash such as stamps and postal
orders, these may be classified as cash equivalents. However, where an entity is responsible
for the production of stamps, these would be recognized as inventory at cost.

Unissued Currency

9.34 Where an entity is responsible for the production of currency, unissued currency (notes and
coins for circulation) should be recognized as inventory at cost and not cash.

Non-Cash Transactions

9.35 Non-cash transactions are excluded from the Cash Flow Statement. However, IPSAS 2 states
that such transactions should be disclosed elsewhere in the financial statements. Where a
transaction has both a cash and non-cash component, knowledge of both aspects of the
transaction may be relevant for users. An example of a combined transaction is where assets
are exchanged with only the net difference in the agreed price being paid in cash. The two
elements of the transaction should therefore be cross-referenced in the accounting system or
an additional memorandum account of such transactions should be maintained. The notes to
the Cash Flow Statement can be used to disclose details of such transactions.

Relevance to the Cash Basis of Accounting

9.36 Many of the issues identified in this Chapter are relevant for entities intending to comply
with the requirements of any future IPSAS based on Exposure Draft International Public
Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash Basis of
Accounting. The IPSAS based on IPSAS ED 9 is yet to be released. The identification of the
reporting entity and the consolidation of the reporting entity’s cash flows are likely to be the
largest issues.

9.37 An additional issue raised in Exposure Draft IPSAS ED 9 is whether an entity should
recognize in its primary financial statement the cash flows in respect of cash payments made
on its behalf, even where these transactions do not flow through the entity’s bank account.
This situation could occur under the terms of a grant or loan agreement where a multi-lateral

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development agency makes payments directly to contractors on behalf of the entity. The
IPSAS based on IPSAS ED 9 is yet to be released.

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References
International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 2 Cash Flow Statements, May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 4 The Effects of Changes in Foreign

Exchange Rates , May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 6 Consolidated Financial Statements and

Accounting for Controlled Entities, May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 15 Financial Instruments: Disclosure and

Presentation , December 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash
Basis of Accounting, May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Glossary of Defined Terms IPSAS 1 to IPSAS 12,
June 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Study 11, Governmental Financial Reporting,

Accounting Issues and Practices http://www.ifac.org, May 2000.

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Appendix: Accounting Policies

This Appendix illustrates an example of accounting policies for cash that may be developed by a
central entity for internal application by all individual entities forming part of a whole-of-
government reporting entity. (At the time of writing, the IPSASs do not include specific
requirements dealing with the disclosure of third party settlements.)

Cash and Cash Flows

Cash is to include all cash balances on hand which are controlled by the reporting entity. This will
include amounts awaiting banking, petty cash imprest floats and cash in transit. Cash will also
include demand deposits of the reporting entity which are held with banks or other financial
institutions including foreign currency accounts of the entity. Cash equivalents will comprise all
short-term highly liquid investments that are readily convertible to cash within a maximum period of
three months, and are subject to an insignificant risk of changes in value.

Where a government agency controls other entities, a consolidated financial report prepared in
respect of the economic entity comprising the agency and its controlled entities is to include all the
cash and cash equivalents controlled by the entities within the economic entity. Inter-entity cash
flows and cash balances are to be eliminated on consolidation.

Disclosures
A cash flow statement is to be prepared in accordance with International Public Sector Accounting
Standard IPSAS 2 Cash Flow Statements. Cash flows are to be reported on a gross basis except
where reporting on a net basis is allowed by IPSAS 2. When, in accordance with IPSAS 2, certain
types of cash flows are reported on a net basis, the notes to the financial statements are to
acknowledge that this has occurred.

Trust Accounts and Third Party Settlements

Cash which is collected and/or held on behalf of another party and is deposited in a trust account
which is not available for use of the reporting entity is not to be included in amounts reported as cash
or cash flows of the reporting entity. The total amount held in trust for other parties may be reported
in the notes to the financial statements by major class.

Cash payments may be made by third parties such as multilateral development banks or donors
directly to the entity’s creditors. Where the entity does not receive cash or cash equivalents from the
multilateral development bank or donor entity, or gain control of a bank account or similar facility
established for its benefit by the multilateral development bank or donor, the payments are not to be
included as a cash flow of the entity. However, these amounts are to be disclosed separately in notes
to the financial statements by major class of lender or donor and/or major class of activity.

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CHAPTER 10: INTANGIBLE ASSETS

Key Points

• There is currently no International Public Sector Accounting Standard (IPSAS) on intangible

assets. In the absence of an IPSAS, International Accounting Standard IAS 38, Intangible Assets
may be used as a starting point to illustrate implementation issues associated with intangible
assets. This Chapter summarizes the requirements of IAS 38 in relation to the recognition,
measurement and amortization of intangible assets. Other sources of authoritative guidance are
included in the References section at the end of this Chapter.
• This Chapter defines intangible assets and provides examples of intangible assets that may be
held by governments and public sector entities. It outlines some of the implementation issues
associated with identifying intangible assets and developing accounting policies for intangible
assets.
• Much of the discussion in Chapter 6 Assets, particularly the discussion on identification,
recognition, measurement and depreciation of property, plant and equipment, is also applicable
to intangible assets.
• Where entities have intangible assets which do not meet the criteria for recognition, they may
wish to consider providing additional disclosures of such assets.

Introduction

10.1 There is currently no IPSAS on intangible assets. International Public Sector Accounting
Standard IPSAS 6 Consolidated Financial Statements and Accounting for Controlled
Entities deals with one component of intangible assets: the identification and recognition of
goodwill on acquisition of another entity. In the absence of an IPSAS, IAS 38 may be used to
illustrate implementation issues associated with intangible assets. IAS 38 was developed by
the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC). The use of IAS 38 as an
illustrative accounting standard in this Chapter does not represent the considered position of
the PSC in relation to the applicability of the requirements in IAS 38 to the public sector.
Readers should also be aware that, at the time of writing, the current work program of the
IASB includes projects that have the potential to amend certain of the requirements of IAS
38. Other authoritative pronouncements on intangible assets from a range of jurisdictions are
listed in the References section at the end of this Chapter.

Characteristics and Examples

10.2 In broad terms, intangible assets represent recognizable rights to future economic benefits
and service potential. IAS 38, paragraph 7, defines intangible assets as “identifiable non-
monetary assets without physical substance held for use in the production or supply of goods
or services, for rental to others, or for administrative purposes”. Under the IAS 38 approach,
intangible assets must therefore meet both the general definition of an asset (as discussed in
Chapter 6) and the additional requirements of the definition. In keeping with other non-

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current assets, an intangible asset must have a useful life greater than one year. A portion of
its value is amortized over time as an expense.

10.3 Intangible assets may be purchased or internally generated, separately identifiable or non-
identifiable. Identifiable intangible assets can be sold or acquired separately from other
assets, for example patents, databases and concessions. Identifiable intangible assets may be
referred to as having a marketable value. Non-identifiable intangible assets cannot be sold
separately, for example, goodwill, human resources, good labor relations and the power to
tax.

10.4 Intangible assets include:

• goodwill;
• patents;
• copyrights;
• brand names;
• subscription lists;
• trade secrets/intellectual property;
• trademarks;
• franchises;
• computer software;
• concessions;
• operating rights or rights of use, such as rights/licenses to extract mineral ore, access
rights, rights to operate a radio spectrum; and
• capitalized research and development costs.

10.5 The incidence of intangible assets is potentially much broader in the public sector than in the
private sector due to the wide scope of the powers of government to create and delegate
powers and rights. A description of the ways in which a government unit may create certain
intangible assets (for example, “intangible fixed assets” and “intangible nonproduced
assets”) is found in the International Monetary Fund (IMF) Manual on Government Finance
Statistics Chapter 7 (IMF, December 2001). Examples of intangible assets held by public
sector entities include:
• rights under licensing agreements for films, videos, plays, and manuscripts, in entities
such as broadcasting, tourism, arts and culture;
• patents and copyrights held by government entities in fields such as tourism, research,
education, health, agriculture, archives;
• databases and database management software created and maintained by government
entities, such as those containing information on the demographic statistics of the

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population, land ownership, private sector entity ownership and registers of securities
and charges;
• airport landing rights;
• licenses to operate radio or television stations;
• import/export licenses;
• fishing quotas;
• right to control the extraction of mineral resources;
• agreements with other entities which give that other entity a right to provide utilities; and
• rights to issue rights, licenses and quotas.

10.6 Some assets, such as computer software, may have both tangible and intangible elements. In
some jurisdictions accounting standards provide for the recognition of internally generated
software as a tangible fixed asset, recognizing that the software represents expenditure that is
of continuing use to the entity and which supports the generation of future economic
benefits. The tangibility of software derives from the fact that it is an integral part of the
hardware to which it attaches. Judgment may be required to assess which element is more
significant.

International Accounting Standard IAS 38

10.7 This section provides a brief summary of the requirements of IAS 38. IAS 38:
• applies only to certain types of intangible assets. For example, mineral rights are
excluded from the scope of the standard;
• permits the recognition of an identifiable intangible asset only when it is probable that
the future economic benefits that are attributable to the asset will flow to the entity and
the cost of the asset can be measured reliably;
• limits the recognition of internally generated intangible assets. Expenditure on the
research phase of generation is to be recognized as an expense. Expenditure on the
development phase of generation is to be recognized as an asset when, and only when,
the entity meets certain criteria indicating some certainty that the potential benefits
associated with the expenditure will be realized;
• requires that identifiable intangible assets be initially measured at cost and subsequently
carried at cost or revalued;
• requires the amortization (the systematic allocation of an intangible asset’s service
potential, excluding any residual value, over the estimated useful life of the asset) of
intangible assets. IAS 38 includes a rebuttable presumption that the useful life of an
intangible asset will not exceed 20 years;
• requires the regular review of intangible assets for impairment; and
• does not permit the recognition of non-identifiable intangible assets.

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10.8 IAS 38 does not allow the recognition of internally generated goodwill. However,
International Accounting Standard IAS 22, Business Combinations requires purchased
goodwill to be recognized. The Public Sector Committee (PSC) has not developed an IPSAS
based on IAS 22.

Identification of Intangible Assets

10.9 Regardless of which particular accounting standard is adopted, an entity intending to

recognize intangible assets will need to compile a list of all potential intangible assets and
apply the definition and recognition criteria for intangible assets to each item on the list.
Potential intangible assets include a government’s rights or agreements with other parties.
Although some of these rights and agreements will not be recognized because they do not
meet the recognition criteria for assets generally or intangible assets specifically, it is worth
including them in the initial scoping exercise. An entity would then apply the criteria for
recognition from the relevant accounting standard to determine whether it should recognize
the intangible assets identified during the scoping exercise. If this stage of the process is
carefully documented, the information collected and conclusions reached can provide useful
evidence to support reported balances during an external audit.

10.10 Where it becomes apparent that the application of an accounting standard with regard to an
intangible asset or group of intangible assets is going to take some time to resolve, an entity
may choose to defer recognition of those intangible assets for a set period.

10.11 The main steps required in order to account for intangible assets on an accrual basis are:
• identify authoritative guidance and develop accounting policies based on that guidance;
• identify all potential intangible assets;
• apply accounting policies to potential intangible assets to determine which intangible
assets should be recognized (and whether it would be appropriate to defer recognition of
certain intangible assets pending further work);
• measure intangible assets; and
• ensure systems are in place to record ongoing transactions and provide for the regular
review of impairment.

Development of Accounting Policies for Identifiable Intangible Assets

10.12 Accounting policies for identifiable intangible assets need to address:

• initial recognition;
• recognition of subsequent expenditure;
• initial measurement;
• measurement subsequent to initial recognition;
• amortization;

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• impairment; and
• sale or disposal.

10.13 In addition, accounting policies on accounting for goodwill are required. In common with
policies on other categories of assets, an entity may also need policies on donated or
subsidized assets. Some of the issues facing entities recognizing intangible assets are
discussed in more detail below.

Measurement of Identifiable Intangible Assets

10.14 IAS 38 requires that identifiable intangible assets be initially measured at cost. In order to
satisfy the criterion of measurability, this generally means that intangible assets need to be
supported by an appropriate costing system or purchase price. An entity will therefore need
to review the adequacy of costing systems and records for identifiable intangible assets.

10.15 The availability of cost data will depend upon the type of accounting records previously
maintained. Options for measurement in the case of first-time recognition of assets have been
discussed in Chapter 6. These options include the re-creation of cost data and the use of fair
values as at the date of initial recognition.

Impairment

10.16 In order to be in a position to conduct a regular review of recognized intangible assets to

determine whether such assets are impaired or should be tested for impairment, an entity will
need to regularly collect data on the measures used to apply impairment tests in that
jurisdiction.

10.17 The accounting policies for impairment, the methods to be used to collect the required data,
and responsibility for conducting the impairment review should be established at the same
time as the policies for the recognition of intangible assets.

Accounting for Goodwill on Adoption of Accrual Accounting if International Accounting

Standard IAS 38 is to be Applied

10.18 Tasks associated with accounting for goodwill at the time of first adoption of accrual
accounting if it is decided that IAS 38 is to be applied by a public sector entity include:
• identification of situations where the acquisition of an interest in another entity could
have involved the payment of goodwill;
• determining whether the fair values of assets and liabilities acquired at that time can be
reliably determined (in the absence of information on fair values at the time of
acquisition, goodwill cannot be retrospectively identified);
• calculating goodwill as at the time of acquisition;
• calculating the accumulated amortization for goodwill; and

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• recognizing goodwill in the separate controlling entity ledger (some jurisdictions require
the preparation of separate controlling entity financial statements. However, even in the
absence of a requirement for such statements to be prepared, an internal ledger must be
created as part of the consolidation process).

Disclosure of Information about Intangible Assets Not Recognized in Financial Statements

10.19 Many accounting standards permit the recognition of identifiable intangible assets only and
prohibit (or constrain) the recognition of internally generated intangible assets. There is often
very little information about intangibles in financial reports. The Financial Accounting
Standards Board (FASB) in the United States of America, which develops accounting
standards for the private sector, has initiated a proposed project (FASB, August 2001) to
consider the possibility of expanding the disclosure of information about intangible assets
not recognized in the financial statements.

Relevance to the Cash Basis of Accounting

10.20 The issues identified in this Chapter are relevant for entities intending to comply with the
requirements of any future IPSAS based on Exposure Draft International Public Sector
Accounting Standard IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash Basis of Accounting
if they wish to provide additional disclosure on the nature and amount of intangible assets.
Although an entity may provide additional disclosures within the financial statements or as
supplementary information, such amounts cannot be included in the amounts shown on the
face of the primary financial statement.

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References
Accounting Standards Board, Financial Reporting Standard FRS 10 Goodwill and Intangible Assets
http://www.asb.org.uk/publications/publication149.html, December 1997.

Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants (CICA), Capital Assets, CICA Handbook –

Accounting, Section 3060 (Toronto, CICA)

Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants (CICA), Business Combinations, CICA Handbook –

Accounting, Section 1580 (Toronto, CICA)

Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants (CICA), Research and Development, CICA Handbook
– Accounting, Section 3450 (Toronto, CICA)

Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants (CICA), Accounting Standards Board, Business

Combinations, Exposure Draft, (Toronto, CICA), http://www.cica.ca, 1999.

Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), SFAS 2 Accounting for Research and Development
Costs, http://www.fasb.org, October 1974.

Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), Disclosure of Information About Intangible Assets
Not Recognized in Financial Statements
http://www.fasb.org, August 2001.

Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), Revised Exposure Draft: Business Combinations
and Intangible Assets – Accounting for Goodwill, http://www.fasb.org/, February 2001.

Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), Statement No. 142 Goodwill and Other Intangible
Assets, http://www.fasb.org/, June 2001.

HM Treasury Resource Accounting Manual 3.10,

http://www.resource-accounting.gov.uk/current/frames.htm

International Accounting Standards Board (IASC/IASB), IAS 22, Business Combinations, Revised
1993.

International Accounting Standards Board (IASC/IASB), IAS 38, Intangible Assets,

http://www.iasb.org.uk/, July 1998.

International Accounting Standards Board, Draft Interpretation SIC – D32 Intangible Assets – Web
Site Costs, http://www.iasb.org.uk/, May 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 6 Consolidated Financial Statements and

Accounting for Controlled Entities, May 2000.

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International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash
Basis of Accounting , May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS ED 21 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities

and Contingent Assets, http://www.ifac.org, June 2001.

International Monetary Fund, Manual on Government Finance Statistics

http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/gfs/manual/index.htm, Second Edition, 2001.

National Audit Office Resource Accounts: Preparing for Audit November 1997
(2.32 – 2.34), http://www.nao.gov.uk/guidance/resacct1.htm

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Appendix: Accounting Policies

This Appendix illustrates an example of accounting policies for intangible assets that may be
developed by a central entity for internal application by all individual entities forming part of a
whole-of-government reporting entity. In the absence of an IPSAS on this topic, the illustrative
policy is based largely upon IAS 38. The policy illustrated requires intangible assets to be measured
initially at cost, with subsequent revaluations to fair value where fair values are available. The policy
adopted by a particular entity will be influenced by relevant authoritative pronouncements in that
jurisdiction.

Recognition of Intangible Assets

Intangible assets are to be recognized when it is probable that the future economic benefits that are
attributable to the intangible asset will flow to the entity and the cost of the asset can be measured
reliably.

Where the cost of an acquired intangible asset is not available at the time of first recognition, the
asset is to be recognized at its fair value as at the date it is first recognized as an asset in the
financial statements. This value will be determined by reference to an active market, or in the
absence of an active market, by a professional valuer.

Research and Development

Expenditure on the research phase is to be recognized as an expense.

Expenditure on the development phase is to be recognized as an asset when, and only when, the
expenditure meets the criteria in International Accounting Standard IAS 38, Intangible Assets
regarding the likelihood of potential benefits being realized.

Internally Generated Intangible Assets

The cost of an internally generated intangible asset is to include all expenditure that can be directly
attributed, or allocated on a reasonable and consistent basis, to creating, producing and preparing the
asset for its intended use.

Overheads are to be included in the cost of the asset but only to the extent that they are necessary to
generate the asset and can be allocated to the asset on a reasonable and consistent basis.

Internally generated goodwill, logos, magazine mastheads, publishing titles, client lists and items
similar in substance are not to be recognized as intangible assets.

Subsequent Periods
In subsequent periods, intangible assets are to be recognized at cost1, less any accumulated
amortization and any accumulated impairment losses.

1
Although this entity has chosen to recognize intangible assets at cost, some entities may choose to revalue intangible
assets.

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For entities adopting regular revaluations:

Intangible assets are to be regularly revalued to fair value, where fair value is determined by
reference to an active market. Where there is no active or liquid market for an asset it is to be
recognized at the latest fair value obtained with reference to an active market, less any accumulated
amortization and any accumulated impairment loss since that date.

Amortization policies are to be reviewed annually.

Additional Disclosure
Information on intangible assets not recognized is to be disclosed in the notes to the financial
statements in accordance with the policy on assets not recognized.1

1
The proposals in FASB, August 2001 may be of assistance in considering the nature of these disclosures.

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CHAPTER 11: FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS

Key Points

• International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 15 Financial Instruments: Disclosure

and Presentation contains requirements regarding the disclosure and presentation of financial
instruments.
• In the absence of an International Public Sector Accounting Standard (IPSAS) on the recognition
and measurement of financial instruments, this Chapter uses International Accounting Standard
IAS 39, Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement to outline the types of
requirements for the measurement of financial assets and financial liabilities. Certain limited
aspects of IAS 39 are currently subject to review by the International Accounting Standards
Board.
• This Chapter illustrates a list of tasks and issues to assist entities in planning for the
identification, disclosure, presentation, recognition and measurement of financial instruments.
• There are a number of current international developments regarding the recognition and
measurement of financial instruments which may have an impact on the reporting of financial
instruments.

Introduction

11.1 This Chapter outlines the requirements in IPSAS 15 and explains the steps that an entity
choosing to comply with IPSAS 15 would need to work through. The Chapter also outlines
current developments regarding the recognition and measurement of financial instruments.
Readers will need to consider the potential implications of these developments when
developing criteria for recognition of financial instruments and selecting the basis of
measurement for various classes of financial instruments.

11.2 As noted in Chapter 7, in common with the International Accounting Standards (IASs) on
which they are based, IPSASs do not specifically address issues associated with Islamic
financial services that do not fit with the notions in IPSAS 15. For example, while IPSAS 15
may apply to a range of contracts or components of contracts that arise within Islamic law, its
requirements regarding disclosure of interest will not be relevant. The Accounting and
Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions prepares accounting standards for
Islamic financial institutions. These standards are regarded as complementing IASs in areas
where IASs are insufficient to meet the Islamic Law requirements to which Islamic financial
institutions adhere in their business transactions.

Definitions

11.3 IPSAS 15, paragraph 9, defines financial instruments as “any contract that gives rise to both
a financial asset of one entity and a financial liability or equity instrument of another entity.”
IPSAS 15 states that commodity-based contracts that give either party the right to settle in
cash or some other financial instrument should be accounted for as if they were financial

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instruments. The exception is where the entity entered into the commodity contract because
it required the commodities for its operations.

11.4 Financial assets as defined in IPSAS 15 include:

• cash;
• contractual rights to receive cash or another financial asset from another entity;
• contractual rights to exchange financial instruments with another entity under conditions
that are potentially favorable; and
• equity instruments of another entity.

11.5 Financial assets therefore include cash, revenues receivable, loans and advances,
investments, derivatives and prepayments. Under a historical cost accounting model, foreign
exchange assets are commonly carried at closing rates and short- and long-term loans are
carried at face value. However, as discussed below, standard setters are currently considering
proposals that all financial assets be carried at fair value.

11.6 Financial liabilities are contractual obligations:

• to deliver cash or another financial asset to another entity; or
• to exchange financial instruments with another entity under conditions that are
potentially unfavorable.

Disclosure and Presentation

11.7 IPSAS 15 disclosure requirements relate to a wide range of financial instruments – not just
those that have met the criteria for recognition in the financial statements. The implications
of these requirements are outlined in the implementation section below.

Recognition and Measurement

11.8 There is currently no IPSAS dealing with the measurement of financial assets and liabilities.
In the absence of an IPSAS dealing with this issue, IAS 39 has been used to outline the types
of requirements that may be found in standards dealing with the measurement of financial
assets and liabilities. The use of IAS 39 as an illustrative standard does not convey the
considered position of the PSC in relation to the measurement of financial assets and
liabilities. IAS 39 requirements include:
• all financial assets and liabilities, including derivatives, are to be recognized;
• financial instruments are to be initially measured at cost (including transaction costs);
• normal purchases and sales of financial assets are to be recognized at either trade or
settlement date;
• most financial assets are to be subsequently re-measured at fair value – exclusions
include loans and receivables originated by the entity and not held for trading, other

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fixed interest maturity investments with fixed or determinable payments, and financial
assets whose value cannot be reliably measured;
• most financial liabilities should subsequently be measured at initially recorded cost less
principal repayments and amortization; and
• where derivatives and liabilities are held for trading they should be re-measured at fair
value.

11.9 The measurement approach adopted in IAS 39 is currently subject to review. Proposals for a
more comprehensive standard include the views of the International Accounting Standards
Committee (IASC) Joint Working Group (JWG), which have been published in the Draft
Standard and Basis for Conclusions – Accounting for Financial Instruments and Similar
Items (Financial Instruments Joint Working Group, December 2000)1. The Draft Standard
proposed replacement of most of IAS 39 and International Accounting Standard IAS 32,
Financial Instruments: Disclosure and Presentation. The proposals in the Draft Standard
include:
• measurement of virtually all financial instruments at fair value;
• recognition of virtually all gains and losses resulting from changes in fair value in the
Statement of Financial Performance in the periods in which they arise;
• the prohibition of special accounting for financial instruments used in hedging
relationships;
• adoption of a components approach for accounting for transfers of financial assets; and
• some expansion of disclosures about financial instruments, financial risk positions and
Statement of Financial Performance effects.

While the current review of IAS 39 encompasses certain of the proposals of the draft
standard, further work on the draft standard is not currently on the short-term timetable of the
IASB.

11.10 Although these proposals could have a significant impact on the reported balances of some
entities, entities complying with IPSAS 15 would already have information on fair values for
disclosure purposes.

11.11 Discussion of issues associated with the measurement of certain financial assets and
liabilities at fair values, including the estimation of fair value when little or no market

1
The JWG was formed in 1997 for the sole purpose of developing a coherent framework for reporting financial
instruments at fair value. That framework was to be based on the principles discussed in the March 1997 Discussion
Paper, Accounting for Financial Assets and Financial Liabilities, issued by the IASB and the Canadian Institute of
Chartered Accountants, as further developed or amended as a result of the deliberations of the JWG. The JWG
consists of nominees of accounting standard setters or other professional organizations in Australia, Canada, France,
Germany, Japan, New Zealand, the Nordic Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States, as well as the
IASB. The positions taken in the Draft Standard reflect the views of a majority of the members of the JWG. They do
not necessarily represent the view of the organizations that nominated the members of the JWG. Updates on
developments in this area can be monitored at http://www.iasb.org.uk.

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evidence is available, is found in Preliminary Views on Major Issues Related to Reporting
Financial Instruments and Certain Related Assets and Liabilities at Fair Value (FASB 1999).
The recommendations in the JWG Draft Standard for fair value measurement are broadly
similar to those in the Preliminary Views, though some details differ. A discussion of some
differences is found in the JWG Draft Standard.

Implementation Issues

11.12 The following list of tasks and issues will assist entities in planning for the identification,
disclosure, presentation, recognition and measurement of financial instruments. Completion
of these steps should enable an entity to meet the requirements in IPSAS 15. When
developing criteria for recognition of financial instruments and determining the basis of
measurement for each class of financial instrument, entities are encouraged to review the
latest international and national developments in this area, and consider the impact of these
developments on their future reporting requirements.

Identification
• Identify all potential financial instruments in all controlled reporting entities. This
includes checking for financial instruments that do not meet the criteria for recognition
(for example, gold bullion is regarded as a commodity rather than a financial
instrument).
• Identify all derivatives contracts – examples of common derivative contracts are
provided in IAS 39 Implementation Guidance – Questions and Answers (IASB, January
2001).
• Record details of where existing information on financial instruments is held.
• Allocate responsibility for the maintenance of information on such financial instruments
and financial reporting of various categories of assets and liabilities.
• Identify all categories of revenue, expense, assets and liabilities associated with financial
instruments that are relevant for the reporting entities and the classifications that will be
used in the chart of accounts and the financial statements.
• Identify existing accounting policies and update these as new accounting policies are
developed.
• Review/develop and implement administrative procedures for the issuance, collection
and safe custody of financial instruments, including:
– individual identification of instruments;
– the establishment of a register of instruments and their status;
– retention of a copy of all instruments on issue;
– appropriate cancellation procedures; and
– safe custody arrangements for instrument stationery.

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• Review/develop systems for providing details of significant terms and conditions of
financial instruments.

Disclosure and Presentation

• Classify all financial instruments in accordance with the required categories, for
example, trading/non-trading. Identify how the entity will demonstrate its intention to
hold certain loans and receivables to maturity.
• Classify all financial instruments issued by the entity as liabilities or net assets/equity.
• Identify all financial instruments held as specific hedges rather than as hedges against an
overall position.
• Check whether all shares meet the definition of equity instruments. If not, ensure that
dividends relating to these shares are classified as expenses.
• Check whether any financial assets and liabilities meet the criteria for set-off.
• Identify the extent to which financial risks, including price risk (currency risk, interest
rate risk, and market risk), credit risk, liquidity risk and cash flow risk, are relevant for
the reporting entity.
• Develop and document financial risk management objectives and policies, including
hedging policies (such objectives and policies may already be in existence for certain
categories of financial instruments such as borrowings and government securities).
• Develop methods of monitoring and reporting on financial risks, including information
on maturity dates, effective interest rates and maximum credit risk exposure.
• Decide where disclosures on financial instruments will occur. Options include the face of
the financial statements (for recognized financial instruments only), the notes to the
financial statements, and supplementary schedules or statements.
• Develop the format for disclosures and identify how this information can be obtained
each reporting period and who has responsibility for the provision of this information for
external reporting.
• Prepare pro forma disclosures – examples are illustrated in an Appendix to IPSAS 15.

Recognition and Measurement

• Develop/review criteria for recognition and derecognition.
• Develop/review the basis of measurement for each class of financial asset and financial
liability:
– where historic cost or modified historic cost is used, identify the method used for
initial and subsequent measurement, including the treatment of premiums and
discounts on issue, indexed instruments, doubtful debts and impairment;
– where fair value is used, identify determination of carrying amounts, for example,
quoted market prices and discounted cash flows;

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– where discounted cash flows are used to obtain fair value, identify the appropriate
discount rate; and
– identify any significant assumptions required for measurement.
• Develop/review policies for financial instruments used to hedge anticipated transactions.
• Develop/review basis on which revenue and expense arising from the financial assets and
liabilities will be recognized.
• Develop policies for certain types of transactions involving financial instruments (refer
to IPSAS 15).
• Apply recognition criteria.
• Identify the relevant opening balance for all recognized financial instruments.
• Identify fair value for all financial assets and liabilities or identify where this is not
practicable. Note that fair values are required for disclosure purposes even where another
measurement base is used.
• Develop/review systems for obtaining fair values at reporting dates.

Relevance to the Cash and Other Bases of Accounting

11.13 The issues identified in this Chapter are relevant for entities intending to comply with the
requirements of any future IPSAS based on Exposure Draft International Public Sector
Accounting Standard IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash Basis of Accounting.
Entities using the cash basis of accounting will have recognized most of their cash assets
(refer Chapter 9 Cash for additional discussion of issues associated with the recognition of
cash under the accrual basis). It is also likely that entities using the cash basis of accounting
will maintain additional records of some investments and formal debt. However, they are
unlikely to have comprehensive records of all financial assets and liabilities.

11.14 Entities using a modified version of the accrual basis are likely to have information on a
much wider range of financial assets and liabilities. However, existing records and systems
still need to be assessed against the disclosure and recognition requirements of the
accounting standards adopted under accrual accounting.

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References
Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), No. 204-B, Financial Accounting Series
Preliminary Views on Major Issues Related to Reporting Financial Instruments and Certain
Related Assets and Liabilities at Fair Value, http://www.fasb.org, December 1999.

Financial Instruments Joint Working Group, Draft Standard and Basis for Conclusions – Financial
Instruments and Similar Items, http://www.iasb.org.uk/, June 2001.

International Accounting Standards Board (IASC/IASB), IAS 39, Financial Instruments:

Recognition and Measurement, January 2001.

International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), IAS 39, Implementation Guidance – Questions
and Answers, http://www.iasb.org.uk/, January 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 15 Financial Instruments: Disclosure and

Presentation, December 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash
Basis of Accounting, http:www.ifac.org, May 2000.

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Appendix: Accounting Policies

This Appendix illustrates the internal accounting policies used to identify, disclose, recognize and
measure a selection of financial instruments. These policies are examples of policies that may be
developed by a central entity for internal application by all individual entities forming part of a
whole-of-government reporting entity. The disclosure and presentation policies are based on the
assumption that the entity will adopt IPSAS 15. The recognition and measurement policies illustrated
in IPSAS 15, Appendix 2 will not necessarily be those chosen by other entities, as the recognition
and measurement of financial instruments varies across jurisdictions.

Chapter 9 Cash and Chapter 7 Liabilities also contain useful discussion of accounting policy issues
relating to financial instruments.

Financial Instruments
The entity will comply with the financial instrument disclosures required by International Public
Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 15 Financial Instruments: Disclosure and Presentation. It will
make appropriate disclosures in line with the examples shown in Appendices 2 and 3 of IPSAS 15.

Receivables and advances

Receivables and advances are recorded at the amounts expected to be ultimately collected in cash.

Investments

Marketable securities held for trading purposes

Marketable securities held for trading purposes are recorded at fair value.

Equity investments
Equity investments (other than those forming part of the reporting entity) are recorded at the lower
of cost and fair value.

Other investments and marketable securities held for investment purposes

Other investments, including marketable securities held for investment purposes, are recorded at the
lower of cost and fair value.

Investments held for hedging purposes are recorded on the same basis as the item being hedged.

Creditors and payables

Creditors and payables are recognized for amounts to be paid in the future for goods or services
received.

Borrowings
In the Statement of Financial Position, borrowings (including currency swaps) are recorded at
nominal value adjusted for the unamortized portion of the premium or discount on issue.

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Derivative Financial Instruments
A number of financial instruments are used to assist in meeting debt management objectives with
respect to currency and interest-rate exposures in the Government’s net foreign debt portfolio. The
range of instruments currently being used includes currency and interest-rate swaps, foreign-
exchange contracts and futures contracts. Interest-rate swaps are also used in the domestic debt
portfolio.

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 Chapter 12: Employee-Related Liabilities

CHAPTER 12: EMPLOYEE-RELATED LIABILITIES

Key Points

• At the time of writing, there is no International Public Sector Accounting Standard (IPSAS)
dealing with the recognition, measurement or disclosure of employee-related expenses and
liabilities. In the absence of an IPSAS, entities will need to develop accounting policies based on
appropriate authoritative guidance. International Accounting Standard IAS 19 Employee Benefits
is one source of guidance on these matters.
• Certain policy decisions, such as the devolution or non-devolution of authority for personnel
functions and the extent to which personnel functions are centralized can have a major impact on
the design of information systems. Such decisions would ideally be made at an early stage of the
reform process.

Introduction

12.1 Employee expenses1 are employees’ entitlements as a result of rendering their services to an
employer. Employee-related liabilities include liabilities associated with the following
employee-related expenses:
• salaries and wages (including overtime and allowances);
• annual leave;
• sick leave;
• long service leave;
• pension and superannuation entitlements (referred to as pensions throughout this
Chapter);
• redundancy payments;
• other post-employment benefits; and
• other employee entitlements, for example free or subsidized health care.

12.2 Most salaries and wages earned during a reporting period are paid during that period and
therefore only a small liability exists at the end of the period. However, in the case of other
employee entitlements, particularly pension entitlements, end-of-period liabilities can be
significant. This Chapter deals with issues associated with the recognition of such liabilities.
It does not address issues associated with pensions provided to citizens as opposed to
government employees. Issues associated with the recognition of such pension schemes are
discussed in Chapter 13.

1
In some circumstances employee-related costs are not expensed, for example, where employee-related costs form
part of the costs of a self-constructed asset.

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Review of Existing Systems and Structures

12.3 All entities, regardless of the basis of accounting used, will have established systems
(manual or computer-based) for calculating and processing wage and salary payments and
maintaining records on employee entitlements to benefits such as paid leave. There are two
main issues when assessing the extent to which these systems will be able to provide the
information required for the preparation of accrual-based financial statements:

• whether existing systems hold information in a form that is readily accessible to those
responsible for the preparation of the financial statements; and
• whether the required information is accessible at the level of the individual reporting
entity and if not, the nature of system changes that will be required.

Accessibility
12.4 Existing systems may accurately record details of each individual employee’s remuneration
and entitlements such as annual leave earned and taken. However, if this information is
available only by consulting each individual’s personnel records at the end of each reporting
period (for example, monthly or quarterly) the task of aggregating the liability could be
onerous or impossible.

The Reporting Entity and the Degree of Centralization

12.5 Many governments have centralized personnel or human resource departments or entities,
which have responsibility for a wide range of personnel functions including recruitment,
training, promotion, establishment of terms and conditions, administration of disciplinary
processes, personnel records and wage and salary systems. The introduction of accrual
accounting may be accompanied by changes to centralized personnel functions such as the
devolution of some of these functions. Such devolution is not a consequence of adopting
accrual accounting.

12.6 The definition of the reporting entity has an impact on the level of aggregation required. If
individual government entities are reporting entities and centralized systems are maintained,
then it is necessary to either:
• ensure that personnel systems can record employee expenses and accrued liabilities for
each individual reporting entity. This may involve the use of internal allocations or actual
payments by individual entities to reimburse the central entity; or
• decide that individual entities will not be required to account for certain employee
expenses and liabilities. This latter option is not consistent with accrual accounting to the
extent that the financial statements should include all expenses, including the cost of
goods and services provided free of charge. However, for practical reasons some
jurisdictions may choose not to allocate certain costs to individual entities. The non-
allocation of some costs and accrued liabilities may in some circumstances be justified
on the grounds that they are the responsibility of the government as a whole rather than
its individual entities.

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12.7 As the devolution or non-devolution of authority for personnel functions can have a major
impact on the design of systems, such policy decisions would ideally be made at an early
stage of the reform process.

Implementation

12.8 The following list sets out some of the steps required for the recognition of employee-related
liabilities. Where entities have been using a modified version of the cash or accrual basis for
budgeting or financial reporting, some or most of the information referred to in these steps
may already be readily available:
• Develop accounting policies.
• Determine appropriate classifications, including current and non-current.
• Identify all potential employee-related expenses and liabilities.
• Document the background to each entitlement, including the underlying authority,
entitlement criteria, when entitlement occurs, payment dates, existing information on the
likely amount of the associated liability, and contact details for people responsible for
administering the entitlements.
• Distinguish between benefits that lead to an absolute entitlement and those taken on the
basis of need, as the recognition point for the two will differ.
• Estimate the likely range for the amount of each liability at the end of each reporting
period to assess the materiality of the liabilities.
• Identify possible ways in which liabilities could be determined at the end of each
reporting period and the information required in order to calculate relevant amounts (for
example, system changes, actuarial valuations, estimation).
• Develop recommendations on proposed methods of obtaining information including
system changes.

Accounting Policies

12.9 At the time of writing, there is no IPSAS dealing with the recognition of liabilities arising
from employee-related expenses. Exposure Draft International Public Sector Accounting
Standard IPSAS ED 21 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets excludes
provisions arising from employee benefits. International Accounting Standard IAS 19,
Employee Benefits is one source of guidance on the recognition of employee-related
expenses, including pension costs. The Public Sector Committee (PSC) has not yet
considered the application of this standard to public sector entities, but has indicated its
intention to develop an IPSAS on employee benefits. Examples of other authoritative
pronouncements are included in the References to this Chapter. Despite the fact that
Exposure Draft IPSAS ED 21 does not apply to employee entitlements, the guidance in
Exposure Draft IPSAS ED 21 may be useful where the accounting standard being applied by
an entity does not contain guidance on a specific employee entitlement, or where the entity is
uncertain whether an obligation meets the definition of an employee entitlement.

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Accrued Salaries and Wages

12.10 Monthly financial statements are often prepared for internal reporting purposes. Salaries and
wages are commonly paid weekly, fortnightly, four weekly or monthly. They may be paid in
arrears, in advance, or a mixture of both. Accrued salaries and wages are determined by
multiplying the average daily salary and wage bill by the number of days between the last
salary and wage payment and the end of the reporting period (less any days that were paid in
advance). Entities need to decide whether the “days” used in this calculation are calendar
days or working days.

12.11 Accruals for allowances that are regular in amount may be calculated in the same way as for
salaries and wages. Where payment dates differ or the amounts fluctuate markedly between
periods, a separate accrual may be required for some types of payment. Adjustments may
need to be made for large one-off or unusual payments that should not form part of the
average daily salary and wage bill.

12.12 Although some entities in the public sector may have a wide range of allowances that form
part of an employee’s remuneration, the calculation of salary and wage accruals should be
performed in the same manner as in the private sector. The reference manuals for accounting
systems generally contain guidance on options within the system for such accruals.

12.13 In terms of implementation, the main issues are to identify payment dates, the extent to
which payments are in arrears or advance, which salary and wage components should be
included in the average daily salary bill and the definition of “days”. In addition, an entity
needs to decide whether it will perform these accruals for the entity as a whole, or whether it
will allocate these accruals to individual sub-units within the entity.

12.14 Performance pay is usually classified as salaries and wages, although it may be paid only
once or twice a year.

Annual Leave

12.15 Entities should be able to obtain details of opening and closing annual leave entitlements
from their payroll system (changes to payroll systems to ensure that this information is
available on a regular and timely basis is the major implementation issue for recognition of
this liability).

12.16 An entity may have a policy limiting the number of days’ leave that may be carried forward.
In such cases, the accrual for the annual leave liability may be calculated for the full amount
of annual leave owing, even where some individuals have accumulated leave in excess of the
permitted amount, with reductions in accordance with the policy being performed as a
separate exercise.

12.17 Accrued annual leave is usually taken within the following period and there is therefore no
need to discount the amount.

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12.18 In practice, annual leave that employees take during a period is often classified as salary
expense rather than as annual leave expense.

Long Service Leave

12.19 Some jurisdictions provide extended or additional leave entitlements in recognition of

periods of long service by employees. These entitlements usually vest after a specified period
of service. A liability for long service leave (and other long service benefits such as overseas
trips) should be accrued based upon an estimate of the number of employees likely to qualify
for the leave, the amount of the entitlement and the estimated date of entitlement.

12.20 In order to assess the likely amount of the liability, the entity will need to research such
matters as:
• the number of employees qualifying for the leave in recent years and any factors which
are likely to lead to a higher or lower uptake rate in the future (for example, projected
attrition rates);
• their average rate of pay and projected pay of future recipients, taking account of pay
increases due to promotion and inflation; and
• the likely cost of the long service leave to be paid to existing employees in future years
and the present value of those amounts.

12.21 It may be argued that, technically the liability should be recognized from the first year of
service. However, because of employee turnover, recognizing the liability only for those
employees who have been employed for a certain time and are therefore more likely to
qualify for the leave may provide a reasonable estimate. The approach adopted by an entity
will depend upon the amount of work involved and the impact on the financial statements of
calculating the liability for all employees from their first year of service or from some other
date, such as from five or ten years from their date of employment. The latter approach
results in the first five or ten years’ obligation for an employee being recorded as an expense
in one period. Where there are low numbers of employees qualifying for long service leave
or the value of the benefit is minimal, there may be no material impact on the financial
statements of recognizing the expense as the entitlement falls due. Actuarial estimates may
be helpful in assessing the most appropriate time at which to begin recording long service
leave.

12.22 Where similar conditions of service apply across a range of government entities, guidance on
the appropriate time of recognition should be provided to all entities to ensure a consistent
approach.

12.23 The long service leave expense is the change in the provision for long service leave
entitlements between the beginning and end of the reporting period, plus any payments made
during the period. Where long service leave payments are paid as normal salary amounts it is
helpful if the personnel system also highlights the amount relating to long service leave. If
payments during a period are not material, the change in the provision during the period may
provide a reasonable estimate of the expense. However, to justify this approach an entity

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would need to provide evidence showing how it had estimated leave payments during the
period.

Sick Leave

12.24 Employees may be allowed to accumulate sick leave up to a specified number of days.
However, the entitlement to sick leave is generally available only in times of sickness and is
therefore non-vesting. Where employees, on average, take fewer sick leaves than their
entitlement, there is no need to recognize a liability. The entity needs to research (and
document) the amount of sick leave taken by various groups of employees to support the
approach taken.

Pensions

12.25 Defined benefit plans are retirement benefit plans under which pensions are determined by
reference to a formula based on employees’ remuneration and length of service. Defined
contribution plans are retirement benefit plans under which the employer and employee
make specified contributions to the plan during a set period. Defined benefit plans may be
fully funded (plan assets are sufficient to offset plan liabilities), partially funded (plan assets
partially offset plan liabilities), or are funded on a pay-as-you-go basis. On a pay-as-you-go
basis, the employee may make a regular contribution to the scheme, but the government
contributes only the amount required to pay the amounts currently owing to retired
employees. Where plan assets are less than plan liabilities, the net amount is often referred to
as the unfunded component.

12.26 In order to meet the requirements of reliable measurement, the amount of the unfunded
liability is usually estimated by actuaries. Although the detailed calculations are performed
by actuaries, the entity still needs to work through the following steps to ensure that all
potential liabilities are accounted for:
• Identify all government pension plans/payments (including ex gratia payments to
employees in lieu of pension payments).
• Document the contributors and recipients for each plan.
• Classify pensions to employees as either costs which should be allocated to individual
reporting entities or costs which should be reported at the whole-of-government level
(for example, ongoing obligations to previous government employees may be treated by
some governments as a whole-of-government expense).
• Determine whether there is a legal obligation (supported by legislation or contract) to
make payments. In the case of payments where there is no clear legal obligation,
establish whether there is a constructive obligation.
• Determine whether schemes are defined benefit plans or defined contribution plans in
terms of IAS 19.
• Determine whether schemes are fully funded, partially funded, or are funded on a pay-as-
you-go basis. Fully funded schemes are those where annual contributions to the scheme

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cover the annual expense. The unfunded component of schemes occurs when annual
payments are not sufficient to cover the annual expense. Where schemes are not fully
funded, including on a pay-as-you-go basis, regular actuarial valuations are required to
provide evidence of the amount of the unfunded liability.
• Research and assess the likelihood of the government changing employees’ pension
entitlements. This will impact upon the probability of future payments being made and
the calculation of the pension liability.
• Clarify institutional arrangements for the recognition of the liability. Each individual
reporting entity should recognize total employee-related expenses. However, if a central
entity has assumed responsibility for the liability then an individual entity does not need
to recognize the liability. Instead it would recognize both an expense and a corresponding
revenue to acknowledge that another entity has assumed one of its obligations. Where
responsibility for pension liability is assumed at a central level, the central entity will
need to devise a method of allocating the aggregate pension expense to individual
entities. Such allocations may be based on actuarial assessments where these are
available. In the absence of such assessments, pro rating the total pension expense by
entity personnel expense/total government personnel expense may give an
approximation.
• Select an appropriate discount rate for calculating the present value of liabilities.

Other Employee Benefits

12.27 Employee expenses do not include amounts paid or owed to employees as reimbursement for
work-related expenses paid for by the employee. Such expenses could include amounts paid
for travel and accommodation while performing duties as an employee.

12.28 The classification of other benefits provided to employees is subject to judgment. For
example, the provision of rental accommodation to employees free of charge may be shown
as employee expenses or as accommodation expenses. Classification is of importance when
complying with requirements concerning the disclosure of employee remuneration. Entities
can assist users of financial statements by providing a clear description of the accounting
policy for the determination of remuneration, including reference to relevant disclosure
standards.

Relevance to the Cash Basis of Accounting

12.29 The issues identified in this Chapter are relevant for entities intending to comply with the
requirements of any future IPSAS based on Exposure Draft International Public Sector
Accounting Standard IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash Basis of Accounting
if they wish to provide additional disclosure on the nature and amount of employee-related
liabilities. Although an entity may provide additional disclosures within the financial
statements or as supplementary information, such amounts cannot be included in the
amounts shown on the face of the primary financial statement.

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References
Australian Accounting Standards Board (AASB), AASB-1028: Accounting for Employee
Entitlements
http://www.aasb.com.au/pronouncements/standards_index.htm, March 1994.

Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Finance and Administration, Accounting and Budgeting

Manual, Requirements and Guidance for the Preparation of Financial Statements of
Commonwealth Agencies and Authorities
http://www.finance.gov.au/ace/docs/fmos.pdf, 2001.

Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB), Statement of Federal Financial

Accounting Standards SFFAS No. 5, Accounting for Liabilities of the Federal Government
http://www.fasab.gov, September 1995.

Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), Statement No. 106 Employers' Accounting for
Postretirement Benefits Other than Pensions, December 1990.

FASB, Statement No. 81, Disclosure of Postretirement Health Care and Life Insurance Benefits ,
November 1984.

FASB, Statement No. 74, Accounting for Special Termination Benefits Paid to Employees
http://www.fasb.org, August 1983.

Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB), Statement No. 27, Accounting for Pensions by
State and Local Governmental Employers , November 1994.

GASB, Statement No. 26, Financial Reporting for Postemployment Healthcare Plans Administered
by Defined Benefit Pension Plans , November 1994.

GASB, Statement No. 25, Financial Reporting for Defined Benefit Pension Plans and Note
Disclosures for Defined Contribution Plans , November 1994.

GASB, Statement No. 16, Accounting for Compensated Absences , November 1992.

GASB, Statement No. 4, Applicability of FASB Statement No. 87, “Employers’ Accounting for
Pensions,” to State and Local Governmental Employers , September 1986.

GASB, Statement No. 2, Financial Reporting of Deferred Compensation Plans Adopted under the
Provisions of Internal Revenue Code Section 457
http://www.gasb.org/pub/index.html, January 1986.

International Accounting Standards Board (IASC/IASB), IAS 19, Employee Benefits

http://www.iasb.org.uk/, (amended 2000).

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International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash
Basis of Accounting, May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS ED 21 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities

and Contingent Assets , February 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Study 11, Governmental Financial Reporting

http://www.ifac.org, May 2000.

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Appendix: Accounting Policies

This Appendix illustrates the internal accounting policies for the recognition of employee expenses
and associated employee-related liabilities. These policies are examples of policies that may be
developed by a central entity for internal application by all individual entities forming part of a
whole-of-government reporting entity. There is no IPSAS on this topic. In the absence of an IPSAS,
entities will need to develop accounting policies based on appropriate authoritative guidance.
Generally accepted accounting practice with regard to employee-related liabilities varies between
countries. For example, in some jurisdictions it is not common practice to recognize a liability for
accrued leave.

General
The full cost of employees’ services is to be recognized as an expense when the expense is incurred.
Amounts incurred but not paid are to be accrued. Liabilities assumed by another entity are to be
recognized as an expense of one entity and a revenue of the other.

Salaries and Wages

A liability for salaries and wages incurred but not paid is to be accrued at the end of the reporting
period.

Annual Leave
Annual leave due but not taken is to be recognized as a liability. It is to be calculated on the basis of
leave owing to each employee (including any time in lieu), and is to be based on the individual
employee’s expected salary at the time the leave is likely to be taken. For example, if the leave is
expected to be taken within the following period, the employee’s expected salary during that period
would be used.

Accrued annual leave that must be taken within the following year is to be classified as a current
liability. Accrued annual leave that may be taken after the following year is to be classified as a non-
current liability. The provision for annual leave is not discounted.

Long Service Leave

Provisions for long service leave entitlements are to be initially recognized once an employee has
completed five years’ service1 and subsequently recognized each year following that time.

Long service leave liabilities are to be measured as the present value of estimated leave service
entitlements. In measuring the present value of long service leave entitlement liabilities, the average
interest rate attaching, as at the reporting date, to borrowings of the entity is to be used to discount
estimated future cash outflows.

Provisions for long service leave are to be classified as current or non-current as appropriate.

1
The number of years’ service required by an entity before it begins to account for long service leave will vary
depending upon the entitlement criteria for the leave and the relationship between various lengths of service and the
proportion of employees qualifying for the leave.

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Other long service benefits are to be recognized at the point that the employee becomes entitled to
them.1

Sick Leave/Compassionate Leave

No liability or expense is to be recognized in relation to sick leave and compassionate leave until the
time of absence.2

Pensions

Defined Benefit Plans

The liability (the unfunded component) arising in respect of the following defined benefit plans is to
be accounted for in accordance with International Accounting Standard IAS 19, Employee Benefits3.
• [The reporting entity is to list the pension plans.]

The amount recognized as a defined benefit liability is to be the net of the following amounts:
• the present value of the defined benefit obligation as at the end of the reporting period
(after taking account of any payments against the liability during the period);
• plus any actuarial gains (less any actuarial losses) to the extent that they are recognized
in accordance with IAS 19 (this refers to fluctuations which exceed the limits set out in
IAS 19);
• less any past service cost not yet recognized as an expense; and
• less the fair value at the end of the reporting period of plan assets out of which the
obligations are to be settled directly.

The liability is to be assessed annually by [reporting entity to insert details of specified actuary]. It is
to be calculated based on the latest actuarial assessment [reporting entity to specify frequency with
which assessment occurs] or more recent data if this is available.

Defined Contribution Plans

The contribution due to a defined contribution plan in exchange for service provided by employees
during the year is to be recognized as an expense in accordance with IAS 19.

A liability for contributions payable to a defined contribution plan is to be recognized only if the
contribution paid during the period is less than the contribution required.

1
This policy assumes that the impact of recognizing such other long service benefits in this way is immaterial.
2
This policy assumes that sick leave is non-vesting and that employees on average take sick leave equal to or less
than the entitlements that accrue in the reporting period.
3
Readers should note the use of IAS 19 in these illustrations does not imply that the PSC has reviewed the
applicability of this IAS to the public sector.

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Severance/Termination Benefits
A liability for severance/termination payments is to be recognized if there is a present obligation on
the employer at the reporting date. There is an obligation to be met where there is an award or
agreement that provides for payments to be made under specified conditions and these conditions are
satisfied.

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 Chapter 13: Liabilities Arising from Social Policy Obligations

CHAPTER 13: LIABILITIES ARISING FROM SOCIAL POLICY

OBLIGATIONS

Key Points

• This Chapter addresses issues associated with the accounting treatment of liabilities or potential
liabilities arising from certain social policy obligations of governments. Examples of
circumstances in which a government may have a social policy obligation include:
– future obligations arising from social benefits such as state retirement benefits and
unemployment benefits;
– moral or equitable obligations to provide relief to victims of natural disasters;
– obligations under accident compensation schemes;
– the announcement of a new program or spending initiative; and
– future obligations under current policies.
• At the time of writing, there is no International Public Sector Accounting Standard (IPSAS)
dealing with the recognition, measurement or disclosure of liabilities arising from social benefits
provided by an entity for which it receives no or nominal consideration directly in return from
the recipients of those benefits. In the absence of an IPSAS, entities will need to develop
accounting policies based on appropriate authoritative guidance. The PSC has recently
established a Steering Committee to assist in the development of guidance on this issue.
• This Chapter outlines approaches adopted by some governments to the recognition of various
obligations arising from these social benefits. The types of social benefits provided, eligibility
criteria, timing of eligibility and likelihood of future obligations vary between jurisdictions.
• This Chapter suggests that entities first identify all potential social policy obligations, and then
attempt to find solutions to the accounting issues associated with those obligations by grouping
them into categories with similar characteristics.

Introduction

13.1 This Chapter addresses issues associated with the identification and recognition of liabilities
arising from the social policy obligations of governments for which the government receives
no or nominal consideration directly in return from the recipients of those benefits. Social
policy obligations arising from exchange transactions will be dealt with by the IPSAS based
on Exposure Draft International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS ED 21
Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets (refer Chapter 7). In addition, this
Chapter does not address issues associated with employee-related liabilities (refer
Chapter 12).

13.2 Social policy obligations are the current and future financial obligations of a government to
provide goods, services and transfers to citizens under its existing social policies. Social
policies encompass a government’s policies in relation to the direct provision or funding of

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services such as health, education, housing and social protection. The provision of services
or various forms of social protection through transfers may be targeted (for example,
recipients may be restricted to families and children, the elderly, the ill, the widowed, the
unemployed or those on low incomes). Alternatively they may be available to all citizens.
Governments at all levels may provide financial assistance to individuals and groups in the
community to access services to meet their particular needs, or to supplement their income.

13.3 Social policy obligations may be funded entirely by the government, or partially by the
government and partially by way of contribution from the recipients. In such cases, the
government’s portion of the cost may be funded by way of tied taxes or general taxes. Both
government contributions and individual contributions may be made over a period of years
(often to a separate scheme or plan) or at the time of provision. In some jurisdictions social
benefits may be provided in the form of an exchange transaction whereby recipients pay a
government agency an amount approximately equal to the benefit received.

13.4 Governments are generally involved in a much wider range of activities than individual
private sector entities, and face more issues in relation to the identification and measurement
of liabilities. Accounting standard setters developing standards for the private sector
generally do not consider the full range of issues that arise in the public sector. Governments
which have adopted, or are adopting, accrual accounting have been forced to address these
issues. Some of the approaches taken within various jurisdictions are discussed further
below.

13.5 At the time of writing there is no IPSAS dealing specifically with the accounting treatment
of liabilities arising from social policy obligations. In addition, Exposure Draft IPSAS ED 21
excludes from the scope of the Standard provisions and contingent liabilities that arise from
social benefits which the entity provides to the community and for which no or nominal
consideration is expected directly in return from the recipients of those benefits.

Possible Approaches

13.6 This section outlines approaches adopted by some governments to the recognition of various
obligations arising from social benefits. The types of social benefits provided, eligibility
criteria, timing of eligibility and likelihood of future obligations vary between jurisdictions.
The approaches should not be seen as mutually exclusive, but as examples of approaches that
may be appropriate given the nature of a particular social benefit.

Example 1
A government accrues unpaid amounts due to service providers in relation to free and subsidized
medical care already provided by government-owned institutions at the end of the reporting period.
Although it does not recognize the future costs of such medical care policies in the financial
statements themselves, it provides additional disclosures.

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Example 2
A government recognizes its obligation to third party recipients to deliver goods, services or
transfers once the intended third party recipient has met certain eligibility criteria as established in
the contract or legislation. For example, in the case of welfare payments the government does not
recognize a liability until it acknowledges an obligation to the recipient for the welfare payment.
This happens when the government receives an application for a welfare payment and the
application meets the eligibility criteria in legislation or regulations.

Example 3
A government has no legal obligation to make welfare payments. This government recognizes
welfare payments as a liability and an expense when they are due to be paid, regardless of when
payment actually occurs. If such liabilities have not been paid by the end of the reporting period, the
liability is recognized in the Statement of Financial Position. The obligation recognized includes any
recipients who have been entered into the system for that payment period.

Example 4
A government operates a workers’ injury compensation plan. It recognizes the future costs of past
claims and the future costs of new claims in respect of which the injuries have occurred but claims
have yet to be notified.

Example 5
Government entities use grants to reimburse external providers for payments made to entitled
citizens in accordance with government policy. The government entities recognize an obligation to
the external providers at the point at which the external providers make the payments to citizens.
This is considered to be the “past event” which triggers the “present obligation”.

Implementation Issues

13.7 The first step is to identify all potential obligations that could lead to the recognition of a
liability or provision and where the accounting treatment has not already been determined
using specific authoritative accounting standards or generally accepted accounting practice.
Examples of obligations that may fall into this category include:
• personal benefits;
• disaster relief;
• transfers/grants;
• donations; and
• subsidized student loans.

13.8 Whether these obligations are social policy obligations for a particular jurisdiction depends
upon the legislative framework within which the government in that jurisdiction operates.
(IPSAS ED 21 notes the difficulties of identifying provisions and contingent liabilities

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relating to social policy obligations and provides some guidance on doing so.) The aim of
this initial scoping exercise is to identify those liabilities where the entity has not yet
identified a specific accounting standard or accounting treatment as being applicable and to
then identify an appropriate accounting standard or accounting treatment.

13.9 In identifying an appropriate accounting standard or accounting treatment an entity may find
the following approach helpful.
• Is the obligation covered by an IPSAS or other authoritative accounting standard? For
example, is the obligation a form of employee benefit which could be accounted for
using the principles in an authoritative accounting standard on employee benefits? If yes,
apply the principles in that authoritative accounting standard.
• Can the obligation be accounted for in a manner similar to the obligations associated
with other exchange transactions? For example, some obligations which are at first
classified as social policy obligations because they are related to grants made by a
government, rather than consideration provided by the beneficiaries, may in fact have an
element of exchange. Where there is an element of exchange, the entity could review the
terms and conditions of the grant and re-establish the grant as an exchange transaction.
As part of this process the government and public sector entities making the grants to
individuals and entities would clarify what they expect in return for the grant, the point at
which they expect this return, when the good or service is deemed to be delivered and
when payment of the grant is due. This would then provide an appropriate point for the
government to recognize the expense and any accrued liability. This approach is used in
jurisdictions that adopt a purchaser-provider model. In such jurisdictions, all transactions
by a government with entities or individuals are classified as the purchase of goods or
services (outputs) or transfers (where the government receives no direct benefit in
return). The fact that a jurisdiction has not formally adopted a purchaser-provider model
would not preclude a government from exploring this approach. Social policy obligations
arising from exchange transactions will be dealt with by the IPSAS based on
IPSAS ED 21.

13.10 The remaining social policy obligations may be sub-classified as those that are reasonably
certain as to timing and amount or those that are uncertain as to timing or amount. Those that
are reasonably certain as to timing and amount may be recognized in the same way as other
liabilities (for example, the timing and amount of pensions for aged citizens may be known
with sufficient certainty to justify a period-end accrual). In relation to those that are uncertain
as to timing or amount, the entity needs to decide whether it would be appropriate to
recognize a provision or disclose a contingent liability. Although Exposure Draft
IPSAS ED 21 excludes from its scope those obligations and contingent liabilities arising
from social benefits provided by an entity for which it receives no or nominal consideration
directly in return from the recipients of those benefits, the guidance in this ED may
nonetheless be useful in recognizing and measuring such provisions or disclosing such
contingent liabilities.

13.11 Once an entity decides that a social policy obligation meets the conditions for recognition, it
then needs to collect information on the amount of likely future cash flows and determine the

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method of calculation. For example, the entity will need to select an appropriate discount rate
and determine the appropriate treatment of risk (for example, risk-free discount rates or risk-
free cash flows and risk-adjusted discount rates or risk-adjusted cash flows).

13.12 Where an entity decides that a social policy obligation does not meet the conditions for
recognition or for disclosure as a contingent liability, it then needs to consider whether it
wishes to provide some form of supplemental disclosure.

Background Information/Entitlement Criteria

13.13 For each type of potential obligation it is helpful to record details of:
• the relevant legislation, agreements or examples of such payments;
• entitlement criteria where applicable;
• approval systems for applications and methods of notification;
• payment mechanisms;
• information available on current payments and the extent to which these relate to past or
future obligations;
• actuarial estimates of future obligations; and
• current accounting treatment and disclosures.

13.14 This information can then be used to justify the classification of obligations into similar
groups and the subsequent accounting treatment chosen. The information forms part of the
audit trail.

Obligating Event
13.15 Determination of the obligating event can be a difficult issue for some obligations.
Obligations may be legal or constructive. Legal obligations can be evidenced by legislative
requirements and legally enforceable contracts. Constructive obligations are defined in
IPSAS ED 21, paragraph 18 as follows:
A constructive obligation is an obligation that derives from an entity’s actions where:
(a) by an established pattern of past practice, published policies or a sufficiently specific current
statement, the entity has indicated to other parties that it will accept certain responsibilities; and
(b) as a result, the entity has created a valid expectation on the part of those other parties that it will
discharge those responsibilities.

13.16 In the absence of a legal obligation, an entity needs to determine whether there is sufficient
evidence to indicate the existence of a constructive obligation.

13.17 For example, when a disaster has occurred, if a government has a policy of providing
disaster relief assistance, its past practice, and public communication of its intention to
provide such assistance for particular types of disasters, may be sufficient to provide
evidence of a constructive obligation.

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13.18 In the case of discretionary items such as donations, there is generally no legal obligation
prior to the transfer of cash, assets or loan forgiveness. Where there is a legally enforceable
obligation prior to the transfer of cash then a liability would exist at the time the obligation
becomes enforceable (for example, on the signing of an agreement).

13.19 The timing of entitlement in relation to benefits determines whether there is a liability for
end-of-period accruals. For example, where entitlement does not occur until the date of
payment, governments do not generally recognize a liability in relation to the benefit, apart
from the amount due and payable at the reporting date.

13.20 The entity may need to develop policies for each benefit, specifying both the eligibility
criteria and the policy to be followed in determining whether those eligibility criteria have
been met. For example, are individuals seeking medical assistance from a government
regarded as having met eligibility criteria when:
• they develop a condition and meet the criteria although they have not notified anyone
that they intend to seek assistance from the government;
• they have completed an application seeking assistance;
• they have been assessed by a health care provider (employed by a non-government
entity) who has recommended that their application be approved;
• the government entity responsible for approving assistance has received the application
and has approved it;
• their name and details have been entered into the system for payment; or
• the payment is due?

13.21 For some benefits there is no single obligating event creating a future liability. Rather, the
individual or organization must meet the entitlement criteria at regular intervals.

13.22 The point selected for recognition of the expense (and hence any related liability) is not
solely dependent upon the existence of an obligating event. The obligation must also be able
to be reliably measured. Reliable measurement depends on the nature of the information
available.

Future Cash Flows

13.23 The identification of future cash flows associated with an obligation may require some
research and estimation. For example, an entity may need to collect data on the conditions
under which payments would be required, the number of instances of such payments being
made in the past and the projected number of instances of such payments being required in
the future. Actuarial estimates of the likelihood of certain events occurring may be required.
In the case of period-end accruals however, an entity may know exactly how much it owes to
another government entity or an individual for services delivered or to be delivered.

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Classification
13.24 For those obligations that are recognized, an entity needs to develop a policy on the
classification of various types of changes that will be recognized as expenses. For example,
the unwinding of the discount rate would be classified as interest expense.

Disclosure of Accounting Policies

13.25 An entity should develop, document and disclose the accounting policies used for various
obligations, including the point basis on which the provisions have been recognized and the
measurement basis adopted.

Ongoing Review and Procedures

13.26 In order to ensure that the information provided each period is accurate, an entity will need to
review all provisions regularly. Adjustments may be made to reflect the current best estimate
or to reflect material changes in the assumptions underlying the calculations of the cash
flows. An entity will therefore need to allocate responsibility for such reviews, provide
guidance on issues to be considered in such reviews and the level of documentation required,
and carry out regular checks to ensure that such reviews are occurring in accordance with
these guidelines.

13.27 Only expenditures that relate to the purpose for which a provision was originally created may
be offset against that provision. Generally, an entity establishes authorization procedures to
ensure that any increases in provisions or use of provisions are approved by appropriate
personnel. This may be done by specifying the individuals or positions with authority to
create and/or amend provisions, and restricting access within the accounting system to those
individuals.

Relevance to the Cash Basis of Accounting

13.28 The issues identified in this Chapter are relevant for entities intending to comply with the
requirements of any future IPSAS based on Exposure Draft International Public Sector
Accounting Standard IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash Basis of Accounting
if they wish to provide additional disclosure on the nature and amount of liabilities arising
from certain social policy obligations. Although an entity may provide additional disclosures
within the financial statements or as supplementary information, such amounts cannot be
included in the amounts shown on the face of the primary financial statement.

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References
HM Treasury, Whole of Government Accounts Scoping Study
http://www.wga.gov.uk/pages/scopingstudy.html, July 1998.

HM Treasury, Whole of Government Accounts – Progress to December 2000 – Memorandum to the

Committee of Public Accounts and the Treasury Select Committee – Introduction and Background
to the Whole of Government Accounts Programme
http://www.wga.gov.uk/pages/section1.html , December 2000.

Financial Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB), Statement of Recommended Accounting

Standards (SFFAS) Number 17, Accounting for Social Insurance
http://www.fasab.gov, August 1999.

International Accounting Standards Board (IASC/IASB), IAS 19, Employee Benefits

http://www.iasb.org.uk, (February 1998, amended 2000).

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash
Basis of Accounting, May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS ED 21 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities

and Contingent Assets, February 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Study 11, Governmental Financial Reporting

http://www.ifac.org, May 2000.

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Appendix: Accounting Policies

This Appendix illustrates the internal accounting policies for the recognition of certain social policy
obligations that may be developed by a central entity for internal application by all individual entities
forming part of a whole-of-government reporting entity. At the time of writing, there is no
International Public Sector Accounting Standard (IPSAS) dealing with the recognition, measurement
or disclosure of liabilities arising from social benefits provided by an entity for which it receives no
or nominal consideration directly in return from the recipients of those benefits. In the absence of an
IPSAS, entities will need to develop accounting policies based on appropriate authoritative guidance.

Generally accepted accounting practice with regard to such obligations can vary between countries
and is determined by the nature of the arrangements underlying specific social policy obligations.
These arrangements also vary significantly between jurisdictions. The following policies assume that
a government provides a range of social benefits which impose financial obligations on the whole-
of-government and individual public sector entities.

Individual social benefits

A liability for benefits is to be recognized in respect of benefits payable based on the estimated
number of beneficiaries entitled to benefits at year end where claims either have been made or are
expected to be made and which remain unpaid at the end of the year. The calculation of expected
claims is to be based on population numbers and estimated drawing rates, having regard to the record
of historical patterns of drawings. Outstanding claims likely to be settled within six months of the
reporting date need not be discounted.

Each entity is to disclose an explanation of the policy adopted in relation to each main category of
benefit, including the recognition criteria adopted and factors taken into account in estimating the
number of beneficiaries and measuring the expected amount of claims (including the discount rate
applied in any present value calculation).

Grants and subsidies

Where grants and subsidies are discretionary until payment occurs, an expense is to be recognized
when the payment is made. Where services are required to be performed by the grantee to establish
eligibility for such grants or subsidies, the expense and any associated liability are to be recognized
when the services have been performed.

Where specified criteria are required to be fulfilled in order for entitlement to occur, an expense and
any associated liability is to be recognized when those criteria have been satisfied and the
government has received notice that this has occurred.

Workers’ Injury Compensation Scheme – Outstanding Claims

An estimate of the future costs of all outstanding claims arising from past events and for which the
entity has a present obligation is to be recognized as a provision. Outstanding claims are to include
all claims, regardless of whether they have been reported, as at balance date. The estimate is to be
based on an assessment by an independent actuary. The total cost of new claims is therefore to be
recognized in the year that claims occur.

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 Chapter 14: Non-Exchange Revenue

CHAPTER 14: NON-EXCHANGE REVENUE

Key Points

• There is currently no International Public Sector Accounting Standard (IPSAS) dealing with the
definition and recognition of non-exchange revenue. Sources of guidance include Financial
Accounting Standards Board (1999) and GASB (1998 and 2000). The PSC has recently
established a Steering Committee to assist in developing guidance on this issue.
• International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements
requires certain disclosures relating to non-exchange revenue.
• Issues associated with accounting for non-exchange revenues include classification, determining
recognition points, and determining the appropriate treatment of conditions attached to grants.

Introduction

14.1 This Chapter outlines issues arising from the recognition of certain non-exchange revenue
(also referred to as non-reciprocal revenue1) on an accrual basis.

14.2 There is currently no IPSAS dealing with the definition and recognition of non-exchange
revenue. Other sources of guidance include a G4+12 Special Report, Accounting by
Recipients for Non-Reciprocal Transfers, Excluding Contributions by Owners: Their
Definition, Recognition and Measurement (Westwood and Mackenzie, 1999) which
considered the appropriate treatments for non-reciprocal transfers, and Governmental
Accounting Standards Board (GASB) Statements 33 and 36 dealing with the recognition of
non-exchange transactions on a modified accrual basis (GASB 1998 and 2000). International
Accounting Standard IAS 20 Accounting for Government Grants and Disclosure of
Government Assistance deals with the recognition of government grants and assistance by
enterprises. It does not focus on the types of non-exchange revenues that may be received by
the government itself.

14.3 International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 9 Revenue from Exchange
Transactions deals only with revenue arising from exchange transactions. In paragraph 5 it
states that:
An exchange transaction is one in which the entity receives assets or services, or has liabilities
extinguished, and directly gives approximately equal value (primarily in the form of goods, services or
use of assets) to the other party in exchange. Examples of exchange transactions include:
(a) the purchase or sale of goods or services; or
(b) the lease of property, plant and equipment; at market rates.

1
The term “non-exchange” is generally used throughout this Chapter. However, where another publication is quoted
which uses the term “non-reciprocal” that term is used.
2 The G4+1 is an international group of standard setters. The standard-setting bodies associated with this Special
Report were: Australian Accounting Standards Board, Canadian Accounting Standards Board, International
Accounting Standards Board, New Zealand Financial Reporting Standards Board, United Kingdom Accounting
Standards Board, and United States Financial Accounting Standards Board.

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14.4 By contrast, non-exchange revenue is derived from transactions where the entity receives
assets or services, or has liabilities extinguished but does not give approximately equal value
to the other party in exchange. Examples of non-exchange revenue include:
• taxes (direct and indirect);
• grants from national governments, other levels of government, and international
agencies;
• fines, penalties and forfeits;
• fees and charges (some fees and charges may be exchange revenue); and
• gifts and donations.

14.5 Classification of revenue as exchange or non-exchange is usually clear, but in some cases it
can be difficult. In some transactions, particularly user fees and charges, there is an exchange
of value – the question is whether the exchange is of approximately equal value. In
classifying revenue as exchange or non-exchange, consideration should be given to the
substance, rather than the form of the transaction (IPSAS 9).

14.6 IPSAS 1 requires some specific disclosure of non-exchange revenue and encourages other
disclosures as follows:
• The Statement of Financial Position must include, as separate line items on the face of
the statement, recoverables from non-exchange transactions, and taxes and transfers
receivable from exchange transactions.
• Total revenue must be sub-classified, either on the face of the Statement of Financial
Performance or in the notes to the statement of financial performance, in a manner
appropriate to the entity’s operations. The illustrative financial statements in the
Appendix to IPSAS 1 include revenue from exchange transactions as a separate line
item.
• Commentary on the disclosure of accounting policies states that public sector entities
would be expected to disclose an accounting policy for recognition of taxes, donations
and other forms of non-exchange revenue.
• Commentary on disclosure of receivables states that additional disclosure will be made
of categories of receivables, including amounts receivable from user charges, taxes and
other non-exchange revenues.

Development of Accounting Policies

14.7 The main accounting policy issues associated with non-exchange revenues are:
• classification of revenues, including classifications to be used on the face of the financial
statements, in the notes to the financial statements and in the chart of accounts;
• determining the point at which the criteria for recognition of revenue are satisfied for
various categories of non-exchange revenues such as taxes and transfers; and

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• identifying whether conditions attached to grants meet the definition and criteria for
recognition of a liability.

Classification
14.8 Useful sources of information or considerations in establishing a system of revenue
classifications include the:
• existing revenue classification system used under the current basis of accounting;
• disclosures required by authoritative accounting standards including IPSASs and national
accounting standards being applied by the entity (for example, GASB Statement No. 33
uses the categories of derived tax revenues, imposed non-exchange revenues,
government-mandated non-exchange transactions and voluntary transactions);
• existence of any restrictions or conditions on the revenue and related assets;
• classifications required by any external agency, for example the reporting requirements
of the European Union; and
• classifications required for statistical reporting.

14.9 Where an entity has been using a basis other than the accrual basis, it will need to ensure that
non-cash revenues such as non-cash grants or donations are included in the classification
system.

14.10 Because IPSAS 1 requires the separate disclosure of some information on exchange and non-
exchange revenues, each class of revenue item should be classified as exchange or non-
exchange.

14.11 Some non-exchange revenues will be subject to stipulations as to use. GASB Statement
No. 33 distinguishes between time requirements and purpose restrictions. The G4+1 Special
Report distinguishes between restrictions and conditions. It explains that a restriction
imposed by the transferor limits or directs the use of contributed assets and that a condition
establishes a right of return of the transferred resource that is exercisable by the transferor if
a specified uncertain future event occurs.

14.12 Individuals responsible for external financial reporting and those responsible for statistical
reporting should be involved in the development of classifications. Although a statistical
reporting system (for example, the Government Finance Statistics (GFS)) may not explicitly
require the separate disclosure of exchange and non-exchange revenues, most of the revenue
classifications are likely to be either exchange or non-exchange. Some fees and grants may
include elements of both exchange and non-exchange revenues.

14.13 Another aspect of classification is determining whether non-exchange revenues are to be

reported as revenues of an individual entity or as revenues of the government as a whole.
Revenues collected by an entity on behalf of the government as a whole or on behalf of
another entity and which cannot be retained by the entity, will be accounted for by the
collecting entity in accordance with the policies for such receipts.

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Revenue from Appropriations and Other Budgetary Authorities
14.14 Appropriations or other forms of budgetary authorities represent an authorization by the
legislature to expend funds. Each reporting entity needs to determine whether the funds
received by way of appropriation or authority meet the definition of revenue, and if so,
whether such revenue is exchange or non-exchange (exchange revenue is discussed in
Chapter 8). The legislative and administrative arrangements surrounding appropriations vary
considerably from one jurisdiction to another. Where appropriations restrict the use of funds
to a particular purpose, the entity receiving the funds must consider the appropriate point of
recognition.

Recognition

14.15 Although there is no specific IPSAS dealing with the recognition of non-exchange revenues,
application of the definitions of assets and revenues and the general recognition criteria of
measurability of the amount of revenue and probability of the economic benefits/service
potential flowing to the entity provides a useful working framework for the analysis of issues
relating to their identification and recognition.

14.16 The G4+1 Special Report considers the issue of when an entity obtains control of an asset
(and by implication when it should recognize the associated revenue). This publication
argues that non-exchange transfers should be recognized by recipients as revenue at the
following points:
• where the non-exchange transfer involves a transfer of an asset, at the earlier of when the
recipient has an enforceable right to receive a future delivery of a promised asset without
conditions attached or has received delivery of the asset; or
• where the non-exchange transfer involves a reduction in a liability, when the transferor
waives its right to receive a future payment.

14.17 In some cases, there may be a range of possible recognition points with measurability and
probability being different at each point. For example, in the case of income tax, the
following are potential recognition points:
• when the taxpayer earns the taxable income;
• at the end of the income year;
• when the tax returns are filed;
• when tax is assessed;
• when a tax liability is recognized by the taxpayer; or
• when payment is received.
14.18 For each revenue item, an entity needs to identify the possible recognition points and
identify, given existing or planned collection mechanisms and information systems, the point
at which the entity obtains control over the asset and the revenue is both measurable and
probable. This task could be performed in the following way:

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• Obtain a complete list of relevant revenue items (for example, exclude those that are to
be accounted for as exchange transactions in accordance with IPSAS 9).
• Document the nature of the item, the circumstances in which it arises, the periods for
which the revenue is due, the payment dates and any evidence on the amount of revenue
due that is actually collected (this information may already be available).
• Identify and talk to individuals with responsibility for developing existing recognition
points and operating existing systems. Information sought should include how the
revenue is collected and the extent to which the entity has information (or can generate
information) on the likely amount of revenue due and to be collected. Relevant
individuals could include those who are responsible for drafting relevant legislation and
regulations, preparing financial reports and operating collection systems.
• Draft both general and detailed proposed recognition points for each revenue item. The
detailed policy could include reference to any particular document or procedure. For
example, the presentation of a signed declaration to a Customs Officer, or the release of
goods for home consumption could be the point of recognition.
• Identify any changes that would be required in order to move the recognition point closer
to the point at which the revenue is “earned” or “due”. Existing administrative processes
may not provide the information necessary for accrual at the point the underlying event
or transaction occurs. For material revenue items, it may be appropriate to consider
whether administrative and system changes could be implemented in the near future.
• In relation to promises to give, an entity needs to document the nature of existing
donations and grants, identify those which are enforceable and identify material items
that may require disclosure. On an ongoing basis, the entity will need to ensure that it has
a system for recording and monitoring promises to give.

14.19 Because the nature of taxes and other non-exchange revenues and the procedures and
systems used to collect and record revenues vary greatly between jurisdictions, it is possible
that the initial points of recognition will also vary. In considering alternative recognition
points for items, it is helpful to:

• investigate whether it is possible to reliably estimate revenues at an earlier recognition

point; and
• calculate the amount of revenue that would be recognized using different recognition
points and see if there is any material difference.

Transfers

14.20 In order to determine the appropriate recognition point for government transfers received by
an entity, it is necessary to document:
• the process for authorization of the transfer by the donor/transferor;
• any eligibility criteria;

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• the way in which the donor/transferor confirms that criteria have been met;
• the likelihood of eligibility criteria not being met;
• in the event of eligibility criteria not being met, the likelihood of funds having to be
returned to the transferor; and
• the point at which a reasonable estimate of the amount can be made.

14.21 In order to ensure that restrictions or conditions relating to cash transfers or donated assets
are not breached, it would be prudent for an entity to record outstanding restrictions and
conditions attached to all material non-exchange transfers. These restrictions or conditions
may or may not be disclosed in the external financial statements. International Public Sector
Accounting Standard IPSAS 2 Cash Flow Statements encourages entities to disclose the
amount and nature of restricted cash balances. Similarly, New Zealand and Australian
standards require entities to disclose in the notes to the financial statements where part or all
of cash balances are restricted or are otherwise not available for general use.

14.22 There is some debate over the point at which an entity should recognize as revenue transfers
subject to conditions. One view is that externally restricted inflows should be recognized as
revenues only once the resources have been used for the purpose or purposes specified, or
when the related expenses are recognized. Until that point, the unspent portion of the transfer
would be recorded as deferred revenue.

14.23 The alternative view is that revenue recognition should be related to when the entity obtains
control over the contributed assets. Under this view, a liability for repayment of a transfer
would be recognized only when an entity fails to meet the specific conditions attaching to a
contribution, and the amount of the contribution is required to be repaid. Discussion of these
issues can be found in the G4+1 Special Report.

14.24 Regardless of which approach is adopted by the entity, it is necessary to disclose details of
the accounting policy adopted, maintain details of conditions, and implement systems to
monitor whether a liability exists.

14.25 Restrictions not accompanied by conditions do not require the recognition of a liability.

Tax Revenue

14.26 In some jurisdictions, tax revenues may be recognized at the time when tax payments are due
and payable according to legislation or when an assessment is issued by the relevant taxation
authority. An alternative approach is to recognize tax revenue based upon the tax liabilities
that will arise (in any period) with respect to the transactions and balances occurring during
that reporting period, even where an assessment has not yet occurred. Under this method,
current year revenue is also affected by variations between prior year estimates and the
associated actual transactions during the current year. The first approach generally provides
more certainty in the recording of revenue and less possibility of material misstatement.

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Relevance to the Cash Basis of Accounting

14.27 The discussion of classification of revenues as exchange or non-exchange is relevant for

entities developing cash-based accounting policies. The discussion on recognition of non-
exchange revenues is relevant for entities intending to comply with the requirements of any
forthcoming IPSAS based on Exposure Draft International Public Sector Accounting
Standard IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash Basis of Accounting if they wish
to provide additional disclosure on the nature and amount of receivables and restrictions or
conditions associated with such revenues. Although an entity may provide additional
disclosures within the financial statements or as supplementary information, such amounts
cannot be included in the amounts shown on the face of the primary financial statement.

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References
Commonwealth Government of Australia, Financial Statements of the Commonwealth Government
of Australia for the year ended 30 June 2000, http://www.dofa.gov.au, 2000.

Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB), Statement No. 33, Governmental Accounting
Standards Series, Accounting and Financial Reporting for Non-exchange Transactions,
December 1998.

Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB), Statement No. 36, Governmental Accounting
Standards Series, No. 181-A, Recipient Reporting for Certain Non-exchange Transactions, an
amendment of GASB Statement No. 33
http://www.gasb.org/pub/index.html, April 2000.

International Accounting Standards Board (IASC/IASB), International Accounting Standard IAS 20

Accounting for Government Grants and Disclosure of Government Assistance,
http://www.ifac.org.uk, 1994.

International Monetary Fund (IMF), A Manual on Government Finance Statistics,

http://www.imf.org, Second Edition, 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements, May

2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 2 Cash Flow Statements, May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 9 Revenue from Exchange Transactions,

June 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash
Basis of Accounting, May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Study 11, Governmental Financial Reporting:

Accounting Issues and Practices
http://www.ifac.org, May 2000.

Westwood, M. and Mackenzie, A., G4+1 Special Report, Accounting by Recipients for Non-
Reciprocal Transfers, Excluding Contributions by Owners: Their Definition, Recognition and
Measurement, published by the Financial Accounting Standards Board
http://www.aasb.com.au for purchase details, 1999.

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Appendix: Accounting Policies

This Appendix illustrates the accounting policies for the recognition of non-exchange revenue. These
policies are examples of policies that may be developed by a central entity for internal application by
all individual entities forming part of a whole-of-government reporting entity. The policies are not
based on any IPSASs1.

Taxation Revenue
• Personal income tax on salaries and wages and interest, which is deducted at source, is to
be recognized when the individual earns the income subject to the source deductions.
• Corporate tax is to be recognized as installments are received and as assessments of final
tax due are made.
• Taxes on international travel are to be recognized on the date of departure of the vessel or
aircraft.
• Land tax is to be recognized at the time the assessment is issued.

Other Forms of Non-Exchange Revenue

• Customs and excise duties are to be recognized when goods subject to these taxes are
distributed for consumption.
• Stamp duty is to be recognized when the duty is received by the collecting entity.
• Fines are to be recognized at the point the fine is imposed.
• Business and professional licenses are to be recognized at the time of initial application
and upon renewal.

1
The policies for the recognition of non-exchange revenue may vary considerably between jurisdictions and levels of
government. This is because the characteristics of non-exchange revenue, such as manner of assessment, assessment
dates, payment dates, payment systems, availability of information at various points and the likelihood of payment,
vary widely between types of revenue and between jurisdictions. Recognition policies are heavily reliant on the
accuracy and reliability of information prior to the receipt of revenue.

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 Chapter 15: Foreign Currency

CHAPTER 15: FOREIGN CURRENCY

Key Points

• International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 4 The Effects of Changes in Foreign
Exchange Rates contains guidance on accounting for foreign currency transactions and foreign
operations.
• In order to apply IPSAS 4, entities will need to ensure they have systems for identifying the
transactions and balances referred to in IPSAS 4 and have classified foreign operations as either
foreign operations that are integral to the operations of the reporting entity or as foreign entities.
• The adoption of accrual accounting is often associated with an increased emphasis on the
management of foreign exchange risk. This may involve the development of policies regarding
exposures to individual currencies and financial institutions, and the types of instruments to be
used to manage those exposures.

Introduction

15.1 A foreign exchange gain or loss occurs when there are transactions payable or receivable in
foreign currency and exchange rates change between the time of recognition of the
transaction and the time of payment. Such gains or losses may be realized or unrealized at
the end of the reporting period. Gains or losses may also occur due to changes in the rates
used to translate the balances associated with foreign operations.

15.2 As noted in the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank’s Guidelines for Public
Debt Management (IMF and World Bank, 2001), excessive unhedged foreign exchange
exposures are a common pitfall in public debt management. Excessive amounts of foreign
currency denominated debt and foreign exchange indexed debt can leave governments
vulnerable to volatile and possibly increasing debt service costs if their exchange rates
depreciate, and the risk of default if they cannot roll over their debts.

15.3 Many governments will also have significant foreign exchange risk exposures arising from
government entities’ purchases and sales. The adoption of accrual accounting provides a
government with a timely opportunity to review its management of foreign exchange
exposures, both in relation to debt and the operations of its entities. Options include the
establishment of specific thresholds beyond which cover will be taken, or remaining
uninsured at the whole-of-government level (sometimes referred to as self-insuring). Foreign
currency management of risks associated with the operations of individual entities can occur
at an entity level or as a centralized function.

Development and Implementation of Accounting Policies

15.4 IPSAS 4:
• deals with accounting for foreign currency transactions and foreign operations;

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• sets out the requirements for determining which exchange rate to use for the recognition
of certain transactions and balances; and
• explains how to recognize the financial effect of changes in exchange rates in the
financial statements.

15.5 Entities intending to comply with IPSAS 4 will need to:

• identify transactions (purchases, sales, grants, loans and advances, borrowings) which are
commonly required to be settled in foreign currency;
• identify the magnitude of such transactions during the reporting period and the potential
foreign exchange gains and losses associated with those transactions;
• identify balances held in foreign currencies (for example, investments, trading activities,
borrowings, loans and advances, overseas properties);
• identify all foreign operations and classify them as either integral operations or foreign
entities;
• identify the extent to which some exchange differences should be classified as borrowing
costs and whether borrowing costs are capitalized in accordance with the allowed
alternative treatment in International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 5
Borrowing Costs;
• develop accounting policies to cover actual and likely transactions and balances (draft
policies are shown in the Appendix); and
• where accrual budgeting is adopted, establish policies for the recognition of foreign
currency gains and losses in budgets.

Foreign Currency Risk Management

15.6 Although management of foreign currency risk is not strictly an accounting issue, the
adoption of accrual accounting often provides the impetus for improved risk management. In
particular, the adoption of accrual accounting is likely to improve an entity’s ability to
accurately identify a wider range of foreign currency exposures. An entity wishing to review
its management of foreign currency exposures would need to address the following issues:
• Decide whether foreign currency exposures will be managed at a central level or by
individual entities.
• Develop a policy on the operation of foreign currency bank accounts, including the
establishment of thresholds for government-wide exposure to particular banks and
currencies.
• Develop policies (government-wide and individual entity policies as appropriate) for
managing foreign currency exposures and for maintaining foreign exchange reserves. For
example, governments are likely to adopt a risk-averse approach and to attempt to
minimize foreign exchange costs.

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• Develop tendering and expenditure approval processes which involve a proper
assessment of foreign exchange risk and are consistent with policies on the treatment of
foreign exchange risk.

Complying With Policies

15.7 For an entity to ensure that it operates in compliance with its accounting policies and risk
management policies, it needs to carry out a series of regular checks to ensure that:
• the policy, operating procedures and guidelines are in place and communicated to all
staff;
• the policy, operating procedures and guidelines are complied with, for example, by
regular monitoring of various types of exposure thresholds;
• staff responsible for managing foreign exchange exposure have the appropriate skills and
experience;
• all foreign currency bank accounts comply with any policy on the operation of foreign
currency bank accounts;
• the correct rate (as required by the accounting policies) is applied to each foreign
exchange transaction;
• foreign exchange rate coverage (in accordance with policies) is obtained where
transactions exceed exposure thresholds; and
• the entity meets reporting requirements in a timely manner and that the information in
such reports is correct.

Relevance to the Cash Basis of Accounting

15.8 This Chapter is relevant for entities intending to comply with the requirements of any future
IPSAS based on Exposure Draft International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS
ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash Basis of Accounting if they wish to provide
additional disclosure on the nature and amount of outstanding foreign currency exposures.
Although an entity may provide additional disclosures within the financial statements or as
supplementary information, such amounts cannot be included in the amounts shown on the
face of the primary financial statement. Management of foreign currency exposures can
occur in a cash-based environment, but requires significant additional systems and is often
restricted to management of foreign currency exposures associated with government
borrowing.

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References
Australian National Audit Office (ANAO), Audit Report No. 45, Commonwealth Foreign Exchange
Risk Management Practices
http://www.anao.gov.au, May 2000.

International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank, Guidelines for Public Debt Management
http://www.imf.org, 2001.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 4 The Effects of Changes in Foreign

Exchange Rates, May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS 5 Borrowing Costs, May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), IPSAS ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash
Basis of Accounting, May 2000.

International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Study 11 Governmental Financial Reporting

http://www.ifac.org, May 2000.

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Appendix: Accounting Policies

This Appendix illustrates the accounting policies to be adopted to account for foreign currency
transactions and balances. These policies are examples of policies that may be developed by a central
entity for internal application by all individual entities forming part of a whole-of-government
reporting entity. The policies are based upon the requirements in IPSAS 4, where such requirements
exist. (The government and its entities, whether domestic or foreign, do not operate in
hyperinflationary economies.)

Foreign Currency Transactions

Foreign currency transactions are to be measured and recorded in (the domestic currency of the
reporting entity) using the exchange rate in effect at the date of the transaction.

Where short-term transactions are covered by a forward exchange contract, the forward rates
specified in those contracts are to be used to translate the transactions into (the domestic currency of
the reporting entity). Gains or losses on foreign currency forward contracts are to be separately
disclosed.1

Foreign Currency Balances

At the end of the reporting period the following exchange rates are to be used to translate foreign
currency balances:
• foreign currency monetary items are to be reported in (the domestic currency of the
reporting entity) using the closing rate;
• non-monetary items which are carried in terms of historical cost denominated in a
foreign currency are to be reported in (the domestic currency of the reporting entity)
using the exchange rate at the date of the transaction; and
• non-monetary items which are carried at fair value denominated in a foreign currency are
to be reported using the exchange rates that existed when the fair values were
determined.
Foreign currency monetary items include borrowings denominated in foreign currency and amounts
owed for overseas purchases where the account is to be settled in another currency.

Foreign Currency Gains and Losses

Exchange differences (apart from the two exceptions listed below) arising on the settlement of
monetary items, or on reporting monetary items at rates different from those at which they were
initially recorded or reported, are to be recognised as revenue or expenses in the period in which they
arise.

1
This is not covered in IPSAS 4. IPSAS 4 is silent on treatment of forward exchange contracts.

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The two exceptions are:

• exchange differences arising on a monetary item that, in substance, forms part of an

entity’s net investment in a foreign entity; and
• exchange differences arising on a foreign currency liability accounted for as a hedge of
an entity’s net investment in a foreign entity.
These two forms of exchange differences are to be taken directly to the Statement of Financial
Position and classified as equity/net assets until the disposal of the net investment, at which time
they should be recognised as revenue or expenses.

Translation of Foreign Operations

The foreign currency transactions and balances of integral foreign operations are to be accounted for
in the same way as those of the reporting entity.

The foreign currency transactions and balances of foreign entities are to be translated as follows:
• monetary and non-monetary assets and liabilities are to be translated at the closing rate;
• revenue and expense items are to be translated at exchange rates at the dates of the
transactions; and
• all resulting exchange differences are to be classified as net assets/equity until the
disposal of the net investment.

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 Postscript

POSTSCRIPT

The material included in this Public Sector Committee (PSC) Study is based on current International
Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSASs) and other relevant accounting pronouncements and
guidance. This Study does not provide comprehensive coverage of all the issues on which readers
may be seeking advice nor does it provide authoritative guidance on the issues not addressed in the
IPSASs currently on release. The Study has been published in the interests of providing timely
assistance to support the adoption of accrual accounting.
Further editions of this Study will be prepared periodically to provide relevant and up-to-date
assistance to readers. With this in mind, readers are invited to propose suggestions or provide
material for inclusion in future editions.
At the time of issue of this Study there are 17 accrual-based IPSASs on issue, with three further
exposure drafts currently being considered by the PSC or issued for comment (refer to Appendix 1).
The PSC has also published a Glossary of Defined Terms (IPSAS 1–IPSAS 12) (refer to Appendix 2)
to be read in conjunction with published IPSASs. This Glossary will be updated periodically as
further IPSASs are approved and published.

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 Appendix 1

APPENDIX 1

SUMMARY OF PSC STANDARDS PROGRAM DOCUMENTS

BACKGROUND PAPER
IFAC PSC Study 11 Governmental Financial Reporting: Accounting Issues and Practices aims to
assist governments in the preparation of their financial reports and contains a detailed description of
the common bases of accounting used by governments: cash accounting (including modified cash
accounting) and accrual accounting (including modified accrual accounting). The Study also
provides examples of actual financial statements prepared under each basis.

INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC SECTOR ACCOUNTING STANDARDS (IPSASs)

IPSAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements sets out the overall considerations for the
presentation of financial statements, guidance for the structure of those statements and minimum
requirements for their content under the accrual basis of accounting.

IPSAS 2 Cash Flow Statements requires the provision of information about the changes in cash and
cash equivalents during the period from operating, investing and financing activities.

IPSAS 3 Net Surplus or Deficit for the Period, Fundamental Errors and Changes in Accounting
Policies specifies the accounting treatment for changes in accounting estimates, changes in
accounting policies and the correction of fundamental errors; defines extraordinary items; and
requires the separate disclosure of certain items in the financial statements.

IPSAS 4 The Effect of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates deals with accounting for foreign
currency transactions and foreign operations. IPSAS 4 sets out the requirements for determining
which exchange rate to use for the recognition of certain transactions and balances and how to
recognize in the financial statements the financial effect of changes in exchange rates.

IPSAS 5 Borrowing Costs prescribes the accounting treatment for borrowing costs and requires
either the immediate expensing of borrowing costs or, as an allowed alternative treatment, the
capitalization of borrowing costs that are directly attributable to the acquisition, construction or
production of a qualifying asset.

IPSAS 6 Consolidated Financial Statements and Accounting for Controlled Entities requires all
controlling entities to prepare consolidated financial statements which consolidate all controlled
entities on a line-by-line basis. The Standard also contains a detailed discussion of the concept of
control as it applies in the public sector and guidance on determining whether control exists for
financial reporting purposes.

IPSAS 7 Accounting for Investments in Associates requires all investments in associates to be

accounted for in the consolidated financial statements using the equity method of accounting; except

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when the investment is acquired and held exclusively with a view to its disposal in the near future, in
which case the cost method is required.

IPSAS 8 Financial Reporting of Interests in Joint Ventures requires proportionate consolidation to

be adopted as the benchmark treatment for accounting for such joint venturers entered into by public
sector entities. However, IPSAS 8 also permits – as an allowed alternative – joint ventures to be
accounted for using the equity method of accounting.

IPSAS 9 Revenue from Exchange Transactions establishes the conditions for the recognition of
revenue arising from exchange transactions, requires such revenue to be measured at the fair value of
the consideration received or receivable and includes disclosure requirements.

IPSAS 10 Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies describes the characteristics of a

hyperinflationary economy and requires financial statements of entities which operate in such
economies to be restated.

IPSAS 11 Construction Contracts defines construction contracts, establishes requirements for the
recognition of revenues and expenses arising from such contracts and identifies certain disclosure
requirements.
IPSAS 12 Inventories defines inventories, establishes measurement requirements for inventories
(including those inventories which are held for distribution at no or nominal charge) under the
historical cost system, and includes disclosure requirements.

Glossary of Defined Terms (IPSAS 1–IPSAS 12) identifies the terms defined in IPSASs on issue at
30 June 2001.

IPSAS 13 Leases establishes requirements for the accounting treatment of operating and finance
leasing transactions by lessees and lessors.

IPSAS 14 Events After the Reporting Date establishes requirements for the treatment of certain
events that occur after the reporting date, and distinguishes between adjustable and non-adjustable
events.

IPSAS 15 Financial Instruments: Disclosure and Presentation establishes requirements for the
presentation of on-balance-sheet financial instruments and identifies the information that should be
disclosed about both on-balance-sheet (recognized) and off-balance-sheet (unrecognized) financial
instruments.

IPSAS 16 Investment Property establishes the accounting treatment, and related disclosures, for
investment property. It provides for application of either a fair value or in historical cost model.

IPSAS 17 Property, Plant and Equipment establishes the accounting treatment for property, plant
and equipment, including the basis and timing of their initial recognition, and the determination of
their ongoing carrying amounts and related depreciation. It does not require or prohibit the
recognition of heritage assets.

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 Appendix 1

EXPOSURE DRAFTS/INVITATION TO COMMENT – COMMENT PERIOD EXPIRED –

UNDER CONSIDERATION BY PSC

ED 9 Financial Reporting Under the Cash Basis of Accounting proposes requirements for the
preparation and presentation of the Cash Flow Statement and supporting accounting policy notes
under the cash basis of accounting. It includes requirements relating to the identification of the
reporting entity and the structure and the minimum content of the Cash Flow Statement. The
comment period closed November 30, 2000.

ITC Impairment of Assets – The PSC has published an Invitation to Comment (ITC) on Impairment
of Assets to seek comments on the appropriate accounting treatment for the impairment of assets. It
reflects the tentative position of the PSC that an impairment test should be applied to all assets but
that the cash flow test required by International Accounting Standard IAS 36 Impairment of Assets is
not appropriate for assets held by public sector entities for the delivery of goods and services rather
than the generation of positive cash flows for the entity. The comment period closed January 30,
2001.

ED 17 Segment Reporting proposes requirements for the disclosure of financial statement

information about distinguishable activities of reporting entities. The comment period closed May
31, 2001.

ED 20 Related Party Disclosures proposes requirements for the disclosure of transactions with
parties that are related to the reporting entity, including Government Ministers, senior management,
and their relatives. The comment period closed 30 November 2001.

ED 21 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets proposes requirements for the
recognition of provisions, and the disclosure of contingent liabilities and contingent assets. The
comment period closed 30 November 2001.

ED 22 Definition of a Segment: Amendment to the Definition Proposed in ED 17 Segment

Reporting proposes an amendment to the definition of a segment included in ED 17 Segment
Reporting. The change in definition may require some public sector entities to construct segments
specifically for external reporting purposes. Comment deadline February 28, 2002.

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228
 Appendix 2

APPENDIX 2

IPSAS GLOSSARY OF DEFINED TERMS

This Glossary contains all terms defined in International Public Sector Accounting Standards
(IPSASs) on issue at 30 June 2002. At this date, 17 IPSASs were on issue. A list of these IPSASs is
located on the inside back cover of the Glossary.
Where multiple definitions of the same term exist, this Glossary indicates all IPSASs in which the
term appears and the definition that applies to that particular IPSAS.

Definitions
References to IPSASs are by Standard number and paragraph number. For example, “1.6” refers
users to International Public Sector Accounting Standard IPSAS 1 Presentation of Financial
Statements, paragraph 6. References set out in brackets indicate a minor variation in wording.

Term Definition Location

accounting The specific principles, bases, conventions, rules and 1.6, 3.6, 5.5, 6.8,
policies practices adopted by an entity in preparing and presenting 7.6
financial statements.
accrual basis A basis of accounting under which transactions and other 1.6, 3.6, 4.9, 5.5,
events are recognized when they occur (and not only when 6.8, 7.6, 8.5, (2.8)
cash or its equivalent is received or paid). Therefore, the
transactions and events are recorded in the accounting records
and recognized in the financial statements of the periods to
which they relate. The elements recognized under accrual
accounting are assets, liabilities, net assets/equity, revenue
and expenses.
assets Resources controlled by an entity as a result of past events 1.6, 2.8, 3.6, 4.9,
and from which future economic benefits or service potential1 5.5, 6.8, 7.6, 8.5
are expected to flow to the entity.
associate An entity in which the investor has significant influence and 1.6, 2.8, 4.9, 6.8,
which is neither a controlled entity nor a joint venture of the 7.6, 8.5
investor.
borrowing Interest and other expenses incurred by an entity in 1.6, 3.6, 5.5
costs connection with the borrowing of funds.

1
Commentary: Assets provide a means for entities to achieve their objectives. Assets that are used to deliver goods and
services in accordance with an entity’s objectives but which do not directly generate net cash inflows are often
described as embodying “service potential”. Assets that are used to generate net cash inflows are often described as
embodying “future economic benefits”. To encompass all the purposes to which assets may be put, this series of
Standards uses the term “future economic benefits or service potential” to describe the essential characteristic of
assets.

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
Term Definition Location
carrying The amount at which an asset is recognized in the statement 16.6
amount of financial position.
carrying The amount at which an asset is recognized in the statement 10.7
amount of an of financial position after deducting any accumulated
asset depreciation and accumulated impairment losses thereon.
carrying The amount at which a liability is recognized in the statement 10.7
amount of a of financial position.
liability
cash Comprises cash on hand and demand deposits. 1.6, 2.8, 4.9, 5.5,
6.8, 8.5, 10.7

cash Short-term, highly liquid investments that are readily 1.6, 2.8, 3.6, 4.9
equivalents convertible to known amounts of cash and which are subject
to an insignificant risk of changes in value.
cash flows Inflows and outflows of cash and cash equivalents. 1.6, 2.8, 3.6, 4.9,
8.5
class of A grouping of assets of a similar nature or function in an 17.12
property, plant entity’s operations, that is shown as a single item for the
and purpose of disclosure in the financial statements.
equipment
closing rate The spot exchange rate at the reporting date. 4.9
consolidated The financial statements of an economic entity presented as 1.6, 4.9, 6.8, 7.6,
financial those of a single entity. 8.5
statements
construction A contract, or a similar binding arrangement, specifically 11.4
contract negotiated for the construction of an asset or a combination of
assets that are closely interrelated or interdependent in terms
of their design, technology and function or their ultimate
purpose or use.
contingent Is that portion of the lease payments that is not fixed in 13.7
rent amount but is based on a factor other than just the passage of
time (e.g., percentage of sales, amount of usage, price
indices, market rates of interest).
contractor An entity that performs construction work pursuant to a 11.4
construction contract.

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 Appendix 2
Term Definition Location
contributions Future economic benefits or service potential that has been 1.6, 2.8, 3.6, 4.9,
from owners contributed to the entity by parties external to the entity, other 5.5, 6.8, 7.6, 8.5
than those that result in liabilities of the entity, that establish a
financial interest in the net assets/equity of the entity, which:
(a) conveys entitlement both to distributions of future
economic benefits or service potential by the entity
during its life, such distributions being at the discretion
of the owners or their representatives, and to
distributions of any excess of assets over liabilities in
the event of the entity being wound up; and/or
(b) can be sold, exchanged, transferred or redeemed.
control The power to govern the financial and operating policies of 1.6, 2.8, 3.6, 4.9,
another entity so as to benefit from its activities. 5.5, 6.8, 7.6, 8.5
controlled An entity that is under the control of another entity (known as 1.6, 2.8, 4.9, 5.5,
entity the controlling entity). 6.8, 8.5, (7.6)
controlling An entity that has one or more controlled entities. 1.6, 2.8, 4.9, 5.5,
entity 6.8, 7.6, 8.5
cost The amount of cash or cash equivalents paid or the fair value 16.6, 17.12
of the other consideration given to acquire an asset at the time
of its acquisition or construction.
cost method A method of accounting whereby the investment is recorded 2.8, 7.6
at cost. The statement of financial performance reflects
revenue from the investment only to the extent that the
investor receives distributions from accumulated net
surpluses of the investee arising subsequent to the date of
acquisition.
cost plus or A construction contract in which the contractor is reimbursed 11.4
cost based for allowable or otherwise defined costs and, in the case of a
contract commercially-based contract, an additional percentage of
these costs or a fixed fee, if any.
current The cost the entity would incur to acquire the asset on the 12.6
replacement reporting date.
cost
depreciable The cost of an asset, or other amount substituted for cost in 17.12
amount the financial statements, less its residual value.
depreciation The systematic allocation of the depreciable amount of an 17.12
asset over its useful life.

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
Term Definition Location
discontinued Results from the sale or abandonment of an operation that 3.6
operation represents a separate, major line of business of an entity and
of which the assets, net surplus or deficit and activities can be
distinguished physically, operationally and for financial
reporting purposes.
distribution to Future economic benefits or service potential distributed by 1.6, 2.8, 3.6, 4.9,
owners the entity to all or some of its owners, either as a return on 5.5, 6.8, 7.6, 8.5
investment or as a return of investment.
economic A group of entities comprising a controlling entity and one or 1.6, 2.8, 4.9, 5.5,
entity1 more controlled entities. 6.8, 7.6, 8.5
economic life Is either: 13.7
(a) the period over which an asset is expected to yield
economic benefits or service potential to one or more
users; or
(b) the number of production or similar units expected to be
obtained from the asset by one or more users.
equity Any contract that evidences a residual interest in the assets of 15.9
instrument an entity after deducting all of its liabilities.
equity method A method of accounting whereby the investment is initially 1.6, 2.8, 4.9, 6.8,
recorded at cost and adjusted thereafter for the post- 7.6
acquisition change in the investor’s share of net assets/equity
of the investee. The statement of financial performance
reflects the investor’s share of the results of operations of the
investee.
A method of accounting and reporting whereby an interest in 8.5
a jointly controlled entity is initially recorded at cost and
adjusted thereafter for the post-acquisition change in the
venturer’s share of net assets/equity of the jointly controlled
entity. The statement of financial performance reflects the
venturer’s share of the results of operations of the jointly
controlled entity.

1
Commentary: The term “economic entity” is used in this series of Standards to define, for financial reporting purposes, a group of entities comprising
the controlling entity and any controlled entities. Other terms sometimes used to refer to an economic entity include “administrative entity”, “financial
entity” (IPSAS 4: “financial reporting entity”), “consolidated entity” and “group”. An economic entity may include entities with both social policy
and commercial objectives. For example, a government housing department may be an economic entity which includes entities that provide housing
for a nominal charge, as well as entities that provide accommodation on a commercial basis.

232
 Appendix 2
Term Definition Location
events after Those events, both favorable and unfavorable, that occur 14.4
the reporting between the reporting date and the date when the financial
date statements are authorized for issue. Two types of events can
be identified:
(a) those that provide evidence of conditions that existed at
the reporting date (adjusting events after the reporting
date); and
(b) those that are indicative of conditions that arose after the
reporting date (non-adjusting events after the reporting
date).
exchange The difference resulting from reporting the same number of 1.6, 4.9, 5.5
difference units of a foreign currency in the reporting currency at
different exchange rates.
exchange rate The ratio for exchange of two currencies. 2.8, 4.9, 5.5
expenses Decreases in economic benefits or service potential during 1.6, 2.8, 3.6, 4.9,
the reporting period in the form of outflows or consumption 5.5, 6.8, 7.6, 8.5
of assets or incurrences of liabilities that result in decreases in
net assets/equity, other than those relating to distributions to
owners.
extraordinary Revenue or expenses that arise from events or transactions 1.6, 2.8, 3.6, 4.9
items that are clearly distinct from the ordinary activities of the
entity, are not expected to recur frequently or regularly and
are outside the control or influence of the entity.
fair value The amount for which an asset could be exchanged, or a 1.6, 4.9, 7.6, 9.11,
liability settled, between knowledgeable, willing parties in an 15.9, 16.6, 17.12
arm’s length transaction.
finance lease A lease that transfers substantially all the risks and rewards 13.7
incident to ownership of an asset. Title may or may not
eventually be transferred.
financial asset Any asset that is: 1.6, 15.9
(a) cash;
(b) a contractual right to receive cash or another financial
asset from another entity;
(c) a contractual right to exchange financial instruments
with another entity under conditions that are potentially
favorable; or
(d) an equity instrument of another entity.

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
Term Definition Location
financial Any contract that gives rise to both a financial asset of one 15.9
instrument entity and a financial liability or equity instrument of another
entity.
Commodity-based contracts that give either party the right to
settle in cash or some other financial instrument should be
accounted for as if they were financial instruments, with the
exception of commodity contracts that (a) were entered into
and continue to meet the entity’s expected purchase, sale, or
usage requirements, (b) were designated for that purpose at
their inception, and (c) are expected to be settled by delivery.
financial Any liability that is a contractual obligation: 15.9
liability (a) to deliver cash or another financial asset to another entity;
or
(b) to exchange financial instruments with another entity
under conditions that are potentially unfavorable.
An entity may have a contractual obligation that it can settle
either by payment of financial assets or by payment in the
form of its own equity securities. In such a case, if the
number of equity securities required to settle the obligation
varies with changes in their fair value so that the total fair
value of the equity securities paid always equals the amount
of the contractual obligation, the holder of the obligation is
not exposed to gain or loss from fluctuations in the price of
its equity securities. Such an obligation should be accounted
for as a financial liability of the entity.
financing Activities that result in changes in the size and composition 2.8, 3.6, 4.9
activities of the contributed capital and borrowings of the entity.
fixed price A construction contract in which the contractor agrees to a 11.4
contract fixed contract price, or a fixed rate per unit of output, which
in some cases is subject to cost escalation clauses.
foreign A currency other than the reporting currency of an entity. 1.6, 2.8, 4.9, 5.5
currency
foreign entity A foreign operation, the activities of which are not an integral 3.6, 4.9
part of those of the reporting entity.
foreign A controlled entity, associate, joint venture or branch of the 1.6, 3.6, 4.9
operation reporting entity, the activities of which are based or
conducted in a country other than the country of the reporting
entity.

234
 Appendix 2
Term Definition Location
fundamental Errors discovered in the current period that are of such 1.6, 3.6
errors significance that the financial statements of one or more prior
periods can no longer be considered to have been reliable at
the date of their issue.
Government An entity that has all the following characteristics: 1.6, 2.8, 3.6, 4.9,
Business (a) is an entity with the power to contract in its own name; 5.5, 6.8, 7.6, 8.5
Enterprise1
(b) has been assigned the financial and operational authority
to carry on a business;
(c) sells goods and services, in the normal course of its
business, to other entities at a profit or full cost recovery;
(d) is not reliant on continuing government funding to be a
going concern (other than purchases of outputs at arm’s
length); and
(e) is controlled by a public sector entity.
gross The aggregate of the minimum lease payments under a 13.7
investment in finance lease from the standpoint of the lessor and any
the lease unguaranteed residual value accruing to the lessor.
guaranteed is: 13.7
residual value
(a) in the case of the lessee, that part of the residual value
which is guaranteed by the lessee or by a party related to
the lessee (the amount of the guarantee being the
maximum amount that could, in any event, become
payable); and
(b) in the case of the lessor, that part of the residual value
which is guaranteed by the lessee or by a third party
unrelated to the lessor who is financially capable of
discharging the obligations under the guarantee.

inception of The earlier of the date of the lease agreement or of a 13.7

the lease commitment by the parties to the principal provisions of the
lease.

1
Commentary: Government Business Enterprises (GBEs) include both trading enterprises, such as utilities, and financial enterprises, such as financial
institutions. GBEs are, in substance, no different from entities conducting similar activities in the private sector. GBEs generally operate to make a
profit, although some may have limited community service obligations under which they are required to provide some individuals and organizations in
the community with goods and services at either no charge or a significantly reduced charge. International Public Sector Accounting Standard
IPSAS 6 Consolidated Financial Statements and Accounting for Controlled Entities provides guidance on determining whether control exists for
financial reporting purposes, and should be referred to in determining whether a GBE is controlled by another public sector entity.

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
Term Definition Location
insurance A contract that exposes the insurer to identified risks of loss 15.9
contract from events or circumstances occurring or discovered within
a specified period, including death (in the case of an annuity,
the survival of the annuitant), sickness, disability, property
damage, injury to others and interruption of operations.
interest rate The discount rate that, at the inception of the lease, causes the 13.7
implicit in the aggregate present value of:
lease (a) the minimum lease payments; and
(b) the unguaranteed residual value
to be equal to the fair value of the leased asset.
inventories Assets: 12.6
(a) in the form of materials or supplies to be consumed in
the production process;
(b) in the form of materials or supplies to be consumed or
distributed in the rendering of services;
(c) held for sale or distribution in the ordinary course of
operations; or
(d) in the process of production for sale or distribution.
investing The acquisition and disposal of long-term assets and other 2.8, 4.9
activities investments not included in cash equivalents.
investment property (land or a building – or part of a building – or both) 16.6
property held to earn rentals or for capital appreciation or both, rather
than for:
(a) use in the production or supply of goods or services or
for administrative purposes; or
(b) sale in the ordinary course of operations.
investor In a joint venture is a party to a joint venture and does not 2.8, 6.8, 7.6, 8.5
have joint control over that joint venture.
joint control The agreed sharing of control over an activity by a binding 6.8, 8.5
arrangement.
joint venture A binding arrangement whereby two or more parties are 1.6, 2.8, 4.9, 6.8,
committed to undertake an activity which is subject to joint 7.6, 8.5
control.
lease An agreement whereby the lessor conveys to the lessee in 13.7
return for a payment or series of payments the right to use an
asset for an agreed period of time.

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 Appendix 2
Term Definition Location
lease term The non-cancelable period for which the lessee has 13.7
contracted to lease the asset together with any further terms
for which the lessee has the option to continue to lease the
asset, with or without further payment, which option at the
inception of the lease it is reasonably certain that the lessee
will exercise.
lessee’s The rate of interest the lessee would have to pay on a similar 13.7
incremental lease or, if that is not determinable, the rate that, at the
borrowing inception of the lease, the lessee would incur to borrow over a
rate of interest similar term, and with a similar security, the funds necessary
to purchase the asset.
liabilities Present obligations of the entity arising from past events, the 1.6, 2.8, 3.6, 4.9,
settlement of which is expected to result in an outflow from 5.5, 6.8, 7.6, 8.5
the entity of resources embodying economic benefits or
service potential.
market value The amount obtainable from the sale, or payable on the 15.9
acquisition, of a financial instrument in an active market.
materiality Information is material if its omission or misstatement could 1.6
influence the decisions or assessments of users made on the
basis of the financial statements. Materiality depends on the
nature or size of the item or error judged in the particular
circumstances of omission or misstatement.

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
Term Definition Location
minimum The payments over the lease term that the lessee is, or can be, 13.7
lease required to make, excluding contingent rent, costs for
payments services and, where appropriate, taxes to be paid by and
reimbursed to the lessor, together with:
(a) in the case of the lessee, any amounts guaranteed by the
lessee or by a party related to the lessee; or
(b) in the case of the lessor, any residual value guaranteed to
the lessor by either:
(i) the lessee;
(ii) a party related to the lessee; or
(iii) an independent third party financially capable of
meeting this guarantee.
However, if the lessee has an option to purchase the asset at a
price which is expected to be sufficiently lower than the fair
value at the date the option becomes exercisable, so that at
the inception of the lease, the option is reasonably certain to
be exercised, the minimum lease payments comprise the
minimum payments payable over the lease term and the
payment required to exercise this purchase option.
minority That part of the net surplus (deficit) and of net assets/equity 1.6, 2.8, 4.9, 6.8
interest of a controlled entity attributable to interests which are not
owned, directly or indirectly through controlled entities, by
the controlling entity.
monetary Money held and assets and liabilities to be received or paid in 4.9, 10.7
items fixed or determinable amounts of money.
monetary Financial assets and financial liabilities to be received or paid 15.9
(financial in fixed or determinable amounts of money.
assets and
financial
liabilities –
also referred
to as
monetary
financial
instruments)
net assets/ The residual interest in the assets of the entity after deducting 1.6, 2.8, 3.6, 4.9,
equity1 all its liabilities. 5.5, 6.8, 7.6, 8.5

1
Commentary: “Net assets/equity” is the term used in this series of Standards to refer to the residual measure in the statement of financial position
(assets less liabilities). Net assets/equity may be positive or negative. Other terms may be used in place of net assets/equity, provided that their
meaning is clear.

238
 Appendix 2
Term Definition Location
net The reporting entity’s share in the net assets/equity of that 4.9
investment in entity.
a foreign
entity
net The gross investment in the lease less unearned finance 13.7
investment in revenue.
the lease
net realizable The estimated selling price in the ordinary course of 12.6
value operations less the estimated costs of completion and the
estimated costs necessary to make the sale, exchange or
distribution.
net surplus/ Comprises the following components: 1.6, 2.8, 3.6, 4.9,
deficit 6.8, 7.6
(a) surplus or deficit from ordinary activities; and
(b) extraordinary items.
non- a lease that is cancelable only: 13.7
cancelable (a) upon the occurrence of some remote contingency;
lease
(b) with the permission of the lessor;
(c) if the lessee enters into a new lease for the same or an
equivalent asset with the same lessor; or
(d) upon payment by the lessee of an additional amount such
that, at inception, continuation of the lease is reasonably
certain.
non-monetary Items that are not monetary items. 10.7
items
operating The activities of the entity that are not investing or financing 2.8, 3.6, 4.9
activities activities.
operating A lease other than a finance lease. 13.7
lease
ordinary Any activities which are undertaken by an entity as part of its 1.6, 3.6, 4.9
activities service delivery or trading activities. Ordinary activities
include such related activities in which the entity engages in
furtherance of, incidental to, or arising from these activities.
owner- Property held (by the owner or by the lessee under a finance 16.6
occupied lease) for use in the production or supply of goods or services
property or for administrative purposes.

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 Transition to the Accrual Basis of Accounting
Term Definition Location
property, plant tangible assets that: 17.12
and (a) are held by an entity for use in the production or supply
equipment
of goods or services, for rental to others, or for
administrative purposes; and
(b) are expected to be used during more than one reporting
period.
proportionate A method of accounting and reporting whereby a venturer’s 2.8, 4.9, 8.5
consolidation share of each of the assets, liabilities, revenue and expenses
of a jointly controlled entity is combined on a line-by-line
basis with similar items in the venturer’s financial statements
or reported as separate line items in the venturer’s financial
statements.
qualifying An asset that necessarily takes a substantial period of time to 1.6, 5.5
asset get ready for its intended use or sale.
reporting The currency used in presenting the financial statements. 1.6, 2.8, 4.9
currency
reporting date The date of the last day of the reporting period to which the 1.6, 2.8, 4.9, 6.8,
financial statements relate. 7.6, 14.4
residual value The net amount which the entity expects to obtain for an asset 17.12
at the end of its useful life after deducting the expected costs
of disposal.
revenue The gross inflow of economic benefits or service potential 1.6, 2.8, 3.6, 4.9,
during the reporting period when those inflows result in an 5.5, 6.8, 7.6, 8.5,
increase in net assets/equity, other than increases relating to 9.11
contributions from owners.
significant The power to participate in the financial and operating policy 6.8, 7.6
influence decisions of the investee, but is not control over those
policies.
The power to participate in the financial and operating policy 8.5
decisions of an activity but is not control or joint control over
those policies.
surplus/deficit The residual amount that remains after expenses arising from 1.6, 2.8, 3.6, 4.9
from ordinary ordinary activities have been deducted from revenue arising
activities from ordinary activities.

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 Appendix 2
Term Definition Location
unearned The difference between: 13.7
finance (a) the aggregate of the minimum lease payments under a
revenue finance lease from the standpoint of the lessor and any
unguaranteed residual value accruing to the lessor; and
(b) the present value of (a) above, at the interest rate implicit
in the lease.
unguaranteed That portion of the residual value of the leased asset, the 13.7
residual value realization of which by the lessor is not assured or is
guaranteed solely by a party related to the lessor.
useful life The estimated remaining period, from the beginning of the 13.7
lease term, without limitation by the lease term, over which
the economic benefits or service potential embodied in the
asset are expected to be consumed by the entity.
Either: 17.12
(a) the period of time over which an asset is expected to be
used by the entity; or
(b) the number of production or similar units expected to be
obtained from the asset by the entity.
venturer A party to a joint venture and has joint control over that joint 8.5
venture.

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IPSASs on Issue at January 2002

International Public Sector Accounting Standards on issue at 31 January 2002 are:
IPSAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements (May 2000)
IPSAS 2 Cash Flow Statements (May 2000)
IPSAS 3 Net Surplus or Deficit for the Period, Fundamental Errors and Changes in
Accounting Policies (May 2000)
IPSAS 4 The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates (May 2000)
IPSAS 5 Borrowing Costs (May 2000)
IPSAS 6 Consolidated Financial Statements and Accounting for Controlled Entities
(May 2000)
IPSAS 7 Accounting for Investments in Associates (May 2000)
IPSAS 8 Financial Reporting of Interests in Joint Ventures (May 2000)
IPSAS 9 Revenue from Exchange Transactions (June 2001)
IPSAS 10 Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies (June 2001)
IPSAS 11 Construction Contracts (June 2001)
IPSAS 12 Inventories (June 2001)
IPSAS 13 Leases (December 2001)
IPSAS 14 Events After the Reporting Date (December 2001)
IPSAS 15 Financial Instruments: Disclosure and Presentation (December 2001)
IPSAS 16 Investment Property (December 2001)
IPSAS 17 Property, Plant and Equipment (December 2001)

242