Dunbar, Katie Aerobic Fitness Lab Page 1 of 19

Queens College 3 Minute Step Test

Cooper 12 Minute Run
Bruce Protocol Treadmill Test
Aerobic Fitness Lab
KIN 322: Physiology of Exercise
Katie Dunbar
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Introduction:
Aerobic fitness is a measure of oxidative capacity that can

most accurately be determined by VO2max tests (Kenney, Wilmore, &

Costill, 2015). VO2max is an indication of maximal aerobic

capacity, as it indicates the highest amount of oxygen available

for use during maximal intensity aerobic exercise (Kenney,

Wilmore, & Costill, 2015). Physiological adaptations occur with

frequent exercise, and increased capacity for oxygen utilization

along with improved cardiovascular circulation are associated

with improved aerobic fitness (Kenney, Wilmore, & Costill,

2015).

It is important to measure aerobic fitness because aerobic

fitness serves as a predictor of overall health. High aerobic

fitness decreases risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) because

of factors including but not limited to cholesterol regulation,

decreased body fat, and healthy blood sugar levels (Fernström,

Fernberg, Eliason, & Hurtig-Wennlöf, 2017). Also,

cardiometabolic biomarkers that correlate with increased risk of

atherosclerosis may be identified by completion of standard

aerobic fitness tests (Fernström, Fernberg, Eliason, & Hurtig-

Wennlöf, 2017). Early detection of a predisposition toward

chronic health problems allows for early intervention. With

regard to the obesity epidemic, a 2010 study conducted by

Ostojic and Stojanovic found that higher aerobic fitness

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correlated with decreased adiposity in 12-year-old males. Thus,

aerobic fitness is important to healthy body composition and

weight management as well.

In this experiment, researchers conducted a series of 3

aerobic capacity fitness tests intended to predict VO2max values

and gage aerobic fitness in college-age test subjects. First, a

3-minute step test was conducted, then a 12-minute maximal

effort run, and finally a Bruce protocol treadmill test. All 3

tests provided estimated VO2max values, and the purpose of this

laboratory experiment was to predict the aerobic fitness level

of college students. It was hypothesized that similar aerobic

fitness rankings would be recorded across the 3 tests, as all

are considered reputable tests.

Methods:

In conducting the Queens College 3 minute step test,

researchers set up a 16.25 inch tall step. Participants rested

on the step for 3 minutes before resting heart rate (HR) was

recorded on the radial artery. For female test participants, a

metrinome was set at 88 beats per minute (BPM), and for male

test subjects, the metrinome was set at 96 BPM. Participants

stepped on and off of the step in alignment with the beat of the

metrinome for a 3 minute period (recorded with a stopwatch), and

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HR was again recorded 5 seconds post-exercise. Predicted VO2max

values were recorded using the following equations:

Men: VO2max (mL/kg/min)= 111.33- (0.42*Recovery HR)

Women: VO2max (mL/kg/min)= 65.81- (0.1847*Recovery HR)

Predicted VO2max values were then ranked from a table of national

averages, and percentile rank was given based on age and sex.

The Cooper 12 minute run was also used to predict aerobic

fitness in college students. First, a 5 minute aerobic warm up

was completed via a slow jog around the Loras College track.

Then, dynamic stretches were completed, and test participants

started from the same point on the track. A stopwatch recorded

time for 12 minutes, and subjects were instructed to cover as

much distance as possible in the 12 minute period. Periodic

time checks were given, and distance in meters was recorded at

the end of the 12 minute period. A cool down stretch period was

completed, and VO2max values were predicted by the following

equation:

VO2max (mL/kg/min)= 0.0268* Distance in meters – 11.2

Lastly, the Bruce protocol treadmill test was conducted.

This test began with the recording of descriptive statistics

including height (inches), weight (lb. and kg), age (years),

resting HR, lactate level, and blood pressure (BP). HR was

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recorded each minute of the test using a Polar heart rate

monitor, and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) was recorded

during the last 30 seconds of each 3 minute interval. Stage 1

of the VO2max test was set at a speed of 1.7 miles per hour (mph)

with an incline of 10.00%. Stage 2 was at 2.5 mph with 12.00%

incline. Stage 3 was at 3.4 mph with 14.00% incline. Stage 4

was at 4.2 mph with 16.00% incline. Stage 5 was at 5.0 mph with

18.00% incline. Stage 6 was at 5.5 mph with 20.00% incline.

Lastly, stage 7 was at 6.0 mph with 22.00% incline. Subjects

completed the test until volitional fatigue. Lactate levels

were again recorded immediately following the end of the test.

VO2max values were calculated using the following equations:

Women: VO2max (mL/kg/min)= 4.38(time)-3.9

Men: VO2max (mL/kg/min)= 14.76-1.379(time)+ 0.451(time2)-

0.012(time3)

Results:

Table 1. 3 Minute Step Test:

Heart Rate Estimated VO2max

Resting: 92 BPM VO2max (mL/kg/min)= 65.81-

(0.1847*Recovery HR)
Recovery: 104 BPM
46.60 mL/kg/min

Excellent; 87th percentile

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Table 2. Cooper 12 Minute Run:

Distance Estimated VO2max

2200 m VO2max (mL/kg/min)= 0.0268*

Distance in meters – 11.2

47.76 mL/kg/min

Excellent; 90th percentile

Table 3. Bruce Protocol Treadmill Test:

Time to HR Values Estimated Pre Lactate Post

Fatigue Minute 1:97 VO2max Level Lactate

13 min. 2: 97 VO2max 2.6 mmol/L Level

3: 128 (mL/kg/min)= 10.2 mmol/L

4: 140 4.38(time)-

5: 148 3.9

6: 154 53.04

7: 154 mL/kg/min

8: 154 Superior;

9: 154 97th

10: 198 percentile

11: 199

12: 198
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13: 198

Discussion:

1. According to the chart provided, the test subject was in

the 90% percentile for aerobic fitness compared to other

individuals of the same age (20) and gender (female).

2. In terms of errors, the Cooper 12 minute run distance could

have been estimated with a bit of inaccuracy. There were

no precise markers on the track, so distance was estimated

in the last partial-lap around the track. During the Bruce

protocol treadmill test, the Polar heart rate monitor did

not track the subject’s heart rate during the entirety of

the testing period. This led to heart rate values that

plateaued until the tracker began working again. However,

the heart rate monitor worked intermittently and frequently

enough that several increases in HR were observed. In

addition to possible testing errors, diet, fatigue level,

and caffeine intake were not controlled for. These factors

could have skewed results.

3. The 3 minute step test yielded a VO2max value of 46.60

mL/kg/min. The equation for this test only takes into

account recovery HR. The Cooper 12 minute run yielded a

similar VO2max value of 47.76 mL/kg/min. The equation for

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the 12 minute run includes distance but not HR. Thirdly,

the Bruce protocol treadmill test showed a VO2max value of

53.04 mL/kg/min. This equation takes into account time

until exhaustion.

The Bruce protocol method is likely the most accurate

test of aerobic capacity, as speed and incline are

standardized and increased until the subject reaches

volitional fatigue. The Bruce protocol test correlates

with estimated VO2max values at 98% for male subjects and 91%

for female subjects (Biechler, 2017). Discrepancies in

test accuracy may be a result of submaximal effort, but

correlation is still high.

The 3 minute step test requires test subjects to

participate in the activity for the same amount of time and

at the same pace as other subjects of the same gender.

These parameters serve as controls, and 89% correlation

with direct VO2max values was observed in a sample of Indian

athletes (Adhikari & Das, 1992). This correlation value

should be valid for the general population, as direct VO2max

measurement is accurate regardless of training status. In

well-trained individuals, HR returns to resting level more

quickly than it does in untrained individuals, thusly

indicating a prediction of aerobic fitness. However, in

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terms of assessing the probability of error, anticipatory

HR may inaccurately reflect fitness level because of

heightened resting HR values.

The Cooper 12 minute run accounts for distance

traveled, but it may be difficult for untrained subjects to

decipher what pace to run at in order to sustain activity

at maximal effort for the 12 minute time period.

Researchers have found 93% correlation between predicted

and direct VO2max values for male athletes (Bandyopadhyay,

2015). Similar correlation is expected in females. Across

the 3 indirect VO2max tests, the Bruce protocol showed the

highest correlation with direct VO2max.

4. A.)VO2max is primarily determined by cardiac output and blood

flow (Karp, 2007). Cardiac output is determined by stroke

volume and heart rate, both of which are affected by

physical activity level and the subsequent efficiency of

blood flow (Karp, 2007). Cardiac hypertrophy allows for

increased force of contraction, which in turn correlates

with increased blood flow (Karp, 2007). As VO2max is a

measure of maximal aerobic capacity, efficient blood flow

is crucial to achieving a healthy VO2max value. Cardiac

output is considered a central factor in determining

aerobic capacity, and oxygen extraction is considered a

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peripheral factor (Karp, 2007). An increased number of

capillaries available for oxidation shortens diffusion

distance from capillaries to mitochondria, and

mitochondrial efficiency is related to power for aerobic

metabolism (Karp, 2007). Oxygenic capacity is limited by

the amount of oxygen that enters and exits the muscles, so

a-vO2 difference, or the difference between arterial and

venous circulation, is a limiting factor in aerobic

capacity (Karp, 2007). The Fick method mathematically

combines central and peripheral aerobic factors, and

central limitations are likely more prominent that

peripheral limitations in trained athletes because the

heart can only hypertrophy to a certain degree, whereas

capillary availability has a higher threshold for

improvement (Karp, 2007). Another study found that highly-

trained alpine skiers were more likely to base rate of

perceived exertion (RPE) on central than peripheral fatigue

because of high muscular endurance from training (LeMura,

Von Duvillard, & Stanek, 2001). Even in highly fit

individuals, cardiovascular capacity has a set upper

threshold. Thus, literature supports the claim that

central, cardiovascular factors limit maximal aerobic

capacity. A third study found that limitations in

peripheral blood flow limit oxidative metabolic capacity in

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exercises of intense nature (MacDonald, Naylor,

Tschakovsky, & Hughson, 2001). In this case, peripheral

factors were shown to limit maximal aerobic capacity more

than central factors. This discrepancy may be based upon

lack of training, as subjects were 6 untrained males

(MacDonald, Naylor, Tschakovsky, & Hughson, 2001).

Untrained individuals may have lower pain tolerance and

thus earlier volitional fatigue as a result of peripheral

factors.

B.)With chronic aerobic training, the pulmonic system

undergoes positive improvement in a-vO2 difference because

blood that returns from the heart has less oxygen that is

would in an untrained individual (Kenney, Wilmore, &

Costill, 2015). With chronic aerobic exercise, oxygen

extraction does not change exponentially. Performance is

not limited by the respiratory system. However, efficiency

of oxygen extraction improves with training in order to

more efficiently direct blood flow. This change ultimately

benefits the cardiovascular system (Kenney, Wilmore, &

Costill, 2015).

With aerobic exercise, the cardiovascular system sees

positive changes in heart size, stroke volume, HR, cardiac

output, blood flow, blood pressure, and blood volume

(Kenney, Wilmore, & Costill, 2015). Increased left

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ventricular wall thickness allows for greater contractility

of the heart (Kenney, Wilmore, & Costill, 2015). Stroke

volume also increases with aerobic training, as more

complete diastolic filling allows for more efficient blood

flow through the heart (Kenney, Wilmore, & Costill, 2015).

Resting HR decreases with chronic aerobic training, so the

heart does not have to work as hard (Kenney, Wilmore, &

Costill, 2015). Blood pressure remains similar with

training. Cardiac output at rest does not change

substantially with aerobic training, but maximal cardiac

output increases because of increased stroke volume

(Kenney, Wilmore, & Costill, 2015). Blood flow is

increased during exercise because muscle contraction

requires increased oxygen; adaptations increase the

muscle’s efficiency at receiving greater blood flow

(Kenney, Wilmore, & Costill, 2015).

With chronic aerobic training, the nervous system

undergoes increased sympathetic nervous system action,

which leads to increased calcium uptake by muscle fibers

and increased contractility. Stroke volume then increases,

as does maximum cardiac output, and VO2max increases as a

result (Kenney, Wilmore, & Costill, 2015).

Within skeletal muscle, type I fibers become larger

with aerobic training, as cross-sectional area increases

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(Kenney, Wilmore, & Costill, 2015). The number of

capillaries also increases with chronic aerobic exercise,

which causes efficient gas exchange between blood and

muscle fibers at work (Kenney, Wilmore, & Costill, 2015).

In addition, increased myoglobin levels increase oxidative

capacity because of back-up oxygen stores that take control

when oxygen is limited during muscle contraction (Kenney,

Wilmore, & Costill, 2015). Lastly, mitochondrial number

increases with chronic exercise, which in turn leads to

improved ATP production (Kenney, Wilmore, & Costill, 2015).

Directive Question:

Aerobic activity has been shown to preserve cognitive

function in individuals with Alzheimer’s Disease, or AD

(Ebrahimi, Majdi, Baghaiee, Hosseini, & Sadigh-Eteghad, 2017).

AD progression involves loss of neurons in hippocampal and

cerebral cortex regions of the brain. Beta-amyloid peptides are

deposited on the brain, causing plaque buildup that negatively

impacts cognitive function (Ebrahimi, Majdi, Baghaiee, Hosseini,

& Sadigh-Eteghad, 2017). Aerobic intervention is aimed at

prevention rather than treatment of neurological deficits.

Aerobic activity decreases beta-amyloid concentration, thusly

decreasing death rates of neuronal cells (Ebrahimi, Majdi,

Baghaiee, Hosseini, & Sadigh-Eteghad, 2017). Early intervention

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is key to decreasing AD-related pathological risk factors. In

addition, exercise increases neurogenesis, thereby decreasing

unwanted glial cell formation (Ebrahimi, Majdi, Baghaiee,

Hosseini, & Sadigh-Eteghad, 2017). This improves brain

plasticity and fine-tunes neural pathways for optimal memory.

In a laboratory experiment conducted with mice as test

subjects, mice were split into aerobic intervention and control

groups. Mice in the intervention group ran on a treadmill at

low intensity for a 4-month time period, whereas the control

group completed no physical activity (Zhang et. al, 2017).

White matter and white matter capillaries were examined before

and after the intervention period, and cognitive memory deceased

in the sedentary group. Prevention of white matter atrophy as a

result of chronic aerobic fitness may correlate with reduced

prevalence of AD in human subjects. As there is no cure for AD,

current research is based on preventative techniques that

improve brain plasticity and improve memory maintenance (Zhang

et. al, 2017). Capillary atrophy is prevented in subjects who

complete aerobic exercises because aerobic exercise increases

capillary numbers, which counterbalances capillary loss as a

result of disease.
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Abstract 1:

Zhang, Y., Chao, F., Zhou, C., Jiang, L., Zhang, L., Chen, L.,

Luo, Y., Xiao, Q., & Tang, Y. (2017). Effects of exercise

on capillaries in the white matter of transgenic AD mice.

Oncotarget, 8(39), 65860-65875.

Previous studies have shown that exercise can prevent white

matter atrophy in APP/PS1 transgenic Alzheimer’s disease (AD)

mice. However, the mechanism of this protective effect remains

unknown. To further understand this issue, we investigated the

effects of exercise on the blood supply of white matter in

transgenic AD mice. Six-month-old male APP/PS1 mice were

randomly divided into a control group and a running group, and

age-matched non-transgenic littermates were used as a wild-type

control group. Mice in the running group ran on a treadmill at

low intensity for four months. Then, spatial learning and memory

abilities, white matter and white matter capillaries were

examined in all mice. The 10-month-old AD mice exhibited

deficits in cognitive function, and 4 months of exercise

improved these deficits. The white matter volume and the total

length, total volume and total surface area of the white matter

capillaries were decreased in the 10-month-old AD mice, and 4

months of exercise dramatically delayed the changes in these

parameters in the AD mice. Our results demonstrate that even

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low-intensity running exercise can improve spatial learning and

memory abilities, delay white matter atrophy and protect white

matter capillaries in early-stage AD mice. Protecting

capillaries might be an important structural basis for the

exercise-induced protection of the structural integrity of white

matter in AD.

Abstract 2:

Adhikari, A., & Das, S. (1992). Standardization of a method to

predict VO2max indirectly in Indian athletic population.

Sportorvosi Szemle/Hungarian Review of Sports Medicine,

33(1), 21-25.

Maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max) is considered to be an

important parameter to evaluate cardiorespiratory fitness.

VO2max can be measured accurately in the laboratory using

sophisticated instruments and time consuming methods. But the

coaches and physical educators are eager to measure VO2max in a

manner which does not require any sophisticated instrument or

laboratory. Thus several indirect method such as Astrand-Ryhming

test (1954), Astrand-Astrand test (1986), Queens College test

(Katch & McArdle, 1983) are recommended by AAHPERD. These field

tests were not validated for the Indian population. Forty-eight

Indian athletes were studied. VO2max was measured using direct

and indirect method. The correlation of direct VO2max with

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Astrand-Ryhming and Queens College test were 0.87 and 0.89

respectively. The correlation between the predicted methods was

0.89. In both tests the mean values were very similar and no

significant difference was observed. It is concluded that any of

these two tests is suitable for predicting VO2max in mass

screening for Indian athletic population.

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References

Adhikari, A., & Das, S. (1992). Standardization of a method to

predict VO2max indirectly in Indian athletic population.

Sportorvosi Szemle/Hungarian Review of Sports Medicine,

33(1), 21-25.

Bandyopadhyay, A. (2015). Validity of Cooper's 12-minute run

test for estimation of maximum oxygen uptake in male

university students. Biology of Sport, 32(1), 59-63.

Biechler, E. (2017). Bruce protocol graded treadmill VO2max test

equipment. Loras College e-learn.

Ebrahimi, K., Majdi, A., Baghaiee, B., Hosseini, S. H., &

Sadigh-Eteghad, S. (2017). Physical activity and beta-

amyloid pathology in Alzheimer’s disease: A sound mind in a

sound body. EXCLI Journal, 16, 959–972.

Fernström, M., Fernberg, U., Eliason, G., & Hurtig-Wennlöf, A.

(2017). Aerobic fitness is associated with low

cardiovascular disease risk: the impact of lifestyle on

early risk factors for atherosclerosis in young healthy

Swedish individuals – the Lifestyle, Biomarker, and

Atherosclerosis study. Vascular Health and Risk Management,

13, 91–99.
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Karp, J. (2007). An In-Depth Look at VO2max. Track Coach, (180),

5737-5742.

Kenney, W.L., Wilmore, J.H., & Costill, D.L. (2015). Physiology

of sport and exercise. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

LeMura, L. M., Von Duvillard, S. P., & Stanek, F. (2001). Time

course changes and physiological factors related to central

and peripheral determinants of perceived exertion in highly

trained adolescent alpine skiers. Journal of Exercise

Physiology Online, 4(4), 29-40.

MacDonald, M.J., Naylor, H.L., Tschakovsky, M.E., & Hughson,

R.L. (2001). Peripheral circulatory factors limit rate of

increase in muscle O2 uptake at onset of heavy exercise.

Journal of Applied Physiology, 90(1), 83-89.

Ostojic, S.M., & Stojanovic, M.D. (2010). High aerobic fitness

is associated with lower total and regional adiposity in

12-year-old overweight body. Journal of Sports Medicine and

Physical Fitness, 50(4), 443-449.

Zhang, Y., Chao, F., Zhou, C., Jiang, L., Zhang, L., Chen, L.,

Luo, Y., Xiao, Q., & Tang, Y. (2017). Effects of exercise

on capillaries in the white matter of transgenic AD mice.

Oncotarget, 8(39), 65860-65875.