CHAPTER-I
THE MEANING AND SCOPE OF PHILOSOPHY
The word philosophy is difficult to define. The word originally
comes from the Greek word philosophia which is a combination of two
words viz., philo i.e., love or pursuit and sophia i.e., wisdom or knowledge.
Hence, the etymological meaning of the word ‘philosophy’ is love of
wisdom or pursuit of knowledge. Any intellectual pursuit may be called
philosophy when it aims at attaining wisdom or knowledge of some kind.
But within the area of philosophy, all knowledge has never been counted as
philosophic. The knowledge sought by a philosopher is concerned with the
nature of life and the universe. In the word of Maish, ‘philosophy is a
resolute and persistent attempt to understand and appreciate the universe as
a whole.”1 Philosophy, according to Fuller, in its widest and broadest sense,
has meant a reflective and reasoned attempt to infer the character and
content of the universe, taken in its entirety and as a single whole, from an
observation and study of the data presented by all its aspects.2 As such, a
sophos or a philosopher may be called an expert, an artist or someone
who is, above all a ‘wise man’. This is why the word philosophy is
interpreted mostly as love of wisdom. Thus, as per western view point
philosophy is the comprehensive study of life and the universe as a whole-
a study of the world as it appears as well as of the world as it really is.
Indian philosophy has some peculiar features of its own. In India,
philosophy is an integral part of religion. Here, philosophy is essentially
spiritual and it has always stressed the need for practical realization.
Philosophy or the Science of the fundamental principles of life in India is
1
Maish, Y., A Critical History of Western Philosophy, Delhi, 1994, p.xvii.
2
Fuller, B.A.G., A History of Philosophy, Delhi, 1969, p.1
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generally called darśana which is also known by some other words like
tattvavidyā, tattvadarśana,3 ādhyatmavidyā and parāvidyā. The word
darśana is derived from the root dṛś ‘to see’ and thus the word means an
inner vision and it also means a visual cognition leading to inner vision and
instrument of vision. The meaning of darśana as explained in
Vācaspatyaṁ is dṛśyate yathārthatayā jñāyate padārthoЅnena iti darśanaṁ
and in Śabdakalpadrumaḥ is dṛśyate yathārthatattvamanena iti darśanaṁ.4
Therefore, darśana aims at some vision of truth or reality through both
external and internal eyes. Among all the sense organs, only the visual
sense-organ i.e., the eye is considered to be more authoritative. For it
stands closest to the truth and can remain free from prejudices. The
following passages from the Bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣad says, (a) cakṣur vai
satyaṁ, cakṣur hi vai satyaṁ; tasmād yad idāniṁ / dvau vivadamānāv
eyātām aham adarśaṁ, ahaṁ aśrauṣam iti / ya evaṁ brūyāt; aham
adarśam iti, tasmād eva śraddadhyāma / tad vai tat satyaṁ; (b) cakṣur vai
pratiṣṭhā . ..5 Thus, visual cognition i.e., pratyakṣa pramāṇa has played a
vital role in the above darśana. The inner eye has been variously termed in
Indian philosophy as divyaḥ cakṣuḥ, prajñā cakṣuḥ, or as jñāna cakṣuḥ.
While primarily the word darśana means a spiritual insight, its secondary
meaning is philosophical view point or theory or knowledge. The earliest
use of the word in the sense of philosophical knowledge is to be found in
the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra of Kaṇāda.6 However a derivative of the root dṛś viz.,
draṣṭavya in the sense of- to be perceived through philosophical knowledge
has already appeared in the Bṛhadāraṇyaka where it is said that the self
3
Tattva means – First principle, the real nature of the human soul or the material
world as being identical with Supreme spirit pervading the universe. See, Apte,
V.S., The Student Sanskrit – English Dictionary, Delhi, 1970, p.228.
4
Tarkavachaspati, Taranatha., Vācaspatyaṁ, Vol. 4, Varanasi, 1962, p. 3474 &
Deb, Raja Radhakanta., Śabdakalpadrumaḥ, Part-II, 3rd Edition, Varanasi, 1967,
p.689.
5
BUp., 5.14.4.; 6.1.3.
6
Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, ix.ii.13.
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that resides inside all beings is to be seen – ātmā va are draṣṭavyaḥ.7 This
act of seeing is to be done not through the physical eyes. As stated in this
Upaniṣad, ātma is to be seen by listening to the teachings of the Vedic
scriptures and by reflecting and meditating on this teachings- śrotavyo,
mantavyo, nididhyāsitavyaḥ.8 Over and above, the Upaniṣads themselves
are looked upon by ancient Indian tradition as revealed literature. All the
discussions in these texts revolve around their central theme of viz., the
Ultimate Reality behind the phenomenal world. These discussions are
supposed to be the fruits of the inner visions of the Ṛṣis of the Upaniṣadic
lore. Thus, when considered from this point of view the philosophical
speculations of the Upaniṣads are Darśanas i.e., insights or visions of the
pre-historic philosophers of India. In other words, in the context of
Upaniṣadic philosophy the word darśana means intuitional experience
which reveals the Ultimate Truth. The Ultimate Reality behind the
empirical world propounded by the Upaniṣads forms the core subject
matter of later Indian philosophy. According to Indian philosophical
tradition there is only one ultimate reality, but there are six fundamental
interpretations of this Reality. These are called the saḍ Darśanas or the ‘six
insights’, for they enable man to have an insight of the subtle Truth in the
light of reasons. In context of these six systems, darśana appears to mean
subjecting the intuitional experiences to proof and presenting the same
through logical discussions. In short darśana is as stated by Rādhakrishnan
‘a thought system acquired by intuitive experience and sustained by logical
argument’.9
7
cf. BUp., 2.4.5.
8
Commenting on it Śa݊ሶ kara says, ‘tasmādātmā va are draṣṭavyo darśanārho,
darśanaviṣayamāpādayitavyaḥ śrotavyaḥ pūrvamācāryata āgamataśca /
paścānmantavyastarkataḥ / tato nididhyāsitavyo niścayena dhyātavyaḥ / evaṁ
hyasau dṛṣto bhavati….// ’’-Śa݊ሶ kara on BUp., 2.4.5.
9
cf. Radhakrishnan, S., Indian Philosophy, Vol.I, Second Edition, Delhi, 2008, p.20.
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These ‘six insights’ or six systems of Indian philosophy grew out of
the Upaniṣads and they accept the Veda as the Supreme authority. These
systems thus make up the Āstika Darśana as against the Nāstika Darśana
which do not recognize the authority of the Veda. The saḍ Darśanas or the
six systems of Indian philosophy are Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṁkhya, Yogā,
Mimāṁsā and Vedānta.
Together these systems form a graduated interpretation of the
Ultimate Reality and they all lead to the same practical end viz., knowledge
of the Absolute and Liberation of the Soul from earthly bondage. For the
purpose of study these six systems have been arranged into these groups-
(A) First group includes Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika (B) second is composed of
Sāṁkhya and Yogā and (C) the third group includes Mimāṁsā and
Vedānta. The above mentioned groups are known as an allied system
(samānatantra or similar philosophy) because, each group has the same
end in view on same basic beliefs.
With regard to God and liberation of individual self, the first group
substantiates the same view. Nyāya accepts mostly the Vaiśeṣika
metaphysics. It takes up exposition of right knowledge of Reality whereas
Vaiśeṣika takes up the exposition of Reality.
The second group may be treated as embodying the theoretical and
practical aspect of the same system for all practical purposes. Yogā mostly
accepts the metaphysics and epistemology of the Sāṁkhya with its three
Pramāṇas and twenty-five principles but admits the existence of God.
The third group is based on the Vedas and seeks to interpret them
accordingly. Mimāṁsā deals with the Karma-kāṇḍa of the Vedas while
Vedānta deals with the Jñāna-kāṇḍa. In this group, Vedānta accepts the
Mimāṁsā theory of knowledge.
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Difference between Indian and Western Philosophy:
In West, there are various theories about the origin of philosophy
which according to them arises out of intellectual curiosity and is
understood as a sense of wonder or a world view or a theory of reality. But
in India, philosophy is understood as a direct experience of Reality which
is open to all and it has not arisen from wonder or due to intellectual
curiosity. In the words of Rādhakrishnan, ‘philosophy in India is
essentially spiritual’.10 The primary aim of Indian philosophy is the
acquisition of liberation i.e., mokṣa which as per Indian tradition is the
final goal of every individual. For all the systems of Indian philosophy
except Cārvāka speak of spiritual freedom as the highest good viz.,
parama puruṣārtha. Thus philosophy in India arose ‘not for the sake of
knowledge but for the highest purpose that man can strive after in this
life.’11 This being so the philosophers of India right from the days of the
Upaniṣads have set forth right path of living for all men. Because of
this, philosophy in India cannot be divorced from religion and ethics and
moral values. Religion in India as it has been observed by Havell is ‘a
working hypothesis of human conduct, adapted to different stages of
spiritual development and different conditions of life’.12
As it has been pointed out by Rādhakrishnan, ‘western philosophy
became synonymous’ with theoretical metaphysics and was ‘cut off from
the imaginative and the practical sides of human nature’. As against this
Indian philosophy has not attempted to train man simply to understand
metaphysical truths, rather it has set forth a way of thinking which can
enable man to rationally understand the Reality experienced by the Vedic
Ṛṣis and can consequently lead him to the realization of the truth. Thus,
10
Radhakrishnan, S., op.cit, p.20.
11
MaxMūller, F., Six Systems of Indian Philosophy, Vol.xix, London, 1928, p.370.
12
As quoted by Radhakrishnan, op.cit, p.5.
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Indian philosophy is to be seen ‘as an art of life and not a theory about the
universe.’13
Scope of Indian Philosophy:
Scope of philosophy whether Indian or Western refers to its
applicability to various fields of study. In the Sarvadarśana Saṁgraha of
Mādhavācārya, the scope of darśana has been extended to the field of
grammatical studies by recognizing a Pāṇiniān system of philosophy. In
ancient India almost every branch of enquiry aimed at some higher
realization of truth and the field of grammatical studies was no exception to
this. The ancient grammarians succeeded in discovering a path of
philosophical discipline even in their grammatical ideals.
In Sanskrit, a letter is called akṣara- a term which is often applied to
denote Brahman and Vāk i.e., speech which has been recognized as an
entity which transcends limits of time and space.14 This philosophical side
of grammatical enquiry has been elucidated by Patanjali, Bhartṛhari and
Nāgeśa.
The ancient Indian system of medicine too is based on the theory
that a human being is a part of the cosmos and he actually is a miniature
representation of the cosmos. The cosmological ideas of both Vedānta and
Sāṁkhya along with the Vaiśeṣika speculations on the inherent nature of
substances have been incorporated into their works by the authors of
Āyurvedic treatises like Caraka and Suśruta.15 In Āyurveda every
individual is represented as a karmapuruṣa which is in union with mind,
the sense organs. And the material body which is the object of treatment is
made up of kāla, dhātu, mala-the three doṣas, agni and kriyā. According to
Āyurveda, food and medicines are compounds of the pañcamahābhūtas and
13
cf. Bernard, Thoes., Hindu Philosophy, Bombay, 1989, pp.15 & 16.
14
cf. Mahābhāṣya, 1.1.1.
15
cf. Caraka Saṁhitā, Chapter IV & Suśruta Saṁhitā, Chapters I & III.
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are mutations of Prakṛti. Furthermore, Caraka has accepted the Nyāya
method of induction which depends upon Pramāṇas, in determining the
nature of various diseases.16 It may also be noted that in the Āyurvedic
assemblies held in ancient times, for the advancement of knowledge, three
Nyāya methods of argumentation viz., vāda (academic discussion meant
for drawing the right conclusion), jalpa (disputation followed by one who
wrongly tries to defend oneself through unfair means) and vitaṇdā
(disputation through which one attempts to find fault with opposing views
without offering any alternative hypothesis).17
The scope of philosophy is very wide because it is applicable to
almost all intellectual endeavors. There is hardly any branch of study
which is not related to philosophy because it deals with the fundamentals
of life which is intimately related with all areas of human interest. It takes a
comprehensive view of the entire universe. Thus, within the scope of
philosophical investigation comes the study of space, time, mind, matter,
future life and god or the absolute. The scope of darśana has been
extended to Sanskrit poetics also. Bharata’s theory on rasa has been
explained by several rhetoricians like Bhaṭṭa Lollaṭa, ŚriŚaṅkuka,
Bhaṭṭanāyaka and Abhinavagupta. Of these, ŚriŚaṅkuka’s view known as
anumitivāda is based on Nyāya philosophy, whereas Abhinavagupta has
taken recourse to Vedānta philosophy. These views have further been
discussed in detail by Mammaṭa.18 While dealing with Vākyārthabodha
rhetoricians have made use of the tenets of Pūrvamīmāṁsā.19 Similarly,
the bhuktivāda of Bhaṭṭanāyaka is said to have been based on the Sāṁkhya
16
cf. Caraka Saṁhitā I.ii.7.
17
cf. Roy, M., Philosophical Basis of Āyurveda, The Cultural Heritage of India (Ed.),
Vol.VI, Calcutta, 1937, pp. 162-163.
18
cf. Kāvyaprakāśa of Mammaṭa, Chapter IV, Kārikās 27 & 28.
19
ibid, Chapters 2 & 5; Sāhitydarpaṇa of Viśvanātha Kavirāja, II.20.
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system of Indian philosophy.20 Furthermore, authorities like
Ānandavardhana, Abhinavagupta, Mammaṭa, Jagannātha have considered
the realization of rasa (rasāsvādanaṁ-rasasya āsvādanaṁ) as practically
identical to Brahmasvādanaṁ.21
The different problems included in the areas of philosophy are:
(A) Metaphysical problems: Metaphysics means the study of the theory
of Being or Reality. It is the branch of philosophy which deals with the
nature of Reality as a whole. Existence of god and the nature of the
universe- is called metaphysics which also includes its sub-classes on
ontology (within it cosmology and cosmogony is also included).22
Speculation concerning the nature of Being or Existence is called ontology.
There are three essential parts of metaphysics viz., ontology of nature,
ontology of the soul or mind and ontology of the Absolute. It discusses the
theories of monism, dualism and about pluralism. Ontology includes in its
fold cosmology and cosmogony. The speculation which deals with the
constitution of universe, space, time, the origin and nature of life, the
philosophy of evolution, the purpose or design in nature is called
cosmology.23 Cosmogony deals with the origin or creation of the world. So,
metaphysics discusses the most basic categories of thing, such as existence,
objects, properties, causation and so forth.
Subfields of the Philosophy of Metaphysics:
(i) Philosophy of Religion: It is a branch of metaphysical philosophy
which deals with religion.24 It is concerned with philosophical study of
religion including arguments over nature and the existence of god
20
cf. Kane, P.V., History Of Sanskrit Poetics, Delhi, 1961, p.394.
21
cf. op.cit, Chapter IV, Kārikās 28 & also see, Kane, op.cit.
22
Fuller, B.A.G., A History of Philosophy, Delhi, 1969, p. xiix
23
Patric, G.T.W., Introduction to Philosophy, Delhi, 1978, p.67.
24
Hick, J.H., Philosophy of Religion, New Delhi, 2004, p.3.
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including special attributes such as all knowing, all-powerful and wholly
good. Philosophy of Religion is also concerned with religious language,
prayer, the problems of evil, miracles, conventional and rational religion,
the nature of religious faith, belief and doubt and its role in evolution of
human civilization.
(ii) Philosophy of Mind is the sub-field of meta-physical philosophy
which is concerned with the nature of mind and its relation to the body and
the rest of the world.
(B) Epistemological problems or the problems of the theory of
knowledge: Within the scope of the epistemological philosophy come the
questions on the origin and the nature of knowledge, its possibilities and
limits and method of acquiring knowledge and the scope and validity of
knowledge.
Subfields of Epistemology are as follows:
(i) Philosophy of Science which is probably the broadest subfield of
Epistemological philosophy which is divided into (1) Philosophy of
natural sciences and (2) Philosophy of social sciences. These subfields
discuss the world of appearance i.e., the material world. Scientific study
gives knowledge of the different departments of the world, the knowledge
of which is the fundamental basis of philosophy. It classifies both the quest
for scientific knowledge and the results yielded by such quest by exploring
the logic of scientific evidence, the nature of scientific laws, explanations,
and theories and possible connections among the various branches of
science such as the relation of psychology to brain biology and biology to
chemistry or the social sciences to natural sciences.25
(1) Philosophy of natural sciences: Physics, chemistry, biology etc. are
included in its fold, although today, these subjects are popularly referred to
25
Amaladass, A., Introduction to Philosophy, Chennai, 2001, p.12.
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as sciences as separated from philosophy. Still many of the philosophers
strive that science retains an unknown and unknowable link to philosophy.
This is because it is the mother of all sciences.
Subfields of the philosophy of natural sciences:
(a) The philosophy of physics: It is the study of the fundamental, study of
matter and energy and their interactions. It concerns the basic concepts of
the nature of space, time, atoms, atomism and also the prediction of
cosmology, the nature of physical law etc.
(b) Philosophy of chemistry considers the methodology and the
underlying assumptions of the science of chemistry which is explored by
philosophers, chemists and chemist-philosophers.
(c) Philosophy of biology: It deals with epistemological, metaphysical and
ethical issues in the biological and fundamental sciences.
(2) Philosophy of social science deals with some basic concepts, methods
and presupposition of social sciences, such as history, economics,
sociology, education etc.
Subfields of the philosophy of social sciences:
(a) Philosophy of history is concerned with the eventual significance, if
any, of human history, moreover, it inquires about a possible teleological
end to its development – that is, it asks if there is design, purpose or
completeness in the process of human history. 26
(b) Philosophy of economics is the study of philosophical issues relating
to economics. In other words, it studies its own foundations, suppositions
and status as a moral science.
(c) Philosophy of education is concerned with the purpose, process,
nature and ideals of education.
26
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/philosophy of history.
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(d) Philosophy of psychology deals with the fundamental questions about
the concepts and method of psychology and psychiatry.
Within the area of philosophy of particular sciences are included the
following:
(i) Philosophy of mathematics is that branch which deals with
philosophical assumptions, foundations and implications of mathematics.
(ii) Environmental philosophy is concerned with the natural environment
and man’s place within it. This field of study includes environmental
ethics, aesthetics, ecofeminism, environmental theology.
(iii) Philosophy of information science deals with the areas like
conceptual issues arising at intersections of computer science, information-
technology and philosophy. It deals with critical investigation of the
conceptual nature, basic principles of information which includes its
dynamics, utilization and sciences and also the elaboration and application
of information-theoretic and computational methodologies to philosophical
problems.27
(iv) Philosophy of technology is concerned with the study of the nature of
technology and its social effects.
(C) Problems of Axiology: Axiology is the science of values. Every
philosophical thinking must have value. Thus the study of axiology is
necessary for philosophy.
Subfields of Axiology include:
(i) The Problems of Aesthetic is the theory of beauty and ugliness. It
studies the problems regarding beauty and sublimity.
27
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/philosophy of information.
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(ii) Philosophical theory of Ethics: It is the theory of the good and of how
it can be achieved.28 It is the study of right or wrong actions and the ways
of applying right action to special indignation.
Subfields of Ethics are as follows:
(1) Political philosophy is concerned with topics like the purpose of state,
government, political freedom, political justice, the nature of law etc.
(2) Social philosophy handles the moral problems with large scale social
dimensions which are often taught in combination with political
philosophy.29
(3) Philosophy of law deals with the topics of what is law, what kind of
laws are there, relation of law with morality and the principles that should
govern punishment and criminal justice in general.30
(4) Philosophy of health care is that branch which studies the ethics,
process and people which constitute the maintenance of health for human
beings. Medical ethics, Business ethics, Bioethics, Nursing ethics etc. are
also included in the area of Philosophy of ethics.31
(D) Problems of Semantics: Semantics means the study of language or
study of the significance of signs. It analyses the meaning of words or
sentences. Semantic study is included within the scope of philosophy
because without the knowledge of Semantics, philosophy is not possible.
(E) Problems of Logic or the theory of inference deals with the principles
of valid reasoning and this includes scientific methodology and the
fundamentals of reasoning which regulates human thinking and
28
Fuller, B.A.G., A History of Philosophy, Delhi, 1969, p. xxxviii.
29
Amaladass, A., Introduction to Philosophy, Chennai, 2001, p.14.
30
ibid.
31
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/philosophy of healthcare.
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reasoning.32 It is the branch of philosophy which is concerned with sound
methods of classifying good from bad reasoning.33 Sometimes logic is
treated as a main branch of philosophy, sometimes, it is included just as a
philosophical method which is applied to all the branches of philosophy.
Besides the above, there are other sub-fields such as philosophy of
perception, sociology, geography, criticism, film, feminism, inductive
logic, etc. which are included within the scope of philosophy.
32
Bali, D.R., Introduction to Philosophy, Delhi, 1989, p.4.
33
Amaladass, op.cit, p.11.
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