Contents

Contributor contact details xi

Preface xv

Part I Characterisation of aroma compounds

1 Tlie Iiuman perception of taste compounds 3

B. Bufe and W. Meyerhof, German Institute of Human Nutrition
Potsdam-Rehbruecke, Germany
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 The sense of taste 4
1.3 The molecular basis of human taste perception 5
1.4 Functional characterisation of taste receptors through calcium
imaging 18
1.5 Future trends 26
1.6 Acknowledgment 31
1.7 References 31

2 Processing information about flavour 36

A. Holley, Centre Europeen des Sciences du Gout, France
2.1 Introduction 36
2.2 Reception of odorants and neural processing of olfactory
information 37
2.3 Reception of taste compounds and neural processing 43
2.4 Trigeminal chemosensitivity (chemesthesis) 47
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2.5 Multimodal interactions and flavour integration 49

2.6 Conclusions and future trends 53
2.7 References 54

3 Sensory analysis of food flavor 62

A. C. Noble, University of California, USA, I. Lesschaeve, Brock
University, Canada
3.1 Introduction 62
3.2 Current and developing techniques for sensory analysis 63
3.3 Sensory testing administration 69
3.4 Statistical analysis of data 71
3.5 Relating analytical sensory data to instrumental or consumer
preference data 72
3.6 Using sensory data for business decisions 74
3.7 Conclusion 75
3.8 References 75
3.9 Appendix 80

4 Choosing the correct analytical technique in aroma analysis 81

G. Reineccius, University of Minnesota, USA
4.1 Introduction 81
4.2 Obtaining a complete aroma profile 82
4.3 Key components contributing to sensory properties 84
4.4 Off-notes in a food product 87
4.5 Monitor changes in aroma compounds with time 89
4.6 Using instrumental data in sensory predictions 90
4.7 Future trends 92
4.8 Sources of further information 93
4.9 References 95

5 Matching sensory and instrumental data 98

E. M. Qannari, ENITIAA/INRA, France and P. Schlich, Centre
Europeen des Sciences du Gout (CESG), France
5.1 Introduction 98
5.2 Investigating the structure of the data sets 99
5.3 Relating sensory to instrumental data 101
5.4 Case study 105
5.5 Conclusion 110
5.6 Acknowledgements Ill
5.7 References Ill
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Part II Flavour retention and release from the food matrix

6 Flavour retention and release from the food matrix:

an overview 117
A. Voilley, University of Bourgogne, France and I. Souchon,
INRA, France
6.1 Introduction 117
6.2 Flavour properties 117
6.3 Diffusion and mass transfer 121
6.4 Main factors influencing the mobility of flavour compounds
in food matrices 126
6.5 Conclusion and future trends 129
6.6 References 129

7 Lipid-flavour interactions 133

M Ollivon, Paris Sud University, France
7.1 Introduction 133
7.2 How nature uses both types of lipids: the key role of molecular
organisation 134
7.3 Classification and properties of lipids 136
7.4 Main types of lipidic structures 143
7.5 Replacing fat by structuring lipids: consequence for flavour
retention and release 151
7.6 References 153

8 Emulsion-flavour interactions 156

J-P. Dumont, INRA, France
8.1 Introduction 156
8.2 Remarkable characteristics of emulsions 156
8.3 Behaviour of aroma compounds in emulsions 158
8.4 Improving flavour delivery to the consumer 162
8.5 Future trends 163
8.6 Cross-links 169
8.7 References 170

9 Protein-flavour interactions 172

A. Tromelin, I. Andriot and E. Guichard, INRA, France
9.1 Introduction 172
9.2 Protein structure in relation to flavour binding 173
9.3 Nature and strength of the interactions 182
9.4 Effect of medium on protein-flavour interactions 187
9.5 Perceptive consequences in food systems: some examples . . . 191
9.6 Conclusion and future trends 193
9.7 Sources of further information 194
9.8 References 195
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10 Carbohydrate-flavour interactions 208

/ . Delarue and P. Giampaoli, ENSIA, France
10.1 Introduction 208
10.2 Aroma interactions with mono- and disaccharides 208
10.3 Structure of polysaccharides 214
10.4 Interaction mechanisms with aroma compounds 216
10.5 Example of retention in amylaceous matrices and their
derivatives 218
10.6 Conclusion 222
10.7 References 224

11 Modelling aroma interactions in food matrices 229

K. B. de Roos, Givaudan, Nederland BV, The Netherlands
11.1 Introduction 229
11.2 Phase partitioning: aroma release under equilibrium
conditions 230
11.3 Mass transfer: aroma release under non-equilibrium
conditions 234
11.4 Mechanistic modelling of aroma release 239
11.5 Empirical modelling of aroma release 250
11.6 Applications 251
11.7 Future trends 252
11.8 Sources of further information 252
11.9 References 253

12 Flavour release from liquid food products 260

A. E. M. Boelrijk, G. Smit and K. G. C. Weel, NIZO Food Research,
The Netherlands and J. J. Burger, Quest International Nederland BV,
The Netherlands
12.1 Introduction 260
12.2 In vivo aroma release measurements during drinking of
beverages 262
12.3 Physiological factors important for in vivo aroma release
from beverages 265
12.4 Development of the artificial throat 266
12.5 Effect of ingredients on aroma release from beverages 271
12.6 Conclusion 277
12.7 Acknowledgements 279
12.8 References 279

Part III Influences on flavour perception

13 The process of flavour release 287

R. Linforth and A. Taylor, Nottingham University, UK
13.1 Introduction 287
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13.2 Influence of the foodstuff on flavour release 288

13.3 Losses of flavour molecules after leaving the bolus 292
13.4 The transfer of volatiles to the gas phase in vivo 293
13.5 Aroma delivery to the upper airway and nose 295
13.6 Persistence of flavour release 301
13.7 Future trends 303
13.8 Sources of further information 304
13.9 References 304

14 Genetic influences on taste 308

J. Prescott, James Cook University, Australia
14.1 hitroduction 308
14.2 Individual differences in taste perceptions 309
14.3 PTC/PROP bitterness 311
14.4 The role of taste anatomy 316
14.5 PROP taster differences and flavour perceptions 320
14.6 Conclusion 321
14.7 References 321

15 Texture-aroma interactions 327

S. Lubbers, INRA, France
15.1 Introduction 327
15.2 Influence of rheological behaviour on flavour release 329
15.3 Texture measurements and perceived intensity of aroma 336
15.4 References 341

16 Odour-taste interactions in flavour perception 345

C. Salles, INRA, France
16.1 Introduction 345
16.2 Odour-taste interactions 346
16.3 Origin of odour-taste interactions 350
16.4 Future trends 362
16.5 Source of further information 363
16.6 References 363

17 Tlie learning of Iiuman flavour preferences 369

A. Blake, Firmenich SA, Switzerland
17.1 Introduction 369
17.2 The relationship between cooking and flavour 370
17.3 Flavours and how we experience them 372
17.4 How we learn flavour 383
17.5 Future trends 394
17.6 References 396
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18 The development of flavour perception from infancy to

adultliood 403
B. Schaal, Centre Europeen des Sciences du Gout, France
18.1 Introduction 403
18.2 Functional value of olfaction in early development 404
18.3 Early functioning of olfaction 410
18.4 Memory and plasticity of olfactory function in early life 420
18.5 Conclusions and future trends 428
18.6 Acknowledgments 430
18.7 References 430

Index 437