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The History of Enterprise Architecture: An Evidence-Based Review

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Article
The History of Enterprise Architecture: An Evidence-Based Review
Svyatoslav Kotusev

Abstract
The conventional wisdom says that the concept of Enterprise Architecture (EA) originated from the pioneering work of
John Zachman. He is frequently referred to as the “father” of EA and many consider the Zachman Framework to be the
breakthrough that created the discipline of EA and provided the foundation for all subsequent EA frameworks and
methodologies. Is Zachman’s “A Framework for Information Systems Architecture” really the seminal publication of the
EA discipline? Is it really the first EA framework? Did it really profoundly influence modern EA methodologies? In order
to answer these questions, in this article I describe an evidence-based history of EA and trace the origins of all essential
ideas constituting the basis of the modern concept of EA.
Keywords
Enterprise Architecture, history, frameworks, Zachman Framework, Business Systems Planning

divided into three distinct periods: Business Systems

INTRODUCTION Planning, early EA, and modern EA.
Almost every publication on Enterprise Architecture (EA)
BUSINESS SYSTEMS PLANNING
cites the Zachman Framework (Zachman 1987) as a
seminal EA publication that fundamentally shaped the The idea of deliberate information systems planning is
discipline of EA. Authors routinely call John Zachman far from new. Early planning approaches proposed
the “father” of EA and consider his framework paper to various considerations on how to design corporate
be the initial breakthrough publication that created the information systems based on an organizational strategy
very concept of EA and significantly influenced its (King 1978), data flows between departments
modern understanding. Moreover, many authors argue (Blumenthal 1969), suppliers and orders (Carlson 1979;
that the Zachman Framework inspired all other Kerner 1979), critical success factors (Rockart 1979),
subsequent EA frameworks and methodologies. management information requirements (King & Cleland
1975), and decisions (Henderson & West 1979; Zani
Feeling skeptical about these unsubstantiated
1970). However, the earliest origins of the modern
statements that are typically taken for granted, I decided
concept of EA can be traced back to the Business
to initiate an historical inquiry to understand what the
Systems Planning (BSP) methodology initiated by IBM in
real roots of EA are and where the major EA-related
the 1960s and led by P. Duane (“Dewey”) Walker (BSP
ideas originate from. In particular, I focused on the
1975; BSP 1984; Davenport 1994; Harrell & Sage 2010;
evolution of specific actionable ideas that shaped
Lederer & Putnam 1986; Lederer & Putnam 1987;
modern EA methodologies and contributed to the current
Sidorova & Kappelman 2010; Spewak & Hill 1992;
understanding of EA as an instrument for corporate
Zachman & Ruby 2004; Zachman & Sessions 2007).
information systems planning. Therefore, my study
The first edition of BSP (BSP 1975) resembled EA in
deliberately did not cover definitions and philosophy of
many important aspects. Specifically:
EA, other IT-related types of architecture (software
architecture, system architecture, etc.), as well as BSP activities are carried out by a dedicated group
architectures for computer integrated manufacturing of experts (BSP study team) whose responsibilities
(CIMOSA, PERA, GRAI, TOVE, GERAM, etc.). include collecting data by interviewing managers
and developing information systems plans in a top-
In order to trace the historical provenance of EA, I down manner.
searched all available physical and electronic libraries
and the Internet looking for early ideas and BSP information systems plans describe the
methodologies for information systems planning and relationship between organization, business
related them to the modern EA literature. This led me to processes, data, and information systems.
conclude that EA has a long history that can be logically

Journal of Enterprise Architecture – Volume 12, No. 1 29 © 2016 Association of Enterprise Architects
 BSP uses relationship matrices, information future information systems plan, and ending with
systems networks, flowcharts, and other preparing an action plan and communicating it.
techniques to model processes, systems, and data. Later editions of BSP (BSP 1984) used the notion of
BSP is implemented in a step-wise manner starting architecture to describe the relationship between
from identifying business objectives, defining business processes and data classes (Periasamy 1993;
business processes and data, analyzing the Periasamy & Feeny 1997). The BSP methodology is
existing IT landscape and developing a desired shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: BSP methodology (BSP 1984, p.10)

After the introduction of the BSP methodology by IBM EARLY ENTERPRISE ARCHITECTURE
many other consulting companies and experts proposed
similar formal architecture planning methodologies The notion of an EA framework, as a logical structure for
(Martin 1982; Method1 1979; Nolan & Mulryan 1987). organizing the description of an enterprise, was
For instance, Nolan, Norton & Company consultancy introduced in 1986 by the PRISM research service of
recommended the following architecture methodology Index Systems and Hammer and Company as a result of
(Nolan & Mulryan 1987): the research project sponsored by a group of companies
(including IBM) and aimed at finding optimal ways to
1. Develop an agreed definition of architecture.
describe an architecture of distributed systems (PRISM
2. Identify and involve architecture stakeholders. 1986). The PRISM EA framework was the first
3. Determine the key questions to be answered published EA framework in the modern understanding of
with architecture. this concept (Greefhorst & Proper 2011; Harrell & Sage
4. Build a baseline of the existing architecture. 2010; Rivera 2013); however, somewhat similar ideas
5. Formulate the strategic architecture vision. were presented even earlier (Wardle 1984). The PRISM
6. Organize an effective IT department capable of EA framework organizes an architectural description into
managing and implementing the architecture. 16 categories according to four domains (organization,
data, application, and infrastructure) and four types
Therefore, BSP was the earliest, definitive, and most (inventory, principles, models, and standards). The
widely known top-down planning methodology among a PRISM EA framework is shown in Figure 2.
number of similar BSP-like approaches used by different
companies (Adriaans & Hoogakker 1989; Davenport One year later in 1987 a similar framework for organizing
1994; Lederer & Gardiner 1992b; Lederer & Putnam architectural documentation was published by an IBM
1986; Lederer & Putnam 1987; Sullivan 1985; Zachman marketing specialist, John Zachman, in the internally
1982). All these methodologies used the notion of reviewed IBM Systems Journal (Zachman 1987). The
architecture as a formal description of the relationship Zachman Framework organizes an architectural
between business and IT. However, they were known description into 15 categories according to five
and discussed under different titles: data architecture, perspectives (planner, owner, designer, builder, and
information architecture, strategic data planning, and subcontractor) and three interrogatives (what, how, and
other similar names (Davenport 1994; Goodhue et al. where). Although it is claimed that the first version of
1992; Lederer & Gardiner 1992a; Martin 1989; this framework was created in 1984 (Zachman 2009) or
Periasamy & Feeny 1997). even in 1982 (Zachman & Ruby 2004; Zachman &

Journal of Enterprise Architecture – Volume 12, No. 1 30 © 2016 Association of Enterprise Architects
Sessions 2007), these claims are not substantiated by publications, which used the term “Information Systems
any documents. Five years later in 1992 the extended Architecture” (Sowa & Zachman 1992a; Sowa &
version of the Zachman Framework was published in the Zachman 1992b; Zachman 1987; Zachman 1989). The
IBM Systems Journal (Sowa & Zachman 1992a). The term “Enterprise Architecture” was first consistently used
extended version of the Zachman Framework organizes by Rigdon (1989) for describing the NIST EA model,
an architectural description into 30 categories according although also without any specific definition of its
to five perspectives (planner, owner, designer, builder, meaning. Later the term “Enterprise Architecture” was
and subcontractor) and six interrogatives (what, how, first formally defined by Richardson et al. (1990) in their
where, who, when, and why). MIS Quarterly article describing the application of the
PRISM framework (in particular architecture principles,
its most important element) in a large oil company. They
defined EA as an architecture that “defines and
interrelates data, hardware, software, and
communications resources, as well as the supporting
organization required to maintain the overall physical
structure required by the architecture” (Richardson et al.
1990, p.386).
The first EA methodology called Enterprise Architecture
Planning (EAP) was proposed by Spewak and Hill
(1992). “EAP has its roots in IBM’s BSP” (Spewak & Hill
1992, p.53) and prescribes essentially the following
sequence of steps to practice EA:
Figure 2: PRISM EA framework (PRISM 1986, p.5) 1. Understand and document the current state of
an organization.
In 1989 the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) issued the first official guidance on 2. Develop the desired future state of an
EA (Rigdon 1989). The NIST EA model organizes an organization.
architectural description into five different architecture 3. Analyze the gaps between current and future
levels: business unit, information, information system, states.
data, and delivery system. The NIST EA model is 4. Prepare the implementation plan.
shown in Figure 3. 5. Implement the plan.
Although Spewak and Hill (1992, p.13) claim that EAP
“creates the top two layers of John Zachman’s
Framework”, the Zachman Framework is seemingly
mentioned only for marketing-related purposes and is
not used in any real sense because the actual
deliverables of EAP can hardly be mapped to the
framework as claimed. For instance, the EAP
methodology and its deliverables are structured around
four architecture domains (business, data, applications,
and technology), which do not map to the three columns
of the Zachman Framework (what – data, how –
processes, and where – locations) and do not distinguish
between its top two rows (ballpark and owner’s views)
(Spewak & Hill 1992, pp.12-13). Subsequently, the EAP
methodology served as a basis for many modern EA
methodologies (Spewak & Tiemann 2006). The EAP
“wedding cake” methodology is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 3: NIST EA Model (Rigdon 1989, p.138) At the same time, the Government Accountability Office
(GAO) published a somewhat similar architecture
The phrase “enterprise architecture” was first used by
development methodology recommended for federal
Zachman (1982) (Harrell & Sage 2010). However, its
agencies (GAO 1992).
usage was seemingly accidental since this term was
mentioned only once without any clear definition.
Moreover, it was not used later in subsequent

Journal of Enterprise Architecture – Volume 12, No. 1 31 © 2016 Association of Enterprise Architects
This methodology is made up of eight steps: MODERN ENTERPRISE ARCHITECTURE
1. Mission and strategy identification In 1996 the Congress had enacted the Clinger-Cohen
2. Function identification and analysis Act obliging the Federal Government and all its
3. Information needs identification and analysis departments to develop consistent architectures
4. Data needs identification and analysis compatible with the NIST EA model in order to improve
the usage of information systems (OMB 1997). As a
5. Applications identification and analysis
response, in 1999 the Federal CIO Council initiated the
6. Logical system definition Federal Enterprise Architecture (FEA) program and
7. Alternative architecture identification and published the corresponding FEA Framework (FEAF)
analysis (FEA 2001; FEAF 1999). FEAF is based on the EAP
8. Target architecture selection methodology and aligned with the NIST EA model
(FEAF 1999; Thomas et al. 2000; Zachman & Sessions
2007). Therefore, FEAF prescribes following the same
sequence of steps to practice EA, but recommends
describing business, data, applications, and technology
architectures in a segmented manner. Similarly to EAP,
it is claimed that FEAF is based on the Zachman
Framework; however, the Zachman Framework is again
“used” only as a symbol without any far-reaching
consequences (FEAF 1999, pp.20-23).

Figure 4: EAP methodology (Spewak & Hill 1992, p.16)

It was later supplemented with the best practices learned
from leading private and public organizations (GAO
1994).
The Department of Defense was one of the first federal
agencies to adopt EA (Buss & Shillabeer 2012). In order
to speed up the delivery of information systems, lower
their costs, and promote integration and flexibility, the
Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) in 1994
introduced the Technical Architecture Framework for
Information Management (TAFIM) (Buss & Shillabeer
2012; Goikoetxea 2007; Sessions 2007; TAFIM 1996a),
which was based on some previous models initiated in
1986 (Golden 1994). TAFIM describes EA practice as a
seven-steps iterative process including documenting
baseline and then target states, analyzing the gaps
between them, preparing implementation plans, and
following them (TAFIM 1996b). TAFIM recommends
describing four domains of EA: work organization,
information, applications, and technology (TAFIM
1996b). The TAFIM methodology is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 6: TOGAF Architecture Development Method

(TOGAF 2011, p.48)
After the passage of the Clinger-Cohen Act in 1996
TAFIM was superseded by the Command, Control,
Figure 5: TAFIM Methodology (TAFIM 1996b, p.xiv) Computers, Communications, Intelligence, Surveillance,

Journal of Enterprise Architecture – Volume 12, No. 1 32 © 2016 Association of Enterprise Architects
and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) framework (C4ISR 1997; the current state, description of the desired
Levis & Wagenhals 2000; Sowell 2000) and officially state, and development of the action plan
withdrawn in 2000 (Bhagwat 2009; DoDAF 2007a; (prototype of EA methodologies).
DoDAF 2009; Goikoetxea 2007; Schekkerman 2004). The comparison between BSP, early EA, and modern
C4ISR, in its turn, was later replaced with the EA is summarized in Table 1.
Department of Defense Architecture Framework
(DoDAF) (DoDAF 2007a; DoDAF 2007b; DoDAF 2007c) Therefore, the concepts and methodologies of EA are far
in 2003 (Bhagwat 2009; DoDAF 2009; Schekkerman from new and essentially emerged from BSP in the
2004). After TAFIM had been replaced, its materials 1960s long before the publication of the Zachman
were explicitly given to The Open Group and provided a Framework (Zachman 1987). All of the foundational
®
basis for the creation of the TOGAF standard initiated in ideas constituting the modern concept of EA are thus
1995 (Bhagwat 2009; Perks & Beveridge 2003; TOGAF almost 50 years old. In fact, all early and modern EA
2011). Unsurprisingly, the TOGAF standard also methodologies are based on the ideas pioneered by
recommends describing the typical four domains in EA BSP (Armour et al. 1999; Bernard 2012; Bittler &
(business, data, applications, and technology) and Kreizman 2005; Boar 1999; Covington & Jahangir 2009;
recommends the Architecture Development Method FEAF 1999; IBM 2006; Longépé 2003; Niemann 2006;
(ADM) with one Preliminary phase and eight cyclic Schekkerman 2008; Spewak & Hill 1992; TAFIM 1996b;
phases including describing current and future states, Theuerkorn 2004; TOGAF 2011; van’t Wout et al. 2010).
analyzing gaps, preparing transition plans, and For instance, the modern concept of EA embodied in the
implementing them (TOGAF 2011). The TOGAF ADM is TOGAF standard is essentially nothing more than a
shown in Figure 6. modernized, revamped, and rebranded version of the
BSP methodology introduced in the 1960s since the
Presently TOGAF (2011) is the most cited and widely differences between them are largely stylistic and
discussed publication in EA literature (Simon et al. inessential with the only notable exception that the
2013). It embodies the modern understanding of EA and TOGAF framework is iterative in nature and more
is even considered as a de facto industry standard in EA technical than BSP (see Table 1).
practice by some authors (Brown & Obitz 2011; Dietz &
Hoogervorst 2011; Gosselt 2012; Lankhorst et al. 2010; At the same time, PRISM (1986), the very first
Sarno & Herdiyanti 2010; Sobczak 2013). architecture framework, seemingly had a significant
influence on the modern concept of EA. For instance,
CONCLUSION the organization of architecture according to four
This analysis describes the history of EA and the origin domains (organization, data, application, and
of the most discussed EA frameworks: Zachman, FEAF, infrastructure) initially proposed by the PRISM
and the TOGAF standard (Simon et al. 2013). It clearly framework was largely adopted by the most prominent
shows that the concept of EA has a long history early and modern EA standards and methodologies
beginning in the 1960s when the BSP methodology was (Bernard 2012; Covington & Jahangir 2009; FEAF 1999;
initiated by IBM. The fundamental ideas of BSP Rigdon 1989; Spewak & Hill 1992; TAFIM 1996b;
permeate the entire history of early and modern EA. TOGAF 2011; van’t Wout et al. 2010). Initially proposed
Specifically: by King (1978) in its rudimentary form, the idea of using
architecture principles as the most fundamental and
1. BSP suggested that the information systems
stable element of EA was elaborated by the PRISM
planning for the whole organization is carried out
framework to its modern form which is currently
by a dedicated group of experts (prototype of
embraced by prominent EA methodologies (Boar 1999;
Enterprise Architects).
Schekkerman 2008; TOGAF 2011; van’t Wout et al.
2. BSP introduced the notion of architecture for 2010). The PRISM framework also pioneered the idea
describing the relationship between business of using architecture standards as the essential
and IT (prototype of EA). component of EA presently adopted by prominent EA
3. BSP recommended to describe business, data, methodologies (Bernard 2012; Spewak & Hill 1992;
and information systems domains (prototype of TOGAF 2011; van’t Wout et al. 2010). Additionally, the
EA domains). PRISM framework explicitly suggested that EA should
4. BSP proposed various techniques to model describe both current and desired states of an
processes, systems, and data in a formal way enterprise. This idea is now closely associated with the
(prototype of EA diagrams). very notion of EA (Bernard 2012; FEA 2001).
5. BSP advocated a formal step-wise process for
architecture planning including the analysis of

Journal of Enterprise Architecture – Volume 12, No. 1 33 © 2016 Association of Enterprise Architects
 Aspect BSP Early EA Modern EA

Time period 1960s – 1980s 1980s – 1990s 1990s – present

Definitive source BSP (1975) Spewak and Hill (1992) TOGAF (2011)

Actors BSP study team EA planning team Team of Enterprise Architects

Products Information systems plans (later Enterprise Architecture Enterprise Architecture

architecture)

Domains Organization, processes, data, and Business, data, applications, and Business, data, applications, and
information systems technology technology

Modeling Relationship matrices, information Lists, relationship matrices, and Catalogs, matrices, and diagrams
systems networks, and flowcharts diagrams

Methodology Describe current and desired Describe current and future states, Describe baseline and target
states, prepare an action plan, and prepare an implementation plan, states, prepare a transition plan,
implement it and implement it implement the plan, and repeat
the process

Difference from the N/A Pays more attention to technical Iterative in nature
predecessor aspects

Table 1: Comparison between BSP, Early EA, and Modern EA

Aspect Conventional Wisdom Evidence Shows

General concept EA is a new concept introduced BSP (1975)

by the Zachman Framework and
Methodology its breakthrough ideas (Zachman BSP (1975)
1987) that subsequently shaped
Notion of architecture the very discipline of EA. BSP (1984)

Notion of framework Arguably, PRISM (1986) or even earlier (Wardle 1984)

Four architecture domains PRISM (1986)

Architecture principles PRISM (1986), in a rudimentary form King (1978)

Architecture standards PRISM (1986)

Term “Enterprise Architecture” Arguably, Rigdon (1989) or Richardson et al. (1990)

Summary EA originated in the 1960s and is essentially an updated

version of the BSP methodology significantly influenced by the
novel ideas of the PRISM framework.

Table 2: Comparison between the Conventional Wisdom on and Actual Origins of EA

The Zachman Framework (Zachman 1987), which is 1989; Spewak & Hill 1992; TAFIM 1996b; TOGAF 2011)
widely considered to be the seminal EA innovation, does which structure an architectural documentation
not seem to have played a significant role in the according to the four domains (business, data,
formation of the concept of EA because this framework applications, and technology). The documentary
did not introduce any ideas that were subsequently evidence cited strongly suggests that the Zachman
adopted by the early or modern concepts of EA. For Framework, even if referred to, as in the cases of EAP
instance, the organization of architecture according to and FEAF, did not significantly influence any EA
different perspectives (planner, owner, designer, builder, frameworks and methodologies in any real sense. The
and subcontractor) and interrogatives (what, how, and actual role of the Zachman Framework as the source of
where) recommended by the Zachman Framework was the basic concepts of EA seems to be overstated in the
not adopted by the most prominent early and modern EA conventional wisdom. This is not to say that the
standards and methodologies (FEAF 1999; Rigdon Zachman Framework did not add any value to the

Journal of Enterprise Architecture – Volume 12, No. 1 34 © 2016 Association of Enterprise Architects
discipline, only that its concepts did not find their way R.S. Bittler, G. Kreizman: Gartner Enterprise Architecture
into the bulk of the community’s thinking on the subject. Process: Evolution 2005, G00130849, Gartner, Stamford, CT,
pp.1-12 (2005).
Based on the available documentary evidence, I
conclude that the widespread belief that the concept of S.C. Blumenthal: Management Information Systems: A
EA originated with the Zachman Framework is Framework for Planning and Development, Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall (1969).
unwarranted. A comparison between the conventional
wisdom about EA and what the historical evidence B.H. Boar,: Constructing Blueprints for Enterprise IT
shows about the actual origins of EA is summarized in Architectures, New York, NY: Wiley (1999).
Table 2.The evidence-based comparison shows that all A. Brown, T. Obitz: Enterprise Architecture is Maturing:
the fundamental ideas of EA belong to the BSP Findings from the Infosys Enterprise Architecture Survey 2007,
methodology, some ideas belong to the PRISM Infosys, Bangalore, India, pp.1-38 (2011).
framework, and none of them come from the Zachman
BSP: Business Systems Planning: Information Systems
Framework. The modern concept of EA is conceptually
Planning Guide (1st Edition), GE20-0527-1, IBM Corporation,
rooted in the BSP methodology initiated by IBM in the White Plains, NY (1975).
1960s and is significantly shaped by the novel ideas
introduced by the PRISM framework. BSP: Business Systems Planning: Information Systems
Planning Guide (4th Edition), GE20-0527-4, IBM Corporation,
Despite my best efforts to find and analyze all early Atlanta, GA (1984).
information systems planning publications that might
have influenced the modern concept of EA, the analysis T.F. Buss, A. Shillabeer: IT and Enterprise Architecture in US
Public Sector Reform: Issues and Recommendations, in
provided in this article may not be exhaustive since
Enterprise Architecture for Connected E-Government:
many early publications have apparently never been Practices and Innovations, P. Saha (Ed.), Hershey, PA:
digitized and cannot be obtained for analysis now. Information Science Reference, pp.412-440 (2012).
Nevertheless, even this potentially incomplete analysis
clearly demonstrates that the concept of EA has a long C4ISR Architecture Framework, Version 2.0, Department of
Defense, Arlington County, VA (1997).
history and provides a more objective discussion of its
origins than the conventional wisdom. Finally, I would W.M. Carlson: Business Information Analysis and Integration
be very grateful if any readers of this article could Technique (BIAIT): The New Horizon, Data Base (10:4), pp.3-9
provide me with any additional relevant information that (1979).
can help further clarify the real history of EA. R. Covington, H. Jahangir: The Oracle Enterprise Architecture
Framework, Oracle, Redwood Shores, CA (2009).
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
T.H. Davenport: Saving IT’s Soul: Human-Centered
Svyatoslav Kotusev is a researcher at RMIT University, Information Management, Harvard Business Review (72:2),
Melbourne, Australia. He has spent the last two years pp.119-131 (1994).
studying EA practices in organizations. Prior to his
academic career he held various software development J.L. Dietz, J.A. Hoogervorst: A Critical Investigation of TOGAF
®
and architecture positions in industry. He is a TOGAF 9 – Based on the Enterprise Engineering Theory and Practice, in
Advances in Enterprise Engineering V, A. Albani, J.L. Dietz, J.
Foundation certified architect. Svyatoslav can be Verelst (Eds.), Berlin: Springer, pp.76-90 (2011).
reached at kotusev@kotusev.com.
DoDAF: The DoDAF Architecture Framework, Version 1.5
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