Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW 1
Literature Review
Corrie S. Hawes
CCSD 562: Qualitative Research with Today’s Diverse College Students
Professor Edwin Romero, Ph.D.
September 19, 2018
LITERATURE REVIEW 2
Introduction
It can be simple to envision a traditional college student or university campus. However,
the realm of possibilities related to higher education has shifted and expanded to include new
types of programs, along with many new types of non-traditional students (Deggs, 2011).
According to the National Center for Education Statistics, enrollments in adult learners increased
by 35% between 2000 and 2012 (Karmelita, 2017). With this increase, many institutions are
creating attractive evening classes and accelerated options that help non-traditional students
continue to hold down full-time employment while furthering their education (Miller, 2017).
As student affairs professionals, it is imperative to not only acknowledge this new type of
student, but to learn about their specific needs, obstacles and experiences in order to serve them
effectively. Through reviewing literature related to non-traditional students, specifically adult
learners, we can begin to gain new insights into this population’s attributes of persistence,
overcoming and resilience in the midst of low retention rates, challenges with interrole conflict
and the importance of creating a sense of connection for adult learners.
Persistence, Overcoming and Resilience
Across the literature, a concern for low retention rates among non-traditional adult
learners is evident (Cotton, Nash & Kneale, 2017; Deggs, 2011; Markle, 2015; Merrill, 2015;
Miller, 2017). According to Deggs (2011), institutions cannot successfully meet the needs of
adult learners until they can begin to grasp the various barriers that they regularly experience.
The particular retention risks that non-traditional students present warrant an expanded
consideration of how students push through barriers, according to Cotton, Nash and Kneale
(2017). Deggs (2011) further states that “...barriers are never extinct for adult learners and they
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must work to overcome or manage barriers which emerge” (p. 1540). Within the literature, three
strategies emerged as adult learners manage the neverending emergence of barriers: persistence,
overcoming and resilience (Cotton, Nash & Kneale, 2017; Deggs, 2011; Markle, 2015).
In Deggs’ (2011) study of 21 adult learners, the most common strategy to overcome
hardship was identified as managing time and utilizing organization. In addition, students shared
that being persistent helped them push through student challenges (Deggs, 2011). In Factors
Influencing Persistence Among Nontraditional University Students, author Gail Markle (2015)
uses role theory to examine various factors that influence students’ persistence rates. Although
one third of participants considered academic withdrawing, they went on to describe how they
overcoming barriers to persist until graduation (Markle, 2015). The primary factor that aided in
persistence and overcoming was the meaning that completing the degree carried (Markle, 2015).
Attributes of persistence and overcoming among adult learners could clearly be identified
in Cotton, Nash and Kneale’s (2017) study through using a resilience framework, which assists
practitioners in identifying which students are at risk of academically withdrawing. Using a
resilience framework aids practitioners in expanding the how and why of students overcoming
particular boundaries (Cotton, Nash & Kneale, 2017). Through the framework lens, staff, faculty
and administrators can identify flags or risk factors early on that indicate persistence or retention
concerns, enforcing a prompt support system for students (Cotton, Nash & Kneale, 2017).
Interrole Conflict
The adult learner of today is identified as constantly holding various roles and
responsibilities in addition to their position as student (Deggs, 2011; Markle, 2015). Some of the
responsibilities that they hold may include financial independence, full-time employment, having
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dependents and being a single parent (Deggs, 2011). In addition, adult learners vary greatly in
regards to family life, vocational experiences and academic backgrounds (Deggs, 2011). With so
many individualized experiences, conflicts among role priorities are likely to arise and create
even more barriers for adult students (Deggs, 2011; Markle, 2015). Examples of adult student
barriers include demands for energy and time, establishing financial security, community and job
demands, caring for family relationships and questioning vocational choices (Deggs, 2011).
Gail Markle’s (2015) research concerning non-traditional college students further
expands to examine the concept of interrole conflict, which views the various demands presented
to students in the domains of family, work and school. Although the literature identifies how all
adult learners experience interrole conflict, women experience higher levels of conflict “...due to
their internalization of the intensive mothering and ideal student roles” (Markle, 2015, p. 270).
According to Markle’s (2015) results, women’s higher levels of interrole conflict, attributed to
high performance expectations for work, family and school, put them at especially higher risk
than men to academically withdrawal. This gender differentiation regarding interrole conflict is
extremely important to acknowledge as student affairs professionals work with adult students.
Interestingly, research by Barbara Merrill (2015) challenges traditional views of adult
learners who decide not to complete an academic program. Students who withdraw from their
program early identified as being prepared to develop their roles within work and family contexts
because of the learning and benefits gained academically, despite early withdrawal (Merrill,
2015). Both students who completed the program and withdrew felt that they experienced
positive effects in both agency and determination academically, as well as in roles outside of
higher education (Merrill, 2015). Since Merrill’s research only focused on a small sample size of
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adult learning students, this may be a gap in the literature that requires further study.
Sense of Connection
Many adult learners have been away from college for an extended period of time and
require support services from the university in which they are enrolled to help them be
academically successful and feel connected (Gallagher & Mishra, 2013; Karmelita, 2017;
Markle, 2015). In Fundamental Elements of Transition Program Design, author Courtney
Karmelita (2017) discusses how the adult learner’s transition back into academics can be
supported by the institution, providing a sense of mattering and connection for each student.
Through utilizing both Schlossberg’s Transition Theory and Cross’s description of adult learner
barriers, Karmelita (2017) identifies how relating curriculum to real-life experiences, fostering
effective relationships and connecting students relationally can help adult learners transition into
academics, while decreasing barriers. Through an adult learner’s transition into school, peer
support and reflections on life histories continually connect students with a sense of purpose,
despite that transition being identified as non-linear or punctual (Fragoso, 2013).
The theme of connection for adult learners echoed in many ways throughout the
literature. Miller (2017) discussed how non-traditional adult learners want to connect their
educational experiences to their real-world experiences. “Adult students want to be treated with
respect and dignity and want to contribute to their classroom experience,” stated Miller (2017, p.
106). When adult students feel respected in the classroom, it can build a foundation for ongoing
connection between faculty and students, suggests Miller (2017). Furthermore, in order for adult
learners to maintain a sense of connection, university faculty and staff must develop their skills
to provide better support services and ongoing orientation to adult learners (Miller, 2017).
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As suggested by both Karmelita (2017), Gallagher and Mishra (2013), university
professionals can gain a sense of adult learners’ success by simply assessing the level at which
they feel connected. By listening to the voices of the students (Gallagher and Mishra, 2013) and
focusing on the needs of the adult learners themselves (Karmelita, 2017), institutions can begin
to grasp how to innovate their academic programs, while maintaining a sense of connection.
Truly listening to the voice of the students is clearly identified as a priority within the theme of
connection across the literature: “These new adult learners bring learning styles and life
experiences that may either be critical foundations for future success or deeply entrenched
beliefs that hinder learning in the academic environment” (Kenner & Weinerman, 2011, p. 87).
A sense of connection is also identified within the literature as an entity that expands
beyond the academic program (Most, Kazmer & Marty, 2013). As students create social bonds
and find emotional support primarily among peers—as well as with faculty and staff—they are
able to maintain the bonds that they established during studies to create academic networks
within their professional and vocational lives (Most, Kazmer & Marty, 2013). Supporting a sense
of connection among students does not only help to facilitate academic success, but may also
attribute to success beyond the classroom, according to Most, Kazmer and Marty (2013).
Conclusion
It is evident through a review of the literature that non-traditional adult learners are
students who have individualized challenges and experiences that vary greatly from traditional
undergraduate students. Through reviewing the literature, we have learned about adult students’
characteristics of persistence, overcoming and resilience through low retention rates, hardships
with interrole conflict and the importance of facilitating a sense of connection for adult learners.
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Resources
Cotton, D. E., Nash, T., & Kneale, P. (2017). Supporting the Retention of Non-Traditional
Students in Higher Education Using a Resilience Framework. European Educational
Research Journal, 16( 1), 62-79.
Deggs, D. (2011). Contextualizing the perceived barriers of adult learners in an accelerated
undergraduate degree program. Qualitative Report, 16(6), 1540-1553.
Fragoso, A. (2013). The Transition of Mature Students to Higher Education: Challenging
Traditional Concepts?. Studies In The Education Of Adults, 45( 1), 67-81.
Gallagher, S., & Mishra, S. (2013). Your customer’s voice: An innovation roadmap for
professional education. Continuing Higher Education Review, 77-85.
Karmelita, C. (2017). Fundamental elements of transition program design. Adult Learning, 28( 4),
157-166.
Kenner, C., & Weinerman, J. (2011). Adult Learning Theory: Applications to Non-Traditional
College Students. Journal Of College Reading And Learning, 41( 2), 87-96.
Markle, G. (2015). Factors influencing persistence among nontraditional university students.
Adult Education Quarterly: A Journal of Research and Theory, 65(3), 267-285.
Merrill, B. (2015). Determined to Stay or Determined to Leave? A Tale of Learner Identities,
Biographies and Adult Students in Higher Education. Studies In Higher Education,
40(10), 1859-1871.
Miller, N. (2017). A model for improving student retention in adult accelerated education
programs. Education, 138(1), 104-114.
Most, L. R., Kazmer, M. M., & Marty, P. F. (2013). Intangible factors influencing the successful
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completion of graduate LIS coursework by non-traditional students: A case of two
IMLS-funded scholarship projects. Journal of Education for Library and Information
Science, 54( 3), 205-219.
