Dictionary of Japanese Grammar Series Checklist

Grammatical Concept Usage

あげる (1) gives s.t. to s.o
あげる (2) gives some action as a favor
間・あいだ(に) space between two temporal or physical points
あまり (not) very much; (not) very
ある (1) be; exist; have -inanimate
ある (2) have been done; be done
あとで take place after
ば preceding clause expresses a condition
only; just; be ready to do s.t.; have just done s.t.; just
ばかり did s.t.; be just going s.t.; about
ばよかった speaker's regret
だい WH-question - informal male
だけ limit upon something growing, expanding
だけで(は)なく～(も) Not only X but also Y
conjecture not based on particular information,
だろう evidence
出す・だす Something latent is realized.
で (1) location- not location of existence.
で (2) use of something for doing something.
で (3) weak casual relationship
time something terminates or amount of time activity
で (4) has taken
でも even
asks about state of someone/something or way of
どう doing something
へ direction toward which movement or action
が (1) subject
が (2) combines two sentences
がる person other than the speaker show signs of ~
ごろ approximately
ごとに regularly in succession after temporal, spatial interval
始める・はじめる begins to do something or be in some state
expectation something will take place or took place or
はず s.o./s.t. is or was in some state
ほど extent or degree s.o./s.t. does s.t. or is in some state
ほうがいい strongly suggested someone do something
comparing two, one is in some state or does
~ほうが~より something more
欲しい・ほしい (1) something desired
someone (who is not higher in status than the
欲しい・ほしい (2) speaker) to do something.
一番・いちばん superlative
someone or something moves away from speaker or
行く・いく (1) speaker's viewpoint
action or state keeps changing from the point in time
行く・いく (2) speaker first describes action
いる (1) animate exists
S.o. or s.t. is doing s.t. started some time ago, or is in
いる (2) state created by an action some time ago
要る・いる (3) Someone, something needs something
自分・じぶん (1) refers (back) to human subject speaker is empathizing

自分・じぶん (2) refers (back) to human subject speaker is empathizing

か (1) alternative
か (2) preceding sentence is interrogative
か(どうか) embedded yes-no question
かい yes-no question informal male speech
かもしれない Can't tell if ~
から (1) starting point or source
から (2) After/since s.t. takes place
から (3) reason or a cause
かしら idea female speaker wonders about s.t.
方・かた way or a manner one does s.t
かわりに s.t. (including an action) replaces s.t. else
けれども combines two sentences
聞こえる・きこえる s.t. is passively, spontaneously audible
嫌いだ・きらいだ s.t. or s.o. is what s.o. does not like
こと (1) thing which is intangible.
speaker's relative lack of empathy with the content of
こと (2) the sentence he/she is nominalizing
ことがある (1) there was a time when ~
ことがある (2) there are times when ~
ことが出来る・できる doing s.t. is possible
event takes places as if spontaneously, irrespective of
ことになる the speaker's volition
ことにする volitional decision to do s.t. is made / decide to
indeed one does s.t. Alright, (but ~); indeed ~ (but ~);
ことは do ~(but ~)
下さい・ください polite request
suffix attached to the first/last name of a male equal
君・くん or first/last name of person status/rank lower than
speaker's
くらい approximately; about
呉れる・くれる (1) give
do s.t. (for me or s.o.); do me or s.o. a favour by doing
呉れる・くれる (2) s.t.
来る・くる (1) come; visit; show up
来る・くる (2) come about; grow; come to; begin to
まだ still; (not) yet
まで as far as; till; up to; until; through; even
までに by; by the time (when)
前に・まえに before; in front of
毎・まい every; per
まま as it is; unchanged; undisturbed; leave as is; remain
~ましょう I/We will do s.t.; Let's do s.t.
見える・みえる s.o. or s.t. is passively/spontaneously visible
見る・みる do s.t. to see what it's like or what will happen
も (1) X is also true
even; as many/much/long/...as; (not) even (one);
も (2) (not) any
もう (not) anymore; (not) any longer; already; yet; now
~も~も both ~ and ~; neither ~ nor
もの（だ） because; how could~!; used to; should like to; should
もらう (1) get; receive; be given
もらう (2) get; receive; be given
な don't do ~
など and so on; and the like; for example; things like~
ながら while; over; with
~ないで do not do s.t. and; without doing ~
~なければならない have to; must; need
なくなる not ~ any more
なくて indicates a cause/reason for a state or action
なら if
～なさい polite imperative
request for confirmation or agreement from hearer
ね about some shared knowledge
に (1) point of time s.t. takes place
に (2) indirect object
に (3) agent or source in passive, causative constructions
に (4) on; onto
に (5) to do s.t.; in order to do s.t.
に (6) in; at; on
に (7) place toward which s.o. or s.t moves
に違いない・にちがいない there is no mistake
難い・にくい s.t. or s.o. is hard to ~
～にしては contrary to generally agreed upon standard
～にする s.o. has decided on s.t
の (1) 's; of; in; at; for; by; from
の (2) one
の (3) that ~; to do s.t.; doing s.t
の (4) it is that ~
The explanation is that ~; The reason is that ~; The
のだ fact is that ~; It is that ~
ので so; since; because
even though; despite the fact that ~; although; but; in
のに (1) spite of the fact that ~
in the process of doing ~; (in order) to do ~; for the
のに (2) purpose of ~

it is ~ that ~; the one who ~ is ~; the place where ~ is ~;

～のは～だ the reason why ~ is ~; the time when ~ is ~; what ~ is ~

お prefix expresses politeness

を (1) direct object
を (2) in; on; across; through; along; over
を (3) location from which some movement begins
を (4) cause of some human emotion
多い・おおい a lot
おく do s.t. in advance for the future convenience
speaker's respect for someone when describing
お～になる person's action or state
speaker's politeness to someone when describing the
お～する speaker's action or state that involves or affects that
person
終わる・おわる finish doing ~
られる (1) state or an action cannot be controlled by s.o. or s.t
られる (2) be able to do s.t.; can do s.t.; be -able; ~ can be done

~ish; like a ~; typical of ~; appropriate for~; becoming

らしい
of ~
Relative Clause Relative Clause
-さ -ness; -ly
A suffix (originally meaning 'appearance') that
-様・-さま indicates the speaker's / writer's politeness towards
s.o.
させる to make (someone) do; to allow (someone) to
せっかく with effort; at great pain; take the trouble to do ~
し and what's more; not only ~ but also ~; so
attached to the stem of an Adj (い) to indicate s.t. that
-しい one cannot objectively measure on any scale (e.g.
human emotion)
attached to the stem of an Adj (い) to indicate s.t. that
--しい one cannot objectively measure on any scale (e.g.
human emotion)
しか nothing/nobody/no ~ but; only
しまう have done s.t.; finish doing s.t.; finish s.t. up
知る・しる get to know
そうだ (1) I hear that ~; I heard that ~; People say that ~
～そうだ (2) look; look like; appear; seem; feel like
それで and; because of that; that is why; therefore; so
それでは If that is the case, / if so; then; well then
それから after that; and then; in addition to that
それなら If that is the case, / then; in that case
それとも or; either ~ or ~
そして and; and then
過ぎる・すぎる too; do s.t. too much/often; over-
好きだ・すきだ like; be fond of
少ない・すくない few; a small number of; little; a small quantity of ~
する (1) do; make; play; play the role of ~; wear
する (2) have
する (3) fear; smell; hear
する (4) cost; lapse
すると thereupon ~; then ~; and ~
desire to do s.t. / want (to do s.t.); would like (to do
たい s.t.)
堪らない・たまらない unbearable ~; extremely; be dying to do ~
on account of ~; for the benefit of ~; for the good of ~;
為（に）・ため（に） for the sake of ~; on behalf of ~; for the purpose of ~;
in order to ~; because of ~; owing to ~
～たら if; when; after
～たらどうですか Why don't you do ~?; What about doing ~?
～たり～たりする do things like ~ and ~; sometimes ~ and sometimes ~
-たって even if ~
-て and; -ing
ても even if; although
～てもいい may; It is all right if
と (1) and
と (2) with; as; from
と (3) that; with the sound of; in the manner of
A subordinate conjunction which marks a condition
と (4) that brings about an noncontrollable event or state.
～と言えば・～といえば speaking of ~
～という called; that says ~; that
とか and; or
時・とき at the time when; when
ところだ (1) ~ is (in) a place where it takes ~ to get to
state where just about to/ has done s.t., or has been
ところだ (2) doing s.t
～として as; in the capacity of
～としては for
intend to ~; be convinced that ~; believe; feel sure
積もり・つもり about ~; be going to; mean
-って (1) speaking of ~ (colloquial)
-って (2) that
うちに while; before; during
は (1) talking about ~; as for ~; the
わ (2) weak assertive or volitional by female speaker
～は～だ X~is
～は～が relates a non-controllable state of s.t. or s.o. to a topic

cannot do s.t.; must not do s.t.; Don't do s.t.; should

～はいけない not do s.t.
分かる・わかる be comprehensible; understand; can tell; figure out
no wonder; so it means that ~; that's why; should ~; I
わけだ
take is that ~; naturally
suffix attached to names of stores, inns and Japanese-
-屋・-や style restaurants or to persons engaged in certain
occupations
や and -in-exhaustive
やはり still; also; after all; as expected; you know
-易い・-やすい easy to; ready to; be apt to; prone to; do s.t. easily
I tell you; I'm tell you; you know; contrary to what you
よ think
ようだ look like; look as if; be like; appear; seem
ように (1) so that
ように (2) as; like
～ように言う・～ようにいう tell ~ to ~; say ~ in such a way

reach the point where ~; come to ~; it has come to be

～ようになる that ~; have finally become
do ~ in such a way that ~; see to it that ~; make sure
～ようにする that ~; bring it about that ~
より (1) than; rather ~ than ~; more ~ than ~
より (2) in ~ of; inside; outside; before; after
～ようと思う・～ようとおも ~that ~ will
う
ずつ by; at a time.
A structure indicating that s.t. happens in proportion
~ば~ほど to the increase of extent/degree of action or state.
 compound/conjunction used to connect two
nouns/two sentences, first of which s.t. normally
~ばかりか~（さえ） expected and second of which s.t. normally
unexpected.
auxiliary expresses speaker's judgment s.o./s.t. should
べきだ do s.t. or should be in some state
－分 A suffix which indicates the amount of s.t.
conjunction expresses s.t. contrasted with what is
だが expressed in previous sentence - but; however; yet;
nevertheless

coordinate conjunction indicating even if one accepts

premise expressed in preceding sentence(s) one
だからと言って
cannot jump to expected conclusion from the
premise
A phrase which expresses that idea that just doing s.t.
だけで is enough for s.t.
A suffix that indicates that s.t./s.o. is covered or filled
－だらけ with s.t. Undesirable
A particle which indicates a basic quantity, for each of
で which certain amount is associated
auxiliary indicates writer's conjecture not based on
であろう any particular information or evidence
A copula which is used in formal writing and formal
である speech.
A conjunction indicating that s.o./s.t. is very far from
どころか an expected state

An adverb to indicate that one cannot make a definite

どうも statement about s.t. due to lack of hard evidence

A structure that indicated an exlamation about the

どんなに－（こと）か degree to which an action or state takes/took place
adverb indicates speaker/writer's feeling that no
どうせ matter what she/he does or how he/she does it, the
situation will not change
風に With an appearance/style/tone/manner of
A suffix to express an undesirable tendency in s.o or
－がち s.t.
 auxiliary adjective expresses the idea that for s.o. to
－がたい do s.t. is virtually impossible or impossible
adverb introduce event which takes place contrary to
逆に expectation/intention, or action/event which is
converse to stated in preceding sentence/clause

以外 A dependent noun which means "s.t. / s.o. other than"

conjunction indicating speaker/writer's feeling that

there should be a very strong logical/natural
以上（は） connection between what precedes the conjunction
and what follows it
An adverb that indicates the speaker/writer's emotive
いかにも
conviction
Imperative Verb forms which indicate commands or requests
一方で（は）－他方で（は） A structure used to describe two concurring,
contrastive actions / states of s.o. or s.t.

suffix which indicates the idea of "from the viewpoint

－上 of," "for the sake of," "for the reason," or "in terms of”

Contrary to one's expectation an opposite result

かえって comes about
conjunction expresses idea “as long as (a certain
限り condition is met)” or “as long as (=to the extent)”
A suffix which expresses the idea of "(last) only until"
限り (2) or "limited"
structure to mark two choices/possibilities about
－か－か which speaker/writer is not sure
sentence final particle indicates self-addressed
かな question or a question addresses to an ingroup
member
An adverb that indicates that the proposition
必ずしも expressed in the sentence is not always true
An auxiliary expressing that s.o. cannot do s.t. even if
－かねる she/he wants to do it
－から－に至るまで A structure that expresses a wide range of things.
A structure that expresses coverage from one time /
－から－にかけて location into the other
 conjunction which introduces reason for s.o.'s action
からと言って or for s.o.'s having some idea, and conveys
disapproval of the action or idea
auxiliary indicating writer's conjecture not based on
かろう any particular information or evidence
方をする A phrase to indicate a manner of doing s.t
A conjunction to indicate the speaker's assertion that
かと言うと a popular belief is not righ
action/state that is expressed in the subordinate
clause is balanced by another action/state expressed
（の）代わりに in the main clause, or s.t s.o. that is replaced by s.t. /
s.o. else
結果 A noun which expresses the idea of “as a result of”
adverb indicates s.t. exceeds the speaker's and / or
結構 hearer's expectation to a considerable degree
A demonstrative adjective which indicates a time or
この time period around the moment of speech
A demonstrative which refers to s.o. or s.t. mentioned
こうした as an example in previous discourse

こそ A particle which emphasizes a word, phrase, or clause

こと An auxiliary noun to express a command
A compound particle which indicates a means or a
ことで cause
A phrase which is used to present an event as the
ことによる cause of s.t.
A phrase which expresses the idea that there is no
ことはない need to do s.t. or that there is no possibility of doing
s.t.
－く A continuative form of an i-type adjective

conjunction expresses speaker's contempt, anger, or

くせに disagreement about s.o.'s actions, behavor, or state

までもない There is no point in going as far as to do s.t.

An auxiliary which expresses the speaker's negative
まい volition or conjecture
An adverb that indicates the speaker's strong belief
まさか that s.t. is not expected to (have) become a reality
 A phrase indicating that although s.o. / s.t. (or some
ましだ situation) is not satisfactory it is better than s.o. / s.t.
Else

A conjunction which connects two choices or

または possibilites expressed by noun phrases or sentences

－目 A suffix which represents an ordinal number

A suffix which forms a compound that means a side of
－面 X, or an aspect of X
The speaker's strong determination to achieve s.t. for
みせる others to see
A particle which implies that s.t. else is also (not) the
も
case
A structure which expresses the idea that a certain
－も－ば amount of s.t. is sufficient to do s.t.
A structure which presents two states or actions of
－も－も s.o. or s.t.
An exclamatory sentence particle which is used in
なあ informal male speech
A compound particle that indicates an approximate
などと quote of words or ideas
A disjunctive conjunction used normally in written
ながら（も） Japanese with the meaning of 'although'
A double negative phrase used to make a conditional
ないことも / はない affirmative statement
An adverb used to indicate the speaker's feelings that
なかなか s.t. is impressive or his annoyance at slowness in
achieving s.t.

continuative form of nai in written Japanese (to

indicate a reason/cause for what follows if nai is
－なく attached to Adj(i / na) and contrast if it is attached to
N + Copula)
A phrase that indicates the speaker's uncertainty
何でも about s.t.
an adverb that indicates the speaker's emotive feeling
何しろ about some extreme state of affairs
A phrase that is used to express insurmountable
ならない psychological or physical feelings
 A phrase to indicate two representative choices /
－なり－なり examples
－ねばならない A phrase that indicates duty, obligation or necessity
なりに In a way / style that is proper to s.o. / s.t.
なしでは If s.t. / s.o. is missing – without
A sentence-final particle that expresses the speaker's
に feeling of great regret or sympathy
A compound particle that indicates occasion of doing
に当たって/当たり s.t. or of having done s.t. in formal Japanese
に反して/反する Contrary to or in contrast to
phrase used to indicate that an action / state
にほかならない mentioned in the topic phrase or clause is nothing
but s.t.
Not limiting s.t. to ~ not limited to ~ (but also); not
に限らず only ~(but also)
A compound particle to show that only X is different
に限って from others
に関して/関する Related to – concerning; with regard to; about; on
A compound particle to express replacement of
に代わって substitution of a regular person / thing by s.o. / s.t.
に比べると/比べて If we compare (it) with / to; comparing (it) with
にもかかわらず Without any relation to a preceding event / situation
にも基づいて/基づく With s.t. as a basis
A phrase that expresses the time when an
になると uncontrollable state or a habitual action occurs
A compound particle which indicates the place of an
において/おける action / event, a state or time
S.t. spontaneously and gradually occurs in
に従って/従い accordance with some change
S.t. or s.o. is nothing more than what is stated in terms
に過ぎない of amount, degree, status, significance, etc.
Regarding s.t. / s.o. one opposes, compares, or shows
に対して/対し interest in regarding s.t. / s.o. one opposes, compares
or shows interest in
From the standpoint of; so far as s.o. (or s.t.) is
にとって concerned
について Concerning s.t. / s.o.
につき A compound particle which expresses a rate or ratio
 A phrase used to indicate that a change occurs in
につれて/つれ accordance with another simultaneous change
A conjunction / compound particle to indicate a
には purpose for doing s.t.
A particle that indicates means, cause, agent of
にとって/より passive sentence, or dependency on a situation
A phrase indicating that s.t. takes place or does not
の関係で take place because of s.t.
のこと things of / about
because it is a matter of X with which / whom s.t. is
のことだから habitually the case
A particle which expresses a limit imposed upon an
のみ
action, event or a state
Under some object; under the control or influence of
の下で s.o. or s.t.
As far as ~ is concerned – as far as ~ is concerned; as
の上では far as ~ goes; from the viewpoint / standpoint of;
according to; in terms of
A structure which focuses on a time when s.t. takes
－のは－のことだ place
－ぬ An archaic auxiliary that indicates negation
A phrase which expreses the speaker's respect for
お－だ someone when describing that person's action or
state
をはじめ（として） A phrase that is used to give a primary example
お－下さい A phrase which expresses a highly polite request
A verb that indicates what the speaker / writer feels
思われる spontaneously or his / her hesitation about asserting
himself / herself
おり Vmasu of the auxiliary verb oru – be ~ and
A compound particle that is used to indicate a
を通して medium through which s.t. is done or time through
which s.t. takes place

An auxiliary which expresses the idea that s.o. or s.t.

っぱなし keeps doing s.t., or s.o. leaves s.t. in an improper state
 suffix indicates s.o./s.t. has some distinctive
っぽい characteristic or an attribute identified by a noun. an
adjective, or a verb to which the suffix is attached
During a certain amount of time (s.t. has continued up
来 until the moment of speech or s.t. has never been like
the current state)
phrase signals referent of the following noun phrase is
例の definite and that the speaker expects the hearer to
understand what the referent is
A question which functions as a forceful statement
Rhetorical Question with no expected response
A structure that is used to indicate that s.t. animate
ろくに－ない does not or cannot do s.t. satisfactorily / sufficiently /
properly

sentence-final particle in highly informal speech by

male speakers to express different degrees of
さ assertion ranging from a light touch comment up to
opposite or imposition

An emphatic particle which expresses the idea of

さえ “even” in non-conditional clauses (or sentences) or
the idea of “only” in conditional clauses
際（に） On the special occasion of / when

An adverb that expresses the speaker / writer's strong

さすが feeling that s.t. has turned out as s/he expected

A dependent noun expressing a cause which brings

せい about an undesirable result
An adverb that indicates the speaker / writer's
せめて minimally satisfactory level
conjunction/noun express action indicated by a
次第 preceding verb or an action implied by a preceding
noun is a prerequisite for another action
A conjunction which is used to provide additional
しかも important information
A conjunction that is used to indicate that a result /
したがって situation follows necessarily from the forefoing
situation
 structure expresses speaker/ writer cannot easily
accept the corollary from the preceding statement
そうかと言って owing to some circumstances, although he feels like
accepting it

A conjunction which connects a situation presented

そこで as a reason and an action taken because of that
situation
A conjunction which connects an event and an action
そこで (2) taken at the time of the event
conjunction to indicate in spite of the negative
そこを situation mentioned in the previous part of the
sentence/discourse some positive effort is made
そうになる A phrase expressing that s.t. almost happens
A conjunction which introduces an additional,
その上 emphatic statement
In spite of the circumstance expressed in the
それでも preceding sentence
conjunction used to indicate the level/degree of a
fact or a situation expressed in the second sentence is
それどころか far above or below the level/degree of a fact or a
situation expressed in the first sentence

An interjection which signals that the speaker is going

それが to provide an unexpected response to a question

A conjunction which is used to add more specific

それも information to information about a rather uncommon
action or state
A conjunction which introduces an additional item or
それに statement
conjunction introduces additional item or statement –
それと and; also; in addition; as well
An interjection which is used when the speaker
それは emphatically provides an expected response to a
question
それぞれ Each of two or more things / persons
すぐ Without having much temporal or physical distance
A conjunction to express that each time s.o. / s.t. does
たびに s.t., s.t. else takes place
ただ An adverb which emphasizes the idea of “only”
ただの Not deserving to be mentioned
確かに－が A structure which expresses the idea “indeed”
たところで Even if an action or a state were realized
て After / since a point in time at which s.t. takes place
A phrase which expresses the idea that s.o. does s.t.
て初めて or s.t. happens only after s.t. else happens or s.t. else
is done
A noun which expresses the idea of “a point of
点（で） argument; a point of evaluation; a point of view”
A conjunction which presents an action / state as a
ては topic about which a negative comment it given
A particle which makes an adverbial clause, with a
と verb of saying / thinking / understood after it

phrase used to express idea that s.o. does s.t. or s.t.

と同時に takes place at the same time as another action or
event, or that s.o. or s.t. is in two states simultaneously

A phrase which is used to clarify a statement in the

と言っても preceding discourse which might be misleading
A phrase which expresses a manner or a way in which
という風に s.o. does s.t.
A phrase which changes a sentence into a topic noun
ということは clause
A conjunction to indicate that an action / state takes
というのに place quite contrary to one's expectation
A structure which is used in interpreting, explaining,
というのは－ことだ or defining a word, a phrase, or a sentence
A phrase which is used when s.t. which s.o. has
と言うと mentioned causes an involuntary response
A phrase that is used to indicate more accurate
というより（は） characterization of s.o. or s.t.
A conjunction that is used to give an uncertain reason
とかで for s.t.
A dependent noun which is used to express the idea
ところ that when s.o. did s.t., s.t. took place as the result
 conjunction used to present what happened or what
ところが is in fact the case when something else was / is
expected
A conjunction is written Japanese that is used to
とも express a concession
A phrase which expresses the idea that s.o. or s.t.
となる becomes s.t.
A phrase which expresses the idea “when it comes
となると to” or “if it is true that”
dependent noun expresses the idea that s.o. does s.t.
通り（に） or s.t. takes place in the same way as s.t. else
とする (1) A phrase indicating that s.o. assumes s.t.
To have a sensory or psychological experience – feel
とする (2) ~; look ~
A noun / adverb which expresses the idea that 's.t.
途端（に） occurred the moment s.o. did s.t. or s.t. took place'
An adverb that is used to express the eventual arrival
とうとう of an expected situation
phrase used to express idea A and B share common
property or do same thing together, that two things
と共に take place at the same time, or that s.o. or s.t.
possesses two properties
とは限らない A phrase which expresses the idea “not necessarily”

An adverb that is used ot summarize or rephrase what

つまり has been mentioned / stated in the preceding context

(1) An auxiliary which expresses an action in progress;

つつ (2) a conjunction which is used to present two
concurrent actions
A compound particle that is used to express a
（の）上で preparatory action for a relatively important action
A conjunction which introduces an additional,
上（に） emphatic statement
得る　（うる・える） An auxiliary verb that expresses possibility
Vmasu A continuative form of a verb which means “V and...”
Vmasu as a Noun Vmasu used as a regular noun
 A particle which emphatically affirms or negates the
は proposition represented by the preceding verbal and
other related elements
An adverbial phrase that conveys the meaning of 'not
は言うまでもなく to speak of s.t. / s.o.
A phrase which is used to deny what is implied in the
わけではない previous or following statement
phrase negates existence of reason to believe s.o.
does s.t. or is in some state, or s.t. takes place; or
わけがない which negatives a possibility of s.o.'s doing s.t. or
being in some state, or s.t.'s taking place
A phrase which is used to indicate that one cannot do
わけにはいかない
s.t. due to an external circumstance
To cause s.t. / s.o. to move to a place or to do / eat /
やる (1) drink s.t.
auxiliary verb expresses idea that s.o. does s.t.
やる (2) undersirable to s.o. else when he/she knows his/her
action will cause hardship or trouble
adverb to indicate s.t. desirable has been finally
やっと achieved or will be eventually achieved though with
great difficulty
A noun-forming suffix which means a way (of doing
－よう (1) s.t.)
An auxiliary verb that expresses the writer's
－よう (2) conjecture about some potentiality or his certainty
about a given state of affairs
An adverb which forms the comparative of an
より adjective or an adverb to mean 'more”
An auxiliary indicating that there is no other choice
ざるを得ない but to do s.t.
A sentence-final particle that emphasizes a male
ぞ speaker's emotion about s.t. in his monolouge or his
strong desire to draw s.o. else's attention
an adverb that expresses the speaker's/writer's desire
あえて or will to dare to do s.t. in spite of difficulty, danger or
opposition.
an adverb/conjunction indicating that one spends an
あげく（に） extended period of time before reaching a result.
 An adverb that represents the idea of "to the utmost
あくまでも degree".
a structure that indicates that s.t. is not necessarily
あながち～ない　 the way the speaker/writer thought.
a structure that indicates that s.t. is not necessarily
あながち～ない the way the speaker/writer thought.
あるいは a conjunction that marks alternatives
an adverb used to present a counter as if factual
あたかも statement emphatically
a conjunction indicating that a single factor causes a
ばかりに negative situation
conjunction emphasizes it is precisely because that;
ばこそ
reason only because; to the extent that
べからず・べからざる an auxiliary verb that indicates a strong prohibition
the verb modification form of the auxiliary bekida,
べく which is used to indicate a purpose or aim.
べくもない a phrase meaning “it is impossible to do s.t.”
a phrase used when s.t. occurs/occur exactly as
べくして expected
a conjunction to indicate that what follows is
ちなみに additional information related to the previously stated
main theme
a phrase that means “and as one would expect” or
だけあって “for good reason”.
だけに a phrase that carries the idea “as one would expect”.
a phrase expressing an evaluative comment regarding
だけのことはある how s.t. is contributing to an expected, remarkable
result.
a particle indicating that s.t. expressed by the
だに preceding verb alone produces a certain feeling or
the meaning (not) even doing s.t.
だの a conjunction that lists nouns/quotes inexhaustively.
だって (1) a conjunction that indicates a reason.
だって (2) a particle meaning “too” or “even”.
a conjunctive phrase that expresses the idea of
であれ concession.
a structure that means “no matter whether which one
～であれ～であれ is the case”
 phrase expressing speaker’s belief that s.o.’s action is
based on mistaken identity of himself/herself and also
でも・じゃあるまいし expressing speaker’s critical comments about s.o.’s
behavior.

structure indicating what expressed in

～でも[Wh-word]でも main/subordinate clause is applicable to anyone,
anything, any place or any time.
a phrase indicating that the speaker/writer chooses
どちらかと言うと one alternative over another in a tentative way.
どうか an adverb indicating a polite yet very strong request.
a phrase indicating that an action/state is simply
どころではない impossible due to an adverse situation.
a conjunction that indicates concession based on an
ども actual state or action
a structure indicating that no matter how hard s.o.
どうにも～ない may try, s.t. is impossible.
a suffix that adds the meaning of “the same
同士 things/people”.
a conjunction indicating that as soon as s.t. else
が早いか happens.
structure presenting counter factual situation which
～が～なら indicates things would be better if s.t. were really
good or appropriate.
auxiliary adjective indicates resemblance of s.t./s.o. to
ごとし s.t./s.o. or indicates how s.t./s.o. appears to
speaker/writer.
a conjunction used to contrast the positive and
反面 negative sides of s.t./s.o.
an adverb indicating that s.t. occurred as the writer
はたして expected, or expressing in a concession clause the
writer’s strong doubt.
an adverb indicating that s.t. is perceived to
ひいては eventually lead to a significant result.
一[Counter]として～ない a structure that means “not a single one".
adverb used when speaker intends to do s.t., or asks
ひとつ s.o. a favor, or makes suggestion or gives advice to
s.o.
 adverb meaning “partly” in context where s.o. gives
一つには one or two objectives, benefits, examples or reasons
for s.t.
an adverb indicating that an action or state is only
一応 temporary or tentative or is super ficially conceived.
a classic form of the adverb dono you ni “in what
如何（だ） way”.
a noun modifier that means either “what kind of” or
いかなる “no matter what”.
いかに an adverb meaning “how”.
いくら a Wh-word that asks about the amount of st.
an adverb indicating that s.o. feels that it is too late to
今更
do s.t..
a phrase indicating that “s.t. happens continuously”
一方（だ） or “so does s.t. Repeatedly”.
a conjunction used to present two concurrent
一方（で） actions/events/states or contrastive situations.
以来 an adverb meaning “since”
一切～ない a structure that means “not at all”.
一旦 an adverb meaning “once” or “for a short time”.
phrase signaling comparison (including use of simile
言ってみれば and metaphor), a definition, or an explanation.
phrase indicating what speaker/writer expresses is
言うまでもない generally known but that he/she presents it as a
reminder.
an adverb that means “if I were to say it some way (or
言わば a different way)”.
a noun modifier that means “known generally by this
いわゆる term”.
a dependent noun that is used to emphasize the
自体 referent of the preceding noun.
a phrase that indicates the extreme degree of the
限りだ speaker’s/writer’s emotion
a dependent noun that means s.t. is worth s.o.’s
甲斐 effort.
conjunctive phrase indicating speaker/writer
か否か wondering whether s.t. is the case or not.
 conjunctive phrase forms adverbial clause which
かのように describes way s.o./s.t. appears to writer, contrary to
reality.
a phrase that means either “in terms of” or “judging
から言って from”.
a phrase indicating that s.t. consists of more than one
からなる member/constituent.
subordinate conjunction meaning “now that,” “once
からには s.o. does / has done st.” or “so long as”.
a phrase that singles out s.t. for emphasis or presents
からして s.t. as a basis for judgment.
an adverb that indicates the speaker’s/writer’s
仮に
tentative supposition.
phrase indicating action or state in the dependent
かと思うと clause occurs very closely with another action or state
in the clause, or causes another.
a conjunction meaning “and” that connects words,
且つ・かつ phrases and sentences.
a phrase indicating that s.o. or s.t. has an undesirable
からいがある tendency.
conjunction indicating since s.t. occurred, nothing
has happened and resultant situation remains
（っ）きり unchanged; particle indicating strict limitation in
terms of number/quantity.
a colloquial sentence-final particle marking a
っけ question
a phrase that indicates that something or someone is
この上ない in an extreme state.
a sentence-final, exclamatory phrase used in written
ことか language.
ことから a phrase that expresses a reason or a cause.
a phrase that expresses the speaker’s/ writer’s
ことに emotion or subjective judgment.
a conjunction that means “in addition to what has just
加えて been mentioned”.
phrase indicating s.o.’s decision cope with a negative
まで（のこと）だ situation, or simple, straight forward reason for his/
her action.
 adverb expressing idea because one statement is
まして（や） true, the subsequent statement is naturally true.
an adverb/conjunction that indicates repetition or
また addition.
滅多に～ない a structure that indicates extremely low frequency.
a phrase indicating that s.t. can be (obviously)
見るからに recognized through visual cues.
structure to present typical examples of actions,
～も[V]ば～も[V] events, situations, people, or things among a number
of possibilities.
sentence-final phrase indicating one shouldn’t do
ものではない s.t., one could not possibly do s.t., or one naturally
cannot do s.t.
a rhetorical question marker that expresses a strong
ものか (1) negative intention or disagreement.
phrase indicating speaker wants to do s.t. or is
ものか (2) wondering what one he/she should choose.

conjunction indicating that preceding clause presents

ものなら hypothetical situation unlikely to become a reality.

ものの a conjunction that means “although”.

disjunctive coordinate conjunction expressing
ものを meaning of “although” with speaker’s strong feeling
of discontent
a phrase used to mention something important and
もさることながら then introduce something more signi ficant.
a conjunction to disjunctively connect two items or
もしくは ideas.
a conjunction used to add a comment indicating that
もっとも what the speaker/writer has just expressed is not
sufficient.
向け a suffix that adds the meaning of “aimed at”
adverb indicates one of two
things/people/characteristics has been chosen rather
むしろ than the other to express speaker’s/writer’s desire,
preference or judgment
a phrase that indicates the speaker/ writer hesitantly
ないでもない feels or expresses that s.t. is the case.
 a phrase that means “if s.t. has not taken place, s.t.
ないことには else won’t/can’t take place”.
adverbial phrase expressing speaker’s feeling
ないまでも although an ideal action or state isn’t possible, least
next best action or state is or should be available.

particle presents two possible choices or

minimum/maximum possible
ないし（は） numbers/lengths/weights/etc. of something; or
conjunction that links two possible actions or events.

phrase specifies space or time in/through which

中を s.o./s.t. does s.t. in the midst of; when; while;
through; among
なくして（は） a compound particle meaning “without s.t.”.
adverb indicating s.t. (including action/state) has
なまじ（っか） positive value which hasn’t been reached, causing s.t.
negative.
並み a noun suffix that adds the meaning “to match”.
何[(Number)+Counter] a phrase that indicates there is a large number of
も things, people, etc.
何～ない a structure indicating that s.t. exist at all.
a structure indicating that an action is taken for no
何も～ない good reason.
phrase to indicate the exact nature of s.t. represented
何らかの by noun cannot be specified.
a structure that is used to express a strong negative
何ら～ない statement.
なんて (1) a phrase used as the colloquial version of nan to.
colloquial particle to express strong feeling such as
なんて (2) astonishment, incredulousness, envy, disdain, dislike,
happiness, etc. that; things like
an adverb expressing that s.o. somehow does s.t., or
何とか s.t. somehow occurs.
adverb indicates action or state is still going on or
degree of s.t. increases; conjunction indicating
なお additional comment follows what has just been said in
preceding sentence.
an adverb indicating that the degree of s.t. increases
なおさら due to an additional circumstance.
ならでは（の） a phrase indicating s.t. is “impossible if it’s not X”.
a conjunction used to combine two nouns or noun
並びに phrases.
なり a conjunction meaning “soon after”.
adverb indicating speaker/writer af firms correctness
なるほど of s.t. he/she has heard/read/observed.
なしに an adverbial phrase meaning “without (doing) s.t.”.
なす a verb that means “to cause st. to happen”
an adverb indicating that the speaker/writer doesn’t
なぜか know the cause of/reason for s.t.
a structure used to introduce a reason for the
なぜなら（ば）～からだ statement in the preceding.
adverbial phrase used when situation looks as if s.o.
んばかり（に） were about to do s.t. or as if s.t. were about to occur
literally or figuratively.
願う・願います a verb that expresses a polite request.
にひきかえ a phrase that indicates a sharp contrast.
a compound particle that indicates an extreme
にいたっては example.
に関・拘・係わらず a compound particle that means “regardless of”
a compound particle that marks s.t. in which s.o.
にかけては excels or has confidence.
a phrase that indicates that it is not hard to imagine or
に難くない guess a situation.
a phrase indicating the speaker’s/writer’s strong
に決まっている conviction or motivation.
a phrase used to indicate that a state or action is
に越したことはない more desirable.
a phrase that is used when s.t. or some situation is
に・ともなると perceived to be special.
compound particle indicates destination/direction of
に向けて・に向けた movement, the target/direction of an action, or
goal/purpose of an action.
a sentence structure meaning “s.o. cannot manage to
～に～ない do s.t.”
a phrase that means s.t. unusual happens or s.o. does
に（も）なく s.t. Unusual
に応じて・応じて a compound particle that means “in response to”.
 a conjunctive phrase that carries the meaning of
にしろ・せよ concession.
にしたところで a compound particle that means “even” or “also”.
compound particle indicates period of time/stage (in
にして (1) life) which some surprising action or state takes.
conjunction meaning “and”, used to combine two
にして (2) noun phrases or na-adjectives.
a compound particle indicating that s.t. Unexpected
にしてからが occurs.
Conjunction represents idea of “even if s.o. decides
にしても to do s.t.,” or “even if/though s.o. decides that s.t. is
true/the case”.
a phrase indicating that s.t. goes beyond a
にとどまらず spatial/temporal boundary.
conjunction indicating each time s.o. perceives s.t.
につけ he/she feels or thinks s.t. associated with it.
compound particle indicating s.t. Takes place over a
にわたって・わたる particular span of time or physical space.
a compound particle that means “without depending
によらず on”.
compound particle used to identify source of
によると information provided in the sentence.
a phrase that is used in formal writing to mean “not
のみならず only”.
phrase emphasize that s.t./s.o. is/was in an extreme
のなんのって state or that s.o. so does/did s.t. to a great extent
の無さ a phrase that indicates a state where s.t. is lacking.
structure states what is said by s.o. in order to express
～の～のと speaker’s disagreement or dissatisfaction.
phrase meaning for “so. to try to do st.” or for “s.t. to
んとする be about to occur”.
を中心に a phrase that means “with s.t./s.o. at the center”.
compound particle introduces a medium through s.o.
を介して/介した does s.t. or s.t. happens to s.o. or s.t.
a phrase that is used when one cannot control
を禁じ得ない emotions or reactions caused can by emotions.
 compound particle meaning “concerning; over,” used
をめぐって・めぐる with issue over which different opinions, ideas, etc.,
are expressed or exchanged.
adverb indicates feelings of nostalgia or regret when
思えば recollecting one’s past experiences.
phrase indicating s.o. does s.t. bravely/fearlessly in
をものともせず spite of unfavorable circumstances.
a phrase indicating that the subsequent statement is
思うに the speaker’s/writer’s personal view.
をおいてほかに（は）～な a phrase that means “there is nothing else besides
い X”.
noun indicating special/uncommon and primarily
desirable occasions which s.o. takes advantage of, or
折(に) where s.o. is expected to do s.t. or where s.t. desirable
takes place
恐れがある a phrase that means “it is feared (that)".
a compound particle that means “without
を問わず questioning”.
及び a particle that connects two nouns or noun phrases.
an adverb representing the ideas “all; totally; mostly;
およそ approximately”.
compound particle expresses s.o.’s indifference to
をよそに warnings, criticism, advice, accusations, opposition,
anxiety, etc.
adverb meaning “truly,” when describing the way
さも s.o.’s action or behavior appears.
an adverb/conjunction that represents the idea of
更に “additionally” or “further”.
interjection indicating speaker/writer is going to talk
さて about something different.
an adverb that is used when the speaker thinks that
さぞ（かし） s.o. or s.t. is in an extreme state.

sentence-modifying adverb used when speaker/writer

そもそも（の） comments on or questions a fundamental point.

a phrase used to refer strictly to the preceding noun

そのもの (phrase) or adjective.
 adverbial phrase indicating degree of s.t. is
それだけ proportionate to degree of the state, action or event
mentioned in preceding sentence.
phrase representing idea s.o./ s.t. does s.t. or is in a
それなりに・の state in his/her/ its own way, or in way suitable to
situation or generally expected from situation.
noun indicates end of period or time after long, hard
末（に） mental or physical work.
a verb that means “to be finished; to do (in the sense
済む of being enough)”.
conjunction indicating a condition, restriction,
但し proviso, etc., to the preceding statement..
noun modifier used when speaker thinks little of
たかが referent of modified noun/noun phrase.
a conjunction indicating that a situation or condition
たなり（で） remains unaltered.
a phrase that indicates the smallest amount, number
単位で or unit of s.t. (or people) involved.
単に an adverb that means “simply”
compound particle to present subtopic about which
たるや the writer provides of surprising or impressive
information.
the informal form of te mo. even if; if; whether; no
（っ）たって (1) matter what/who/how/etc.
the contracted form of to itte mo or shite mo. to even
（っ）たって (2) if (5.0. says that); even if s.o. tries to; although
phrase representing idea that s.o. cannot just keep
てばかりはいられない doing st. or waste time being consumed by some
emotion.

～ても～ても a structure meaning “even if s.o. does s.t. repeatedly”.

a phrase that represents emotions the speaker/writer

て仕方がない cannot control or sensations/situations he/she
cannot bear.
a phrase that is used when s.o. cannot be doing s.t. or
てはいられない be in some state due to a given situation.
 phrase introduces reason when speaker/writer
とあって considers it natural that s.o. does s.t. or is in some
state, or that s.t. takes place for that reason.
a conditional phrase that indirectly presents a factual
とあっては situation as a reason.
a phrase that indicates that s.o. does s.t. in order to
とばかりに convey s.t. or in such a way that s.o. is convinced that
s.t. is the case.
phrase introduces noun (or noun phrase) to describe
とでも言うべき nature of s.o. or s.t. which could/may be called; which
can/could be described as
a conjunction that expresses the idea of “even
といえども
(though)”.
a structure that introduces multiple perspectives
～といい～といい when describing a person or a thing.
といった a compound particle that introduces examples.
phrase the speaker/writer uses to explain s.t. in a
といったところだ brief/rough manner.
conjunction used at the beginning of a sentence to
と言って convey the idea of “however”.
phrase to restate what was just said in order to be
と言うか more accurate or appropriate.

と言うのは phrase introduces reason for what has just been said.

structure indicating s.t. is the case not only for A and

~言わず~と言わず B but also for many other places, things, etc., of X,to
which A and B belong
phrase that introduces origins of names, theories,
ところから ideas and events.
phrase indicating subject does s.t. without paying
ともなく much attention, or that when, where, to whom, etc.,
s.t. took place is unclear.
ともすると phrase expresses idea s.t. is likely to take place
phrase that presents content of the referent of the
との following noun (e.g., a report, notice, news, view).
structure used to deny emphatically ability of s.o/s.t.
とても～ない or possibility of an event, state or action
 compound particle marking event, action or state
とは speaker/writer does not expect and that causes
him/her to feel some emotion
とは言え conjunctive phrase meaning “although it is said that”
adverb to describe s.o. doing s.t. without being able
つい to control himself/herself or used to indicate the
closeness of a time or a place.
phrase to express idea that s.o. does a second thing
ついでに at the same time as the first because it takes less time
or effort.
sentence-initial conjunction means “with regard to
ついては this,” referring to what is stated in the preceding
sentence.
(と言）ったらない Phrase to express strong sensation or emotion.
はあれ phrase expressing the idea “even though there is s.t.”

phrase used to present exception or an issue the

は別として speaker/writer does not intend to cover as part of a
larger statement
phrase conveys meaning “even if I/we accept s.t., s.t.
はいいとしても else is not acceptable”.
phrase used when s.t. is not only true with one thing
はおろか or person, but also with another thing or person that
is less expected or understandable.
phrase expresses idea s.t. is not in proportion to what
割に（は） one would normally expect.
structure emphatically presents actions, events or
～わ～わ states as examples or reasons, or indicates that s.o
does s.t. or s.t. happens to a great extent.
conjunction expresses idea s.t. happened or s.o. did
や否や・やいなや something immediately following another event or
action.
sentence-final particle marks self-addressed question.
やら I wonder (if)
structure to present things, events, actions, etc., as
～やら～やら examples, reasons or possibilities.
 conjunction presents undesirable situation, which is
ようでは assumed factual. if; if it is true that; if it is the case
that

conjunctive phrase presents undesirable hypothetical

ようものなら situation. if ~ happen to; if ~ at all; if ~ choose to

conjunctive phrase indicates concession: “even

ようにも（～ない） though s.o. tries to do s.t., he/she cannot do it for
some reason”.

より・のほか（に）（は）～な phrase conveys idea there is no other choice than to

do s.t., or that s.t. is true of only one of a select few
い things.
dependent noun marks content of what writer has
由 learned. (I heard / It is said / etc.) that
conjunctive phrase expresses idea of concession.
ようと・が even if; whatever/whoever/ etc.
故に conjunction presents reason or a cause.
phrase expresses idea s.o./s.t. necessarily or naturally
ずにはおかない causes s.t. to happen.
ずして phrase meaning “without doing s.t.”.
conjunctive phrase indicates negative concession:
ずとも “even if ~ not”. without ~ing; even if ~ not; if ~ not
 Intermediat Advanced Total
Basic e
0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%
Reference Volume Done
63 Basic
65 Basic
hysical points 68 Basic
72 Basic
73 Basic
76 Basic
78 Basic
dition 81 Basic
just done s.t.; just 84 Basic
87 Basic
90 Basic
anding 93 Basic
97 Basic
information, 100 Basic
103 Basic
105 Basic
ing. 106 Basic
107 Basic
unt of time activity 109 Basic
112 Basic
ething or way of 114 Basic
or action 116 Basic
118 Basic
121 Basic
w signs of ~ 123 Basic
126 Basic
oral, spatial interval 129 Basic
me state 131 Basic
ace or took place or 133 Basic
or is in some state 136 Basic
 mething 138 Basic
e or does 140 Basic
144 Basic
us than the 146 Basic
148 Basic
y from speaker or 149 Basic

m the point in time 152 Basic

153 Basic
e time ago, or is in 155 Basic
me ago
hing 157 Basic
aker is empathizing 159 Basic

aker is empathizing 162 Basic

164 Basic
e 166 Basic
169 Basic
ech 170 Basic
173 Basic
176 Basic
177 Basic
179 Basic
ut s.t. 181 Basic
183 Basic
.t. else 185 Basic
187 Basic
ible 188 Basic
190 Basic
191 Basic
with the content of 194 Basic
ng
196 Basic
198 Basic
 200 Basic
usly, irrespective of 202 Basic
e / decide to 204 Basic
); indeed ~ (but ~); 206 Basic
209 Basic
me of a male equal
/rank lower than 211 Basic

212 Basic
213 Basic
o. a favour by doing 216 Basic
219 Basic
to 221 Basic
224 Basic
even 226 Basic
228 Basic
231 Basic
233 Basic
eave as is; remain 236 Basic
240 Basic
sly visible 243 Basic
will happen 246 Basic
247 Basic
ot) even (one); 250 Basic
ready; yet; now 254 Basic
255 Basic
ould like to; should 257 Basic
261 Basic
263 Basic
266 Basic
e; things like~ 267 Basic
269 Basic
271 Basic
 274 Basic
277 Basic
e or action 279 Basic
281 Basic
284 Basic
ment from hearer 286 Basic
289 Basic
291 Basic
ve constructions 293 Basic
295 Basic
297 Basic
299 Basic
es 302 Basic
304 Basic
307 Basic
standard 309 Basic
310 Basic
312 Basic
315 Basic
318 Basic
322 Basic
on is that ~; The 325 Basic
328 Basic
~; although; but; in 331 Basic

) to do ~; for the 335 Basic

e place where ~ is ~; 337 Basic

en ~ is ~; what ~ is ~

343 Basic
347 Basic
r 349 Basic
ent begins 351 Basic
352 Basic
 354 Basic
nvenience 357 Basic
en describing 358 Basic

hen describing the

ves or affects that 360 Basic

362 Basic
olled by s.o. or s.t 364 Basic
ble; ~ can be done 370 Basic

ate for~; becoming 373 Basic

376 Basic
381 Basic
rance') that
oliteness towards 384 Basic

omeone) to 387 Basic

rouble to do ~ 393 Basic
o ~; so 395 Basic
to indicate s.t. that
n any scale (e.g. 397 Basic

to indicate s.t. that

n any scale (e.g. 397 Basic

399 Basic
sh s.t. up 403 Basic
406 Basic
say that ~ 408 Basic
like 410 Basic
herefore; so 413 Basic
l then 414 Basic
that 416 Basic
ase 419 Basic
421 Basic
422 Basic
 424 Basic
426 Basic
all quantity of ~ 427 Basic
wear 429 Basic
434 Basic
435 Basic
436 Basic
438 Basic
would like (to do 442 Basic
to do ~ 446 Basic
~; for the good of ~;
r the purpose of ~; 448 Basic
o~
452 Basic
doing ~? 457 Basic
~ and sometimes ~ 458 Basic
462 Basic
464 Basic
468 Basic
471 Basic
474 Basic
476 Basic
ner of 478 Basic
marks a condition 481 Basic
ble event or state.
484 Basic
486 Basic
488 Basic
491 Basic
get to 495 Basic
e s.t., or has been 496 Basic
501 Basic
502 Basic
elieve; feel sure 503 Basic
 507 Basic
510 Basic
512 Basic
516 Basic
ale speaker 520 Basic
521 Basic
s.t. or s.o. to a topic 525 Basic

n't do s.t.; should 528 Basic

an tell; figure out 529 Basic
's why; should ~; I 531 Basic

inns and Japanese-

aged in certain 535 Basic

536 Basic
u know 538 Basic
to; do s.t. easily 541 Basic
ontrary to what you 543 Basic
; seem 547 Basic
553 Basic
554 Basic
557 Basic

~; it has come to be 559 Basic

that ~; make sure 562 Basic

~ 564 Basic
er 567 Basic
569 Basic
572 Basic
pens in proportion Intermediat
6
f action or state. e
onnect two
h s.t. normally Intermediat
8
normally e

ment s.o./s.t. should 11 Intermediat

e
Intermediat
t of s.t. 16 e
ed with what is Intermediat
but; however; yet; 18 e

even if one accepts

ntence(s) one Intermediat
21
on from the e

a that just doing s.t. 23 Intermediat

e
is covered or filled 25 Intermediat
e
quantity, for each of 28 Intermediat
d e
ure not based on Intermediat
29
nce e
riting and formal Intermediat
31 e
s.t. is very far from Intermediat
34 e

not make a definite 36 Intermediat

hard evidence e

mation about the Intermediat

39
takes/took place e
eeling that no Intermediat
e/she does it, the 42 e
Intermediat
anner of 44 e
endency in s.o or Intermediat
47 e
 ea that for s.o. to Intermediat
50
possible e
s place contrary to Intermediat
vent which is 53 e
ntence/clause
Intermediat
.t. / s.o. other than" 60 e
iter's feeling that
al/natural Intermediat
64
es the conjunction e

er/writer's emotive 67 Intermediat

e
Intermediat
nds or requests 70 e
oncurring, Intermediat
74
or s.t. e

rom the viewpoint 76 Intermediat

n," or "in terms of” e

pposite result Intermediat

80 e
ng as (a certain Intermediat
82
=to the extent)” e
f "(last) only until" Intermediat
85 e
sibilities about Intermediat
87 e
lf-addressed Intermediat
o an ingroup 90 e

roposition Intermediat
92
ways true e
nnot do s.t. even if 96 Intermediat
e
Intermediat
ange of things. 99 e
e from one time / Intermediat
101 e
 on for s.o.'s action Intermediat
conveys 103 e

ure not based on 106 Intermediat

nce e
Intermediat
oing s.t 109 e
ker's assertion that 114 Intermediat
e
e subordinate
on/state expressed 116 Intermediat
s replaced by s.t. / e

Intermediat
f “as a result of” 121 e
peaker's and / or Intermediat
123
able degree e
ndicates a time or Intermediat
128
speech e
o. or s.t. mentioned 130 Intermediat
se e
Intermediat
d, phrase, or clause 132 e
Intermediat
mmand 135 e
tes a means or a Intermediat
137 e
an event as the Intermediat
143 e
that there is no Intermediat
ossibility of doing 146 e
Intermediat
jective 148 e
ontempt, anger, or 155 Intermediat
behavor, or state e
Intermediat
to do s.t. 159 e
peaker's negative Intermediat
161 e
er's strong belief Intermediat
165
ecome a reality e
s.o. / s.t. (or some Intermediat
tter than s.o. / s.t. 169 e

choices or Intermediat
172
ases or sentences e
Intermediat
al number 174 e
hat means a side of 176 Intermediat
e
n to achieve s.t. for 177 Intermediat
e
se is also (not) the Intermediat
179
e
ea that a certain Intermediat
184
. e
tes or actions of Intermediat
185 e
which is used in Intermediat
193 e
s an approximate Intermediat
197 e
rmally in written Intermediat
200
ough' e
make a conditional 203 Intermediat
e
eaker's feelings that Intermediat
at slowness in 206 e

Japanese (to
ollows if nai is Intermediat
t if it is attached to 211 e

r's uncertainty Intermediat

215 e
er's emotive feeling 217 Intermediat
s e
surmountable Intermediat
219 e
ative choices / Intermediat
223 e
Intermediat
ation or necessity 223 e
Intermediat
o. / s.t. 228 e
Intermediat
230 e
esses the speaker's 235 Intermediat
e
s occasion of doing 237 Intermediat
Japanese e
Intermediat
242 e
tion / state Intermediat
lause is nothing 246 e

~ (but also); not Intermediat

249 e
only X is different Intermediat
250 e
Intermediat
rd to; about; on 252 e
placement of Intermediat
254
hing by s.o. / s.t. e
Intermediat
ring (it) with 256 e
Intermediat
g event / situation 258 e
Intermediat
261 e
hen an Intermediat
263
action occurs e
tes the place of an 265 Intermediat
e
ccurs in Intermediat
269 e
at is stated in terms 271 Intermediat
ance, etc. e
compares, or shows Intermediat
opposes, compares 275 e

o. (or s.t.) is Intermediat

278 e
Intermediat
280 e
Intermediat
ses a rate or ratio 283 e
hange occurs in Intermediat
285
eous change e
e to indicate a Intermediat
289 e
use, agent of Intermediat
292
on a situation e
place or does not Intermediat
302 e
Intermediat
304 e
ich / whom s.t. is Intermediat
306 e
mposed upon an Intermediat
308
e
trol or influence of 310 Intermediat
e
~ is concerned; as Intermediat
standpoint of; 312 e

e when s.t. takes Intermediat

313 e
Intermediat
negation 315 e
ker's respect for Intermediat
rson's action or 318 e
Intermediat
mary example 321 e
Intermediat
polite request 322 e
aker / writer feels Intermediat
on about asserting 325 e
Intermediat
e ~ and 329 e
o indicate a Intermediat
or time through 330 e

dea that s.o. or s.t. 333 Intermediat

n an improper state e
distinctive Intermediat
ified by a noun. an 337 e
uffix is attached
t. has continued up Intermediat
has never been like 343 e

wing noun phrase is Intermediat

cts the hearer to 346 e

rceful statement Intermediat

352 e
that s.t. animate Intermediat
orily / sufficiently / 355 e

ormal speech by
degrees of Intermediat
358
h comment up to e

ses the idea of Intermediat

(or sentences) or 363 e
auses
Intermediat
370 e
ker / writer's strong 374 Intermediat
/he expected e

use which brings Intermediat

379 e
er / writer's Intermediat
383 e
ndicated by a Intermediat
d by a preceding 386 e
action
vide additional Intermediat
391 e
ate that a result / Intermediat
he forefoing 395 e
r cannot easily
eding statement Intermediat
397
ough he feels like e

tuation presented Intermediat

ecause of that 401 e

event and an action 406 Intermediat

e
the negative Intermediat
s part of the 408 e
effort is made
Intermediat
t happens 410 e
n additional, Intermediat
414 e
ssed in the Intermediat
418 e
evel/degree of a
second sentence is 421 Intermediat
e of a fact or a e
tence

he speaker is going 423 Intermediat

e to a question e

d more specific
rather uncommon 425 Intermediat
e

n additional item or 428 Intermediat

e
item or statement – 431 Intermediat
e
n the speaker Intermediat
d response to a 435 e
Intermediat
ns 437 e
Intermediat
physical distance 440 e
time s.o. / s.t. does 442 Intermediat
e
 Intermediat
dea of “only” 445 e
Intermediat
449 e
Intermediat
ea “indeed” 451 e
Intermediat
alized 452 e
Intermediat
ch s.t. takes place 455 e
that s.o. does s.t. Intermediat
appens or s.t. else 457 e

f “a point of Intermediat
458
point of view” e
ction / state as a Intermediat
462
ment it given e
al clause, with a Intermediat
464
ood after it e

o. does s.t. or s.t. Intermediat

other action or 471 e
ates simultaneously

statement in the Intermediat

475
be misleading e
er or a way in which 478 Intermediat
e
e into a topic noun 481 Intermediat
e
ction / state takes 484 Intermediat
ctation e
reting, explaining, Intermediat
487
entence e
hich s.o. has Intermediat
492
esponse e
ore accurate Intermediat
495 e
an uncertain reason 498 Intermediat
e
o express the idea Intermediat
500
ce as the result e
 happened or what Intermediat
else was / is 503 e

that is used to Intermediat

507 e
that s.o. or s.t. Intermediat
511 e
“when it comes Intermediat
512 e
a that s.o. does s.t. 514 Intermediat
as s.t. else e
Intermediat
es s.t. 518 e
l experience – feel 523 Intermediat
e
he idea that 's.t. Intermediat
526
or s.t. took place' e
he eventual arrival 528 Intermediat
e
B share common
r, that two things Intermediat
532
t s.o. or s.t. e

Intermediat
“not necessarily” 536 e
ze or rephrase what 539 Intermediat
e preceding context e

n action in progress; Intermediat

present two 543 e

o express a Intermediat
547
mportant action e
n additional, Intermediat
551 e
Intermediat
ssibility 553 e
Intermediat
h means “V and...” 556 e
Intermediat
561 e
ms or negates the Intermediat
eceding verbal and 564 e

he meaning of 'not 568 Intermediat

e
at is implied in the 575 Intermediat
e
n to believe s.o.
takes place; or Intermediat
578
.'s doing s.t. or e
place
that one cannot do 581 Intermediat
e e
ace or to do / eat / 584 Intermediat
e
.o. does s.t. Intermediat
she knows his/her 589 e
le
s been finally Intermediat
eved though with 591 e

s a way (of doing Intermediat

596 e
e writer's Intermediat
y or his certainty 599 e

rative of an Intermediat
602
ore” e
no other choice Intermediat
606 e
hasizes a male Intermediat
monolouge or his 609 e
ention
ker's/writer's desire
difficulty, danger or 3 Advanced

that one spends an 7 Advanced

aching a result.
 of "to the utmost 11 Advanced

s not necessarily 14 Advanced

t.
s not necessarily 14 Advanced
t.
es 16 Advanced
er as if factual 21 Advanced

gle factor causes a 25 Advanced

sely because that; 27 Advanced

that
rong prohibition 29 Advanced
uxiliary bekida, 32 Advanced
e or aim.
to do s.t.” 32 Advanced
cur exactly as 32 Advanced

t follows is
he previously stated 40 Advanced

would expect” or 45 Advanced

one would expect”. 47 Advanced
comment regarding
cted, remarkable 51 Advanced

ssed by the
certain feeling or 54 Advanced

tes inexhaustively. 57 Advanced

on. 60 Advanced
”. 63 Advanced
es the idea of 67 Advanced

whether which one 70 Advanced

 that s.o.’s action is
self/herself and also
ments about s.o.’s 74 Advanced

d in
able to anyone, 76 Advanced

er/writer chooses 78 Advanced

entative way.
ery strong request. 82 Advanced
state is simply 85 Advanced
tion.
ssion based on an 88 Advanced

er how hard s.o. 92 Advanced

the same 94 Advanced

on as s.t. else 99 Advanced

al situation which
s.t. were really 101 Advanced

blance of s.t./s.o. to
ppears to 103 Advanced

positive and 107 Advanced

red as the writer

ssion clause the 111 Advanced

ceived to 114 Advanced

ult.
e one". 117 Advanced
s to do s.t., or asks
r gives advice to 119 Advanced
t where s.o. gives
amples or reasons 122 Advanced

n or state is only 126 Advanced

ficially conceived.
you ni “in what 128 Advanced

“what kind of” or 132 Advanced

135 Advanced
ount of st. 138 Advanced
that it is too late to 141 Advanced

ens continuously” 146 Advanced

concurrent 149 Advanced

ve situations.
154 Advanced
159 Advanced
a short time”. 161 Advanced
uding use of simile 164 Advanced
explanation.
iter expresses is
resents it as a 167 Advanced

say it some way (or 170 Advanced

n generally by this 172 Advanced

emphasize the 174 Advanced

e degree of the 177 Advanced

is worth s.o.’s 179 Advanced

aker/writer 182 Advanced

or not.
l clause which
writer, contrary to 187 Advanced

ms of” or “judging 190 Advanced

s of more than one 192 Advanced

“now that,” “once 195 Advanced

ng as”.
mphasis or presents 199 Advanced

er’s/writer’s 201 Advanced

the dependent
other action or state 206 Advanced

connects words, 209 Advanced

has an undesirable 214 Advanced

ccurred, nothing
ion remains 219 Advanced
ct limitation in

marking a 223 Advanced

hing or someone is 226 Advanced

se used in written 230 Advanced

r a cause. 233 Advanced
er’s/ writer’s 235 Advanced

tion to what has just 240 Advanced

ope with a negative

d reason for his/ 243 Advanced
ne statement is 245 Advanced
naturally true.
tes repetition or 248 Advanced
y low frequency. 252 Advanced
(obviously) 254 Advanced

les of actions,
s among a number 258 Advanced

ne shouldn’t do
or one naturally 263 Advanced

xpresses a strong 266 Advanced

t.
o do s.t. or is 268 Advanced
d choose.

ing clause presents 272 Advanced

ecome a reality.

gh”. 274 Advanced

n expressing
er’s strong feeling 279 Advanced

ng important and
gni ficant. 283 Advanced

nect two items or 285 Advanced

ment indicating that

xpressed is not 288 Advanced

aimed at” 291 Advanced

been chosen rather 295 Advanced

s/writer’s desire,

r/ writer hesitantly 300 Advanced

se.
 taken place, s.t. 303 Advanced

er’s feeling
n’t possible, least 305 Advanced
ld be available.

ices or
307 Advanced
something; or
e actions or events.

hrough which
hen; while; 312 Advanced

hout s.t.”. 315 Advanced

ction/state) has
eached, causing s.t. 318 Advanced

g “to match”. 323 Advanced

arge number of 326 Advanced
at all. 328 Advanced
n is taken for no 331 Advanced

e of s.t. represented 333 Advanced

a strong negative 334 Advanced

sion of nan to. 337 Advanced
g feeling such as
vy, disdain, dislike, 339 Advanced

ehow does s.t., or 341 Advanced

still going on or
on indicating
has just been said in 344 Advanced

ee of s.t. increases 348 Advanced

.
ble if it’s not X”. 350 Advanced
o nouns or noun 353 Advanced
r”. 355 Advanced
f firms correctness 359 Advanced
erved.
hout (doing) s.t.”. 362 Advanced
happen” 365 Advanced
ker/writer doesn’t 370 Advanced

son for the 371 Advanced

ion looks as if s.o.

re about to occur 374 Advanced

est. 377 Advanced

ntrast. 380 Advanced
s an extreme 384 Advanced
regardless of” 386 Advanced
. in which s.o. 391 Advanced

t hard to imagine or 393 Advanced

writer’s strong 395 Advanced

ate or action is 398 Advanced

ome situation is 401 Advanced

nation/direction of
an action, or 404 Advanced

. cannot manage to 408 Advanced

appens or s.o. does 411 Advanced

in response to”. 412 Advanced
he meaning of 418 Advanced
even” or “also”. 423 Advanced
d of time/stage (in 426 Advanced
or state takes.
to combine two 429 Advanced

at s.t. Unexpected 432 Advanced

ven if s.o. decides

decides that s.t. is 435 Advanced

eyond a 440 Advanced

.o. perceives s.t. 444 Advanced

ed with it.
Takes place over a 447 Advanced
space.
without depending 452 Advanced

y source of 459 Advanced

ce.
ing to mean “not 461 Advanced

was in an extreme 465

a great extent Advanced
re s.t. is lacking. 468 Advanced
in order to express 470 Advanced
faction.
o st.” or for “s.t. to 474 Advanced
at the center”. 477 Advanced
edium through s.o. 479 Advanced
.t.
nnot control 483 Advanced
by emotions.
cerning; over,” used
nions, ideas, etc., 486 Advanced

gia or regret when 492 Advanced

s.
vely/fearlessly in 493 Advanced
s.
quent statement is 496 Advanced
ew.
ing else besides 499 Advanced

n and primarily
es advantage of, or 502 Advanced
where s.t. desirable

hat)". 509 Advanced

without 514 Advanced
or noun phrases. 521 Advanced
all; totally; mostly; 526 Advanced

s indifference to
tions, opposition, 531 Advanced

cribing the way 534 Advanced

ents the idea of 540 Advanced

ter is going to talk 543 Advanced

peaker thinks that 547 Advanced

when speaker/writer 550 Advanced

mental point.

e preceding noun 553 Advanced

 of s.t. is
e, action or event 557 Advanced

does s.t. or is in a
way suitable to 559 Advanced
m situation.
me after long, hard 562 Advanced

to do (in the sense 565 Advanced

, restriction, 573 Advanced

ement..
thinks little of 576 Advanced
hrase.
uation or condition 580 Advanced

t amount, number 582 Advanced

586 Advanced
topic about which
impressive 591 Advanced

if; whether; no 594 Advanced

r shite mo. to even 597

to; although Advanced

cannot just keep

umed by some 600 Advanced

oes s.t. repeatedly”. 603 Advanced

the speaker/writer
tions he/she 605 Advanced

nnot be doing s.t. or 609 Advanced

uation.
eaker/writer
.t. or is in some 612 Advanced
at reason.
y presents a factual 615 Advanced

es s.t. in order to
o. is convinced that 618 Advanced

phrase) to describe
may be called; which 622 Advanced

dea of “even 624 Advanced

e perspectives 628 Advanced

g.
es examples. 629 Advanced
explain s.t. in a 633 Advanced

of a sentence to 635 Advanced

d in order to be 638 Advanced

has just been said. 640 Advanced

not only for A and

hings, etc., of X,to 643 Advanced

ames, theories, 645 Advanced

without paying
re, to whom, etc., 648 Advanced

o take place 651 Advanced

e referent of the 654 Advanced
ce, news, view).
ly ability of s.o/s.t. 658 Advanced
action
action or state
d that causes 661 Advanced

ough it is said that” 664 Advanced

ithout being able
to indicate the 668 Advanced

es a second thing
se it takes less time 671 Advanced

s “with regard to
the preceding 674 Advanced

or emotion. 678 Advanced

hough there is s.t.” 683 Advanced

or an issue the
cover as part of a 685 Advanced

/we accept s.t., s.t. 691 Advanced

ue with one thing

ing or person that 694 Advanced
e.
proportion to what 697 Advanced

tions, events or
ndicates that s.o 701 Advanced
extent.
ppened or s.o. did
nother event or 706 Advanced

addressed question. 715 Advanced

actions, etc., as 720 Advanced

situation, which is
; if it is the case 725 Advanced

sirable hypothetical 728 Advanced

if ~ choose to

ession: “even
cannot do it for 730 Advanced

her choice than to

e of a select few 734 Advanced

what writer has 738 Advanced

that
of concession. 740 Advanced
ause. 745 Advanced
essarily or naturally 750 Advanced
.”. 753 Advanced
tive concession: 755 Advanced
if ~ not; if ~ not