Introduction
Bridges are a common feature of the built environment and one of the key elements of civil engineering.
The basic principles of bridge design are dependent on the load-bearing structure; whether flat, convex or
concave. These are better known as beam, arch or suspension bridges:
Beam bridges
Beam bridges are either simple beam or cantilever structures generally constructed
from steeltruss or pre-stressed concrete units. The simple beam bridge is horizontally self-supporting and
transmits loads vertically through piers or abutments.
The cantilever bridge transmits loadsthrough piers central to the beam.
Arch bridges
Arch bridges consist of a load-bearing arch in a state of compression, the strength and stability of which
allows them to carry greater loads than beam bridges. The arch can support the horizontal deck of
the bridge either from above or below.
Suspension bridges
Suspension bridges consist of towers secured by cables that suspend the central structural span or deck.
The tower foundations may be constructed using caisson or cofferdamtechniques, whilst the cable
anchorages can be secured through anchorage tunnels to suitable ground on either end of the bridge.
From these three basic options, a very wide range of designs are possible. The choice of bridge design
will be determined by the height, ground conditions and the clear span required.
Traditionally, steel construction has been most commonly used for very long spans,
however, concrete arches are now also being used for big bridges. For large single-
spans bridges, suspension bridges are the most common, with the high-tensile strength of
the steel cables providing a design solution that is very economical compared to other support options.
Where there are suitable support points available, multi-span bridges may be used to create long bridges,
and these may include combinations of beam, arch and suspension spans.
Moveable bridges are moveable variations of the three basic forms, generally used in situations where
greater headroom under the bridge is sometimes necessary, for example to allow the passage of a ship
underneath. The most common types of moveable bridge are:
Swing: The structure pivots on a central pier.
Bascule or pivoted cantilever: 'Drawbridges' which use a counter-weight behind the pivot point to raise
and lower the deck.
Vertical lift: Simple beams or girders that are raised by cables from towers.
Construction of bridges
Beam bridges
There are a very wide range of construction methods available, however, bridge foundationsconstructed
in water will usually involve the use of cofferdams or caissons. Foundations on land may be piled, often
capped off to receive a pier foundation.
Piers will generally be constructed above the foundations, and then beams or girders lifted on to them by
crane which can either be erected on falsework around the pier or from ground level. After the
main girders have been placed, the bridge deck can be positioned or cast in situ.
Decking to steel bridges:
Steel trough filled with concrete.
Steel beams encased with concrete.
Reinforced concrete slab on steel beams.
Steel deck on steel beams.
Decking to concrete bridges:
Integral bridge deck with polystyrene formers.
Beam and slab deck.
If the bridge is to span water, barges or pontoons may be used to float materials out to the lifting position.
A temporary system of trestles may be used as a means of placing the beamsor girders.
For bridges spanning high drops, plate-girders or trussed-girders may be hauled across the opening
using rollers. Alternatively, cantilever launching may be used, where the beam is launched from one
bank, with sufficient ballast to counteract the overturning force, and hauled across the span using
a winch.
Arch bridges
The construction methods for arch bridges typically include:
Supporting the arch using trestles until construction is complete. This is suitable for low arch bridges.
Cantilevering the ribs out from the sides of the span. This is suitable for bridges over high drops which
cannot be spanned with trestles.
Where the spans are very large, the arch may be cantilevered in sections using a creeping crane that is
mounted on top of the arch. The crane lifts rib sections from barges or pontoons below. The bridge deck
is then constructed from both ends, meeting in the middle.
For more information, see Arches.
Suspension bridges
The anchorage foundations are usually constructed deep into a hillside on both banks. The towers are
typically constructed using steel or in situ concrete, built on large concrete bases.
Cable housings generally take the form of massive concrete blocks either positioned in waterat either
bank or cast deep into the bank itself.
Multi-strands of high tensile wire are used to build up the suspension cables, which are then carried
between anchorage points by means of a grooved wheel.
The deck can may be erected either by lifting sections from pontoons below or by
cantilevering sections out from each end.
Bridge bearings
Bridge bearings provide a resting surface between supporting piers and the deck. They act to reduce the
stresses that are involved by allowing controlled movement. They are usually made of metal or
flexible materials such as rubber or plastic laminates.
Expansion joints
Expansion joints can be formed to accommodate movement in the bridge deck. The most common types
are:
Interlocking comb joint
Bolted to the concrete or steel deck at intervals that allow maximum expansion.
Asphaltic plug joint
Buried joints with a strip of surfacing over the joint to accommodate movement. These are inexpensive
and quick to install, although their life-span is variable.
Elastomeric in metal runners (EMRs)
Joints formed with elastomeric material fixed in metal runners.
Reinforced elastomeric joints (REJs)
Elastomer reinforced with metal plates on both sides of the joint.
For more information, see Movement joint.
Bridge failures
Early suspension bridges were susceptible to vibration when an external periodic frequency matched
the bridge's natural structural frequency. This could cause it to become structurally unstable and
ultimately could cause catastrophic collapse.
Famously, this is why marching soldiers 'broke step' as they crossed certain bridges.
Broughton Suspension Bridge collapsed in 1831, and more recently, Tacoma Narrows Bridgecollapsed in
1940. Whilst modern suspension bridge design should eliminate such instability, in 2000, the
Millennium Bridge in London began to vibrate when large crowds walked across it on its opening. It had to
be closed for a year whilst dampeners were designed and installed.
In 2007, an eight-lane, steel-truss-arch bridge across the Mississippi River collapsed killing 13 people.
Subsequently, a 2016 report by the American Road & Transportation BuildersAssociation (ARBTA)
suggested that almost 10% of America's bridges were in need of repair, that is, they achieved a score of
four or less out of nine, when assessed by federal engineers.
In 2018, the Morandi motorway bridge in Genoa collapsed during a rainstorm killing over 40 people. For
more information, see Genoa bridge collapse.
