The Popularity of Graphics

A graphical screen bore scant resemblance to its earlier text-

based colleagues.
older text-based screen possessed a one dimensional

graphic screens assumed a three-dimensional look.

Controls appeared to rise above the screen and move when

activated.
Information could appear, and disappear, as needed.
Text could be replaced by graphical images called icons. These icons could represent objects or actions selection fields such as radio buttons, check boxes, list

boxes, and palettes coexisted with the reliable old text entry field
lecture 6 slide 1

 More sophisticated text entry fields with attached or drop-

down menus of.

Objects and actions were selected through use of pointing

mechanisms.
Increased computer power . User's actions to be reacted to quickly, dynamically, and

meaningfully.
WIMP interface: windows, icons, menus, and pointers. Graphic presentation is much more effective than other

presentation methods.

lecture 6 slide 2

 Properly used, it reduces the requirement for perceptual and

mental information recoding and reorganization, and also

reduces the memory loads.
It permits faster information transfer between computers

and people by permitting more visual comparisons of amounts, trends, or relationships; more compact

representation of information;
Graphics also can add appeal or charm to the interface and

permit greater customization to create a unique corporate or organization style.

Graphical Systems: Advantages and Disadvantages

reduce the memory requirements .

more effective use of one's information.

dramatically reduce system learning requirements. Experience indicates that for many people they have done all

these things.

lecture 6 slide 4

Advantages
Symbols recognized faster than text
Faster learning Faster use and problem solving Easier remembering More natural

Exploits visual/spatial cues

Fosters more concrete thinking Provides context Fewer errors Increased feeling of control
lecture 6 slide 5

Advantages
Immediate feedback
Predictable system responses Easily reversible actions Less anxiety concerning use More attractive

May consume less space

Replaces national languages Easily augmented with text displays Smooth transition from command language system

lecture 6 slide 6

Disadvantages
Greater design complexity:
Learning still necessary Replaces national languages Easily augmented with text displays Smooth transition from command language system

Lack of experimentally-derived design guidelines

use a pointing device may also have to be learned

Working domain is the present

Human comprehension limitations
lecture 6 slide 7

 Window manipulation requirements

Production limitations
Few tested icons exist Inefficient for touch typists

Inefficient for expert users

Not always the preferred style of interaction Not always fastest style of interaction Increased chances of clutter and confusion May consume more screen space Hardware limitations

back

lecture 6 slide 8

The Concept of Direct Manipulation

The system is portrayed as an extension of the real world: It is

assumed that a person is already familiar with the objects and actions in his or her environment of interest.
The system simply replicates them and portrays them on a different

medium, the screen.

A person has the power to access and modify these objects, among

which are windows.

A person is allowed to work in a familiar environment and in a

familiar way, focusing on the data, not the application and tools.
The physical organization of the system, which most often is

unfamiliar, is hidden from view and is not a distraction.

lecture 7 slide 1

 Continuous visibility of objects and actions: Like one's desktop, objects

are continuously visible. Reminders of actions to be performed are also obvious, labeled buttons replacing complex syntax and command names.
Cursor action and motion occurs in physically obvious and natural ways.

One problem in direct manipulation, however, is that there is no direct analogy on the desk for all necessary windowing operations.
A piece of paper on one's desk maintains a constant size, never shrinking

or growing. Windows can do both. Solving this problem required embedding a control panel, a familiar concept to most people, in a window's border.
This control panel is manipulated, not the window itself. Actions are

rapid and incremental with visible display of results , the results of actions are immediately displayed visually on the screen in their new and current form.
Auditory feedback may also be provided. The impact of a previous action

is quickly seen, and the evolution of tasks is continuous and effortless. Incremental actions are easily reversible.
lecture 7 slide 2

Earlier Direct Manipulation Systems

The concept of direct manipulation actually preceded the first

graphical system. The earliest full-screen text editors possessed similar characteristics.
Screens of text resembling a piece of paper on one's desk could be

created (extension of real world) and then reviewed in their entirety (continuous visibility).
Editing or restructuring could be easily accomplished (through rapid

incremental actions) and the results immediately seen.

Actions could be reversed when necessary. It took the advent of

graphical systems to crystallize the direct manipulation concept, however.

lecture 7 slide 3

Indirect Manipulation
In practice, direct manipulation of all screen objects and

actions may not be feasible because of the following:

The operation may be difficult to conceptualize in the

graphical system.
The graphics capability of the system may be limited.

The amount of space available for placing manipulation

controls in the window border may be limited.

It may be difficult for people to learn and remember all the

necessary operations and actions.

lecture 7 slide 4

 When this occurs, indirect manipulation is provided. Indirect

manipulation substitutes words and text, such as pull-down or

pop-up menus, for symbols, and substitutes typing for pointing.
Most window systems are a combination of both direct and indi-

rect manipulation. A menu may be accessed by pointing at a

menu icon and then selecting it (direct manipulation).
The menu itself, however, is a textual list of operations (indirect

manipulation). When an operation is selected from the list, by pointing or typing, the system executes it as a command.
Which style of interaction-direct manipulation, indirect

manipulation, or a combination of both-is best, under what

conditions and for whom, remains a question whose answer still

eludes us.
>back

lecture 7 slide 5

Characteristics of the Graphical User Interface

A graphical system possesses a set of defining concepts.

Included are sophisticated visual presentation, pick-and-

click interaction, a restricted set of interface options, visualization, object orientation, extensive use of a person's recognition memory, and concurrent performance of functions

lecture 8 slide 1

 Sophisticated Visual Presentation: Visual presentation is the

visual aspect of the interface. It is what people see on the

screen.
The sophistication of a graphical system permits

displaying lines, including drawings and icons.

It also permits the displaying of a variety of character fonts,

including different sizes and styles.

The display of 16 million or more colors is possible on some

screens. Graphics also permit animation and the

presentation of photograph and motion video.

lecture 8 slide 2

 The meaningful interface elements visually presented to the

user in a graphical System include windows (primary,

secondary, or dialog boxes), menus (menu bar, pull down, pop-up, cascading), icons to represent objects such as

programs or files, assorted screen-based controls (text

boxes, list boxes, combination boxes, settings, scroll bar and buttons), and a mouse pointer and cursor.
The objective is to reflect visually on screen the real world of

the user as realistically, meaningfully, simply, and clearly possible.

lecture 8 slide 3

 A graphical system possesses a set of defining concepts.

Included are sophisticated visual presentation, pick-andclick interaction, a restricted set of interface options, visualization, object orientation, extensive use of a person's

recognition memory, and concurrent performance of

functions.
Restricted Set of Interface Options: The array of alternatives

available to the user is what is presented on the screen or

may be retrieved through what is presented on the screen, nothing less, nothing more. This concept fostered the

acronym WYSIWYG.

lecture 8 slide 4

 Pick-and-Click Interaction: Elements of a graphical screen upon

which some action is to be performed must first identified.

The motor activity required of a person to identify this element

for a proposed action is commonly referred to as pick, the signal to perform an action as cue .
The primary mechanism for performing this pick-and-click is

most often the mouse and its buttons.

The user moves the mouse pointer to the relevant element (pick)

and the action is signaled (click).

Pointing allows rapid selection and feedback. The hand and mind

seem to work smoothly and efficiently together.

The secondary mechanism for performing these selection actions

is the keyboard most systems permit pick-and-click to be performed using the keyboard as well.
lecture 8 slide 5

 Visualization: Visualization is a cognitive process that allows

people to understand
Information that is difficult to perceive, because it is either too

voluminous or too abstract Presenting specialized graphic

portrayals facilitates visualization.

The best visualization method for an activity depends on

what People are trying to learn from the data.

The goal is not necessarily to reproduce a really graphical

image, but to produce one that conveys the most relevant information.
Effective visualizations can facilitate mental insights, increase

productivity, and for faster and more accurate use of data.

lecture 8 slide 6

 Object Orientation: A graphical system consists of objects

and actions. Objects are what people see on screen. They are
manipulated as a single unit.
Objects can be composed of sub objects. For example, an

object may be a document. The document's sub objects may be a paragraph, sentence, word, and letter.

A collection is the simplest relationship-the objects sharing a

common aspect.
A collection might be the result of a query or a multiple

selection of objects. Operations can be applied to a collection of objects.

lecture 8 slide 7

A constraint is a stronger object relationship. Changing an

object in a set affects some other object in the set.

A document being organized into pages is an example of a

constraint.

A composite exists when the relationship between objects

becomes so significant that the aggregation itself can be identified as an object.
Examples include a range of cells organized into a

spreadsheet, or a collection of words organized into a paragraph.

lecture 8 slide 8

A container is an object in which other objects exist. Examples include text in a document or documents in a folder.
A container often influences the behavior of its content. It

may add or suppress certain properties or operations of objects placed within it, control access to its content, or control access to kinds of objects it will accept. These relationships help define an object's type. Similar

traits and behaviors exist in objects of the same object type.

lecture 8 slide 9

 Another important object characteristic is persistence.

Persistence is the maintenance of a state once it is established.

An object's state (for example, window size, cursor location,

scroll position, and so on) should always be automatically preserved when the user changes it.
Use of Recognition Memory : Continuous visibility of

objects and actions encourages use of a person's more

powerful recognition memory.

The "out of sight, out of mind" problem is eliminated
lecture 8 slide 10

Concurrent Performance of Functions

Graphic systems may do two or more things at one time.

Multiple programs may run simultaneously. When a system

is not busy on a primary task, it may process background

tasks (cooperative multitasking). When applications are running as truly separate tasks, the

system may divide the processing power into time slices and
allocate portions to each application. Data may also be transferred between programs. It may be temporarily stored on a "clipboard" for later transfer or be automatically swapped between programs.
lecture 8 slide 11

The Graphical User Interface

A user interface is a collection of techniques and mechanisms to interact

with something.

In a graphical interface the primary interaction mechanism is a

pointing device of some kind.

This device is the electronic equivalent to the human hand. What the

user interacts with is a collection of elements referred to as objects.

They can be seen, heard, touched, or otherwise perceived. Objects are always visible to the user and are used to perform tasks. They are interacted with as entities independent of all other objects.

lecture 8 slide 12

The Graphical User Interface

People perform operations, called actions, on objects. The operations include accessing and modifying objects

by pointing, selecting, and manipulating. All objects have

standard resulting behaviors.

back

lecture 8 slide 13

The Web User Interface

The expansion of the World Wide Web since the early 1990s

has been truly amazing.

Unlike earlier text-based and GUI systems that were

developed and nurtured in an organization's Data

Processing and Information Systems groups, the Web's roots were sown in a market-driven society thirsting for

convenience and information.

Web interface design is essentially the design of navigation

and the presentation of information. It is about content, not data.

Proper interface design is largely a matter of properly

balancing the structure and relationships of menus,

lecture 9 slide 1

 The design goal is to build a hierarchy of menus and pages that

feels natural, is well structured, is easy to use, and is truthful.

The Web is a navigation environment where people move between

pages of information, not an application environment. It is also a graphically rich environment.

Web interface design is difficult for a number of reasons. First, its

underlying design language, HTML, was never intended for creating screens to be used by the general population.
Its scope of users was expected to be technical. HTML was limited

in objects and interaction styles and did not provide a means for presenting information in the most effective way for people.
Next, browser navigation retreated to the pre-GUI era. This era

was characterized by a "command" field whose contents had to be learned, and a navigational organization and structure that lay

hidden beneath a mostly dark and blank screen. lecture 9 slide 2

 GUIs eliminated the absolute necessity for a command field,

providing menus related to the task and the current

contextual situation.
Browser navigation is mostly confined to a "Back" and

"Forward" concept, but "back-to-where" and "forward-towhere" is often unremembered or unknown.

Web interface design is also more difficult because the main

issues concern information architecture and task flow, neither of which is easy to standardize.

lecture 9 slide 4

 It is more difficult because of the availability of the various

types of multimedia, and the desire of many designers to use some thing simply because it is available.
It is more difficult because users are ill defined, and the

user's tools so variable in nature.

The ultimate goal of a Web that feels natural, is well

structured, and is easy to use will reach fruition.

lecture 9 slide 5

The Popularity of the Web

While the introduction of the graphical user interface

revolutionized the user interface, the Web has revolutionized computing.

It allows millions of people scattered across the globe to

communicate, access information, publish, and be heard.

It allows people to control much of the display and the

rendering of Web pages.

Aspects such as typography and colors can be changed,

graphics turned off, and decisions made whether or not to

transmit certain data over non secure channels or whether to

accept or refuse cookies.
lecture 9 slide 6

 Web usage has reflected this popularity. The number of

Internet hosts has risen dramatically:

In 1984, hosts online exceeded 1,000; in 1987, 10,000; in 1989, 100,000, in 1990, 300,000;

in 1992 hosts exceeded one million.

Commercialization of the Internet saw even greater

expansion of the growth rate. In 1993, Internet traffic was expanding at a 341,634 percent annual growth rate. In 1996, there were nearly 10 million hosts online and 40 million
lecture 9 slide 7 connected people (PBS Timeline).

 User control has had some decided disadvantages for some

Web site owners as well.

Users have become much more discerning about good

design.
Slow download times, confusing navigation, confusing page

organization, disturbing animation, or other undesirable site features often results in user abandonment of the site for others with a more agreeable interface.
People are quick to vote with their mouse, and these warn-

ings should not go unheeded.

back

lecture 9 slide 8

GUI versus Web Page Design

GUI and Web interface design do have similarities. Both are

software designs, they are used by people, they are

interactive, they are heavily visual experiences presented

through screens, and they are composed of many similar components.
Significant differences do exist.

lecture 10 slide 1

CONCEPT Devices

GUI User limited User hardware characteristics well defined. Screens appear exactly as specified. Data and applications Typically created and used by known and trusted sources. Properties generally known. Typically placed into system by users or known people and hardware variations User

WEB hardware variations

enormous. Screen appearance influenced by hardware being used.

User Focus Data Information

Information and navigation

Full of unknown content. Source not always trusted. Often not placed onto the Web by users or known people and

organizations. Highly variable organization. Privacy often suspect

organizations. Typically organized in a

meaningful fashion. A notion of private and shared data exists:

lecture 10 slide 2

User Tasks

Install, configure, personalize, start, use, and upgrade

Link to a site, browse or read pages, fill out forms, register for services, participate in transactions, download and save things. Movement between pages and sites very rapid. Familiarity with many sites not established.

programs. Open, use, and close data files. Fairly long times spent within an application. Familiarity with applications often achieved. User's Conceptual Space Controlled and constrained by program.

Infinite and generally unorganized.

Presentatio n Elements

Windows,

menus,

controls,

Two components, browser page.

and

data, tool bars, messages, and so on. Many transient, dynamically

Within page, any combination of text, images, audio, video, and

appearing and disappearing. Presented as specified by

animation. May not be presented as specified by the designer monitor, dependent and on user

designer. Generally standardized by toolkits and style guides

browser,

specifications. Little standardization Navigation Through menus, lists, trees, dialogs, and wizards. Not a Through links: bookmarks, and typed URLs. Significant and highly visible concept. Few by constraints ,frequently causing a lost sense of place Few standards. Typically part of page design, fostering an lack of consistency
lecture 10 slide 4

strong and visible concept. Constrained by design. Generally toolkits and style guides. standardized

Context

Enables better

maintenance of

of

Poorer maintenance of a sense of context. Single-page entities. Unlimited navigation paths. Contextual clues become limited or are difficult to find. Basic interaction is a single click. This can cause extreme changes in context, which may not be noticed.

sense

context.

Restricted navigation paths. Multiple viewable windows. Interactions such as clicking menu choices, pressing buttons, selecting list choices, occur and within

Interaction

cut/copy/paste

context of active program.

lecture 10 slide 5

Response Time

Nearly instantaneous.

Quite variable, depending on transmission speeds, page content, and so on. Long times can upset the user.

Visual Style

Typically prescribed and constrained by toolkit. Visual creativity allowed but difficult. Little significant personalization.

Fosters a more artistic, individual, and unrestricted presentation style. Complicated by differing browser and display capabilities, and bandwidth limitations. Limited personalization available.

lecture 10 slide 6

System Capability

Unlimited capability proportional to sophistication of hardware and software.

Limited by constraints imposed by the hardware, browser, software, client support, and user willingness to allow features because of response time, security, and privacy concerns ctual user audience usually not well understood. Often intended for anyone and everyone.

Task Efficiency

Targeted to a specific audience with specific tasks. Only limited by the amount of programming undertaken to support it

lecture 10 slide 7

Consisten cy

Major objective exists within and across applications. Aided by platform toolkit and design guidelines. Universal consistency in GUI products generally created through toolkits and design guidelines.

ites tend to establish their own identity. Frequently standards set within a site. Frequent ignoring of GUI guidelines for identical components, especially controls.

User Assistance

Integral part of most systems and applications. Accessed through standard mechanisms. Documentation, both online and offline, Usually provided. Personal support desk also usually provided

No similar help systems. The little available help is built into the page. Customer service support, if provided, oriented to product or service offered.

lecture 10 slide 8

Integration

Seamless integration of all applications into the platform environment a major objective. Toolkits and components are key elements in accomplishing this objective

Apparent for some basic functions within most Web sites printing,

(navigation, and so on.)

Sites tend to achieve individual distinction rather than integration.

Reliability

Tightly controlled in business systems, proportional to degree of willingness to invest resources and effort

Susceptible to disruptions caused by user, telephone line and cable providers, Internet service providers, hosting servers, and remotely accessed sites.

back

lecture 10 slide 9

PRINCIPLES OF USER INTERFACE DESIGN

An interface must really be just an extension of a person.

This means that the system and its software must reflect a person's capabilities and respond to his or her specific

needs.
It should be useful, accomplishing some business objectives

faster and more efficiently than the previously used method

or tool did.
It must also be easy to learn, for people want to do, not learn

to do.
Finally, the system must be easy and fun to use, evoking a

sense of pleasure and accomplishment not tedium and frustration.

lecture 11 slide 1

 The interface itself should serve as both a connector and a

separator:
a connector in that it ties the user to the power of the

computer, and a separator in that it minimizes the possibility of the participants damaging one another.
While the damage the user inflicts on the computer tends to

be physical (a frustrated pounding of the keyboard), the damage caused by the computer is more psychological.
Throughout the history of the human-computer interface,

various researchers and writers have attempted to define a set of general principles of interface design.

lecture 11 slide 2

 What follows is a compilation of these principles. They

reflect not only what we know today, but also what we think
we know today.
Many are based on research, others on the collective

thinking of behaviorists working with user interfaces.

These principles will continue to evolve, expand, and be

refined as our experience with Gills and the Web increases.

lecture 11 slide 3

Principles for the Xerox STAR

The design of the Xerox STAR was guided by a set of principles that

evolved over its lengthy development process. These principles established the foundation for graphical interfaces.
Displaying objects that are selectable and manipulable must be

created.
A design challenge is to invent a set of displayable objects that are

represented meaningfully and appropriately for the intended application.

It must be clear that these objects can be selected, and how to select

them must be self-evident.

When they are selected should also be obvious, because it should be

clear that the selected object will be the focus of the next action. Standalone icons easily fulfilled this requirement.
The handles for windows were placed in the borders.
lecture 11 slide 4

 Visual order and viewer focus: Attention must be drawn, at

the proper time, to the important and relevant elements of

the display. Effective visual contrast between various components of the screen is used to achieve this goal. Animation is also used to draw attention, as is sound. Feedback must also be provided to the user. Since the pointer is usually the focus of viewer attention, it is a useful mechanism for providing this feedback (by

changing shapes).

lecture 11 slide 5

 Revealed structure: The distance between one's intention

and the effect must be minimized.

Most often, the distance between intention and effect is lengthened as system power increases.

The relationship between intention and effect must be,

tightened and made as apparent as possible to the user. The underlying structure is often revealed during the selection process.
Consistency: Consistency aids learning. Consistency is

provided in such areas as element location, grammar, font shapes, styles, and sizes, selection indicators, and contrast and emphasis techniques
lecture 11 slide 6

 Appropriate effect or emotional impact: The interface must

provide the appropriate emotional effect for the product and

its market. Is it a corporate, professional, and secure business system?

Should it reflect the fantasy, wizardry, and bad puns of

computer games?
A match with the medium: The interface must also reflect

the capabilities of the device on which it will be displayed.

Quality of screen images will be greatly affected by a device's resolution and color-generation capabilities.

lecture 11 slide 7

General Principles
The design goals in creating a user interface are described

below.
They are fundamental to the design and implementation of

all effective interfaces, including GUI and Web ones.

These principles are general characteristics of the interface,

and they apply to all aspects.

The compilation is presented alphabetically, and the

ordering is not intended to imply degree of importance.

lecture 12 slide 1

Aesthetically Pleasing
Provide visual appeal by following these presentation and graphic design principles:
Provide meaningful contrast between screen elements. Create groupings. Align screen elements and groups. Provide three-dimensional representation. Use color and graphics effectively and simply.

Clarity
The interface should be visually, conceptually, and linguistically clear, including
Visual elements Functions Metaphors Words and Text
lecture 12 slide 2

Compatibility
>> Provide compatibility with the following:
- The user - The task and job - The Product >> Adopt the Users Perspective

Configurability
>> Permit easy personalization, configuration, and reconfiguration of settings.

- Enhances a sense of control

- Encourages an active role in understanding
lecture 12 slide 3

Comprehensibility

>> A system should be easily learned and understood: A user

should know the following: - What to look at

- What to do
- When to do it - Where to do it

- Why to do it
- How to do it >> The flow of actions, responses, visual presentations, and information should be in a sensible order that is easy to recollect and place in context.
lecture 12 slide 4

Consistency
>> A system should look, act, and operate the same
throughout. Similar components should: - Have a similar look.

- Have similar uses.

- Operate similarly. >> The same action should always yield the same result >> The function of elements should not change. >> The position of standard elements should not change.

lecture 12 slide 5

Control

>>The user must control the interaction.

- Actions should result from explicit user requests. - Actions should be performed quickly. - Actions should be capable of interruption or termination. - The user should never be interrupted for errors

>>The context maintained must be from the perspective of the user. >>The means to achieve goals should be flexible and compatible with the user's skills, experiences, habits, and preferences. >>Avoid modes since they constrain the actions available to the user. >>Permit the user to customize aspects of the interface, while always providing a Proper set of defaults
lecture 12 slide 6

Directness

>> Provide direct ways to accomplish tasks.

- Available alternatives should be visible. - The effect of actions on objects should be visible.

Flexibility
>> A system must be sensitive to the differing needs of its users, enabling a

level and type of performance based upon:

- Each user's knowledge and skills. - Each user's experience.

- Each user's personal preference.

- Each user's habits. - The conditions at that moment. lecture 12 slide 7

Efficiency
>> Minimize eye and hand movements, and other control
actions.

- Transitions between various system controls should

flow easily and freely. - Navigation paths should be as short as possible. - Eye movement through a screen should be obvious and sequential. >> Anticipate the user's wants and needs whenever possible.

lecture 12 slide 8

Familiarity
>>Employ familiar concepts and use a language that is familiar to the user.
>> Keep the interface natural, mimicking the user's behavior

patterns.
>> Use real-world metaphors.

Forgiveness
>>Tolerate and forgive common and unavoidable human errors. >>Prevent errors from occurring whenever possible. >> Protect against possible catastrophic errors. >> When an error does occur, provide constructive messages.

lecture 12 slide 9

Predictability

>>The user should be able to anticipate the natural progression of each

task. - Provide distinct and recognizable screen elements.

- Provide cues to the result of an action to be performed.

>>All expectations should be fulfilled uniformly and completely.

Recovery
>> A system should permit:
- Commands or actions to be abolished or reversed.

- Immediate return to a certain point if difficulties arise.

>> Ensure that users never lose their work as a result of:
- An error on their part. - Hardware, software, or communication problems lecture 12 slide 10

Responsiveness
>> The system must rapidly respond to the user's requests.
>> Provide immediate acknowledgment for all user actions:
-

Visual.

Textual
Auditory.

Transparency
>> Permit the user to focus on the task or job, without concern
for the mechanics of the interface.

- Workings and reminders of workings inside the computer

should be invisible to the user.
lecture 12 slide 11

Simplicity >>Provide as simple an interface as possible.

>> Five ways to provide simplicity:
- Use progressive disclosure, hiding things until they are needed
-

Present common and necessary functions first

Prominently feature important functions Hide more sophisticated and less frequently used functions.

- Provide defaults. - Minimize screen alignment points. - Make common actions simple at the expense of uncommon

actions being made harder.

- Provide uniformity and consistency.
lecture 12 slide 12

 END OF UNIT 2

 REVISION