UNIT-3

Presented by
Mr. K. Muni Bhaskar
Asst. Professor of HR
Characteristics
and
Foundation of OD
Foundations of OD
Introduction:
Leaders and OD practitioners use the knowledge of
organization development theory and practice to plan and
implement effective change programs in their
organizations. The knowledge base of OD is extensive and is
constantly growing. Following are the most important
underpinnings for the field of OD.
I. Models and theories of planned change
II. Systems theory
III. Participation and empowerment
IV. Teams and teamwork
V. Parallel learning structures
VI. A normative-re-educative strategy of changing
VII. Applied behavioral science
VIII. Action research
I. MODELS AND THEORIES OF PLANNED CHANGE:
Planned Change:
A planned change is effected by an organization with the purpose of
achieving something that might otherwise be unattainable or attainable
with great difficulty. This approach represents the planned alteration in
the existing organizational system. It is a means of dealing with those
changes that may be crucial for survival. It involves a greater commitment
of time and resources; requires more skills and knowledge for a successful
implementation; and can lead to more problems if implementation is
unsuccessful. Planned change is a proactive approach. Proactive
management tries to anticipate the future and to see the organization as it
should be if it is to be effective in the future.
Organizational development is planned change in an organization context.
The development of models of planned change facilitated the
development of OD. Planned change theories are rudimentary as far as
explaining relationships among variables, but pretty good for identifying
the important variables involved. Several recent theories show great
promise for increasing our understanding of what happens and how it
happens in planned change.
Following are the several models of planned change.
A. Kurt Lewin and others
Kurt Lewin introduced two ideas about change.
The first idea states that what is occurring at any point in time is a
resultant in a field of opposing forces. That is, the status quo whatever
is happening right now is the result of forces pushing in opposing
directions.
For example, we can think of the production level of a manufacturing
plant as a resultant equilibrium point in a field of forces, with some
forces pushing toward higher levels of production and some forces
pushing toward lower levels of production. The production level tends
to remain fairly constant because the field of forces remains fairly
constant.
Likewise, we can think of the level of morale in that plant as a resultant
equilibrium point. Although morale may get a little better or a little
worse on occasion, it generally hovers around some equilibrium point
that is the resultant in a field of forces, some forces pushing toward
higher morale, and some pushing towards lower morale.
With a technique called the force-field analysis, one can identify the
major forces that make up the field of forces and then develop action
plans for moving the equilibrium point in one direction or the other.
This concept is useful for thinking about the dynamics of change
situations.
Lewin's second idea was a model of the change process itself. He
suggested that change is a three-stage process: unfreezing the old
behavior (or situation), moving to a new level of behavior, and
refreezing the behavior at the new level. Change entails moving from
one equilibrium point to another.
Take the example of a man who smokes cigarettes and wants to quit.
The three-stage model says he must first unfreeze the old behavior of
smoking, that is, believe that cigarette smoking is bad for him and that
he should stop smoking. Next, he must move, that is, change his
behavior from being a smoker to being a nonsmoker. Finally, the
nonsmoking behavior must become permanentnot smoking becomes
the new equilibrium point. Refreezing the desired behavior requires
establishing a new field of forces to support the new behavior.
Table 1: Three-Stage Model of the Change Process
A 1: Edgar Schein psychological mechanisms on Lewin's three-stage model:
Lewin's three-stage model is a powerful tool for understanding change
situations. Edgar Schein took this excellent idea and improved it by specifying
the psychological mechanisms involved in each stage.
In stage 1, unfreezing, disconfirmation creates pain and discomfort, which
cause guilt and anxiety, which motivate the person to change. But unless the
person feels comfortable with dropping the old behaviors and acquiring new
ones, change will not occur. That is, the person must develop a sense of
psychological safety on order to replace the old behaviors with new behaviors.
In stage 2, moving, the person undergoes cognitive restructuring. The person
acquires information and evidence showing that the change is desirable and
possible. This motivating evidence showing that the change is desirable and
possible. This motivating evidence is gained by, for example, identifying with
ex-smokers and learning about the health risks of smoking.
The primary task in stage 3, refreezing, is to integrate the new behaviors into
the person's personally and attitudes. That is, stabilizing the changes requires
testing to see if they fitfit with the individual, and fit with the individual's
social surroundings.
A 2: Modified Lewin's model by Ronald and others: Another modification of
Lewin's model was proposed by Ronald Lippitt, Jeanne Watson, and Bruce
Westley. They expanded the three-stage model into a seven-stage model
representing the consulting process. Their seven stages are as follows:
Phase 1. Developing a need for change. This phase corresponds to Lewin's
unfreezing phase.
Phase 2. Establishing a change relationship. In this phase a client system in
need of help and a change agent from outside the system establish a working
relationship.
Phase 3. Clarifying or diagnosing the client system's problem.
Phase 4. Examining alternative routes and goals; establishing goals and
intentions of action.
Phase 5. Transforming intentions into actual change efforts. Phases 3, 4 and 5
correspond to Lewin's moving phase.
Phase 6. Generalizing and stabilizing change. This phase corresponds to
Lewin's refreezing phase.
Phase 7. Achieving a terminal relationship, that is, terminating the client-
consultant relationship.
This seven-stage model lays out the logical steps involved in OD consulting.
B. The Burke-Litwin Model of Organizational Change
The next model to be examined is the Burke-Litwin model of individual
and organizational performance, developed by Warner Burke and
George Litwin. This model shows how to create first-order
(transactional change) and second-order change (transformational
change).
In first-order change, some features of the organization change but the
fundamental nature of the organization remains the same. First-order
change goes by many different labels: transactional, evolutionary,
adaptive, incremental, or continuous change.
In second-order change, the nature of the organization is fundamentally
and substantially alteredthe organization is transformed. Second-
order change goes by many different labels: transformational,
revolutionary, radical, or discontinuous change.
OD programs are directed toward both first and second-order change,
with an increasing emphasis on second-order, transformational change.
Models and theories Contd..
Warner Burke
The Burke-Litwin Model of Organizational Change
Change
First order change (Transactional change)
Second order change (Transformational change)
OD interventions directed towards structure, management
practices, and systems (policies & procedures) result in
first order change.
OD interventions directed towards mission and strategy,
leadership, and organization culture result in second order
change.
Models and theories Contd..
Transformational
factors
Transactional
factors
The model distinguishes between organizational climate and organizational
culture. Organizational climate is defined as people's perceptions and
attitudes about the organizationwhether it is a good or bad place to work,
friendly or unfriendly, hardworking or easy-going, and so forth. These
perceptions are relatively easy to change because they are built on
employees' reactions to current managerial and organizational practices.
Organizational culture is defined as deep-seated assumptions, values, and
beliefs that are enduring, often unconscious, and difficult to change. Changing
culture is much more difficult than changing climate.
The premise of the Burke-Litwin model is this: OD interventions directed
toward structure, management practices, and systems (policies and
procedures) result in first-order change; interventions directed toward mission
and strategy, leadership, and organization culture result in second-order
change.
The model also makes a distinction between transactional and
transformational leadership styles. These two concepts come from leadership
research which found that some leaders are capable of obtaining
extraordinary performance from followers while others leaders are not.
Transformational leaders are "leaders who inspire followers to
transcend their own self-interest for the good of the organization and
who are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on their
followers.
" Transformational leadership embodies inspiration which leads to
new heights of performance. Transactional leaders are "leaders who
guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by
clarifying role and task requirements.
" Transactional leadership embodies a fair exchange between leader
and follower that leads to "normal" performance.
Transactional leadership is sufficient for causing first-order change.
Transformational leadership is required for causing second-order
change.
Figure 1 shows the factors involved in first-order (transactional) change.
Changing structure, management practices, and systems cause changes
in work unit climate, which changes motivation and, in turn, individual
and organizational performance. Transactional leadership is required to
make this change in organizational climate.
On the other hand, if we want to cause second-order
(transformational) change, we must change mission and strategy,
leadership styles, and organization culture, as shown in Figure 2.
Interventions directed toward these factors transform the organization
and cause a permanent change in organization culture, which
produces changes in individual and organizational performance.
Putting Figures 1 and 2 together yields the full Burke-Litwin model
shown in Figure 3. The top half of Figure 3 displays the factors involved
in transformational change. These factors are powerful enough to
change the culture fundamentally. The bottom half of Figure 3 displays
the factors involved in transactional change. These factors are able to
change the climate.
FIGURE 1: The Transactional Factors Involved
in First-Order Change
FIGURE: 2 The Transformational Factors
Involved in Second-Order Change
To summarize, Burke and Litwin propose that interventions directed
toward leadership, mission and strategy, and organization culture
produce transformational change or fundamental change in the
organization's culture (Figure 2). Interventions directed toward
management practices, structure, and systems produce transactional
change or change in organizational climate (Figure 1).
Thus there are two distinct sets of organizational dynamics. One set
primarily is associated with the transactional level of human behavior
or the everyday interactions and exchanges that create the climate.
The second set of dynamics is concerned with processes of human
transformation; that is, sudden "leaps" in behavior; these
transformational processes are required for genuine change in the
culture of an organization.
FIGURE 3: The Burke-Litwin Model of
Organizational Performance and Change
A second foundation of organization development is systems theory, which
views organizations as open systems in active exchange with their
environments.
Systems theory is one of the most powerful conceptual tools available for
understanding the dynamics of organizations and organizational change.

"A system is an arrangement of interrelated parts. The words arrangement
and interrelated describe interdependent elements forming an entity that is
the system. Thus, when taking a systems approach, one begins by identifying
the individual parts and then seeks to understand the nature of their
collective interaction" - Hanna
SYSTEMS THEORY
FIGURE 4: A System in Interaction with its
Environment
Open systems have purposes and goals, the reasons for their
existence. These purposes must align with purposes or needs in the
environment. For example, the organization's purposes will be
reflected in its outputs, and if the environment does not want these
outputs, the organization will cease to exist.
The law of entropy states that all systems "run down" and disintegrate
unless they reverse the entropic process by importing more energy
than they use. Organizations achieve negative entropy when they are
able to exchange their outputs for enough inputs to keep the system
from running down.
Information is important in systems in several ways. Feedback is
information from the environment about system performance.
Systems require two kinds of feedback, negative and positive.
Hannas Views:
Hanna says: "Negative feedback measures whether or not the output
is on course with the purpose and goals. Positive feedback measures
whether or not the purpose and goals are aligned with environmental
needs.
Here is an example of negative and positive feedback, say your
company makes buggy whips, and the production plan calls for 100
buggy whips per month. Negative feedback tells you if you are on
track with your scheduled production output. Positive feedback comes
from the environment; it will signal whether the environment needs
and/ or wants buggy whips.
Katz and Kahns Views:
Another characteristic of open systems is steady state or dynamic
homeostasis. Systems achieve a steady state or equilibrium point and
seek to maintain this equilibrium against disruptive forces, either
internal or external.
As Katz and Kahn say: "The basic principle is the preservation of the
character of the system.
Also, systems tend to get more elaborated, differentiated, specialized,
and complex over time; this process is called differentiation. With
increased differentiation, increased integration and coordination are
necessary.
Subsystems exist within larger systems. These subsystems can be
arranged into a hierarchy of systems moving from less important to
more important.
Congruence among System Elements:
David Nadler and others congruence model of System: Let's look at
an example that shows how systems thinking are applied in OD. David
Nadler and associates at Delta Consulting Group developed the
congruence model for understanding organizational dynamics and
change (see Figure 5). This model depicts the organization as an input-
throughout-output system.
The three major input factors are:
1. Environment, which imposes constraints and opportunities about
what the organization can and can not do;
2. Resources available to the organization, such as capital, people,
knowledge, and technology; and
3. History, which consists of memories of past successes, failures,
important events, and critical decisions that still influence behavior
today.
Outputs are performance at the total organization level, unit/group
level, and individual level.
Elements of the organization are labeled as strategy, what the
organization is trying to accomplish and how it plans to do it; work,
the tasks people perform to create products and service markets;
People, which includes formal structures, processes, and systems for
performing the work;
Formal organisation, which includes formal structures, processes, and
systems for performing the work;
Informal organization, which includes the organization's culture,
informal rules and understandings, and how things really work (versus
how they are supposed to work as defined by the formal organization).
FIGURE 5: The Congruence Model Showing
the Organization as a System
The congruence model's value is an analytical tool for:
1. Assessing the characteristics and functioning of each of the elements.
2. Evaluating the "goodness of fit" or how well the elements "go together."
The premise is that alignment (harmony, fit) must be present among the system's
components for the organization to produce satisfactory outputs.
For example:
If people don't have the skills and knowledge required to do the work,
performance will suffer.
If the strategy calls for entrepreneurial quickness and risk-taking and the formal
organization is bureaucratic and highly centralized, performance will suffer.
If the organization's culture (informal organization) praises individual
accomplishments and the work requires teamwork and collaboration, performance
will suffer.
One can use this model to analyze organizations with which you are familiar. In a
company that is performing poorly, which components are "not functioning
correctly," and which elements are "not functioning correctly," and which elements
are poorly aligned?
In companies showing outstanding performance, what is it about each element
that causes that part of the system to function well and what are the
characteristics of each element that cause all of them to fit together smoothly?
The congruence is an excellent diagnostic tool. Systems models are essential for
the practice of OD.
Socio-technical SystemsTheory and Open Systems Planning:
Following are the two major variations open systems theory:
a. Socio-technical systems theory (STS)
b. Open systems planning (OSP)
a. Socio-technical systems theory: Socio-technical systems theory
was developed by Eric Trist, Fred Emery, and others at the Tavistock
Institute in the 1950s. The thesis of STS is that all organizations
comprise two interdependent systems, a social system and a
technical system, and that changes in one system affect the other
system. To achieve high productivity and employee satisfaction,
organizations must optimize both systems. STS is the principal
conceptual foundation for efforts in work redesign and organization
restructuring, two active segments of OD today.
A number of design principles have been developed to implement
socio-technical systems theory:
Principles such as optimizing the social and technical systems
Forming autonomous work groups,
Training group members in multiple skills,
Giving information and feedback to the people doing the work, and
Identifying core tasks help STS consultants structure organizations
and tasks for maximum effectiveness and efficiency.
High-performance organizations almost always use principles from
socio-technical systems theory, especially autonomous work groups
(self-regulated teams or self-directed teams), multi-skilled teams,
controlling variance at the source, and information to the point of
action, that is, to the workers during the job.
b. Open systems planning: Open systems planning entails (1) scanning the
environment to determine the expec tations and stakeholders; (2) developing
scenarios of possible futures, both realistic (likely to happen if the organization
continues on its current course) and ideal (what the organizatio would like to see
happen); and (3) developing action plans to ensure that a desirable future
occurs. For example, this combination is often used in designing high-
performance organizations.
Open Systems Thinking (learning organizations):
Open systems thinking is required for creating learning organizations, according
to Pete Senge. Learning organizations can cope effectively with rapidly changing
environmental demands. Senge believes five disciplines must be mastered to
create a learning organization:
1. Personal mastery,
2. Mental models,
3. Building shared vision,
4. Team learning,
5. Systems thinking.
Of all these disciplines, the fifth discipline, systems thinking, is the most
important.
Consequences of Systems theory:
System theory pervades the theory and practice of organization
development, from diagnosis to intervention to evaluation. Viewing
organizations from this perspective has several consequences.
First, issues, events, forces and incidents are not viewed as isolated
phenomena, but seen in relation to other issues, events, and forces.
Second, because, most phenomena have more than one cause, a
systems approach encourages analysis of events in terms of multiple
causation rather than single causation.
Third, changing one part of a system influences other parts; therefore,
OD practitioners expect multiple effects, not single effects, from other
activities.
Fourth, according to field theory the forces in the field at the time of
the event are the relevant forces for analysis. This idea moves the
practitioner away from analyzing historical events and toward
examining contemporary events and forces.
Fifth, to change a system, one changes the system, not just its
component parts.
III. Participation and Empowerment
One of the most important foundations of organization
development is a participation/ empowerment model.
Participation in OD programs is not restricted to elites or the
top people; it is extended throughout the organization.
To empower is to give someone power, which is done by
giving individuals the authority to make decisions, to
contribute their ideas, to exert influence, and to be
responsible. Participation is an especially effective form of
empowerment. Participation enhances empowerment, and
empowerment in turn enhances performance and individual
well-being.
For example, autonomous work groups, quality circles, team
building, survey feedback, quality of work life programs,
search conferences, and the culture audit are all predicated
on the belief that increased participation will lead to better
solutions.
Rules of thumb such as "Involve all those who are part of the
problem or part of the solution," and "Have decisions made
by those who are closest to the problem," direct leaders to
push decision making lower in the organization, treat those
closest to the problem as the relevant experts, and give more
power to more people. OD interventions are basically
methods for increasing participation. The entire field of OD is
about empowerment.
IV. Teams and Teamwork
A fundamental belief in organization development is that
work teams are the building blocks of organizations. A
second fundamental belief is that teams must manage their
culture, processes, systems, and relationships if they are to
be effective. Teams and teamwork are part of the foundation
of organization development
Teams are important for a number of reasons.
First, much individual behavior is rooted in the socio-cultural
norms and values of the work team. If the team, as a team,
changes those norms and values, the effects on individual
behavior are immediate and lasting.
Second, many tasks are so complex they cannot be performed by
individuals; people must work together to accomplish them.
Third, teams create synergy, that is, the sum of the efforts of team
members is far greater than the sum of the individual efforts of people
wowing alone. Synergy is a principal reason teams are so important.
Fourth, teams satisfy people's need for social interaction, status,
recognition, and respect-nurture human nature.
A number of OD interventions are specifically designed to improve
team performance.
Examples are team building, intergroup teambuilding, process
consultation, quality circles, parallel learning structures, socio-
technical systems programs, Grid OD, and techniques such as role
analysis technique, role negotiation, and responsibility charting. These
interventions apply to formal work teams as well as startup teams,
cross-functional teams, temporary teams, and the like.
Teams periodically hold team-building meetings, people are trained
as group leaders and group facilitators. Organizations using
autonomous work groups or self-directed teams devote
considerable time and effort to ensure that team members possess
the skills to be effective in groups. The net effect is that teams
perform at increasingly higher levels, that they achieve synergy, and
that teamwork becomes more satisfying for team members.
Teams have always been an important foundation of OD, but there
is a growing awareness of the teams' unique ability to create
synergy, respond quickly and flexibly to problems, find new ways to
get the job done, and satisfy social needs in the work place.
V. Parallel Learning Structures:
Gervase Bushe and Abraham Shani worked in this concern and titled
Parallel Learning Structures. Parallel learning structures are a
mechanism to facilitate innovation in large bureaucratic organizations
where the forces of inertia, hierarchical communication patterns, and
standard ways of addressing problems inhibit learning, innovation,
and change. In essence, parallel structures are a vehicle for learning
how to change the system, and then leading the change process.
Parallel learning structure covers interventions where:
a. A structure' that is, a specific division and coordination of labor is
created that
b. Operates 'parallel' that is, tandem or side-by-side with the formal
hierarchy and structure and
c. Has the purpose of increasing an organization's 'learning' that is,
the creation and/or implementation of new thoughts and behaviors
by employees.
In its most basic form, a parallel learning structure consists of a
steering committee and a number of working groups that study what
changes are needed, make recommendations for improvement, and
monitoring the change efforts.
Additional refinements include having a steering committee plus idea
groups, action groups, or implementation groups, with the groups
serving specific functions designated by the steering committee.
The parallel structure should be a microcosm of the larger
organization, that is, it should have representatives from all parts of
the organization. One or more top executives should be members of
the steering committee to give the parallel structure authority,
legitimacy, and clout.
Parallel structures help people break free of the normal constraints
imposed by the organization, engage in genuine inquiry and
experimentation, and initiate needed changes.
Eg.: At Ford Motor Company, a steering committee and
working teams were used to coordinate the employee
involvement teams.
Applications:
The quality of work life programs of the 1970s and l980s
used parallel structures composed of union leaders,
managers, and employees.
Most socio-technical systems redesign efforts and open
systems planning programs use parallel structures.
High performance organizations often use parallel
structures to coordinate self-directed teams.
Parallel learning structures are often the best way to initiate
change in large bureaucratic organizations, especially when
the change involves a fundamental shift in the
organization's methods of work and/or culture.
VI. A Normative-Re-educative Strategy of Changing:
Organization development involves change, and it rests on a
particular strategy for change that had implications for practitioners
and organization members alike.
Chin and Benne describe three types of strategies for changing.
The first type of empirical -rational self-interest, and will change if
and when they come to realize change is advantageous to them.
The second group of strategies is normative-re-educative strategies,
based on the assumptions that norms form the basis for behavior,
and change comes through re-education in which old norms are
discarded and supplanted by new ones.
The third set of strategies is the power-coercive strategies, based on
the assumption that change is compliance of those who have less
power with the desires of those who have more power.
Chin and Benne indicate the nature of the normative-reeducative
strategy as follows:
Another strategies called normative-re-educative. These strategies
build upon the following assumptions:
Patterns of action and practice are supported by socio-cultural norms
and by commitments on the part of the individuals to these norms.
Socio-cultural norms are supported by the attitude and value systems
of individualsnormative outlooks which undergird their
commitments.
Change in a pattern of practice or action, according to this view, will
occur only as the persons involved are brought to change their
normative orientations to old patterns and develop commitments to
new ones.
And changes in normative orientations involve changes in attitudes,
values, skills, and significant relationships, not just changes in
knowledge, information, or intellectual rationales for action and
practice.
VII. APPLIED BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE:
OD is the application of behavioral science knowledge,
practices, and skills on ongoing systems in collaboration
with system members. Although human behavior in
organizations is far from an exact science, lawful patterns of
events produce effectiveness and ineffectiveness. OD
practitioners know about these patterns through research
and theory.
The aim of this discussion is how behavioral science
knowledge becomes applied behavioral science knowledge.
A conventional distinction is made between:
(1) "Pure" or basic science, the object of which is
knowledge for its own sake, and
(2) "Technology" applied science, or practice, the object of
which is knowledge to solve practical, pressing problems.
A conventional distinction is made between:
1. "Pure" or basic science, the object of which is
knowledge for its own sake, and
2. "Technology" applied science, or practice, the
object of which is knowledge to solve practical,
pressing problems.
OD emphasizes the latter, applied science as follows:
"The problem that confronts a practitioner is
customarily a state of disequilibrium that requires
rectification. The practitioner examines the problem
situation, on the basis of which he or she prescribes
a solution that, hopefully, re-establishes the
equilibrium, thereby solving the problem.
This process is customarily referred to as diagnosis
and treatment.

Both diagnosis and treatment
consist of observing a situation and, on the basis of
selected variables, placing it in a classification
scheme or typology. The diagnostic typology allows
the practitioner to know what category of situation
he or she has examined; the treatment typology
allows the practitioner to know what remedial
efforts to apply to correct the problem.
From this "practice theory," the OD practitioner
works; first diagnosing the situation, then selecting
and implementing treatments based on the
diagnosis, and finally evaluating the effects of the
treatments.

FIGURE 6: Composition of Applied Behavioral Science
Organization development is both a result of
applied behavioral science and a form of applied
behavioral science; perhaps more accurately, it
is a program of applying behavioral science to
organization.
Figure 6 shows some of the inputs to applied
behavioral science. The two bottom inputs,
behavioral science research and behavioral
science theory, represent contributions from
pure or basic science; the two top inputs,
practice research and practice theory, represent
contributions from applied science.
The following are some examples of
contributions from these four sources that are
relevant for organization development.
1. Contributions from Behavioral Science Theory:
i. The importance of social norms in determining perceptions,
motivations, and behaviors (Sherif)
ii. The role of an exchange theory of behavior that postulates that
people tend to exchange approximately equivalent units to
maintain a balance between what is-given and received (Gouldner,
Homans)
iii. The importance of the existing total field of forces in determining
and predicting behavior (Lewin)
iv. The relevance of role theory in accounting for stability and change
in behavior (G. H. Mead)
v. The possibilities inherent in views of motivation different from those
provided by older theories (McGregor, Herzberg, Maslow)
vi. The importance of individual goal setting for increasing productivity
and improving performance (Locke)
vi. The place of social cognitive theory, general theories of learning,
effects of reward and punishment, attitude change theories, and so
on in understanding organizational behavior (Bandura, Skinner,
McGuire)
2. Contributions from Behavioral Science Research:
i. Studies on the causes, conditions, and consequences of
induced competition on behavioral within and between
groups (Sheriff and Blake and Mouton)
ii. Results on the effects of cooperative and competitive group
goal structures on behavior within groups (Deutsch)
iii. Studies on the effects of organizational and managerial
climate on leadership style (Fleishman) Studies on the
variables relevant for organizational health (Likert)
iv. Studies showing the importance of the social system in
relation to the technical system (Trist and Bamforth)
v. Studies on different communication networks (Leavitt), causes
and consequences of conformity (Asch), group problem
solving (Kelley and Thibaut), and group dynamics (Cartwright
and Zander)
3. Contributions from Practice Theory:
i. Implications from the theory and practice of the laboratory training
method (Bradford, Benne, and Gibb)
ii. Implications from theories of group development (Bion and Bennis
and Shepard)
iii. New dimensions in the helping relationship and specifically the
client-consultant relationship (Rogers)
iv. Codification of the practice of management (Drucker)
v. New ideas about the education process (Dewey)
vi. The concept of "management by objectives" (Drucker, McGregor)
vii. Implications of social learning theory and behavior modeling for
supervisor training (Goldstein and Sorcher)
viii. Explorations in intervention theory and method (Argyris)
ix. Developments in consultation typologies and theory (Blake and
Mouton)
x. Implications and applications from theories of planned change
(Lipitt, Watson, and Westley; Bennis, Benne, and Chin)
4. Contributions from Practice Research:
i. Studies showing that feeding back survey research data can
bring about organization change (Mann, Likert, Baumgartel)
ii. Results indicating the importance of the informal work group
on individual and group performance (Roethlisberger and
Dickson)
iii. Results showing the efficacy of grid organization development
in large organizations (Blake, Mouton, Barnes, and Greiner)
iv. Results documenting improved organizational performance
and improved organization climate stemming from a long-
term OD effort in a manufacturing firm (Marrow, Bowers, and
Seashore)
v. Results showing the ability of behavior modeling training to
improve supervisory human relations skills (Latham and Saari)
and organizational effectiveness (Porras)
VIII. ACTION RESEARCH:
The action research modela data-based, problem-solving
method that replicates the steps involved in the scientific
method of inquiry underlies most OD activities. Action
research involves three processes:
Data collection,
Feedback of the data to the client system members
Action planning based on the data.
Action research is especially well suited for planned change
programs.
Action research is a method that combines learning and
doinglearning about the dynamics of organizational
change, and doing or implementing change efforts.
THIRD-WAVE MANAGEMENT
The first wave companies were built in
Agricultural age
The second wave companies were built in
INDUSTRIAL AGE, MASS PRODUCTION AND
GROWTH
The THIRD-WAVE companies were built in
INFORMATION AGE

CHARACTERISTICS
Flexibility
Creativity
Innovation
Participative work culture

Best practices of
THIRD WAVE COMPANIES
ASSESS THE POTENTIAL FOR ACTION
GET THE WHOLE SYSTEM IN ONE ROOM
FOCUS ON FUTURE
STRUCTURE TASK THAT A PEOPLE CAN DO
THEMSELVES