The Roman Empire
was one of the largest
early
empires
in
history,
stretching
from
England
in
Northern Europe to
the Ancient Near East
and Africa
The pink area of the
Map
shows
the
greatest extent of the
Roman Empire
Rome, located on
the Italian peninsula
was the capital of the
empire
From the capital, an
infrastructure
of
roads
and
communication
systems
was
EVOLUTION OF ROMAN
ARCHITECTURE
Roman
architecture
refers to the architecture
of Rome and of the
Roman Empire
Ancient Egyptian Architecture
(from 3000 BC to 700 BC)
Egyptian architecture is easily recognizable, thanks to its most famous buildings
pyramids. The construction of these impressive burial places for pharaohs and their
families required between 20,000 and 30,000 workers.
Construction materials were limestone and sun-baked bricks.
Workers had to transport materials by sled and than they had to lift the blocks using
the system of ramps and pulleys.
Other Egyptian structures were temples and tombs, which were often decorated with
hieroglyphics and carvings.
The Great Pyramid of Giza
Classical architecture
(from 600 BC to 500 AD)
Symmetry ruled the ancient Greek and Roman buildings. We can still see the effects of
classical architecture in today's buildings.
Roman architect Marcus Vitruvius, who lived during the first century BC, believed that
builders should use mathematical principles for construction of temples.
Classical buildings were supported by sets of columns with decorative bands above,
called friezes (vlysy).
Greeks differentiated among three types of column Doric, Ionic and Corinthian.
Good example of early Greek classical architecture is famous Parthenon in Athens.
After conquest of Greece by the Roman Empire, builders
took many examples from Greek architecture but gave their structures more decorations.
The invention of concrete helped the Romans build arches (oblouky) and domes (kupole).
The Roman Coliseum is a famous example of Roman classical architecture.
The
Parthenon
The Coliseum
GREEK INFLUENCE
Elements of Roman architecture show very
significant Greek influence.
However, Roman functional needs sometimes
differed, resulting in interesting innovations.
The Romans were less attached to ideal forms and
extended Greek ideas to make them more functional.
Romans needed interior space for worship, whereas the Greeks
worshipped outside.
Their solution was to extend the walls outward, creating engaged
columns, while maintaining the same basic shape
Topics
Prehistory:
The Etruscans
Roman Characteristics
Building Materials
Architectural Ideals
Structural Revolution
Structures
Civic Architecture
Tombs
Introduction
Results:
From the Italian origins:
Practical sense (functionalism)
Military expansion (imperialism)
From the Etrurian
Realistic sense
Cult to the ancestors
From Greece
Philosophy
Literature
Art
Post &
Lintel
construction
LINTEL
P
GREEK
PARTHENON
Post &
Lintel
drawbacks
LINTEL
thick
narrow
thick
Roman Architecture:
Prehistory: The Etruscans
Etruscan
civilization
Preceded the Roman Empire in Italy
Most of their architecture was
destroyed by the Romans
Only hidden structures, such as tombs, were
spared
Much of their architecture was greatly
influenced by the Greeks
The legacy of Etruscan architecture
lives on through its influence in Roman
architecture
Roman Architecture:
Roman Characteristics
April
21, 753 B.C.
Pinpointed by the Romans as the day
Rome was founded
Early
Romans were militant and
very disciplined
Lacking in artistic culture
Romans
absorbed the Greek culture
Literature, philosophy, science, and
painting
New appreciation of the arts
Roman Innovation
To
the original
Greek orders, the
Romans added
two:
The Tuscan order.
The Compostite
order.
Roman Innovation
Tuscan
Order:
Like the Doric,
except this one has
a base.
Roman Innovation
The
Composite
order combined
elements of both
the Ionic and
Corinthian.
It appears to be
Corinthian
acanthus leaves,
supplemented with
volutes.
Roman Architecture:
Roman Characteristics
Roman
architecture emerged from
Hellenistic and Etruscan influences
It held many original aspects,
however
Materials and building techniques
Fulfilled practical purposes
Served commerce, industry, and shipping
Ports
Roads
Aqueducts
General Characteristics
Building
systems:
Lintelled:
Copied from the Greeks
Spaces are closed by straight lines
Vaulted
Taken from the Etrurian
Use of arches
Barrel vaults
Use of domes
Strong walls so that they do not use
external supports
General Characteristics
Materials:
Limestone
Concrete
Mortar
Arches:
They used half point or semicircular
arches
They could use lintels above these
arches
Pediments were combined with them
General Characteristics:
Building techniques
Opus incertum
Opus testaceum
Opus reticulatum
Opus spicatum
Mortar in the
foundations
Barrel Vault
General Characteristics
Walls
were made in one of these
ways:
Ashlar
Masonry
Brick
General Characteristics
Material
combinations in walls:
Roman Innovation
Composite Walls
Note
the use of a
brick outer facing
and a fill of
concrete and
rubble.
Roman
Orders:
Tuscan Order:
very plain design, with a plain shaft, and
a simple capital, base, and frieze.
Unfluted shaft.
In proportions it is similar to the Doric
order.
Composite Order:
Mixed order. Combines the volutes
(scrolls) of the Ionic with the acanthus
leaves of the Corinthian order.
General Characteristics
Greek
shapes assimilation:
Architectonical orders were used more in a
decorative than in a practical way
Order superposition
The use of orders linked to the wall created a
decorative element
They used the classical orders and two
more:
Composite
Tuscan
Architectonic Typology
Roman
Architecture has a rich typology that
includes:
Religious building: temple
Civil buildings:
Public: basilicas, baths
Spectacles: theatre, amphitheatre, circus
Commemorative: Triumph arch, column
Domestic: house, village, palace
Funerary: tombs
Engineering
Bridges
Aqueducts
works:
Model of Rome
Characteristics
1. During the Republic Temple
Architecture:
K
blended Etruscan & Greek
features.
emphasis on the front of the
building.
example: Temple of Fortuna
Virilis.
Temple of Fortuna Virilis
Characteristics
2.CONCRETE:
K created a revolution in
architectural design.
K create larger, heavier
buildings.
* example:
- The Sanctuary of
Fortuna Palestrina.
Sanctuary
of Fortuna Palestrina
Model of Roman Forum
Model
of
Trajans
Forum
Characteristics
3.ARCH & VAULT:
K Coliseum
K Race Track Circus Maximus
K Public Baths
K Amphitheaters
Triumphal
Arch of Titus
Arch of Constantine
Roman Architecture:
Building Materials
Building
materials were very important
to the success of Roman architecture
Access to a wide variety of building stone
including:
Volcanic tufa
Limestone
Travertine
Nearly unlimited quantities of white marble
Quarry opened by Augustus north of Pisa
Other varieties were imported from the Far East
Roman Architecture:
Building Materials
Brick
Romans perfected the art of brickmaking
Concrete
Perfected this material
Became the most characteristic
material in Roman structures
Was used to construct massive walls
and great vaults
Roman Innovation Massive Building
the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia
The
Temple of
Fortuna
Primigenia was a
massive
structure, made
possible by
concrete
construction.
Roman Architecture:
Architectural Ideals
Space
To the Romans, the space inside a
structure was just as important as the
exterior
Interior space was the primary focus of
Roman architecture and was shaped by
vaults, arches, and walls
Romans
were fond of extravagance
Architecture for the powerful was gaudy
and colorful, not like the ruins as seen
today
Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
The
combination of arches, vaults,
and concrete in architecture are a
pure Roman creation
The individual elements had been used
in earlier civilizations
Egyptians and Mesopotamians had used
primitive arch forms
Greeks had experimented with the arch and
concrete with little success
Etruscans had constructed vault-like forms
Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Arches
More intricate than a simple post-andlintel system
Formed by a multitude of small elements
that curve over space by resting against
each other in a delicate balance
Voussoirs
The elements used to create an arch
The shape of the structure keeps each
voussoir in place
Held together by their own force
Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Photo: Sullivan
Arches strength
through
compression
Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Vault
Created by extending an arch along
its axis
Merely an extended arch
Supports and provides a roof for a
given area
Types of vaults
Barrel/Tunnel vault
Cross/Groin vault
Dome
Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Barrel/Tunnel
Vaults
The earliest type of vault
Appear in limited form in Egypt,
Mesopotamia, and Hellenistic Greece
Has a few limitations
Exerts a continuous load, therefore
needing constant support
Difficult to illuminate
Increases in length require thicker vault
supports
Barrel or
Tunnel Vault
K Windows can be
placed at any point.
K These vaults require
buttressing to
counter-act the
downward thrust of
weight.
Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Photo: Sullivan
Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Cross/Groin
Vaults
Created to overcome the limitations
of barrel vaults
Employed by the Romans very
heavily
Formed by intersecting two barrel
vaults at right angles
Limitations
Resistant to square plans
Groin Vault
K Also called a
cross vault.
K Needs less
buttressing.
Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Photo: Sullivan
Multi Groin Vaults
K A series of groin vaults
can have open lateral
arches that form
Clerestories.
K Windows that allow
light into the interior
of churches.
K These concrete windows
are fireproof [an
important consideration
since many early
churches burned!]
Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Dome
The grandest type of vault
Types
Cloister vault
An eight-sided vault, with an octagon-shaped dome
Formed by crossing barrel vaults over an octagonal
plan
Rare in Rome, more prevalent in medieval
architecture
True dome
Perfectly rounded dome, preferred by the Romans
Built up in complete rings wherein each ring forms
a self-supporting component of the final dome
Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Photo: Sullivan
Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Photo: Sullivan
Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Concrete
A mixture of mortar-like cement with an
aggregate
Many advantages over traditional stone
Does not need to be quarried, shaped, or
transported
Highly skilled labor was not needed to
prepare the concrete
Can be cast in just about any shape
imaginable
Arches and vaults could be economically
fabricated
Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Concrete
Surfaces
Romans developed many types of facings
that were weather resistant and pleasant
to the eye
Opus incertum
Random shaped stones of concrete
Opus testaceum
Brick facing; made concrete wall look as if it
were constructed from bricks
Opus mixtum
Decorative patterns of tufa, stone, or brick
Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Opus mixtum; Photo: Sullivan
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman
Aqueducts
Used to supply the civilization with
water from afar
Utilized an arch to create a
continuous line of decent for water
Aqua Claudia
Brought water over solid masonry some
ten miles into Rome
Some areas were over 100 ft. in height
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Photo: Sullivan
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman
Bridges
Were generally lower in height and
broader than aqueducts
Two important Roman Bridges:
Pons Fabricus
Pons Milvius
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Photo: Sullivan
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman
Theatres
Adopted the Greek theatre and
transformed it
The Roman theatre was closed, unlike
the Greeks who preferred an open,
outside theatre
Theatre of Marcellus
Integrated Roman style with that of the
Greeks
Provided around 10,000 seats arranged in
three tiers
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Photo: Sullivan
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman
Arenas
The Colosseum
Built by Flavian emperors Vespasian, Titus,
and Doitian
Located on the site of an artificial lake that
had been part of Neros Golden House
Extensive system of tunnels, chambers,
and mechanical devices below the arena
floor
Hydraulic provision used to flood the arena
for naval displays and mock battles
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Photo: Sullivan
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Photo: Sullivan
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman
Circuses
Circus Maximus
Oldest and largest
circus stadium
Rebuilt and destroyed
from the first through
third centuries A.D.
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman
Baths
Strenuous daily life prompted the
Romans to construct large public
baths
Wealthy citizens also constructed
private baths in their domiciles
Featured elaborate heating systems
Furnaces beneath floors
Heat was transmitted to rooms by tile
ducts, warming the floors and the walls
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman
Temples
Earliest Roman temples were
indistinguishable from those of the
Etruscans
Axial plan
Deep porch
Widely spaced columns
High podiums
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman
Temples
Temple of Jupiter
Capitolinus
Originally built in the
late sixth century B.C.
Rebuilt in 69 B.C.
Photo: Sullivan
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman
Temples
Pantheon
Located in Rome
Considered by many to be the greatest
structure of antiquity to have survived in a
state of near completeness
Built by Hadrian between A.D 118 and 128
Three notable parts:
Immense, domed cella
Deep, octastyle Corinthian porch
Block-like intermediate structure
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Photo: Sullivan
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Photo: Sullivan
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman
Basilicas
An important category of Roman
architecture
Most important Roman source for early
Christian architecture
Pure Roman style of architecture
Basilica
Essentially means a roofed hall,
rectangular in plan, sometimes with an
apse
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman
Basilicas
Basilica Ulpia
A.D. 98-117
Finest example of the
columnar basilica
Built by Trajan
Important model for
later ages
Photo: Sullivan
Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman
Basilicas
Basilica in Trier,
Germany
Early fourth century
A.D.
Built by Constantine
The final Roman
basilica
Served as an
important model for
the Romanesque
period of architecture
Photo: Sullivan
Roman Architecture:
Civic Architecture
Houses
and Villas
Private domiciles reflected their inhabitants
Lower classes lived in meager, cramped
apartments located on the upper floors of shops
and other buildings
Middle classes lived on the lower floors and
many homes had balconies, good ventilation,
and running water
Upper classes usually owned a house, know as a
domus.
Standalone structures
Featured courtyards and gardens
Many had running water
Roman Architecture:
Tombs
Tombs
Romans were great builders of tombs
Different from the Greeks and
Egyptians in scale and religious style
Tomb of M. Vergilius Eurysaces
Citizen who made a fortune selling bread
to Caesar's army
Built a tomb in the shape of an oven
Roman Architecture:
Tombs
Photo: Sullivan
Roman Architecture:
Tombs
Tombs
Roman catacombs
Built by the poor as
place of burial
Photo: Sullivan
References
Sullivan,
Mary;
http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/
http://www.brynmawr.edu/Acads/Cities/wld/w
dpt1.html
Trachtenburg/Hyman; Architecture: From
Prehistory to Postmodernity
Wodehouse/Moffett; A History of Western
Architecture
Principles of Architectural Organization
Three forces appear to shape the direction
and form of Roman architecture
Function
Construction Technology
Adaptation to new ideas and knowledge
Roman Town Planning
Cities
were the centre of Roman
life
Need for infrastructures
Water and sewer system
Transport and defence
Public spaces and markets
Psychological effect: power and
control
There
was a need of linking them
throug paved roads
Roman Town Planning
The
plan of the city was
based on the camp
It had two main axes
Cardus E-W
Decumanus N-S
Where
the two
converged was the
forum
The rest of the space
was divided into
squares in which insulae
or blocks of flats were
built
Roman Town Planning
The
most important part of the
city was the forum, where political,
economic, administrative, social
and religious activity were centred.
Main buildings were in this forum
In big cities there were theatres,
circuses, stadiums, odeons.
Forums
The
forum, an open area
bordered by colonnades with
shops, functioned as the chief
meeting place of the town. It was
also the site of the city's primary
religious and civic buildings,
among them the Senate house,
records office, and basilica.
12/01/15
When archaeologists began
excavating the city of Pompeii,
which had been covered with ash
and mud by the eruption of Mount
Vesuvius in ad 79, they found the
remains of people, ancient
buildings, and other artifacts
preserved amid the volcanic
debris. Among the structures
uncovered was The Forum of
Pompeii, pictured, a group of
temples, courts, and palaces that
served as the citys legislative
center.
12/01/15
Walls
Defence
of cities has
been one of the capital
problems that
civilizations had to
solve in order to project
the future of their
citizens, goods, culture
and ways of life.
Romans were the first
in the technique of
improving different
kinds of defence, using
walls.
Bridges
Roman engineers were true masters building them, since constructions were
essential elements for reaching places and cities often situated at the bank of
rivers.
This location was due to defensive and infrastructural reasons -supply and
drainage.
They are characterised by:
Not pointed arches.
Constructions of ashlars masonry often with pad shape.
Route of more than 5 m. wide.
Route of horizontal or slightly combed surface "few curved".
Rectangular pillars from their basis with lateral triangular or circular
cutwaters that end before the railings.
Aqueducts
Aqueducts
were built in order to avoid
geographic irregularities between fountains or
rivers and towns.
Not only valleys were crossed by superposed
cannels, but also mountains were excavated by
long tunnels, pits and levels of maintenance.
They were used to bring water to cities.
The
Romans were the greatest builders of roads, bridges and
aqueducts in the ancient world.
They
created a system of aqueducts for Rome that brought
water from as far away as 60 miles.
The
water system in Segovia, Spain, still uses part of an
ancient Roman aqueduct.
Roman Public Water Supply
The
Romans
transported water from
far away to cities via
aquaducts.
Cities themselves were
plumbed, providing
private water for the
rich and for baths and
communal supplies for
poorer
neighbourhoods.
Paved Roads
Paved
roads were needed to reach to
any point of the empire
They facilitated both communication
and political control
Roman Roads Spanned the
Empire
All Roads Lead to Rome
Why do you think a system of roads was important to the survival of the
Empire?
Appian Way
An expanding network of roads
helped to link Rome's distant
territories.
One of the most important paved
military roads was the Appian Way,
commissioned by the Roman official
Appius Claudius Caecus.
It became the major route from
Rome to Greece.
Although these large lava blocks
may not be the original material, the
route itself has remained unchanged
and in use since it was first paved
more than 2200 years ago.
Via Appia
Paved Roads
The
roads were made with strong foundations
Different materials were put into different layers
To meassure the distance they created the
Milliarium or stones located in the sides
Section of a Roman paved road
Paved Roads
The
roads were not completely flat
They consisted of several parts
The central and highest was the most
important, it was convex to conduct the water
to the ditches that were built in the sides
Religious: Temple
It
copied the Greek
model
It has only one portico
and a main faade
It tends to be
pseudoperiptero
The cella is totally
closed
It is built on a podium
Instead of having
stairs all around, it
only has them in the
main faade
Religious: Temple
There
were other
kind of temples:
Circular: similar to
the Greek tholos
Pantheon:
combined squared
and circular
structures and
was in honour of
all gods.
The Pantheon
The
magnificent
interior space of
the Pantheon was
achieved by:
Employing a dome
over a drum.
Coffering the dome
to reduce weight.
Placing an occulus
to allow light to
enter.
The Pantheon
Pantheon plan
Interior more
spectacular
than exterior
Interior
views
Engineering marvel
Concrete!
Missing pedimental sculpture
(would have been like
Parthenon)
Pantheon comments
later used as
church
Tuscan order of columns (with
Corinthian capitals)
The Pantheon
Pantheons Dome
The Pantheon Interior
The Pantheon Interior
Painting by
Giovanni
Paolo Pannini
(18c)
Civil Buildings Basilica
Basilica
were first
built to house
audience facilities
for government
officials.
When Christianity
became the state
religion, this kind
of building was
adapted to
Christian worship.
Civil Buildings: Basilica
It
was the residence of
the tribunal
It is rectangular and has
different naves
The central nave is
higher and receives light
from the sides
The building ends in an
apse
It is covered with vaults
Barrel over the central nave
Edged over the lateral
naves
This Roman basilica was
begun by the emperor
Maxentius between 307 and
310 and completed by
Constantine the Great after
312.
Although it was one of the
most important monuments in
classical antiquity, almost all
that remains of the building
are these three huge, barrelvaulted bays
Public Buildings -- Basilica
A
large nave is
flanked by side
aisles behind a
row of
supporting piers.
An Apse draws
attention in the
direction of the
altar.
Civil Buildings: Baths
There
were spaces for
public life
They consisted of
different rooms:
Changing rooms
Different temperature
rooms:
Frigidarium (cold)
Tepidarium (warm)
Caldarium (hot)
Swimming pool
Gymnasium
Library
Caracallas Bath House
Spectacles: Theatre
It
is similar to the Greek but
it is not located in a
mountain but it is
completely built
It has a semicircular scenery
The doors to facilitate
peoples movement are
called vomitoria
It does not have the
orchestra because in Roman
plays was not a chorus
The rest of the parts are
similar to those of the Greek
theatre
Meridas Roman Theatre
Roman Theater
Theater of Marcellus
Spectacles: Amphitheatre
It
comes from the
fusion of two
theatres
It was the place for
spectacles with
animals and fights
(gladiators)
There could be filled
with water for naval
battles.
Early Roman Amphitheater
Seats about 20,000
plan
Interior of the Coloseum
Arena is Latin for the sand, coating the floor
that soaks up the blood of the combatants.
Spectacles: Circus
It
was a building for horse races and
cuadriga competitions.
It has the cavea, the area and a central
element to turn around, the spina.
Circus Maximus
300,000 seat capacity!
Commemorative monuments:
Triumphal Arches
They were usually placed at the main
entrance of cities in order to remember
travellers and inhabitants the
Greatness and strength of Roman
world.
At the beginning they were wooden
arches where trophies and richness
from wars were shown.
This habitude changed: Romans built
commemorative arches with
inscriptions.
They were a Roman creation and they
succeeded: many of them have been
constructed until the present days.
Arches were used not only for
commemorating Roman victories or
military generals: they also marked
limits between provincial borders.
Commemorative monuments:
Columns
They
were columns
decorated with relief works.
In them some important
facts were related
They were built in the
honour of a person.
The best instance of these
works is the famous Traian
Column at Rome. It is
decorated with a spiral of
reliefs dealing with scenes
of his campaigns in Danube
and with inscriptions.
Houses: Insulae
There
are urban houses
In order to take advantage
from the room in cities,
buildings up to four floors
were constructed.
The ground floor was for
shops -tabernae- and the
others for apartments of
different sizes.
Every room was
communicated through a
central communitarian patio
decorated with flowers or
gardens.
Houses: Domus
It was the usual housing for important people in
each city.
It was endowed with a structure based on
distribution through porticated patios:
the entry -fauces- gives access to a small
corridor -vestibulum-.
It leads to a porticated patio -atrium-.
Its center, the impluvium, is a bank for the
water falling from the compluvium.
At both sides -alae- there are many chambers
used as rooms for service slaves, kitchens and
latrines.
At the bottom, the tablinum or living-room
can be found, and close to it, the triclinium or
dining-room.
This atrium gave also light enough to next
rooms.
At both sides of the tablinum, little corridors
led to the noble part of the domus.
Second porticated patio peristylium, was
bigger and endowed with a central garden.
It was surrounded by rooms -cubiculum- and
marked by an exedra used as a chamber for
banquets or social meetings.
Houses: Villa
Houses far from cities, were
thought for realizing
agricultural exploitations
-villae rustica-, or else as
places for the rest of
important persons -villae
urbana-.
Entertaining villa was
endowed with every
comfortable element in its
age as well as gardens and
splendid views.
Country villae got stables,
cellars, stores and orchards
apart from the noble rooms.
Palaces
There
were the
residence of the
emperor
They consisted of
a numerous
series of rooms
Their plan tended
to be regular
Dioclecianos Palace at Splitz
Learning Objective: the
legacy of Roman
architecture & engineering.
-Architecture:
buildings
-Engineering:
The style and parts of
The designing of buildings,
roads, bridges, etc
Summary
A
clear picture of Roman
architecture can be drawn from
the impressive remains of ancient
Roman public and private
buildings.
Many of our modern government
institutions are modeled after the
Roman system, as is much of our
public architecture.
12/01/15
Builders laid the cornerstone for the United States Capitol in 1793, and the building
has been the seat of the countrys Senate and the House of Representatives since
1800. The Rotunda stands 66 m (180 ft) high and is the symbolic center of both
Capitol Hill and Washington, D.C.
12/01/15
Lincoln
Memorial
Jefferson
Memorial
12/01/15
Review
What
type of innovations came
from the Ancient Roman
Civilization?
What
influences can we see in
our society today?
Can
you give two examples?
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Where to Get More
Information
Ancient RomeWhat Life Was Like: When Rome Ruled
the World: The Roman Empire 100 bc to ad
200.Time-Life,1997.
Adkins, Lesley, and Roy A. Adkins.Handbook to
Life in Ancient Rome.Facts on File,Reprint, Oxford
University Press,1997.1998.A comprehensive
reference covering more than 1,200 years of the
Roman Empire; includes 150 illustrations.
Amery, Heather, and Patricia Vanags.Rome and
Romans.Educational Development Center,1998.A
volume in the popular Time-Traveler series.
Connolly, Peter, and Hazel Dodge.The Ancient
City: Life in Classical Athens and Rome.Oxford
University Press,1998.Details what it was like to
live in the capital cities of the classical world.
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