NUCLEAR WEAPONS
BY
CAPTAIN SHAIFFUL NIZAM BIN
ABDUL KHOLID
HEAD/MANAGER OF MILITARY GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION SYSTEM
ARMY HEADQUARTERS – ENGINEER DIRECTORATE
PRESENTER CV
NAME : SHAIFFUL NIZAM BIN ABDUL KHOLID
D.O.B : 28 DEC 78
P.O.B : BUKIT MERTAJAM, PENANG
ACADEMIC : BACHELOR DEGREE (HONOUR) IN
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, USM
COMMISSION DATE : 3RD SEPT 01
CORPS : ROYAL ENGINEER REGIMENT
APPOINTMENT(S):
TP CDR OF 11 SQN RER (MECH), 2001 TILL 2006
HEAD OF TRG TEAM AT 3RD DIV NBCD, 2006 TILL 2011
HEAD OF SPECIALIST CELL AT ARMY INSTITUTE OF FIELD
ENGINEERING, 2011 TILL 2014
HEAD/MANAGER OF MILITARY GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION
SYSTEM AT ARMY HQ – ENGR DIRECTORATE
COURSE(S) ATTENDED:
CBRND ADVISER CSE AT SME, NSW, AUSTRALIA, 2005
ASSOCIATE PROGRAMME 2010 AT OPCW, THE HAGUE, THE
NETHERLANDS, 2010 2
SCOPE
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
SCIENCE BEHIND NUCLEAR WEAPONS
TYPE OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS
CHARACTERISTIC AND EFFECT OF
NUCLEAR DETONATION
DEFENCE AGAINTS NUCLEAR WEAPONS
PEACEFUL USE OF NUCLEAR
TECHNOLOGY
3
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
HISTORY
DEMOCRITUS (460 BC - 370 BC), GREEK- EVERYTHING
MADE UP FM ATOM
18 CENTURY - ATOMIC RELEASE FORM HEAT
19 CENTURY - ATOM SPLIT CAUSE RADIATION
1896 - URANIUM- X-RAY (ATOM PENETRATE SOLID)
1905- EINSTEIN - ENERGY LOCKUP IN ATOM
1930-ATOM URANIUM SPLIT BY FISSION
1930- WW II, A-BOMB PROJECT (MANHATTAN)
JUL 1945-FIRST EXPERIMENT ATOM BOMB (NEW
MEXICO)
6 AUG 1945 - LITTLE BOY HIROSHIMA-URANIUM (20000
KILL - 12000 IN A YEAR LATER)
9 AUG 1945-FAT MAN NAGASAKI-PLUTONIUM
1949-USSR TEST A-BOMB
1953-USA/USSR TEST H-BOMB 5
LITTLE BOY HIROSHIMA
6 AUG 45
PLACE OF ORIGIN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
PRODUCTION HISTORY
DESIGNER LOS ALAMOS LABORATORY
PRODUCED 1945
SPECIFICATIONS
WEIGHT 9,700 pounds (4,400 kg)
LENGTH 10 feet (3.0 m)
DIAMETER 28 inches (71 cm)
FILLING URANIUM-235
FILLING WEIGHT 140 lb (64 kg)
BLAST YIELD 15 KILOTONS OF TNT 6
FAT MAN NAGASAKI
9 AUG 45
PLACE OF ORIGIN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
PRODUCTION HISTORY
DESIGNER LOS ALAMOS LABORATORY
PRODUCED 1945–1949
SPECIFICATIONS
WEIGHT 10,300 pounds (4,670 kg)
LENGTH 128 inches (3.3 m)
DIAMETER 60 inches (1.5 m)
FILLING PLUTONIUM
FILLING WEIGHT 6.2 kilograms (14 lb)
BLAST YIELD 21 KILOTONS OF TNT 7
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY
AGENCY
IAEA WAS CREATED IN 29 JULY 1957
HEADQUARTERS IN VIENNA, AUSTRIA
MISSION:
PEACEFUL USES: PROMOTING THE PEACEFUL USES OF
NUCLEAR ENERGY BY ITS MEMBER STATES
SAFEGUARDS: IMPLEMENTING SAFEGUARDS TO VERIFY
THAT NUCLEAR ENERGY IS NOT USED FOR MILITARY
PURPOSES
NUCLEAR SAFETY: PROMOTING HIGH STANDARDS FOR
NUCLEAR SAFETY
8
IAEA MEMBER
MEMBER STATE (164)
MEMBERSHIP APPROVED (4)
WITHDREW MEMBERSHIP (1)
OTHER STATE (26)
9
TREATY ON THE NON-PROLIFERATION OF
NUCLEAR WEAPONS
COMMONLY KNOWN AS THE NON-
PROLIFERATION TREATY OR NPT
OPENED FOR SIGNATURE IN 1968, THE
TREATY ENTERED INTO FORCE IN 1970
OBJECTIVE:
PREVENT THE SPREAD OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS
AND WEAPONS TECHNOLOGY
PROMOTE COOPERATION IN THE PEACEFUL
USES OF NUCLEAR ENERGY
TO FURTHER THE GOAL OF ACHIEVING
NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT AND GENERAL AND
COMPLETE DISARMAMENT 1
0
NPT PARTICIPITATION
PARTIES: 190
NON-PARTIES: INDIA, ISRAEL, NORTH KOREA, PAKISTAN AND SOUTH
SUDAN 11
STATE WITH NUCLEAR WEAPONS
NPT -DESIGNATED NUCLEAR WEAPON STATES (CHINA, FRANCE, RUSSIA,
UNITED KINGDOM, UNITED STATES)
OTHER STATES WITH NUCLEAR WEAPONS (INDIA, PAKISTAN, NORTH
KOREA)
OTHER STATES BELIEVED TO HAVE NUCLEAR WEAPONS ( ISRAEL)
NATO NUCLEAR WEAPONS SHARING STATES (BELGIUM, GERMANY,
NETHERLANDS, ITALY, TURKEY)
STATES FORMERLY POSSESSING NUCLEAR WEAPONS (BELARUS,
KAZAKHSTAN, UKRAINE, SOUTH AFRICA) 12
SCIENCE BEHIND NUCLEAR
WEAPONS
NATURE & SOURCE OF
NUCLEAR ENERGY
ELEMENTS – ALL THING ARE MADE OF ONE OR MORE
SIMPLE SUBSTANCES WHICH CANNOT BE BROKEN
DOWN ANY FURTHER BY CHEMICAL MEANS (EG:
OXYGEN)
ATOMS – THE SMALLEST PART OF AN ELEMENT THAT
CAN TAKE PART IN A CHEMICAL CHANGE. EACH ATOM
CONSIST OF A NUCLEUS CONTAINS PROTONS (+) AND
NEUTRON (NO CHARGE) ORBITED BY ELECTRON
(NEGATIVE CHARGE)
ISOTOPES – NEUTRON AFFECTS THE PHYSICAL
PROPERTY OF AN ATOM BUT NO IT’S CHEMICAL
PROPERTY. A DIFFERENT NUM OF NEUTRON IN
DIFFERENT ATOM OF THE SAME ELEMENT
14
ISOTOPES
HYDROGEN, 1H1
HYDROGEN, 1H2 , DEUTERIUM
HYDROGEN, 1H3 , TRITIUM
15
CONTINUED…
IONISATION – ATOM LOSES AN ELECTRON,
IT IS LEFT ELECTRICALLY UNBALANCED &
CALLED POSITIVE ION. WHEN AN ATOM
GAINS AN ELECTRON IT IS CALLED
NEGATIVE ION. IONS ARE CAPABLE OF
PRODUCING IONISATION IN ANOTHER
ATOM
RADIOACTIVITY – IMBALANCE OF AN ATOM
CAUSES THE ATOM TO BE UNSTABLE, THE
ATOM WILL DISCHARGE PARTICLES TO
BECOME STABLE. THIS EMISSION IS
RADIOACTIVE DECAY MADE UP OF ALPHA
PARTICLE (TWO PROTON & TWO NEUTRON),
BETA PARTICLE (ELECTRON) & GAMMA
RADIATION (ENERGY)
16
RADIATION
RADIOACTIVE ATOM IONIZING RADIATION
ALPHA PARTICLE
NEUTRON PARTICLE
BETA PARTICLE
GAMMA RAY (X RAY)
17
PENETRATING POWER
OF RADIATION
CONCRETE
PARTICLE
PARTICLE
& X-RAY
NEUTRON
Al SHEET Pb BLOCK
18
NUCLEAR REACTION
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF NUCLEAR
REACTION :
NUCLEAR FISSION
NUCLEAR FUSSION
19
NUCLEAR FISSION
PRINCIPLE OF NUCLEAR FISSION:
HEAVIER NUCLEI SPLITS INTO
LIGHTER NUCLEI CAUSING ENERGY
RELEASE
IF THE REACTION REPRODUCES
CAN CAUSE DETONATION
MAY OCCUR SPONTANEOUSLY OR
BY BOMBARDMENT OF A
NUCLEUS WITH A PARTICLE SUCH
AS NEUTRON OR WITH GAMMA
RADIATION
MATERIALS USED IN FISSION
PROCESS IS URANIUM-235 AND
PLUTONIUM-239 (ALPHA EMITTER) 20
FISSION
SLOW NEUTRON 141Ba
56
235U
92
92Kr
36
21
CONTINUED…
EG:
NUCLEAR FISSION HAPPENS WHEN
UNATTACHED NEUTRON HITS THE
NUCLEUS OF AN FISSIONABLE MATERIAL
(U-235/PU-239) CAUSES IT TO SPLIT APART
PRODUCING RELEASE OF ENERGY, FISSION
FRAGMENTS AND TWO OR MORE
NEUTRONS
NEUTRON PRODUCED CAN INDUCE SAME
REACTION IN ADDITIONAL U-235/PU-239
WILL CAUSE CHAIN REACTION
2 OUNCES OF FISSIONABLE MATERIAL=
1KT OF TNT
22
CONTINUED…
CRITICAL MASS – IN FISSION PROCESS
MANY OF REPRODUCE NEUTRON CAN
ESCAPED CAN CONTRIBUTE TO THE CEASE
OF THE CHAIN REACTION = NO DETONATION.
THEREFORE THE FISSILE MATERIAL MUST BE
A CERTAIN SIZE, CALLED CRITICAL MASS.
DEPENDS ON THE SHAPE, COMPOSITION AND
PRESENCE OF IMPURITIES. USE BERYLLIUM
REFLECTOR, ONCE CRITICAL MASS
REACHED OR EXCEEDED THE FISSILE
MATERIAL WILL DETONATE.
23
CONTINUED…
CRITICALITY – IF URANIUM EXCEEDING
THE CRITICAL MASS WILL SUBJECT TO
NATURAL OCCURRING NEUTRON IN
ATMOSPHERE. THEREFORE THE FISSION
MATERIAL SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN THE
CRITICAL MASS TO ENSURE SAFETY. TO
PRODUCE DETONATION THE MATERIAL
MUST BE SUPER-CRITICAL.
24
NUCLEAR FUSSION
NUCLEAR REACTION IN WHICH TWO
LIGHT ATOMIC NUCLEI COMBINE TO
FORM A HEAVIER NUCLEUS.
ENERGY IS RELEASED.
THIS CAN OCCUR WHEN ENERGIES OF
BOTH NUCLEI ARE RAISED BY VERY
HIGH TEMPERATURE.
USUALLY A FISSION WEAPON IS USED
AS A TRIGGER TO GENERATE REQUIRED
TEMPERATURE.
25
FUSION
DEUTERIUM
+ +
+ +
ENERGY
TRITIUM
+
26
TYPE OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS
TYPE OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS
THERE ARE TWO TYPE OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS
:
ATOMIC BOMB
HYDROGEN BOMB
28
ATOMIC BOMB
URANIUM 235
DETONATOR
CONVENTIONAL CHARGE
ALL EXISTING NUCLEAR WEAPONS DERIVE SOME OF THEIR
EXPLOSIVE ENERGY FROM NUCLEAR FISSION REACTIONS
WEAPONS WHOSE EXPLOSIVE OUTPUT IS EXCLUSIVELY FROM
FISSION REACTIONS ARE COMMONLY REFERRED TO AS ATOMIC
BOMBS OR ATOM BOMBS(ABBREVIATED AS A-BOMBS)
THE MOST COMMONLY USED FISSILE MATERIALS FOR NUCLEAR
WEAPONS APPLICATIONS HAVE BEEN URANIUM-235 AND
PLUTONIUM-239 29
FISSION INITIATION METHOD
THERE ARE TWO PIECES OF FISSILE MATERIAL, WHICH ARE AIMED
TO ASSEMBLED INTO SUPERCRITICAL MASS (THE AMOUNT OF
MATERIAL NEEDED TO START AN EXPONENTIALLY GROWING
NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTION)
DRIVEN BY THE FORCE OF CONVENTIONAL CHEMICAL
EXPLOSIVES ON THE BACK, ONE PIECE OF SUB-CRITICAL
MATERIAL WILL SHOOT AT ANOTHER, RELEASING VAST AMOUNT
OF FREE ENERGY.
30
FISSION INITIATION METHOD
BY COMPRESSING THE SUB-CRITICAL MATERIAL WITH THE SURROUNDING
CHEMICAL EXPLOSIVES, THE DENSITY OF THE MATERIAL WILL
ACCELERATE RAPIDLY, THEREFORE RELEASE VAST AMOUNT OF FREE
ENERGY AS WELL, BUT ONLY THIS APPROACH CAN BE USED IF THE FISSILE
MATERIAL IS PLUTONIUM 31
HYDROGEN BOMB
PRODUCES A LARGE AMOUNT OF ITS ENERGY THROUGH
NUCLEAR FUSION REACTIONS
GENERALLY REFERRED TO AS THERMONUCLEAR WEAPONS OR
MORE COLLOQUIALLY AS HYDROGEN BOMBS (ABBREVIATED AS
H-BOMBS
RELY ON FUSION REACTIONS BETWEEN ISOTOPES OF
HYDROGEN (DEUTERIUM AND TRITIUM)
FUSION WEAPON IS TRIGGER BY FISSION REACTIONS, AND THE
FUSION REACTIONS CAN THEMSELVES TRIGGER ADDITIONAL
FISSION REACTIONS 32
CHARACTERISTICS AND EFFECT
OF NUCLEAR DETONATION
DISTINGUISH CHARACTERISTICS
NUCLEAR DETONATION
FIRE BALL - FORMED INSTANT OF DET
FLASH OF LIGHT
CLOUD - MUSHROOM SHAPED
(RADIOACTIVE)
34
NUCLEAR C;LOUD DEVELOPMENT
35
TYPES OF BURST
EXO-ATMOSPHERIC BURST - HEIGHT > 30 KM
ENDO-ATMOSPHERIC BURST - HEIGHT > 150 M
SURFACE BURST - ON GND OR WATER
SUB-SURFACE BURST - BENEATH THE SURFACE
36
NUCLEAR WEAPON ENERGY
DISTRIBUTION
INITIAL RADIATION
5%
RESIDUAL RADIATION
10%
50%
35%
BLAST
THERMAL
RADIATION
37
NUCLEAR BURST EFFECT
BLAST & SHOCK
THERMAL RADIATION
NUCLEAR RADIATION
ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECT
38
BLAST & SHOCK
BLAST
RESULT FROM 2 OVERPRESSURE
STATIC OVERPRESSURE – CRUSHING EFFECT ON TARGET MEASURED IN
kPa
DYNAMIC OVERPRESSURE – CAUSE STRUCTURAL DAMAGEBY EXERTING
DRAG FORCE
EFFECT TO PERS
DIRECT BLAST -BONE/MUSCLE/TISSUE
INDIRECT - CASUALITIES DUE TO OBJECT OR STRUCTURE SURROUNDING.
SHOCK WAVE
CAUSE CRATER
MAGNITUDE INTENSIFIED BY MACH EFFECT
GENERATE EARTH QUAKE EFFECT SURROUNDING THE GZ
EFFECT TO PERS
CASUALITIES DUE TO STRUCTURE COLLAPSE
39
THERMAL RADIATION
FLASH
EMIT A BLINDING FLASH OF LIGHT
LOOKING DIRECTLY AT THE POINT OF DETONATION WILL
SUFFER FLASH BLINDNESS AND CAN SUFFER PERMANENT
INJURY
FLASH BLINDNESS MAY PERSIST FOR 2 TO 3 MINUTES BY DAY.
AND 10 MINUTES BY NIGHT
NIGHT VISION MAY BE IMPAIRED FOR AS LONG AS 10 HOURS.
HEAT
TRAVELS AT THE SPEED OF LIGHT AND ARRIVES
INSTANTANEOUSLY.
TRAVELS IN A STRAIGHT LINE, THEREFORE ANY OBJECT THAT
CASTS A SHADOW WILL OFFER PROTECTION
PRODUCE BURNS TO THE SKIN, START FOREST FIRES AND
URBAN FIRES, IGNITE INFLAMMABLE MATERIALS AND
CAUSE RETINAL BURNS
40
NUCLEAR RADIATION
INITIAL RADIATION
GIVEN OFF WITHIN THE FIRST MINUTE AFTER DETONATION
NEUTRON - EMMITED DUE TO FISSION PRODUCT
GAMMA RAY - EMMITED FROM FISSION AND NITROGEN IN
AIR
GAMMA RAYS AND NEUTRONS PRODUCE HARMFUL EFFECTS
IN LIVING ORGANISMS
IONISE SOME ELEMENTS MAKING THEM RADIOACTIVE
RESIDUAL RADIATION
COMMENCES 1 MINUTE FROM THE MOMENT OF
DETONATION
ALPHA PARTICLES ARISING FROM THE UNFISSIONED
MATERIAL IN THE WEAPON
BETA AND GAMMA RAYS ORIGINATING FROM THE
RADIOACTIVE PRODUCTS OF THE DETONATION PROCESS
BETA CAUSE BURNS IF THE PARTICLES LAND ON THE SKIN
GAMMA RAY DISPERSE IN FORM OF FALLOUT CAUSE
RADIACTIVE CONTAMINATION 41
TYPE OF RADIATION EXPOSURE
IRRIDIATION EXTERNAL INTERNAL
CONTAMINATION CONTAMINATION
41
ELECTROMAGNETIC PULSE
CONSISTS OF INTENSE ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
PRODUCE BY A LARGE ELECTRIC CURRENT FLOW IN THE
AIR AND GROUND OF HIGHLY IONISED GZ
GAMMA RAY - EMMITED FROM FISSION AND NITROGEN IN
AIR
TRAVELS AT THE SPEED OF LIGHT, METALLIC AND OTHER
CONDUCTORS CAN COLLECT THE RADIATION IN THE
SAME MANNER AS ANTENNAS PICK UP RADIO WAVES
INTENSE FIELDS MAY DAMAGE UNPROTECTED ELECTRICAL
AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
43
44
DEFENCE AGAINT NUCLEAR
WEAPONS
DEFENSIVE MEASURES
AGAINT NUCLEAR WEAPONS
ACTIVE PASSIVE
LOCATE EN NUCLEAR DISPERSION
DELIVERY MEANS
MOBILITY
DESTRUCT EN
NUCLEAR DELIVERY
MEANS CONCEALMENT
ELECTRONIC
COUNTER MEASURES FLEXIBILITY
46
MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
DISPERSION - BASE ON EVALUATED
FACTOR SUCH AS MISSION, TERRAIN &
EN CAPABILITY
SHIELDING - UNDERGROUND SHELTER
IF POSSIBLE
RADIOLOGICAL DECONTAMINATION -
BY WASHING, SANDBLASTING, SCRAPING
& RESEALING. IT DOES NOT NEUTRALIZE
OR DESTROY RADIOACTIVITY BUT IT
DILUTE TO SAFE LEVEL
47
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PEACEFUL USE OF NUCLEAR
TECHNOLOGY
PEACEFUL USE OF NUCLEAR
TECHNOLOGY
NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY HAS MANY USES IN
FIELD OF:
POWER GENERATION
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE
WATER RESOURCES
MEDICINE
INDUSTRY
54
POWER GENERATION
FIRST POWER STATION TO PRODUCE
ELECTRICITY BY USING HEAT FROM
THE SPLITTING OF URANIUM ATOMS
BEGAN OPERATING IN THE 1950S
HIGH CAPACITY GENERATION WITH
LOW OPERATIONAL COST
RELATIVELY CLEAN COMPARE TO
FOSIL FUEL POWER PLANT
55
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE
FERTILISER. PARTICULAR ISOTOPE, N-15,
P-32 PROVIDE A MEANS OF FINDING OUT
HOW MUCH IS TAKEN UP BY THE PLANT
AND HOW MUCH IS LOST, ALLOWING
BETTER MANAGEMENT OF FERTILISER
APPLICATION
INCREASING GENETIC VARIABILITY.
IONISING RADIATION TO INDUCE
MUTATIONS IN PLANT BREEDING TO
PRODUCE NEW GENETIC LINES OF ROOT
AND TUBER CROPS, CEREALS AND OIL
SEED CROPS 56
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE
INSECT CONTROL. STERILE INSECT
TECHNIQUE (SIT) INVOLVES REARING
LARGE NUMBERS OF INSECTS THEN
IRRADIATING THEIR EGGS WITH GAMMA
RADIATION BEFORE HATCHING, TO
STERILISE THEM. THE STERILE MALES
ARE THEN RELEASED IN LARGE
NUMBERS IN THE INFESTED AREAS.
WHEN THEY MATE WITH FEMALES, NO
OFFSPRING ARE PRODUCED. WITH
REPEATED RELEASES OF STERILISED
MALES, THE POPULATION OF THE INSECT
PEST IN THE PROJECT AREA IS
DRASTICALLY REDUCED
57
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE
FOOD PRESERVATION. RAW FOODS ARE
EXPOSED TO HIGH LEVELS OF GAMMA
RADIATION WHICH KILLS BACTERIA AND
OTHER HARMFUL ORGANISMS WITHOUT
AFFECTING THE NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF
FOOD ITSELF OR LEAVING ANY RESIDUE
58
WATER RESOURCES
ISOTOPE HYDROLOGY TECHNIQUES ENABLE
ACCURATE TRACING AND MEASUREMENT OF THE
EXTENT OF UNDERGROUND WATER RESOURCES
GIVE INFORMATION OF SURFACE WATER ON
LEAKAGES THROUGH DAMS AND IRRIGATION
CHANNELS, THE DYNAMICS OF LAKES AND
RESERVOIRS, FLOW RATES, RIVER DISCHARGES
AND SEDIMENTATION RATES
NEUTRON PROBES CAN MEASURE SOIL MOISTURE
VERY ACCURATELY, ENABLING BETTER
MANAGEMENT OF LAND AFFECTED BY SALINITY,
PARTICULARLY IN RESPECT TO IRRIGATION
59
MEDICINE
DIAGNOSIS. RADIOISOTOPES
TECHNETIUM-99 PROVIDE BETTER
IMAGE COMPARE TO X-RAY
THERAPY. DISTRUPT CANCEROUS
GROWTHS BY RADIATION
EXTERNAL - GAMMA BEAM FROM A
COBALT-60 SOURCE
INTERNAL - SMALL GAMMA OR BETA
RADIATION SOURCE (IODINE-131, IRIDIUM-
192 AND SAMARIUM-153 )
STERILIZATION. MANY MEDICAL
PRODUCTS TODAY ARE STERILISED BY
GAMMA RAYS FROM A COBALT-60
60
SOURCE
INDUSTRY
ENVIRONMENTAL TRACERS. USE OF
RADIOISOTOPES TO DETECT AND ANALYSING
POLLUTION PROBLEMS INCLUDING SMOG
FORMATION, SULPHUR DIOXIDE CONTAMINATION
OF THE ATMOSPHERE, SEWAGE DISPERSAL FROM
OCEAN OUTFALLS AND OIL SPILLS
INDUSTRIAL TRACERS. ADDING SMALL
AMOUNTS OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES TO
MATERIALS USED IN VARIOUS PROCESSES IT IS
POSSIBLE TO STUDY THE MIXING AND FLOW
RATES OF A WIDE RANGE OF MATERIALS,
INCLUDING LIQUIDS, POWDERS AND GASES AND
TO LOCATE LEAKS
61
INDUSTRY
RADIOGRAPHY. RADIOISOTOPES WHICH EMIT
GAMMA RAYS ARE MORE PORTABLE THAN X-RAY
MACHINES, AND MAY GIVE HIGHER-ENERGY
RADIATION, SO CAN BE USED TO CHECK WELDS
OF NEW GAS AND OIL PIPELINE SYSTEMS, WITH
THE RADIOACTIVE SOURCE BEING PLACED INSIDE
THE PIPE AND THE FILM OUTSIDE THE WELDS
62
Q&A
63
