21 ST CENTURY

LITERATURE FROM THE PHILIPPINES AND THE WORLD

BASIC TEXTUAL AND CONTEXTUAL READING APPROACHES

1.Figure of Speech
2.Literary Techniques
3.Literary Reading through Biographical
Context
4.Literary Reading through Linguistic Context
5.Literary Reading through Socio-cultural
Context
6.Critical Reading Strategies in Literature
Figure of Speech

Figures of speech, also referred to as figurative language, are words or

phrases that express meanings in a nonliteral way. These expressions are
often used for comparison and for conveying emotion.
Literary writers use figures of speech to enhance the artistic quality of their
works. Figures of speech bring vividness and liveliness to the work, and they
also emphasize the message that the writer wants to convey. The use of
these expressions also allows readers to feel a connection with the literary
work by sparking their imagination and arousing their emotions.
There are numerous figures of speech, and these can be classified into
different categories. Among these categories are the following:
• Figures of relationship
• Figures of emphasis
• Figures of sound
Figures of Relationship
Figures of relationship include simile, metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche.
• Simile
A simile compares two unlike things with a common quality. The comparison is done using
words such as like or as.
Example:
O my Luve's like a red, red rose,
That's newly sprung in June;
–from "A Red, Red Rose" by Robert Burns
Explanation:
The persona in the poem compares his love to a red rose that blooms in springtime.
• Metaphor
A metaphor is a comparison that is done by stating that one thing is another in order to
suggest their similarity or shared qualities.
Example:
Trees are poems the earth writes upon the sky.
–Khalil Gibran
Explanation:
In the given quote, trees are likened to poems, and the comparison does not use words
such as like or as.
• Metonymy
Metonymy refers to using a thing or idea that is not referred to by its own name but by a
different one, a name of something with which it is closely associated.
Example:
I’m mighty glad Georgia waited till after Christmas before it seceded or it would have ruined the
Christmas parties.
–from Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell
Explanation:
In the given line, Georgia is not used to refer to the place or state but rather the people making
up the state: its citizens and government officials.
• Synecdoche
A synecdoche uses a part of something to represent the whole or the whole to represent a part.
Example:
His eye met hers as she sat there paler and whiter than anyone in the vast ocean of anxious
faces about her.
–from "The Lady, or the Tiger?" by Frank Stockton
Explanation:
The word faces is used to refer to people.
Figures of Emphasis
Among the common figures of emphasis are hyperbole, oxymoron, and paradox.
• Hyperbole
Hyperbole uses intentional exaggeration to achieve emphasis or produce a comic effect.
Example:
I had to wait in the station for ten days–an eternity.
–from Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad
Explanation:
The use of the word eternity to describe a wait of ten days is an exaggeration. It simply
emphasizes that the persona feels that he waited for so long.
• Oxymoron
An oxymoron is a word or a combination of words with contradictory meanings, as
in bittersweet and open secret.
Example:
Why, then, O brawling love! O loving hate!
O anything, of nothing first create!
–from Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare
Explanation:
The phrase loving hate is an oxymoron, as it makes use of two contradictory terms.
• Paradox
A paradox is a statement that appears to hold contradictory ideas but may actually be
true.
Example:
The Child is father of the Man.
–from "My Heart Leaps Up When I Behold" by William Wordsworth
Explanation:
The given statement may appear silly at first, but what it conveys is that the experiences
of the child shape who he/she becomes and how he/she acts as an adult.
FIGURES OF SOUND
AMONG THE FIGURES OF SOUND ARE ALLITERATION AND ONOMATOPOEIA.

1. Alliteration 2. Onomatopoeia
Alliteration refers to the use of closely spaced Onomatopoeia is the use of words that imitate the
words that have the same initial sounds. sound of what they are referring to.
Example: Example:
Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ARIEL:
ever dared to dream before Hark, hark!
–from "The Raven" by Edgar Allan Poe Bow-wow.
The watch-dogs bark!
Explanation:
Bow-wow.
The neighboring Hark, hark! I hear
words doubting, dreaming, dreams, dared, The strain of strutting chanticleers
and dreambegin with the d sound, giving the Cry, ‘cock-a-diddle-dow!’
line a musical quality. –from The Tempest by William Shakespeare
Explanation:
The words bow-wow and cock-a-diddle-dow are
examples of onomatopoeia, as they are animal sounds.
Literary Techniques

Literary techniques or devices refer to specific methods writers employ in their works to
convey messages. Readers, on the other hand, look for several literary techniques when
examining or analyzing a text or simply evaluating a text’s artistic value.
Keep in mind that literary techniques or devices are different from literary elements. Literary
elements are essential to a narrative as writers make use of these components to serve as
the structure of and to develop a story. These elements refer to the plot, setting, characters,
point of view, and theme, among others.
Here are some literary techniques that writers make use of in their works.

Anaphora
Anaphora, sometimes called epanaphora, refers to the repetition of a word or
phrase at the beginning of a sentence to create an artistic or heightened effect. It
adds rhythm to a particular line or paragraph, making it easier to memorize or
remember. Anaphora is also used for emphasis or to stir emotions among the
audience.
Example:
Hamlet (An Excerpt)
By William Shakespeare
'Tis a fault to heaven,
A fault against the dead, a fault to nature
To reason most absurd. . . .
(Hamlet by Shakespeare, Act 1 Scene 2)
Explanation:
The line above was delivered by Claudius while talking to Hamlet. Claudius was
trying to convince his nephew to end his mourning for his father, emphasizing
that it is “a fault” against heaven, the dead, and nature to do so since death is
inevitable.
Antihero
An antihero is a fictional character who does not possess the traits, such as pride and valor, expected of a
hero. Often, antiheroes are portrayed as foolish and usually find themselves in mischief.
Example:
Don Quixote (An Excerpt)
By Miguel Cervantes

One of those, however, that stood near him, fancying he was mocking them, lifted up a long staff he had in
his hand and smote him such a blow with it that Sancho dropped helpless to the ground. Don Quixote,
seeing him so roughly handled, attacked the man who had struck him lance in hand, but so many thrust
themselves between them that he could not avenge him. Far from it, finding a shower of stones rained upon
him, and crossbows and muskets unnumbered levelled at him, he wheeled Rocinante round and, as fast as
his best gallop could take him, fled from the midst of them, commending himself to God with all his heart to
deliver him out of this peril, in dread every step of some ball coming in at his back and coming out at his
breast, and every minute drawing his breath to see whether it had gone from him.

Explanation:
The passage above shows that Don Quixote, despite considering himself as a knight-errant, is a coward.
Instead of helping his squire Sancho from the mob, he fled to save himself.
Cliff-hanger
Cliff-hanger is a literary technique used by the author to arouse curiosity among readers by ending a chapter or
story abruptly. Most of the time, the characters are confronted with a difficult or an unsettling situation. Instead
of providing a resolution, the author would end it. Furthermore, this technique is often found in serialized works.
Writers utilize cliff-hangers in their works to keep the readers focused and interested as to what will happen
next.
Example:
Divergent (An Excerpt)
By Veronica Roth

I turn the gun in my hands and press it into Tobias’s palm.

He pushes the barrel into my forehead. My tears have stopped and the air feels cold as it touches my cheeks. I
reach out and rest my hand on his chest so I can feel his heartbeat. At least his heartbeat is still him.
The bullet clicks into the chamber. Maybe it will be as easy to let him shoot me as it was in the fear landscape, as
it is in my dreams. Maybe it will be just a bang, and the lights will lift, and I will find myself in another world. I
stand still and wait.
(Roth, Veronica. Divergent. New York: Katherine Tegen Books, 2011)

Explanation:
The main character Tris Prior was in an intense situation as Tobias, under a simulation, was about to shoot her.
However, the author did not divulge whether Tobias did it or not until the next chapter.
Juxtaposition
Juxtaposition is a technique authors use in their works to compare two different things, or two contrasting ideas to
be able to emphasize their differences, such as good and evil, life and death, truth and lies, among others. This
technique is also used to develop a character, resolve a conflict, or clarify various concepts.
Example:
The Cask of Amontillado (An Excerpt)
By Edgar Allan Poe

It was about dusk, one evening during the supreme madness of the carnival season, that I [Montresor] encountered
my friend [Fortunato]. He accosted me with excessive warmth, for he had been drinking much. The man wore
motley. He had on a tightfitting parti-striped dress, and his head was surmounted by the conical cap and bells. I was
so pleased to see him, that I thought I should never have done wringing his hand. . . .
At the most remote end of the crypt there appeared another less spacious. Its walls had been lined with human
remains, piled to the vault overhead, in the fashion of the great catacombs of Paris. Three sides of this interior crypt
were still ornamented in this manner. From the fourth the bones had been thrown down, and lay promiscuously
upon the earth, forming at one point a mound of some size. Within the wall thus exposed by the displacing of the
bones, we perceived a still interior recess, in depth about four feet, in width three, in height six or seven. . . .

Explanation:
Edgar Allan Poe used juxtaposition in “The Cask of Amontillado.” In the first paragraph, the carnival season,
including Fortunato’s motley, symbolizes life and merrymaking. Meanwhile, the catacombs and bones symbolize
what would become of Fortunato.
 LITERARY READING THROUGH A BIOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT

A biographical context refers to the author’s life and the factors that influenced and shaped it, such as social,
political, and economic conditions during his or her time. This also includes his or her educational background,
religion, ethnicity, among others. When you read based on a biographical context, you employ a biographical
criticism.
In analyzing a text based on its biographical context, you should consider not only how the factors mentioned
earlier have caused an impact to the author, but also how these factors were reflected in, and have helped
shape, his or her work(s).
It is important to take into consideration the literary background of the author. You must research about who and
which the author reads as these may have also influenced him or her and his or her work(s).
However, one should not mistake a biographical analysis from a biography. Remember that when you analyze a
text based on the biographical context, you gather information about the author’s life as it can help you
understand some difficult concepts or extract profound meanings in an author’s work. Moreover, a biographical
analysis helps you understand the relationship of the author and his or her work(s), not produce a detailed
account of his or her life–thus, a biography. Literature, aside from being form of expression, can be based on real
or orchestrated events. These events included by the author in his or her work(s) are sometimes different from
what really transpired in real life. Sometimes these events are a reimagination, exaggeration, or wishful thinking.
Example: Explanation:

Manuel E. Arguilla’s “How My Brother Leon Based on the facts presented above, we can infer that
Brought Home a Wife” is a story told Arguilla’s “How My Brother Leon Brought Home a
through Baldo’s, Leon’s brother, point of Wife” was a creative retelling of how his then girlfriend
view. He narrated how Leon brought his Lydia Villanueva met his folks in La Union. Moreover,
soon-to-be wife, Maria, in their hometown Maria fondly calls Leon “Noel,” which also reads as
(Nagrebcan, La Union) to meet his family. Leon in a reverse manner or simply referring to the
To analyze this story, let us first consider author since his first name was “Manuel.”
some facts about Arguilla: The Ilocano culture of calling an older woman or
Arguilla was born on June 17, 1911 in man manang or manongrespectively was also evident.
Bauang, La Union to Crisanto Arguilla and Additionally, this story was published during the
Margarita Estabillo. American occupation in the country. Since the country
as a whole was transgressing from its conservative
He was the fourth child and his family
roots, not to mention that the English language was
owned a small piece of land in their town.
widely used then (which also lacks words to describe an
He was married to Lydia Villanueva, who elder sibling such as ate or kuya), perhaps this was
was from Ermita, Manila. Arguilla’s way of preserving his Ilocano upbringing.
Summary
Reading through a biographical context entails that readers understand the text
better upon learning about the author’s life. Keep in mind that even when
engaging in a biographical criticism, your interpretation must still come from
how the text made an impact on you. Analyzing a text based on the biographical
context adds substance to that “impact” and does not distort it.
Literary Reading through Linguistic Context
English is a legacy of the American colonization of the Philippines. In this lesson, you will see how
Filipino writers were able to use English to create a new body of Philippine literature.

 The English Language Situation during the American Colonial Period (1898–1945)
In 1901, the Americans established public education in the Philippines with English as the medium
of instruction. This exposed Filipino writers to Anglo-American literature, culture, and ways of
looking at the world. Hence, a period of apprenticeship in the development of a new body of
literature took place. The period of apprenticeship (1910–1935) was characterized by writers
imitating Western writers. The succeeding “period of emergence” (1935–1945) saw writers gaining
full command of English and finally giving shape to what is now the Philippine Literature in English.
Example 1:
Dead Stars (An Excerpt)
By Paz Marquez-Benitez

Under straight recalcitrant hair, a thin face with a satisfying breadth of forehead, slow,
dreamer's eyes, and astonishing freshness of lips--indeed Alfredo Salazar's appearance
betokened little of exuberant masculinity; rather a poet with wayward humor, a fastidious
artist with keen, clear brain.

Explanation:
“Dead Stars” (1925) by Paz Marquez-Benitez is considered as the first modern Philippine
short story in English for its maturity in subject and language. The prose is rich, a
characteristic found in Western literature, which is often verbose and elaborate. It uses deep
words and figures of speech (e.g., “recalcitrant hair”). The sentence is quite long; the author
plays with the language, creating a more vivid characterization of Alfredo.
Example 2:
How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife (An Excerpt)
By Manuel E. Arguilla

She stepped down from the carretela of Ca Celin with a quick, delicate grace. She was lovely. She was tall. She
looked up to my brother with a smile, and her forehead was on a level with his mouth.
"You are Baldo," she said and placed her hand lightly on my shoulder. Her nails were long, but they were not
painted. She was fragrant like a morning when papayas are in bloom. And a small dimple appeared momently
high on her right cheek. "And this is Labang of whom I have heard so much." She held the wrist of one hand
with the other and looked at Labang, and Labang never stopped chewing his cud. He swallowed and brought
up to his mouth more cud and the sound of his insides was like a drum.
Explanation:
In “How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife” (1941), Arguilla writes in a simple and very fluid language,
which is easy for the readers to follow. He used simple figures of speech (e.g., “fragrant like a morning when
papayas are in bloom”). He also used borrowed Spanish words to express meanings more accurately. For
example, he used “carretela of Ca Celin” instead of “Mr. Celine’s carriage.” It places the story in a rural setting
and gives it a distinct native quality.
Key Points
The American Colonial Period (1898–1945) saw the birth of Philippine Literature in
English. The "period of apprenticeship" is characterized by Filipino writers following
Western writers. Then the short story “Dead Stars” by Paz Marquez-Benitez, with its
maturity in subject and language, made its mark as the first modern Filipino short story
in English. The succeeding “period of emergence” saw writers like Manuel Arguilla gain
full command of English to express the Filipino sensibility.

• Context – This is the background of the text which may have been influenced by the
author’s life, language, society, and culture.
• Figure of Speech – This word or phrase has a different meaning from its literal
meaning.
• Setting – This refers to the time and place where the events in a story take place.
Literary Reading through a Sociocultural Context

• Bienvenido Santos (1911–1996) became an exile twice. In 1941, he was studying in the US on
government scholarship when the Japanese attacked Manila in December; he was cut off from his family.
During that time, he wrote stories that later on appeared in his short story collections You, Lovely
People (1955), The Day the Dancers Came (1967), and Scent of Apples (1979). He was only able to return
to the country in February 1946. Then in 1972, he was with his wife Beatriz in San Francisco when
President Ferdinand Marcos declared martial law. His novel The Praying Man (1982), which is about the
political corruption of the government, was banned by the government. From 1973 to 1982, he was a
writer-in-residence at Wichita State University. In 1976, he became a US citizen. He returned to the
Philippines for a visit in 1981.

• Nestor Vicente Madali Gonzalez (1915–1999), simply known as “N. V. M.,” became a Rockefeller
Foundation fellow in 1948 and attended Stanford University in California and Columbia University in New
York City. In 1950, he returned to the country and began his teaching career. Then he went back to
California in the 1960s to teach and stayed there until 1983. Despite those travels, though, he never gave
up his citizenship. Throughout his teaching career, he produced fourteen books, including the short story
collections Children of the Ash-Covered Loam (1954) and The Bread of Salt and Other Stories (1993). He
received many awards for his achievements including the National Artist of Literature in 1997.
Example 1:
“Immigration Blues”
by Bienvenido Santos
“Immigration Blues” tells the story of Alipio Palma, a Filipino old-timer and a naturalized American citizen. A
widower, he lived alone in an apartment in San Francisco. One day during the summertime, two women came
to his home. The women were Antonietta Zafra and her sister Monica. Antonietta introduced herself to Alipio as
the wife of Carlito. At the mention of the name of his old buddy, Alipio became familiar. In their conversation,
he talked about his late wife Seniang. One of his fond memories of her is when he came home to see her
wearing his jacket and slippers. Also, she went to see him in his apartment and asked him without hesitation to
marry her. She had to marry an American citizen like Alipio at that time so that she could stay in the country. In
return, she would take care of him. At first, Alipio was not interested. Eventually, he agreed to marry her. By
doing so, he thought that he would become more sensible with his time and money and that he would be
happier, and he would live longer.
For the same reason as Alipio’s late wife, Antonietta and her sister Monica came to see Alipio. At first, it was
only Antonietta who was working on Alipio for Monica. She was dropping hints during their conversation. The
most obvious one was when Alipio was telling the two women how he and Carlito had impressed women before
with their gallantry and that they were “fools on fire.” Antonietta responded with less subtlety by saying, “I’m
sure you still got some of that fire.” From that moment, Monica took her turn to work on Alipio herself. The
story ends with Antonietta leaving Alipio and Monica alone to go to a nearby grocery store for their dinner.
Example 2:
“The Tomato Game”
by N. V. M. Gonzalez
“The Tomato Game” is written in an epistolary style. The narrator, a lecturer at a university called Transpacifica
University in the US, is writing to a man named Greg. In the letter, he tells about a colleague named Sophio
Arimuhanan, whom he refers to as Sopi, and his modus operandi. Sopi calls himself “Importer-Exporter of
Brides,” that is, he makes arrangements for people who wanted to get married. He is called “Attorney,” but he
is not legally allowed to practice law. One Sunday in the summertime, the narrator and Sopi went to a tomato
farm. At first the narrator thought they were going to watch a cockfight, but he soon found out that they were
meeting an old man whom Sopi referred to as “Lolo.” This old man was arranged by Sopi to marry a young
Filipina named Alice. In their arrangement, the old man would take Alice as his wife and some young man
named Tony as his nephew. Then the old man would send Tony to school. Hearing about the arrangement
made the narrator angry. Later on, when the narrator realized his role in Sopi’s scheme, he felt terrible. As
hinted by Sopi, he would need the narrator’s help as he was a lecturer at Transpacifica. The old man had
already paid eight hundred dollars for Tony’s tuition in advance. Towards the end of the letter, the narrator
tells Greg what Sopi said to him when they left the farm. Sopi said, “To think that that old man hasn’t even
met the boy.”
In 1972, the short story “The Tomato Game” won the first prize in the Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for
Literature. In 1993, the short story was published along with other works in the collection The Bread of Salt
and Other Stories.
Explanation:

Bienvenido Santos and N. V. M. Gonzalez presented different facets of the

Filipino immigrant experience. In “Immigrant Blues,” Santos portrayed a lonely
old-timer who wanted a companion and a woman who chose to marry an old-
timer out to avoid deportation. In “The Tomato Game,” Gonzalez portrayed
Filipinos trying to make it in the US. One is a lecturer who regrets to be part of a
scheme that deceives an unsuspecting old man, while another, an unlicensed
lawyer, deceives people for a living.
Critical Reading Strategies in Literature
Critical reading has an academic or professional purpose. Unlike reading for pleasure, it requires critical thinking
skills like doing analysis, developing an argument, and doing an evaluation.Critical reading strategies in literature
vary in purpose and focus.
Previewing a Text
Previewing a text enables a reader to get the sense of what the text is all about and how its parts are organized. A
reader can take a look at the facts about the author and the work and the title of the work.
Example:Consider the book Tales from the Jazz Age by F. Scott Fitzgerald. You can find out more about the Jazz
Age and F. Scott Fitzgerald. By checking the Table of Contents, you can see how the author classifies the stories
and what inspired him to write each one.
TALES FROM THE JAZZ AGE
BY F. SCOTT FITZGERALD 1922
A TABLE OF CONTENTS
FANTASIES (THE DIAMOND AS BIG AS THE RITZ.)
These next stories are written in what, were I of imposing stature, I should call my "second manner." "The
Diamond as Big as the Ritz," which appeared last summer in the "Smart Set," was designed utterly for my own
amusement. I was in that familiar mood characterized by a perfect craving for luxury, and the story began as an
attempt to feed that craving on imaginary foods.
Contextualizing
Contextualizing a text is considering the time and place in which the text was
produced. A reader can read about the writer’s life to see how his or her
experiences shape the writing. Also, a reader can examine how a text reflects
the society or culture. Lastly, a reader can consider the significant events in
history that influence the text.

Example:
Again, consider the book Tales from the Jazz Age by F. Scott Fitzgerald. As the
title suggests, the stories in the collection were written during the Jazz Age. A
reader may consider the society or culture in that period of time in reading the
stories.
Asking Questions
Asking questions about a text allows one to understand and remember the content of a piece of literature. A reader asks
questions about the main ideas or literary elements; and such questions are answered in his or her own words.
• COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
Who are the main characters in the short story?
What is the plot of the short story?
What is the conflict?
What are the theme, motifs, and symbols used by the writer?
Reflecting
Reflecting on a text involves examination of the reader’s personal responses to the text. The reader relates the new learning
to his or her previous learning as well as to his or her own beliefs.
• REFLECTION QUESTIONS
Have you had experiences similar to that of the character of the story?
What feelings did you have as you read the story?
Which character do you feel a connection with and why?
Is there any part of the story that you find difficult to understand?
How did the story change your way of thinking?
Making an Outline and a Summary
Making an outline and a summary of a text involves identifying its important ideas. An outline is
a list of the main ideas and supporting ideas of the text, while a summary is a brief statement of
the most important information of the text.

Evaluating the Argument

Evaluating the argument made in a text involves assessing the validity of its claim and support.
A reader examines the main idea, opinion, or point of view of the writer if it is well supported
by enough credible evidence or proof.

Making a Comparison and Contrast of Related Texts

Making a comparison and contrast of related texts is the strategy of identifying the similarities
and differences between texts of similar issue or approach.