Communication and
Culture
John A. Cagle
What is culture?
Sir Edward Tylor’s definition in 1871 (first
use of this term):
“that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom,
and any other capabilities and habits acquired
by man as a member of society”
Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952)
Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit,
of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by
symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement
of human groups, including their embodiment in
artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of
traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected)
ideas and especially their attached values; culture
systems may, on the one hand, be considered as
products of action, on the other as conditioning
elements of further action.
John Bodley (1994): Diverse Definitions
Culture consists of everything on a list of topics, or categories, such
Topical:
as social organization, religion, or economy
Culture is social heritage, or tradition, that is passed on to future
Historical:
generations
Behavioral: Culture is shared, learned human behavior, a way of life
Normative: Culture is ideals, values, or rules for living
Culture is the way humans solve problems of adapting to the
Functional:
environment or living together
Culture is a complex of ideas, or learned habits, that inhibit
Mental:
impulses and distinguish people from animals
Culture consists of patterned and interrelated ideas, symbols, or
Structural:
behaviors
Culture is based on arbitrarily assigned meanings that are shared by
Symbolic:
a society
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
Sapir (1921): “Human beings do not live in
the objective world alone, nor alone in the
world of social activity as ordinarily
understood, but are very much at the mercy of
the particular language which has become the
medium of expression in that society.”
As a result of differences in language,
people in different cultures will think
about, perceive, and behave toward the
world differently.
Reality itself is already embedded in
language and therefore comes preformed.
Language determines, enabling and
constraining, what is perceived and
attended to in a culture, as well as the
upper limits of knowledge.
Cross-cultural Values
Americans Japanese
Freedom Belonging
Independence Group harmony
Self-reliance Collectiveness
Equality Age/seniority
Individualism Group consciousness
Competition Cooperation
Efficiency Quality
Time Patience
Directness Indirectness Elashmawi &
Harris 1993
Openness Go-between
Edward T. Hall's Model
High-context cultures Low-context cultures
Long-lasting Shorter relationships
relationships Less dependent on
Exploiting context context
Spoken agreements Written agreements
Insiders and outsiders Insiders and outsiders
clearly distinguished less clearly distinguished
Cultural patterns Cultural patterns change
ingrained, slow change faster
Cultural Classification--Hall
Low-Context Cultures - What Is Said Is More
Important Than How or Where It Is Said
U.S.
Germany
High-Context cultures - What Is Said and How or
Where It is Said Are Significant
Asia
Latin America
Middle East
Low-context in business
Business before friendship
Credibility through expertise &
performance
Agreements by legal contract
Negotiations efficient
High-context in business
No business without friendship
Credibility through
relationships
Agreements founded on trust
Negotiations slow & ritualistic
High and Low Context Cultures
Factors / High Low
Dimensions Context Context
Lawyers Less important Very important
A person’s word Is his or her bond Get it in writing
Responsibility for Taken by Pushed to
organizational error top level lowest level
Negotiations Lengthy Proceed quickly
Examples: Japan U.S.A.
Middle East Northern Europe
