PRODUCT

COMPUTER

MEGHANA S
Ancient History
Abacus

 3000 BCE, early

form of beads on
wires, used in
China
 From semitic

abaq, meaning
dust.
 Table Abacus
100,000 -------------------------------------
50,000 ---------------------------------------
10,000 -------- --- -----------------------
5,000 ---------------------------------------
1,000 -------------------------------------
500 -----------------------------------------
100 ----------------------------------
50 -------- -------------------------------
10 ------------------------------------------
5 ------------------------------------------
1 ---------------------------------------
Chinese Swan Pan
The Middle Ages
Charles Babbage (1791-1871)
 Charles Babbage (1791-1871)

 Born: December 26, 1791

 son of Benjamin Babbage a London banker

(part of the emerging middle class: property,

education, wealth, and status)
 Trinity College, Cambridge [MA, 1817]

with John Herschel and George Peacock, produced

a translation of LaCroix’s calculus text.
A vision of calculating by
steam!
My friend Herschel, calling upon
me, brought with him the
calculations of the computers,
and we commenced the tedious
process of verification. After a
time many discrepancies
occurred, and at one point these
discordances were so numerous
that I exclaimed, “I wish to God
these calculations had been
executed by steam.” 1821
Never to be completed
 December 1830, a
dispute with his chief
engineer, Joseph
Clement, over control
of the project, ends
work on the difference
engine
 Clement is allowed to
keep all tools and
drawings by English law
Importance of the Difference Engine

 1. First attempt to devise a computing machine

that was automatic in action and well adapted, by
its printing mechanism, to a mathematical task of
considerable importance.
 2. An example of government subsidization of

innovation and technology development

 3. Spin offs to the machine-tool “industry”
Science Museum’s Reconstruction
 Difference Engine Number 2 (1847 to 1849)
constructed according to Babbage’s original
drawings (minor modifications)
 1991 Bicentenary Celebration
 4,000 parts
 7 feet high, 11 feet long, 18 inches deep
 500,000 pounds
Science Museum Recreation 1991 (Doron Swade, Curator)
Analytical Engine
Ada Augusta Byron, 1815-1852

 born on 10 December 1815.

 named after Byron's half sister,

Augusta, who had been his

mistress.
 After Byron had left for the

Continent with a parting shot

-- 'When shall we three meet
again?' -- Ada was brought up
by her mother.
 Ada Augusta Byron,
Countess of Lovelace
 Translated Menebrea’s paper into English
 Taylor’s: “The editorial notes are by the translator,

the Countess of Lovelace.”

 Footnotes enhance the text and provide examples

of how the Analytical Engine could be used, i.e.,

how it would be programmed to solve problems!
 Myth: “world’s first programmer”
Herman Hollerith and the
Evolution of Electronic
Accounting Machines
Herman Hollerith (1860-1929)
 Herman Hollerith
 Born: February 29, 1860
◦ Civil War: 1861-1865
 Columbia School of Mines (New York)
 1879 hired at Census Office
 1882 MIT faculty (T is for technology!)
 1883 St. Louis (inventor)
 1884 Patent Office (Wash, DC)
 1885 “Expert and Solicitor of Patents”
Census

 Article I, Section 2: Representatives and direct

Taxes shall be apportioned among the several
states...according to their respective numbers...
(and) every ...term of ten years
 1790: 1st US census
 Population: 3,929,214
 Census Office
Population Growth:

 1790 4 million
 1840 17 million
 1870 40 million
 1880 50 million

fear of not being able to enumerate the

census in the 10 intervening years
 1890 63 million
Smithsonian Exhibit (old)
Computing Tabulating
Recording Company,(C-T-R)

 1911: Charles Flint

◦ Computing Scale Company
(Dayton, OH)
◦ Tabulating Machine Company,
and
◦ International Time Recording
Company (Binghamton, NY)
 Thomas J. Watson
(1874-1956)
hired as first president

 In1924, Watson renames

CTR as International
Business Machines
Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer

 1st large scale electronic digital computer

 designed and constructed at the Moore School
of Electrical Engineering of the University of
Pennsylvania
◦ since 1920s, faculty had worked with Aberdeen
Proving Ground’s Ballistics Research Laboratory (BRL)
 Inspiration and Perspiration Unite

 1943 Mauchly and Eckert prepare a proposal

for the US Army to build an Electronic
Numerical Integrator
◦ calculate a trajectory in 1 second
 May 31, 1943 Construction of ENIAC starts
 1944 early thoughts on stored program

computers by members of the ENIAC team

 July 1944 two accumulators working
Accumulator
(28 vacuum tubes)
ENIAC at Moore School,
University of Pennsylvania
Early Thoughts about
Stored Program Computing
 January 1944 Moore School team thinks of
better ways to do things; leverages delay line
memories from War research
 September 1944 John von Neumann visits
◦ Goldstine’s meeting at Aberdeen Train Station
 October 1944 Army extends the ENIAC contract
to include research on the EDVAC and the
stored-program concept
 Spring 1945 ENIAC working well
 June 1945 First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC:
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
First Draft Report (June 1945)
 John von Neumann prepares (?) a report on the
EDVAC which identifies how the machine could
be programmed (unfinished very rough draft)
◦ academic: publish for the good of science
◦ engineers: patents, patents, patents
 von Neumann never repudiates the myth that he
wrote it; most members of the ENIAC team
ontribute ideas
British Efforts
Manchester Mark I (1948)
 Manchester Mark I (1948)

 Freddy Williams and Tom Kilburn

 Developed an electrostatic memory
 Prototype operational June 21, 1948 and machine

to execute a stored program

 Memory: 32 words of 32 bits each
 Storage: single Williams tube (CRT)
 Fully operational: October 1949
 Ferranti Mark I delivered in February 1951
 EDSAC

 Maurice Wilkes, University Mathematical

Laboratory, Cambridge University
 Moore School Lectures
 Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator,

EDSAC operational May, 1949

 J. Lyons Company and the LEO, Lyons Electronic

Office, operational fall 1951

National Physical Laboratory
 Alan Turing
 Automatic Computing Engine (ACE)
 Basic design by spring, 1946
 Harry Huskey joins project
 Pilot ACE working, May 10, 1950
 English Electric: DEUCE, 1954
 Full version of ACE at NPL, 1959
Alan Turing (1912-1954)

 On Computable
Numbers with an
application to the
Entscheidungs-
problem
 Code breaker
Mainframe Computers
John Mauchly leaning on the
UNIVersal Automatic Computer
Remington Rand UNIVAC
 43 UNIVACs were delivered to government
and industry
 Memory: mercury delay lines: 1000 words of

12 alphanumeric characters
 Secondary storage: metal oxide tape
 Access time: 222 microseconds (average)
 Instruction set: 45 operation codes
 Accumulators: 4
 Clock: 2.25 Mhz
IBM 701 (Defense Calculator)
 Addition time: 60 microseconds
 Multiplication: 456 microseconds
 Memory: 2048 (36 bit) words using

Williams tubes
 Secondary memory:

◦ Magnetic drum: 8192 words

◦ Magnetic tape: plastic
 Delivered: December 1952: IBM World
Headquarters (total of 19 installed)
Second Generation (1958-1964)
 1958 Philco introduces TRANSAC S-2000
◦ first transistorized commercial machine
 IBM 7070, 7074 (1960), 7072(1961)
 1959 IBM 7090, 7040 (1961), 7094 (1962)
 1959 IBM 1401, 1410 (1960), 1440 (1962)
 FORTRAN, ALGOL, and COBOL are first standardized

programming languages
Third Generation (1964-1971)

 April 1964 IBM announces the System/360

◦ solid logic technology (integrated circuits)
◦ family of “compatible” computers
 1964 Control Data delivers the CDC 6600
 nanoseconds
 telecommunications
 BASIC, Beginners All-purpose Symbolic

Instruction Code
 Fourth Generation (1971- )

 Large scale integrated circuits (MSI, LSI)

 Nanoseconds and picoseconds
 Databases (large)
 Structured languages (Pascal)
 Structured techniques
 Business packages
Digital Equipment Corporation

(Mini-computers)
Assabet Mills, Maynard, MA
Flipchip
PDP-8, first mass-produced Mini
PDP-11 (1970)
Microcomputers
 Intel
 Noyce, Moore, and Andrew Grove leave Fairchild
and found Intel in 1968
◦ focus on random access memory (RAM) chips
 Question: if you can put transistors, capacitors,
etc. on a chip, why couldn’t you put a central
processor on a chip?
 Ted Hoff designs the Intel 4004, the first

microprocessor in 1969
◦ based on Digital’s PDP-8
 Microcomputers
 Ed Roberts founds Micro Instrumentation
Telemetry Systems (MITS) in 1968
 Popular Electronics puts the MITS Altair on the
cover in January 1975 [Intel 8080]
 Les Solomon’s 12 year old daughter, Lauren, was a
lover of Star Trek. He asked her what the name of
the computer on the Enterprise was. She said “
‘computer’ but why don’t you call it Altair because
that is where they are going tonight!”
Altair 8800 Computer
Generations

 Generation 1
 Generation 2
 Generation 3
 Generation 4
 Generation 5
Generation 1
 This is when the first digital computer was built
 It was started to be built in 1937 and finished
in 1939
 John Vincent Atanasoff, and Cliford Berry
 At Iowa State University
 This machine was not intended as general-
purpose computer, it was built to solve physics
equations that Atanasoff was working on at the
time
 using electronic vacuum tubes, as the switching
components
Generation 2
 This invention of the transistor which was
faster, smaller and required considerably less
power to operate
 This was introduced in 1959
Generation 3
 By the late 1960’s devices which included
more than one circuit on a single silicon chip
became available
Generation 4
 In about 1970 the technology was available to
place an entire CPU on a single chip and the
micro processor was born.
Generation 5
 Current trends now are to exploit the
advantages of computer systems which can
contain literally thousands of computers.
 This means that thousands of computations

can be taking place at the same time.

 This type of large scale processing of

information makes it possible to explore

very different kinds of processing that could
be done earlier.
manufacturer
 Intel
 Ccs-infotech
 Swamipc
 Moonindia
 Cerebrcomputers
 Pcstech
 Silvertouch
 Supertronindia
 Dell
 Hp
 Lenovo
 Acer
 Cgate
 Apple
 Lg
 logitech
 Toshiba and many more….
Brands
 Dell
 Lenovo
 Apple
 Acer
 Toshiba
 Hp
Positives
 One positive that the computer has is that it
makes it easier to find information and faster
to find it.
 Another positive is that they are more

efficient, then they used to be.

 Another positive is that it makes it easier to

talk to friends on Aol or Yahoo.

Negatives
 One negative is that they can be very slow
 Another negative is that it might not find the

exact information you need, or it might give

you something you don’t need.
Thank you