World History

Orientation
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 UPSC Syllabus
History of the world will include events from 18th
century such as Industrial Revolution, World wars,
Redrawing of National Boundaries, Colonization,
Decolonization,
Political philosophies like Communism,
Capitalism, Socialism etc.- their forms and effect
on the society.
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 Explained Syllabus
• World before 18th Century: Feudalism, The Church, The Theory of two
Swords, Renaissance, Scientific Revolution, Reformation,
Enlightenment.
• American Revolution, Mercantile Capitalism
• American Civil War
• French Revolution
• The Rise of Napoleon
• Vienna Congress
• Rise of Nationalism in Europe, Revolutions in 1830 and 1848
• Unification of Italy
• Unification of Germany
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 World before 18th century
• Understanding of the events before 18th century is important to understand the later
developments. The dawn of 18th Century was characterized by:
1. End of Feudalism in England (Feudalism ended much later in rest of Europe).
2. Increase in the number of towns and cities.
3. Increase in trade.
4. Transition to a money-based economy from land-based economy of Feudalism.
5. Rise of Merchant classes and Absolute Monarchs.
6. Decline in power of the Catholic Church.
7. Mercantile Capitalism.

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American Revolution

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American Civil War

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French Revolution
5 May 1789 – 9 November 1799
(10 years, 6 months and 4 days)

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The Rise of Nap0leon

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Vienna Congress

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Rise of Nationalism in Europe

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Unification of Italy

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Unification of Germany

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Industrial Revolution

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Colonization

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Decolonization

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 Capitalism

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 Socialism

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 Communism

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 World War - I

28 Jul 1914 – 11 Nov 1918

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 World War - I

28 Jul 1914 – 11 Nov 1918

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League
of
Nations

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Russian Revolution

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Inter- War Period

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2nd World War

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 Cold War

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World History
GS Mains
 Previous year Questions
2013
1) American Revolution was an economic revolt against
mercantilism. Substantiate.
2) “Latecomer” Industrial revolution in Japan involved certain
factors that were markedly different from what west had
experienced.
3) Africa was chopped into states artificially created by accident of
European competition. Analyze.
4) What policy instruments were deployed to contain the great
economic depression?
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 Previous year Questions
2014
1) What were the major political, economic and social
developments in the world which motivated the anti-colonial
struggle in India?
2) What were the events that led to the Suez Crisis in 1956? How
did it deal a final blow to Britain’s self-image as a world
power?
3) The New Economic Policy – 1921 of Lenin had influenced the
policies adopted by India soon after independence. Evaluate.

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 Previous year Questions
2015
1) Why did the industrial revolution first occur in England?
Discuss the quality of life of the people there during the
industrialization. How does it compare with that in India
at present?
2) To what extent can Germany be held responsible for
causing the two World Wars? Discuss critically

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 Previous year Questions
2016
1)The anti-colonial struggles in West Africa
were led by the new elite of Western-
educated Africans. Examine.

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 Previous year Questions
2017
1)What problems were germane to the
decolonization process in the Malay
Peninsula?

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 Previous year Questions
2018
1) Why indentured labour was taken by the British from
India to other colonies? Have they been able to preserve
their cultural identity over there?

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 Previous year Questions
2019
1)Explain how the foundation of the modern
world was laid by the American and French
Revolutions.

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 Previous Year Questions
• “There arose a serious challenge to the
democratic state system between the two
world wars”. Evaluate the statement.
(2021)
 Nature of Questions
• Question: inferential in nature. Only through proper processing
of knowledge coupled with wide understanding of the topic.
• Various dimensions of the questions indicate: Multidimensional
thinking Required
• Approach towards solving questions in the World History
should be:
1) Inter – Disciplinary approach
2) Critical thinking
3) Constructive criticism

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How to Prepare

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 UPSC Syllabus
History of the world will include events from 18th
century such as Industrial Revolution, World wars,
Redrawing of National Boundaries, Colonization,
Decolonization,
Political philosophies like Communism,
Capitalism, Socialism etc.- their forms and effect
on the society.
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 World before 18th century
• Understanding of the events before 18th century is important to understand the later
developments. The dawn of 18th Century was characterized by:
1. End of Feudalism in England (Feudalism ended much later in rest of Europe).
2. Increase in the number of towns and cities.
3. Increase in trade.
4. Transition to a money-based economy from land-based economy of Feudalism.
5. Rise of Merchant classes and Absolute Monarchs.
6. Decline in power of the Catholic Church.
7. Mercantile Capitalism.

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 Feudalism
• The Middle Ages or the Medieval Period in Europe: It was the period from 600 AD to
1500 AD. During this period many social and economic changes took place, especially in
Western Europe.
• A system of society that was very different from rest of the world developed in Western
Europe during the medieval period. It came to be known by the name of ‘Feudalism’.
• The word Feudalism comes from the word ‘feud’, which means ‘conditional ownership of
land’.
• Feudalism was a new social and economic system that came to prevail in Western Europe
and later in other parts of Europe in the Medieval period (600-1500 AD).
• Under this, society was divided into rigid classes, politically there was no central
authority and the economy was based in villages, which were self-sufficient and
produced little surplus for trade.
• Hence, it was marked by a decline in trade as well as towns.

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 FEUDALISM

सामन्त

Vassals/जागीरदार

कृ षिदास

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 The System
• The Feudal Hierarchy consisted of the King at the top.
• Noblemen below the King were also arranged in a hierarchy of overlords and
subordinate lords.
• Every nobleman was a vassal (जागीरदार), of and only of his overlord.
• Being a vassal means owing allegiance or being loyal, in return of which the vassal
got some formal rights.
• This hierarchical system was unbreachable i.e. a lower Lord would only follow
commands of his immediate overlord and not of Lords further higher in the
hierarchy.
• Thus couplets of command developed with a command having legitimacy just
between two immediate levels.

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 Continue..
• The King could only order the Dukes and the Earls who would then order their
subordinate Lords and so on.
• The Dukes and Earls got military support from the Barons who were like Military
Generals who further depended on the Knights, the actual warriors.
• Further, any Lord himself was not the direct owner of the land under him. He held land
in the name of his overlord. Thus legally, all territory belonged to the King.
• It was the King who only had the authority to grant Knighthood to son of a Nobleman
who could then affix ‘Sir’ to his name but later in lack of central authority Gradually,
this Hierarchy became Hereditary.

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 Features of Feudalism
1. The economy in the Feudal system was village based and the villages were self
sufficient.
2. No central authority in functional terms and King was a central authority only in
legal terms resulting in very little political unity.
3. feudal society was divided into rigid classes with no scope for social mobility.
3. There was a decline in towns as well as trade during this period.
4. Land, not money, was the main source of power.
5. There was no freedom of movement for the peasants as they were tied to the
land and individual entrepreneurship was absent.

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 Result
1. Also, there was lack of a central political authority and it were the numerous Feudal
Lords who controlled the affairs of the society.
2. The King was not very powerful. In such a system the local Lords became more
powerful than the King and controlled the affairs of the society.
3. The peasants were exploited by the Feudal Lords and ‘Serfdom’ became an important
feature of Feudalism.
4. Moreover, influence of the Church extended beyond religious affairs in Europe.
5. Feudalism developed due to lack of a single central political authority in Western
Europe as it had disintegrated into many small and big kingdoms.
6. There was economic stagnation, since most of the produce was wasted by Lords in
luxurious living.
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 The
Church
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 The Church
• The Roman Catholic Church was as powerful as the
institution of Feudalism.
• Once the rulers in Europe accepted Christianity, the
Pope, who headed the Church, became the head of
the Christian world in western Europe.
• By the 6th century, the Pope often wielded more
power than the King and could make him follow his
orders.
• Initially, the Monasteries (the places where the
Monks lived) were institutes of high learning. But
soon, corruption crept into the monasteries.

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 Church’s Evils
• Tao Te Ching, the Chinese manual of Statecraft, preached two thousand
four hundred years ago: “The ancients practiced the way which did not
enlighten the people ; they used it, rather to stupefy them; the people are
hard to rule when they have too much knowledge. Therefore, ruling a
state through knowledge is to rock the state. Ruling a state through
ignorance brings stability to the state.”
• The Church used the same principle in maintaining its stranglehold.
• Also as we will see later, this power of enlightenment of people, is
exactly why the American and French Revolutions are much more
important for being the revolution of ideas than anything else.

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 Height of Evils
• In the Middle Ages (600 AD to 1500 AD)
the Church’s evils took the form of:
• Money for Church posts.
• Money for every ritual.
• Money for removing sins. For example,
the Church started selling “Letters of
Indulgence(क्षमा)” which upon their
purchase removed the need for doing
pilgrimages for removal of sins.

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 Church’s Evils
• Pope, nuns, bishops etc. became corrupt &
lived like princes.
• Church owned & amassed huge property.
• Church made “once in a year” confession of
sins to the Father compulsory and the
breach of this rule mandated punishment.
• Logic, Reason and Science were
discouraged.
• There was wide belief in witches,
superstition and magic. Church became
violent.
• It ordered burning of people who opposed
its ideas about God, religion and even the
physical phenomena. This was done on
charges of “Heresy(विधर्म)”.
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• Many scientific thinkers became the victims of Church’s
punishments when they proposed scientific theories which
invalidated the principles (like the Earth is Flat, or, the whole
universe revolves around the Earth), which the Church
propagated to glorify God.
Example:
1. Michael Servetus (1511 – 1553)- burned at the stake in
Geneva, Switzerland- first European to correctly describe blood
circulation between the heart and lungs. Church called him
heretic (विधर्मी) as he oppose the concept of Trinity- the Father,
the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit—as "one God in three
Divine Persons.

2. Giordano Bruno (1548 – 1600) - Burned at the stake in Rome-

supported the Copernican view –the earth orbits the sun, and
that the earth is not the center of the universe.

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 Conflict with king

The Theory of
two Swords
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 The Transition
• Also the increase in agricultural productivity due to improvement in methods of
production, allowed the peasants to become buyers of more non-agricultural goods.
• These factors led to an increase in trade with the east.
• The crafts and the Towns (where crafts were produced) also increased in importance.
• Increased no of cities - Italy witnessed the maximum development of cities (Port Cities
like Venice & Genoa).
• The Merchants and craftsmen in towns started to organize themselves in Guilds - towns
slowly freed themselves from Feudal control.They had their own government, militia
and courts. Emergence of middle class.
• A nexus between the King & the Merchants developed as both wanted power - political
& economic.

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RENAISSANCE

REFORMATION

BEGINNING OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE

Rise of Absolute Monarchies

ENGLISH REVOULTION

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Renaissance & Reformation

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 Renaissance
• The term Renaissance means ‘rebirth’.
• The period of Renaissance began from 14th Century & lasted till 17th century.
• It began first in Italy because trade had brought maximum prosperity to Italian cities,
which had freedom from feudal control (Italian cities had a virtual monopoly of this
trade. It was after voyages of discovery at end of 15th century, that Portugal and Spain
and subsequently, Holland, France and Britain started dominating trade).
• Later, the Renaissance ideas spread from Italy to the rest of Europe.
• It began as a movement to revisit the old scriptures and learn about ancient Greece and
Rome.
• But soon, it turned into a movement of new ideas in art, religion, literature, philosophy,
science and politics.

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 Characteristics
1. Humanism was at the core of Renaissance. It meant focus on Humanity, rather than
Divinity. Thus, Humanism was against fatalism (भाग्यवाद).
2. The concern for the other-worldly matters was rejected and the focus was on the
living man, his joys and sorrows.
3. Renaissance came to imply a new thinking, which was humanistic and rational, rather
than superstitious.
4. The potential of man, his dignity and his rights were stressed.
5. Holy text translated in local language.
6. Political matters came to be treated as separate from religion Thus Secularism can
also be linked to Renaissance.

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 FATALISM

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 Result
1. It resulted in decline of Church’s influence in the intellectual & cultural life of Europe. While
the Church talked about peace in life after death, the Renaissance thinkers attacked the Church
and talked about happiness on this earth.
2. Gradually, even the theme of Art & Culture became more about man and nature. E.g. Mary &
Jesus were depicted as human beings rather than as religious symbols. Artists like Da Vinci,
Michelangelo and Raphael were prominent artists of the Renaissance movement. The
subject/theme of paintings in Churches shifted from heaven and hell to human forms.
3. Renaissance resulted in ascendance of local European languages in literature, instead of Latin.
4. Political matters came to be treated as separate from religion. In The Prince, Machiavelli gave
a new concept of state which was superior to religion and was vested supreme authority in
political matters.
5. Scientific Revolution and Reformation was also a product of the transformation and began
towards the end of the Renaissance era (i.e. around 17th century) and continued till late 18th
century.
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 Scientific Revolution
• The Scientific Revolution began with the publication of Nicolaus Copernicus' heliocentric (sun-
centered) universe theory in 1543.
• The views of the Church regarding physical events were discarded. Only those phenomena were
accepted which could be explained and verified through methods of scientific observation. Thus focus
came to be upon testing a hypothesis through experiments.
• Copernicus found that Earth rotated on its axis and proposed the Helio-centric (Sun-centric) theory, i.e.
Earth revolved around the Sun (as against the Church’s idea that the Earth was center of Universe which
is also known as Geo-Centric (Earth-centric) theory.
• Kepler from Germany explained with help of Mathematics how planets move around the sun.
• Newton continued the work of Kepler & established that all heavenly bodies move as per the Law of
Gravity.
• The Scientific revolution paved the way for a new movement called Enlightenment that began in
1600s and reached its height in mid 1700s.

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 Reformation
• Protestant reformation was a movement against the practices & authority of the radical Catholic
Church. Protestant leaders started setting up Protestant Churches in different countries of Europe.
• Under Martin Luther, a monk who opposed the Letters of Indulgence and other Church evils, the
first Protestant Church was setup in Germany (from 1520-1545) under the King’s support.
• Protestant churches adopted the use of language spoken by the people, rather than the elitist
Latin.
• Reason was popularized as more important than Religion & by 17th century, half of Europe had
setup their own Protestant Churches.
• Counter reform movement: by the Catholic Church in response to the rising popularity of the
Protestant Churches. In Spain, the reformers formed an organization of clergymen to work as
“Soldiers of Jesus” - Missions in India, China, Africa and America.
• Violence: Killed on both the sides. The violence against Protestants in England resulted in their
migration to North America where their colonies later laid foundation of USA.

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 Enlightenment

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 Enlightenment
• “enlightenment meant the down of light after long height of darkness — the darkness of ignorance
superstition and servitude to past”.
• The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was a philosophical movement that took place
primarily in Europe and, later, in North America, during the late 17thand early 18thcentury.
• Its participants thought they were illuminating human intellect and culture after the "dark" Middle
Ages.
• Characteristics of the Enlightenment include the rise of concepts such as reason, liberty and the
scientific method.
• Enlightenment philosophy was influential in ushering in the French and American revolutions and
constitutions.
• Historians disagree on precisely when the Enlightenment began, though most agree that the
Enlightenment's origins are tied to the Scientific Revolution in the 1600s.
• Major figures of the Enlightenment include Voltaire, John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, David Hume, Jean-
Jacques Rousseau, Adam Smith, Immanuel Kant, Isaac Newton and Thomas Jefferson.

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 Causes
1. The most apparent(प्रत्यक्ष) cause of the Enlightenment was the Thirty Years’ War. This horribly
destructive war (8 million casualties), which lasted from 1618 to 1648 - among the Catholic and
Protestant states - changed ideas of nationalism and warfare. These authors, such as Hugo
Grotius and John Comenius, were some of the first Enlightenment minds to go against tradition
and propose better solutions.
2. the ideas of the Renaissance led men to examine the tangible world more closely, which led to
greater scientific study
3. At the same time, European thinkers’ interest in the tangible world developed into Scientific
Study, while greater Exploration of the world exposed Europe to other cultures and philosophies.
4. The rise of middle class: In one sense enlightenment was middle class world view it reflected the
aspiration of emerging middle class up to 18th century gain in power and prestige now, it was
ready to appose undue intervention into political and economic matters by the church.
5. Finally, centuries of mistreatment at the hands of monarchies and the church brought average
citizens in Europe to a breaking point, and the most intelligent and vocal finally decided to speak
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 Philosophical concepts
1. Reason: Enlightenment philosophers believed that rational thought could lead to human
improvement and was the most legitimate mode of thinking..
2. Skepticism (संदेहवाद): Rather than being content with blind faith, Enlightenment thinkers wanted
proof that something was true.
3. Religious tolerance: Though skeptical of religious institutions, many Enlightenment thinkers believed
that people should be free to worship as they wished.
4. Liberty: The Enlightenment tolerance of religion is related to the movement's emphasis on personal
liberty. Enlightenment supported the idea of individualism and human freedom.
5. Progress: The centuries before the Enlightenment were characterized by rapid changes, from the
discoveries of the Scientific Revolution to the exploration of the world and the advancement in art
technique during the Renaissance. Largely because of this, Enlightenment thinkers believed that the
human condition was improving over time.
6. In economic field enlightenment oppose the state control of economy and advocated for the
principle of lessaie fair.

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 Result
1. Awareness of the process of human reasoning as an important intellectual power in generating
new knowledge that led to the change in social and political sphere.
2. Notion that Scientists and social scientists had an important responsibility to help in the effort
to create a society as “new intellectuals” or “public intellectuals.” it gave birth to various
literatures.
3. Many kinds adopted the ideas of Enlightenment- Frederick II (or Fredrick the Great) was King
of Prussia from 1740 until 1786, Catherine II (or Catherine the Great)was Empress of Russia from
1762 until 1796, Josheph II.
4. It provided intensive and extensive observations on the history of humankind, societies/societal
traits, human traits and the characteristics of the natural world.
5. It expanded the Western educational system by introducing secular knowledge.
6. Cleared the path of America Revolution and also prompted the beginning of Industrial
Revolution, which provided rural dwellers with jobs and gave birth to wave of urbanization.

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 Limitation
1. Slavery: On a philosophical and metaphorical level slavery was against the laws of nature -
and many philosophes condemned it In practice, though, many philosophes supported the
slave trade - or ignored it; only a very few came out and called for the abolition of slavery
Many people did not question slavery because it was the source of much of Europe's wealth
2. No Female right: Most enlightenment figures did not question underlying assumptions
about gender in society. Many argued that in nature females were the weaker sex and that
prevailing notions about women's inferiority should be kept
3. Only Reason no emotion:
4. Peasantry ignored benefit .
5. In political sphere only ideas not reforms, reforms only in culturala nd Phlosphical sphree.

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 Conclusion
Nonetheless, the Age of the Enlightenment marked an important turning point in history in which
people, specifically from the Western societies, began embracing a new and radical way of thinking
that challenged the norms and the conventions established by those who held power and authority
—especially the monarchical regime and the influential church.

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World History

Lecture: 2
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American Revolution

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 Background
• Before 1492, the entire focus of history was limited to the old world. It
contained the whole of the world’s landmass without the Americas.
• This changed when the sea route to America was discovered by
Christopher Columbus in 1492. After that, various European powers
established colonies in North America, prominent among them being
Spain, Holland, France and England.
• The colonies were populated mainly by European migrants who were
landless peasants, people facing religious persecution, traders, explorers,
and others seeking adventure and profit in these new found lands.
• The rivalry was especially strong between England and France, which
culminated in the seven years war (1756-63). It is known as the “first true
world war” and was fought in Europe, West Africa, the Americas, India
and the Philippines.

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 Continue…
• Both parties signed the Treaty of Paris (1763), bringing an end to the war.
• In North America, Britain consolidated all colonies lining the Atlantic coast and drove the
French out of Canada.
• She was also successful in taking many Dutch territories, most important being New
Netherlands, renaming it to New York.
• The colonies of England lined the Atlantic coast and were thirteen in number.
• The colonies had a diverse population, but the majority of them were independent farmers.
With time, new industries were set up producing wool, flax and leather, mostly for
European markets.
• Politically, the colonies were governed by a locally elected assembly. They enacted laws and
levied taxes. Though they enjoyed some independence, they were ultimately answerable to
the mother country (Britain).

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 American Revolution (1765-1783): Cause
1. Political causes: No Representatives of Colonies in the British Parliament –
The colonies were given no representation in the British parliament.
2. Economic cause: Resource draining of the colonies – British Mercantile
Capitalism.
3. The seven years war (1756-63), though ended in the British victory, had
drained her resources. She turned to colonies to offset the losses.
4. Ideological Cause: The enlightenment philosophers like Locke, Thomas Paine
and Thomas Jefferson; caught popular imagination. They believed that all
people had certain inalienable rights that no government should be allowed to
infringe. This was in direct contrast with the oppressive British rule.

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 Mercantile Capitalism
• Mercantile Capitalism was the British policy in the 18th century. It was based on
the idea that the Government should regulate the economy at home and
colonies abroad, so as to increase the national power and achieve a positive
Balance of Trade.
• A positive balance of trade is achieved when a country is a net exporter of goods
(in value terms).
• This policy manifested in form of placing trade barriers on the colonies and
establishing a monopoly of the British companies on trade done by the colonies.
• Such restrictions, which were part of the British colonial policy of Mercantile
Capitalism, prevented the Americans from developing their indigenous industry.

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 Mercantile Capitalism
• The colonies were barred by British law from using the non-British ships for trade.
• The export of certain raw material goods from American colonies could only be made
to Britain.
• Further, a very heavy duty was levied on import of non-British goods into America.

• KEVAL HAMARA SHIP HI USE HOGA

• EXPORT BHI BAS HAMEIN HI HOGA
• HAMARA ALAVA KISI OR KA SAMAAN
KHARIDEGA TO HEAVY TAX DO

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 Mercantile Capitalism

• Such trade barriers are the characteristic feature of Mercantile Capitalism.

• Further, the Americans were forbidden by law to setup industries like iron works &
textiles.
• The exports of finished iron and textile goods was very profitable to the British
businessmen and thus, the Americans were forced to fund the British growth in these
sectors of economy.

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 Role of Enlightenment Thinkers
• The Enlightenment or the “Age of reason” was a movement that began in 1600s with
ideas proposed by thinkers like Hobbe and Locke on the form of government and the
rights of the people.
• It reached its height in mid 1700s.
• Hobbes was pro-Absolute Monarchy and gave the concept of Social Contract which
means that –
• because all people behave in self interest, people should give up some of their rights to
the government, which in return should provide law and order to the society.
• On the other hand, Locke had a positive view of man and believed that man can learn
from experience. He favoured the concept of Self-government.
• According to Locke, all people are born free and equal, with three natural rights—life,
liberty, and property. The purpose of government, said Locke, is to protect these rights.
• If a government fails to do so, citizens have a right to overthrow it.

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 Continue…
Around 1750, many Thinkers were challenging the status-quo and demanding freedom
and liberty for the people.
• They placed before the people, the idea of a democratic form of governance.
• They helped in development of ideas of Republicanism and Liberalism that militate against
colonialism.
• English Philosophers like Locke, Harrington and Milton believed that men have
fundamental rights, which no government can infringe.
• In 1690, Locke had defined the three natural rights of man.
• Montesquieu had described the principle of Separation of Powers in 1748.
• Thomas Paine of France argued that it was absurd that a continent (North America) be
governed by an island (Britain).
• The Enlightenment thinkers in mid-1700s in France gave following ideas, which influenced
both, the American Revolution and the French Revolution:

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World History

Lecture: 3
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American Revolution

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 TimeLine
• First inhabitants of North America migrated from Siberia and Central Asia by way of the Bering land
bridge.
• 1492 : The arrival of Christopher Columbus (Spain) started the European colonization in America. Although
Most colonies formed after 1600. Amerigo Vespucci (Italian Explorer)
• 1493: Spanish explorers were the first Europeans with Christopher Columbus' second expedition, others
reached Florida in 1513.
• 1534 to 1763: New France was the area colonized by France.
• 1607: The first successful English colony.
• 1733: The last of the Thirteen Colonies – established.
• The question of independence from Britain did not arise as long as the colonies needed British military
support against the French and Spanish powers.
• By 1765: Those threats were gone by 1765. London regarded the American colonies as existing for the
benefit of the mother country. This policy is known as Mercantilism.

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 Events: Proclamation of 1763
• As a truce with the American Indians, who had started an armed rebellion at the end of
the Seven year War, the British Parliament issued a “Proclamation of 1763” which
banned the expansion by the US settlers to the west of the Appalachian Mountains, as
this area was now reserved for the native American Indians.
• Another reason for issue of such a proclamation was the lobbying by the Aristocrats in
Britain, who did not want the westward expansion.
• They had bought land in the American colonies and made profits from the rents they
extracted from the white settlers.
• The American settlers, who had fought in the Seven year War along the British with the
purpose of westward expansion, felt cheated and thus ignored this proclamation.
• Their local militia forces continued to bring the area in the west under their control.

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 No Representation in British Parliament:
• The British Parliament enacted the Stamp Act in 1765, which imposed stamp taxes
on all business transactions in the British colonies in USA. E.g. revenue stamps of
some amount were made mandatory for all legal documents.
• The Americans responded by boycotting the British goods and soon many uprisings
in the towns followed where the tax collectors were exterminated.
• Since the British Parliament had no American representation, the American leaders
opposed the right of Britain to levy any taxes on them.
• Moreover, the Americans felt that the money thus collected was used in interest of
the British and not for development of the peoples of America.
• In the Massachusetts Assembly, the leaders of all 13 colonies gathered and
adopted the slogan of No Taxation without Representation.

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 No Representation in British Parliament:
• The threat by the American leaders to stop the import of British goods forced the
British into repealing the Stamp Act.
• Further, the Americans opposed the tax on consumer goods imported by the colonies
by cutting British imports by half, which coerced the British into withdrawing all taxes
except on Tea.
• The tax on Tea was not very high but it was not withdrawn by British because they
wanted to retain their right to levy tax in US colonies.
• The Boston Tea Party of 1773 was a protest against this Tea tax.
• A ship carrying tea was anchored in the Boston port. Initially the Americans did not allow
the ship to unload and this resulted in a standoff for many days.
• Finally, when the pro-Britain Boston (Massachusetts’ capital and largest city) Governor
ordered unloading, the white settlers dressed as American Indians destroyed all the tea
by offloading all the containers into the sea (By sons of Liberty- Formed after stamp
Act).

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 Continue…
• The infuriated British
responded by closing the
Boston Port to all trade and by
passing the Intolerable Acts of
1774.

• They were called Coercive Acts

by the British. Intolerable Acts
was the term used by
Americans.

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 Philadelphia Convention
• The Continental Congress, also known as
the Philadelphia Congress, was a convention of
delegates called together from the Thirteen Colonies.
• It became the governing body of the United
States during the American Revolution.
• The Congress met from 1774 to 1789 in three
incarnations.
1. The first (1774): On Intolerable Acts
2. The Second (1775–1781): Declared independence
and war strategy.
3. The Third (1781–1788): final stages of the
Revolutionary War, set up a suitable administrative
structure for the Federal government

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 Intolerable Acts of 1774 & the 1st Philadelphia Congress

• The 1st Continental Congress in Philadelphia, 1774 ( Pennsylvania) or simply the

Philadelphia Congress, which had representatives from 12 colonies.
• Georgia did not participate because it wanted British help in dealing with militancy
of American Indians.
• It was held in response to the Intolerable Acts/Coercive Acts passed by the British
Parliament earlier in 1774 to punish the colony of Massachusetts for the incident of
Boston Tea Party by taking away its right of self-government.
• The Congress met briefly to consider options, including an economic boycott of
British trade and drawing up a list of rights and grievances; in the end, they
petitioned King George III for redress of those grievances. The Congress also called
for another 2nd Congress when king did not responded positively.

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 The Appeal
• The Americans also appealed to King George III to remove
restrictions on indigenous industry, allow Americans to
trade with all the countries at reduced tariffs and not to
tax the American colonies without their consent.
• Britain interpreted these demands as a Mutiny and
attacked the colonies in 1775.
• This led the American representatives to proclaim the
Declaration of Independence in 1776 (drafted by Thomas
Jefferson).
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 DEMANDS:
REMOVE
RESTRICTION
HUMEIN BHI
TRADE KARNA
HAI

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KUCH
NHI
MILEGA
…
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 2nd Philadelphia Congress (1775–1781)
• The Second Continental Congress convened on May 10, 1775, passing the resolution for independence the
following year on July 2, 1776, and publicly asserting the decision two days later with the Declaration of
Independence.
• Thomas Jefferson of Virginia drafted the declaration, and John Adams was a leader in the debates in favor of
its adoption.
1. All men are created equal. That they are endowed by their creation certain inalienable rights like
right to life, liberty and pursuit of happiness.
2. Republicanism, i.e. the principle that people are the source of authority and it is people’s right to
setup their own government.
3. Independence, i.e. the American colonies are oppressed by the British government and these United
Colonies are and ought to be free and independent states.
4. Important: that these colonies declared themselves as “independent states”. The principle of states
coming together to form the US Federation can be read between these lines.
5. The Declaration of Independence document did two things - it summarized the political philosophy
of Enlightenment thinkers like Locke in form of “self evident truths” and it listed the grievances to
justify the breaking of ties between the colonies and the mother country.
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American War of Independence

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 American Revolutionary War or American War of Independence
• What was to follow, was the American War of Independence.
• The Loyalists were the British settlers who remained loyal to Britain and fought on
their side.
• France, Spain and Dutch Republic helped the Americans secretly.
• In 1777, Britain tried to encircle the Americans by invading from Canada.
• Their failure in this Battle proved to be a turning point in favour of Americans.
• After this victory of Americans, France entered the war openly in 1778.
• Spain and Dutch Republic also fought with Britain in Europe and Asia.
• Spanish Army expelled the British army from Florida (Florida was with British since
Seven Year War’s end. Later US bought Florida from Spain).
• In 1783, the British commander Cornwallis surrendered before the army led by
George Washington.
• Second Treaty of Paris 1783: ended the American War of Independence
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 The US Constitution
• In 1789, the United States Constitution came into effect.
• It was the first written Republic Constitution.
• The Bill of Rights is the set of first ten amendments to the USA constitution and
includes freedom of speech, press, religion and justice under the law.
• The American Revolution established the first democratic Republic in the world and the
USA soon embarked on Industrial Revolution.
• It also expanded its territory within the continent of North America by westward
expansion and purchase of territory like Louisiana from France in 1803 and Florida
from Spain in 1819.

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 Impact
1. American settlement got Independence.
2. The first written constitution based on Republican and federal structure.
3. Mass participation in politics.
4. Promotion of the policy of lessaie fair.
7. American Revolution put its impact even over other parts of Europe as it was
middle class revolution so it strings then the position of the middle class in Europe.
8. One can underline its greater influence on France it did not simply give an
ideological support to French revolution but also created or material situation for
that.
9. American Revolution influence even the colonial policy towards white dominated
calories like South Africa, Canada Australia and New Zealand. Earlier they were give
the concession in course of time they were offered even dominion status.

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 Constructive Criticism of American Revolution

• The new Republic of the USA was not free of biases. The Republic
was not truly democratic as the women, the blacks and the
Native Americans did not get the Right to Vote.
• Slavery was a blot on the principle of equality and it could be
finally abolished, only after the Civil War of 1861-65 between the
Northern and the Southern States of USA.
• Only those who held property were given all of the promised
rights.
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 Significance
• Still, the most important contribution of American Revolution was its
contribution to ideas of Liberty, Equality, Fundamental Rights, Nationalism
and anti-colonialism.
• The idea of equality with no special privileges to Nobility was radical at a
time when much of the world was under Feudalism, where the Nobles were
the prominent class.
• The idea of no taxation on property, which flowed from the Right to
Property, was also novel in those times.
• Thus American Revolution was a revolution in ideas and system of Polity
and it impacted the future events, the most prominent of them being the
French Revolution of 1789.

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World History

Lecture: 4
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World History

Lecture: 5
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American Civil War

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 Causes of War

Declining
Attack of
Population of Fort Sumter,
Southern States 1861

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 Brief Notes
• Seven southern states declared their secession from the Union and established a Southern government –
the Confederate States of America on February 9, 1861.
• The Confederacy adopted its own Constitution.
• Jefferson Davis was its President.
• War broke out in April 1861 when the Confederates attacked a U.S. fortress (Fort Sumter) at South
Carolina.
• 4 more states joined confederacy, making the total number of states 11.
• In September 1862, Lincoln issued the Proclamation of Emancipation, which freed millions of slaves.
• In the Gettysburg battle ( Pennsylvania), almost 50,000 soldiers were killed.
• Lincoln gave the famous Gettysberg Address – where he set before the nation the task of preserving the
Union and democracy. His vision was a government of the people, by the people and for the people.
• The war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the collapse of Confederate
government in 1865.
• General Lee surrendered his Conferdate army to General Ulysses S Grant.

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 Significance
• The war put an end to the institution of slavery.
• The war abolished the secession of states for all times to come.
• In the economic sphere, the war led to the growth of large scale manufacturing industries.
• More area came under cultivation – particularly in the west regions on North America.
• Use of more machines – which enhanced production.
• Regulation of banking system ((National Banking Act) and use of paper currency contributed
to the growth of nation wide business.
• New weapons were used.
• Improvement in transport and communication
• Inspiration to other countries – to abolish slavery.
• While the Revolution of 1776-1783 created the United States, the Civil War of 1861-1865
determined what kind of nation it would be.

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World History

Lecture: 6
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French Revolution
5 May 1789 – 9 November 1799
(10 years, 6 months and 4 days)

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France

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 Background
• Louis XIV (1638 - until his death
in 1715): monarch of the House
of Bourbon, eliminated the
remnants of feudalism, France
was the leading European power,
Warfare defined the foreign
policy of Louis XIV.
• Louis XV (1715 until his death in
1774): won at the Battle of
Fontenoy (British and Dutch and
French)of 1745. got defeat in
disastrous Seven Years' War in
1763. He was succeeded in 1774
by his grandson Louis XVI, who
was executed by guillotine during
the French Revolution.

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 Background
• The French Revolution was a product of the dysfunctional society characterized by Feudalism.
• The process of centralization from the 16th century strengthened absolutism in France and by the
early 18th century the French monarchy under Louis XIV became the model of centralized
absolutism based on feudal social structures.
• In 1774, 20 years old Louis XVI ascended the throne of France. Long years of war had drained the
financial resources of France.
• Under Louis XVI, France helped the 13 American colonies to gain their independence from the
common enemy, Britain.
• The debt had risen to more than 2 billion livres, therefore increasing the percentage of its budget
on interest payments alone.
• To meet its regular expenses, such as the cost of maintaining an army, the court, running
government offices or universities, the state was forced to increase taxes.
• Moreover, the French society in the 18th century was divided into Three Estates, and only
members of the third estate (all others except first estate- clergy and second estate- nobility) paid
taxes.
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 Background
• Peasants made up about 80% of the population and they were highly suppressed. However, only a
small number of them owned the land they cultivated.
• About 60% of the land was owned by nobles, the Church and other richer members of the third
estate.
• Peasants were obliged to render services to the lord to work in his house and fields, to serve in the
army or to participate in building roads.
• The Church too extracted its share of taxes called tithes from the peasants. Moreover, the
population of France rose from about 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789.
• This led to a rapid increase in the demand for foodgrains. Production of grains could not keep pace
with the demand. So the price of bread which was the staple diet of the majority rose rapidly.
• But wages did not keep pace with the rise in prices. So the gap between the poor and the rich
widened. Things became worse whenever drought or hail reduced the harvest.

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 Continue…
• The 18th century witnessed the emergence of social groups, termed the middle class, who
earned their wealth through an expanding overseas trade and from the manufacture of goods
such as woolen and silk textiles that were either exported or bought by the richer members of
society.
• In addition to merchants and manufacturers, the third estate included professions such as
lawyers or administrative officials. All of these were educated and believed that no group in
society should be privileged by birth. Rather, a person‘s social position must depend on his
merit.
• These ideas envisaging a society based on freedom and equal laws and opportunities for all
were put forward by philosophers such as John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau.
• The French Revolution marked a turning point in the history of humankind as it put an end to
the medieval monarchical absolutism, feudal laws and social inequality.
• It introduced for the first time the idea of republicanism based on “Liberty, Equality and
Fraternity”, which influenced the entire continent of Europe and also the world.
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 Causes of French Revolution: Political
• France was ruled by a dynasty called House of Bourbon, which firmly believed in Political
absolutism and the Divine Right theory –that they were representatives of God and they
were answerable only to God.
• Absolute monarchy reached its peak under Louis XIV, and began to degenerate during
his lifetime.
• Refusal of Louis XV to remedy the abuses of the old order.
• Inefficiency of Louis XVI, all added to the initiation of the process of revolution.
• His beautiful empty-headed‘ wife, Marie Antoinette, squandered money on festivities
and interfered in state appointments.
• She was such an opponent of the financial reforms, that she stood against everybody
who dared to mention the word “economy” within her hearing. Always favored Nobel's.
• Phrase: Let Them Eat Cake

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 Causes of French Revolution: Social
• The French society was divided into the three estates.
• The first estate was made up of the clergy of the Roman Catholic Church. It owned 10 percent of the
land in France. It provided education and relief services to the poor and contributed about two
percent of its income to the government. They had no political power but remained loyal to the
king.
• The Second Estate was made up of rich nobles, much of whose wealth was in land. Although they
made up only two percent of the population, they were owners of 20 percent of the land and paid
almost no taxes.
• Third Estate : About 98 percent of the people belonged to the it and they were denied all privileges.
Traders, lawyers, owners of industries, government servants, peasants and workers were in this
category. While the nobles and the clergy were exempted from paying taxes. the masses paid all the
taxes.
• The Third Estate itself was made up of three groups, which differed greatly in their economics.

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 The Third Estate: Three Division
• First among them was the Bourgeoisie – the merchants and artisans. These people were
well educated and believed strongly in the ideals of liberty and equality. They paid high
taxes and did not get the privileges that were meant for the two privileged estates.
Some of them were very rich, even richer than the nobles but it pained them that their
wealth did not entitle them to a greater degree of social status and political power.
• The second group was of the cooks, servants, barbers and other service providers. They
were paid low wages and frequently out of work, they often went hungry.
• Third group was of the Peasants. The peasants comprised more than 80 percent of total
population of France. They paid around half their income in due to nobles, tithes to the
church, and taxes to the king’s agents. They even paid taxes on such basic staples as salt.
Hence it was said: “the nobles fight, the clergy pray and the people pay”.

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 Causes of French Revolution: Economic
• The financial condition of France was very critical during the reign of Louis XVI. The national debt
had increased beyond the limit.
• The result was that the king tried to mobilize national income by selling important offices of the
government.
• At last, the king appointed financial experts Turgot and Jacques Necker as Director-General of
Finances.
• They tried to curtail royal expenditure and improve the income to the government. But their
measures did not receive the support of the nobles. On their advice the queen Marie Antoinette
removed them.
• Later, Calonne was appointed to look into the financial crisis. But he was not able to do anything
but to levy fresh taxes.
• Therefore, Louis XVI was forced to convene the Estates General after a gap of 175 years, on May
5th, 1789.

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 Causes of French Revolution: Philosophical
• Locke sought to refute the doctrine of the divine and absolute right of the
monarch.
• Rousseau carried the idea forward, proposing a form of government based
on a social contract between people and their representatives.
• Montesquieu proposed a division of power within the government
between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary. The American
constitution and its guarantee of individual rights was an important
example for political thinkers in France.

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 Causes of French Revolution: American Revolution
• The independence of the thirteen American colonies from England
provided a boost to the French people.
• The French captain Lafayette with his soldiers returned from America after
helping the colonies to secure their independence.
• His experience in America along with the fighting spirit for the cause of
democracy reached the ears of the French and inspired them.
• Therefore, they decided to put an end to the despotic rule of the Bourbons.
• Support to American revolution made French economy we.ak

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 Causes of French Revolution: American Revolution
• The independence of the thirteen American colonies from England
provided a boost to the French people.
• The French captain Lafayette with his soldiers returned from America after
helping the colonies to secure their independence.
• His experience we.ak

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World History

Lecture: 7
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French Revolution
5 May 1789 – 9 November 1799
(10 years, 6 months and 4 days)

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France

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 Background
• Louis XIV (1638 - until his death
in 1715): monarch of the House
of Bourbon, eliminated the
remnants of feudalism, France
was the leading European power,
Warfare defined the foreign
policy of Louis XIV.
• Louis XV (1715 until his death in
1774): won at the Battle of
Fontenoy (British and Dutch and
French)of 1745. got defeat in
disastrous Seven Years' War in
1763. He was succeeded in 1774
by his grandson Louis XVI, who
was executed by guillotine during
the French Revolution.

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 Background
Breaking wheel Punishment-
On 10 October 1789,
physician
Joseph-Ignace
Guillotin proposed
to the National Assembly that
capital punishment should
always take the form of
decapitation
"by means of a simple
mechanism.

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 Phases of the French Revolution

Estates General (1789)

National Assembly (1789-1791)

Legislative Assembly (October 1791-August 1792)

National Convention (Sept. 1792-1795)

Directory (1795-1799)

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 Phase- I: Estates General (1789)
• In May 1789, Louis XVI called together an assembly of the Estates General to pass proposals for new
taxes. The first and second estates sent 300 representatives each, while there were 600 members of
the third estate.
• Peasants, artisans and women were denied entry to the assembly. Voting in the Estates General in
the past had been conducted according to the principle that each estate had one vote.
• This time too Louis XVI was determined to continue the same practice. But members of the third
estate demanded that voting now be conducted by the assembly as a whole, where each member
would have one vote.
• This was one of the democratic principles put forward by philosophers like Rousseau. When the
king rejected this proposal, members of third estate walked out of the assembly in protest.
• The representatives of the third estate viewed themselves as spokesmen for the whole French
nation.
• In June they assembled at Tennis Court (June 29, 1789) and declared themselves a National
Assembly and decided not to disperse till the drafting of the constitution.

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 Phase- II: National Assembly (1789-1791)
• While the National Assembly was busy at Versailles
drafting a constitution, the rest of France seethed with
turmoil.
• A severe winter led to a bad harvest and the price of
bread rose. Crowds of angry women stormed into the
shops.
• In July (July 14, 1789), the agitated crowd stormed and
destroyed the Bastille (a fortress prison symbol of
despotic powers of the king).
• In the countryside, rumours spread from village to
village. They looted hoarded grain and burnt down
documents containing records of manorial dues (July
19-Aug. 3, 1789: Great Fear).
• A large number of nobles fled from their homes, many
of them migrating to neighbouring countries.
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 Continue…
• Faced with the power of his revolting subjects,
Louis XVI finally accorded recognition to the
National Assembly and accepted the principle
that his powers would from now on be
checked by a constitution.
• On the night of 4 August 1789, the Assembly
passed a decree abolishing the feudal system
of obligations and taxes- Jacobin Club formed.
• Members of the clergy too were forced to give
up their privileges. Tithes were abolished and
lands owned by the Church were confiscated.

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 Jacobin Club
• The club grew into a nationwide republican movement, with a membership estimated at a half
million or more.
• The Jacobin Club was heterogeneous and included both prominent parliamentary factions of the
early 1790s, the Mountain (Members- Montegnards) and the Girondins.
• In 1792–1793, the Girondins were more prominent in leading France, the period when war was
declared on Austria and Prussia, the monarchy was overthrown and the Republic created.
• In May 1793, the leaders of the Mountain faction led by Maximilien Robespierre succeeded in
sidelining the Girondin faction and controlled the government until July 1794.
• Reign of Terror: Their time in government was characterized by high levels of political violence.
• In October 1793, 21 prominent Girondins were guillotined. The Mountain-dominated government
executed 17,000 opponents nationwide - Federalist revolts in cities against Jacobin club on
centralization of power.
• In July 1794, the government of Robespierre and allies was pushed out of power—Robespierre and
21 associates were executed.
• In November 1794, the Jacobin Club was closed.
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 Continue…
• Aug, 1789: Assembly issues Declaration of the
Rights of Man and Citizen.
• Oct. 1789: King Louis brought from Versailles to
Tuileries palace in Paris.
• July 12, 1790: Assembly issues Civil Constitution
of the Clergy, requiring elections and oaths.
• June, 1791: King flees to Austria, is caught at
Varennes.
• Aug. 1791: Austria and Prussia call for support
of French King ("Declaration of Pillnitz").
• Sept. 1791: National Assembly issues
Constitution; elections are held.

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 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
• All men are born free and equal.
• Equality before law.
• Principle of innocent until proven otherwise.
• All people were eligible to the public offices
• Freedom of speech and press.
• Right to private property unless the public welfare necessitates to infringe this right.
• The society has a right to demand accountability from each civil servant.
• The document gave the term nation its modern meaning i.e. a Nation is sum total of the people
residing in a territory and not the territory itself.
• From the idea of Nation followed the idea of sovereignty of the people.
• Thus people were the source of all power and authority, and there cannot be any ruler above the
people but only a Republic.

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 Phase- III : Legislative Assembly (October 1791-August 1792)
• As per the new constitution, the new Legislative Assembly met in 1791 with the formation of
constitutional monarchy. To curtail the activities of the Nobles, the Legislative Assembly
passed laws. The king did not approve of these laws and used his veto against them.
• When the revolution broke out many of the nobles (Émigrés) managed to escape from
France. They carried out propaganda against the revolution in France. Declaration of Pilnitz.
• April, 1792: France declares war on Austria and Prussia. Austria defeated the ill equipped
revolutionary army.
• August, 1792: Paris mob storms royal palace: The wrath of the revolutionaries turned against
the French king. On 10th August 1792 the mob attacked the King’s palace at Tuileries. The
mob brutally killed guards and imprisoned royal family.
• September, 1792: French army stops Prussians and Austrians at Valmy (Belgium).
• Division in Jacobin and Girondins.

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 National Convention (Sept. 1792-1795)
• September, 1792: Convention abolishes monarchy and declares France a republic. Faced with the threat of
the radicals, the members of the Legislative Assembly gave up the idea of a limited monarchy. They set
aside the Constitution of 1991. New elections: the National Convention met in 1792. It abolished
monarchy and declared France as a republic.
• Adult male citizens were granted the right to vote and hold office, however, women were not given the
right to vote.
• January 21, 1793 Louis XVI is executed
• The National convention was controlled by the Jacobians, who formed the majority and were major force
to carry out the execution of the King.
• After the execution of the King and the Queen, the Great Britain, Holland, and Spain joined Prussia and
Austria in an alliance known as the First Coalition in early 1793. The France was attacked from several
sides and suffered a string of defeats. The Jacobin leaders took extreme steps to meet the new dangers.
• March 1793: "Reign of Terror" by Committee of Public Safety (Robespierre) begins.: The Jacobians
suspended the constitution and created the Committee of Public Safety with full powers to deal
with the people causing the internal threat.

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 Continue…
• Maximilien Robespierre was the leader of this committee. He slowly gathered all
control in his hands. As head of the committee, he decided who should be decared the
enemy of revolution.
• For one year, Robespierre governed France nearly as a dictator, and the period of his
rule became known as the Reign of Terror.
• Around 2100 people were killed by guillotine before he himself was sent to hell via
guillotine in 1794.
• July, 1794: Robespierre executed, end of terror. With the fall of Robespierre the Reign
of Terror gradually came to an end. The Revolutionary Tribunal was suspended and the
functions of Committee of Public Safety were restricted. The Jacobian Club was closed.
• February 1795: Churches reopened.
• National convention made new constitution.
• Aug. 22, 1795: New constitution is adopted, forming the Directory with 5 members.
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 Directory (1795-1799)
• The executive was entrusted to a Directory, consisting of five members. The legislative power
was entrusted to two houses called the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of the
Ancients.
• Napolean Bonapartee was then at Paris and he was entrusted with the task of defending the
Convention against the Parisian mob.
• He dispersed the mob and saved the Convention and began his brilliant career. On October 26,
1795 the convention declared itself dissolved and the Directory took charge of the French
government.
• 1798: French capture Switzerland, Rome and Naples; suffer bad defeat in Egypt.
• 1799: 2nd Coalition of Austria, Russia, Turkey and Great Britain drive French Army back.
• In 1799, after several defeats, French victories in the Netherlands and Switzerland restored
the French military position, but the Directory had lost the support of all the political factions.
• Nov. 9, 1799: Bonaparte returned from Egypt in October .Napoleon's coup d'état abolishes
Directory and establishes Consulate.
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 Results of the Revolution
• The French Revolution of 1789 inaugurated a new era in the history of the
mankind. The ideas of “liberty, equality and fraternity” spread to other part
of the world. The Bourbon monarchy was abolished.

• The Revolution rejected tyranny, divine right, conservatism, and

feudal vestiges associated with bourbon rule in France.

• At the same time it failed to establish a permanent Republic in

France. The French Revolution, after a violent turn led to the
emergence of a great dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.
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 Impact
• The Abolition of Feudal Structure & the Absolutist State.
• Reconstruction of France, Administrative and Legal
• Abolition of Slavery: One of the most revolutionary social reforms of the Jacobin regime was the
abolition of slavery in the French colonies. 10 years later, Napoleon reintroduced slavery. Slavery
was finally abolished in French colonies in 1848.
• Religious Divide: Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790. the Catholic Church was completely
nationalized and its property seized and put to sale. Paved the way for a secular society freedom of
religion
• New Bureaucracy: Earlier sale of government jobs. Later - 3-tier uniform system of local government
departments, districts and communes were created.
• The French Revolution gave the term „nation‟ its modern meaning. A nation is not the territory that
the people belonging to it inhabit but the people themselves.
• From this followed the idea of sovereignty, that a nation recognizes no law or authority above its
own.

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 Criticism
• French Revolution had limited success in achieving its objectives. In reality, post-
revolution regime failed to resolve the grievances of the workers, who were the main
force during the uprising of 1789; only the peasants benefited (as they became owners
of land confiscated from the privileged classes).
• The revolution failed to bring in democratic rule and the Reign of Terror under the
Jacobians was a mass slaughter characterized by nothing but brute force and breach of
rule of law.
• Napoleon, due to his continuous warfare resulted in rise of nationalism in the invaded
territories and he came to be perceived, not as a liberator, but a conqueror and
established a dictatorial rule.
• No political rights to women and Slaves.

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World History

Lecture: 8
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The Rise of Nap0leon

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 Background
• Napoleon Bonaparte was the military and political leader of France who
changed the course of European Politics by his conquests.
• He was born in 1769 and remained emperor of France from 1804 to 1814. His
career began in 1785, when he was commissioned a Second Lieutenant in the
French artillery.
• In next three years, he polished his warfare skills with a French army regiment.
• In 1793, Napoleon distinguished himself in a Battle between the
Revolutionaries and royalists (Battle of Toulon), in south France. He was
promoted from Captain to Brigadier General and after defending national
convention Major General.
• In 1796, the Directory appointed him to lead a French army against the forces
of Austria and Sardinia.
• He crushed the Austrian army and then led an expedition to Egypt to check the
British impediments in French trade with India.

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 Continue….
• But, his army as well as naval forces were defeated in Egypt. But somehow, his defeat could not
become public.
• In 1799, the Directory had lost control of the political situation and confidence of the French
people. In such circumstances he was advised to seize the power.
• The Directory was dissolved and in its place, a group of three consuls, one of whom was Napoleon,
was established. Thus, Napoleon quickly assumed dictatorial powers as the first consul of the
French republic.
• A plebiscite in France was held to approve Napoleon as chosen leader of the free republic and to
approve a new constitution. The French public overwhelmingly favoured Napoleon.
• In the same year, the second coalition of anti-French powers viz. Britain, Austria and Russia was
established to drive out Napoleon from power.
• There was again and war and by 1802, all three nations signed peace agreement (Peace of Amiens)
with France.
• After the peace agreements, Napoleon focussed to restore peace and order in France. He devoted
all his energy to heal the wounds of the French People inflicted during revolution.
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 Rise of Napoleon
• Since 1792, France’s revolutionary government had been engaged in military conflicts with various
European nations.
• In 1796, Napoleon commanded a French army that defeated the larger armies of Austria, one of his
country’s primary rivals, in a series of battles in Italy.
• In 1797, France and Austria signed the Treaty of Campo Formio, resulting in territorial gains for the
French.
• The following year, the Directory, the five-person group that had governed France since 1795,
offered to let Napoleon lead an invasion of England.
• Napoleon determined that France’s naval forces were not yet ready to go up against the superior
British Royal Navy. Instead, he proposed an invasion of Egypt in an effort to wipe out British trade
routes with India.
• Napoleon’s troops scored a victory against Egypt’s military rulers, the Mamluks, at the Battle of the
Pyramids in July 1798; soon, however, his forces were stranded after his naval fleet was nearly
decimated by the British at the Battle of the Nile in August 1798.

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 Continue…
• When political situation in France marked by uncertainty, the ever-ambitious and cunning
Napoleon opted to abandon his army in Egypt and return to France.
• In November 1799, in an event known as the coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon was part of a group
that successfully overthrew the French Directory.
• The Directory was replaced with a three-member Consulate, and Napoleon became first consul,
making him France’s leading political figure.
• In June 1800, at the Battle of Marengo, Napoleon’s forces defeated one of France’s perennial
enemies, the Austrians, and drove them out of Italy. The victory helped cement Napoleon’s
power as first consul.
• Additionally, with the Treaty of Amiens in 1802, the war-weary British agreed to peace with the
French (although the peace would only last for a year).

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 Continue…
• Napoleon worked to restore stability to post-revolutionary France. He centralized the
government; instituted reforms in such areas as banking and education; supported science and
the arts; and sought to improve relations between his regime and the pope (who represented
France’s main religion, Catholicism), which had suffered during the revolution.
• One of his most significant accomplishments was the Napoleonic Code, which streamlined the
French legal system and continues to form the foundation of French civil law to this day.
• In 1802, a constitutional amendment made Napoleon first consul for life.
• Two years later, in 1804, he crowned himself emperor of France in a lavish ceremony at the
Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris.

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 The Reign of Napoleon I
• From 1803 to 1815, France was engaged in the Napoleonic Wars, a series of major conflicts with
various coalitions of European nations.
• In 1803, partly as a means to raise funds for future wars, Napoleon sold France’s Louisiana
Territory in North America to the newly independent United States for $15 million, a transaction
that later became known as the Louisiana Purchase.
• In October 1805, the British wiped out Napoleon’s fleet at the Battle of Trafalga. However, in
December of that same year, Napoleon achieved what is considered to be one of his greatest
victories at the Battle of Austerlitz, in which his army defeated the Austrians and Russians.
• The victory resulted in the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.
• Beginning in 1806, Napoleon sought to wage large-scale economic warfare against Britain with the
establishment of the so-called Continental System.

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 Continue…
• In 1807, following Napoleon’s defeat of the Russians at Friedland in Prussia, Alexander I (1777-
1825) was forced to sign a peace settlement, the Treaty of Tilsit.
• In 1809, the French defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Wagram, resulting in further gains for
Napoleon.
• In 1810, Russia withdrew from the Continental System. In retaliation, Napoleon led a massive army
into Russia in the summer of 1812. Rather than engaging the French in a full-scale battle, the
Russians adopted a strategy of retreating whenever Napoleon’s forces attempted to attack. Of
Napoleon’s 600,000 troops who began the campaign, only an estimated 100,000 made it out of
Russia.
• Peninsular War (1808-1814): which resulted in the Spanish and Portuguese, with assistance from
the British, driving the French from the Iberian Peninsula.

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 Continue…
• This loss was followed in 1813 by the Battle of Leipzig, also known as the Battle of Nations, in
which Napoleon’s forces were defeated by a coalition that included Austrian, Prussian, Russian
and Swedish troops.
• Napoleon then retreated to France, and in March 1814 coalition forces captured Paris.
• On April 6, 1814, Napoleon, then in his mid-40s, was forced to abdicate the throne and The new
king, Louis XVIII was put on thrown.
• With the Treaty of Fontainebleau, he was exiled to Elba, a Mediterranean island off the coast of
Italy.
• He was given sovereignty over the small island, while his wife and son went to Austria.

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 Hundred Days Campaign and Battle of Waterloo
• On February 26, 1815, after less than a year in exile, Napoleon escaped Elba and sailed to
the French mainland with a group of more than 1,000 supporters.
• On March 20, he returned to Paris, where he was welcomed by cheering crowds.
• The new king, Louis XVIII (1755-1824), fled, and Napoleon began what came to be known as
his Hundred Days campaign.
• Upon Napoleon’s return to France, a coalition of allies–the Austrians, British, Prussians and
Russians– who considered the French emperor an enemy began to prepare for war.
• Napoleon raised a new army and planned to strike preemptively, defeating the allied forces
one by one before they could launch a united attack against him.
• In June 1815, his forces invaded Belgium, where British and Prussian troops were stationed.
On June 16, Napoleon’s troops defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Ligny.

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 The End
• However, two days later, on June 18,
at the Battle of Waterloo near
Brussels (Belgium), the French were
crushed by the British, with
assistance from the Prussians.
• In October 1815, Napoleon was
exiled to the remote, British-held
island of Saint Helena, in the South
Atlantic Ocean.
• He died there on May 5, 1821, at age
51, most likely from stomach cancer.

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The Rise of Nap0leon

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 Situations for Napoleon`s Rise
1. French Revolution: Liberty, Equality and Fraternity, End of
Monarchy, End of Privileges.
2. Stress on Abilities: Gave chance People like Napoleon to rise.
3. Mismanagement during Revolution: Inflation, Unemployment,
Dissatisfaction among Middle class, Need for Able Ruler
4. Each class of French society Liked Napoleon: Middle class wanted
Stability, Lower class wanted security, Clergymen and Nobles
wanted to come back in France.

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 Reforms of Napoleon
1. In the sphere of economy, his goal was to achieve "Equal taxation and low prices". He
set up a fair taxes code and a National Bank. He also provided State Loans to Business
and worked towards currency stabilization. These efforts resulted in equal taxation and
a stable economy.
2. In the sphere of Government and society, his goal was to lower corruption and equal
opportunity for all. All decided to make appointments on merit, sacked corrupt official,
created a code of laws {Napoleonic Code}, and set up Lycees or government ran public
schools. The result of these efforts was that honest and competent officials were
included in the government and it raised the confidence of the public.
3. In the sphere of religion, the goal was to reduce power of Catholic Church and more
religious tolerance. Catholicism was recognized as faith of Frenchmen. A concordat was
signed with pope and government control over Church lands was established. These
efforts led to government recognition of Church influence.

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 The Napoleonic Code
• Napoleon's most lasting effect on France and the world was the set of laws he created during his
rule as emperor. These laws were so important that by 1960s, more than 70 countries around the
world had adopted them or had used them as the basis for their own laws.
• The Napoleonic Code was originally drafted as the French Civil Code. Before revolution, French law
was based on the whims of its kings. Laws were the product of each individual monarch. They
were lengthy, complicated, and different from region to region. Before Napoleon, there was no
single law or document to unify them.
• Though the rise of Napoleon marked the end of the French Revolution, he was really a child of the
revolution. Within his empire: Napoleon tried to spread the ideas of the French Revolution. These
ideas included legal equality and religious and economic freedom. The purpose of the French Civil
Code was to collect all of the French laws into a single volume that would be simple and easy to
understand.

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• At the heart of the code were three ideas from the revolution
1. That laws should be based on reason and common sense
2. That all men should be treated equally under the law
3. That they should have certain freedoms.
• The Key concepts of the Napoleonic Code were as follows:
1. Legal equality for everyone.
2. No recognition of nobility or titles of birth.
3. Freedom of religion.
4. Separation of church and state.
5. Freedom to work in any occupation.
6. Protection of the family.

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 Flaws in Napoleonic Code
• Napoleon was the child of the revolution, but in many ways he reversed the aims and principles
of the movement from which he sprang.
• This statement is particularly true for Napoleonic code. The major flaw in the Napoleonic code
was that he considered women inferior to men and women should not be allowed to have much
influence in a society.
1. The Women could not vote.
2. Husbands had complete control over their wives and their personal property.
3. Children and unmarried women had few rights.
• Despite these flaws, the heart of the Napoleonic Code- reason, equality, and freedom -has
survived throughout the ages.

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Three Mistakes
of Napoleon
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 Continental System
• In 1806 (Till 1810), Napoleon had signed a decree ordering a blockade (closing of ports), so that to
prevent all trade and communication between Great Britain and other European nations.
• The idea was to make the continental Europe more self-sufficient and simultaneously destroy
Britain's trading and industrial economy. But this system was not successful because the blockage
was loose enough to be broken occasionally by smugglers.
• The blockade was able to weaken the British trade but could not destroy it. Britain also imposed its
own blockade whereby the British navy stopped neutral ships bound for Europe and forced them
to sail to a British port to be searched and taxed.
• The navy of Britain was stronger and so their blockade worked better than that of French. The
British Navy had also stopped the American Ships with the result that America declared a war
upon Britain in 1812, which ended in a draw. In summary, the Continental system hurt more to
French than their enemies. The economy of France was weakened.

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 Peninsular War
• Spain is located at Iberian Peninsula. After
imposing the continental system, it was found
in 1807-08 that Portugal was deliberately
ignoring it.
• So, to teach them a lesson, Napoleon sent an
army via Spain to invade Portugal. The people
in Spain rioted in protest, and consequently,
Napoleon deposed the Spanish king and placed
his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the throne.
This move outraged the Spanish public who
were ardent supporters of their king.
• The public in Spain was devout Catholic. They
were afraid that the French conquerors would
undermine the Church.
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 Continued….
• Thus, the Spanish peasants rose and started the Guerrilla warfare against the
French army, which continued till 1813.
• In the meantime, Britain also sent its own troops to support the rebels. From 1809,
the British forces, under the Duke of Wellington, gradually fought their way
forward in a bitter struggle, finally invading southwest France in 1813-14.
• The result was that Napoleon lost around 3 Lakh men in this peninsular war. This
drastically reduced the power of the French empire.
• The nationalism proved to be a powerful weapon against Napoleon. Following the
Spanish, the Germans and Italians etc. conquered peoples also turned against the
French.

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 Invasion of Russia
• The worst blunder of Napoleon was committed in 1812. The Emperor of Russia Alexander I had
become Napoleon's ally, yet he refused to stop selling grains to Britain.
• In June 1812, Napoleon marched into Russia with his 6 lack strong Grande Armee, which was not
all French was a huge group of men from all over Europe. Those who were not French; had little
loyalty to Napoleon.
• When this army entered Russia, the Russian army retracted towards east (from western borders)
rather than confronting with it.
• As these Russians retreated toward Moscow burnt all the grain fields and slaughtered all the
livestock, so that nothing is left for the enemy aliens to eat.
• This was an effective policy because the French soldiers needed to desert the army and search for
food. The important battle took place in September 1812 at Borodino. The fight remained largely
indecisive but gave a narrow victory to Napoleon, who was now able to take Moscow.

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 Continue…
• But when he entered Moscow, he found that the Russians had set the city on fire rather than
allowing surrendering it to the French.
• Napoleon stayed in the ruined city for few days and expected that the Czar would come down and
make a peace offer but the Czar did not turn up.
• In October 1812, Napoleon asked his army to return back. But the climate was harsh now. The
snow began to fall and many of the soldiers were killed due to exhaustion, hunger, and cold at
minus 30 degree temperature.
• The Napoleon army finally reached in December and this Grande Armee was thus reduced to
around 1 lack soldiers, out of which only a few were fit for fighting.
• Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Leipzig by fourth coalition sent to Elba island. Napoleon
later tried to comeback and he again ruled for 100 days; then he was again defeated in the Battle
of Waterloo and was exiled to St. Helena for 6 years. He died in exile in 1821.

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 Cause of the Decline of Napoleon
1. Continental System.
2. Peninsular War
3. Attack on Russia
4. War at various front at one time
5. Rise of Nationalism
6. Weak Navy
7. Lack of able advice
8. Personal Weaknesses
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 Vienna Congress
• After defeat of Napoleon, the European
heads of government met from 1814 to
1815 to settle the terms by which the
Napoleonic Wars should be concluded.
• A series of meetings in Vienna for this
purpose was hold with an objective of a
collective security and stability for the
entire continent.
• This is called Congress of Vienna and it
ended by sealing a return to more or less
the same system of European powers
that existed before the French
Revolution.
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 Vienna Congress
• Most of the decisions were made by the five great powers of the day viz.
Russia, Austria, Britain, France and Prussia.
• The Austrian delegation was led by its foreign minister Prince Klemens von
Metternich.
• Metternich was one of the most influential diplomats, served as foreign
minister of the Austrian Empire from 1809 until 1848.
• He was an ardent anti-democracy, who believed that Napoleon's
expansionist dictatorship was a result of the experiments with democracy.
• Thus, there were three goals of Metternich at Congress of Vienna.

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Vienna Congress

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 Vienna Congress
• After defeat of Napoleon, the European heads of government met from 1814 to 1815 to
settle the terms by which the Napoleonic Wars should be concluded.
• A series of meetings in Vienna for this purpose was hold with an objective of a collective
security and stability for the entire continent.
• This is called Congress of Vienna and it ended by sealing a return to more or less the same
system of European powers that existed before the French Revolution.
• Most of the decisions were made by the five great powers of the day viz. Russia, Austria,
Britain, France and Prussia.
• The Austrian delegation was led by its foreign minister Prince Klemens von Metternich.
• Metternich was one of the most influential diplomats, served as foreign minister of the
Austrian Empire from 1809 until 1848.

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 Continue..
• He was an ardent anti-democracy, who believed that Napoleon's expansionist dictatorship was a
result of the experiments with democracy. Thus, there were three goals of Metternich at Congress
of Vienna.
1. To prevent future French aggression by surrounding France with
strong countries.

2. To restore a balance of power, so that no country would be a

threat to others.

3. To restore Europe's royal families to the thrones they had held

before Napoleon's conquests.

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 Vienna Congress
• There was a lot of controversy among the victors regarding the fate of Poland and Saxony.
• Prussia desired to annex the whole of Saxony in exchange for the large amount of Polish
territory she was surrendering to Russia and Czar Alexander “backed up” Prussia to the
limit.
• Metternich refused to allow Prussia so large an extension of the territory contiguous to
Austria and France stood with him. The difference went right up to the brink of war.
• At the beginning of 1815, France, Austria and England formed a defensive alliance to resist
the claims of Russia and Prussia. This extreme step produced the desired results.
• The Czar was convinced that the other side would fight rather than give way. The result
was that he gave way on some points and Prussia followed suit. Ultimately, Prussia secured
only about half of Saxony.

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 Result
• France was contained by making weaker countries around France stronger. For
example:
1. The Austrian Netherlands and Dutch Republic (Holland) were
united to form the Kingdom of the Netherlands.

2. The German confederation was created out of 39 German

speaking states as a loose group dominated by Austria.

3. Switzerland was recognized as a free country.

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 Some Positives for France
• However, that the defeated French may not stand up again to seek revenge, France was not severally
damaged.
• Those territories which had been conquered by Napoleon were taken back from it but still it was left as
a large and intact nation.
• France could keep some of its overseas territories, its army and its government. Thus, France was still a
major nation, but its power had been curtailed to a great extent.
• The power was balanced in such as way that no country would become a threat to another. The Vienna
Congress was a victory for the conservatives, who favoured restoration of the powers of the Royal
families. In France Louis XVIII returned to power.
• This new king took a wise decision to remain the constitutional head and adopt the constitution. The
royal dynasties of Spain and Sicilies were also restored.
• Now, France and Britain were the two Constitutional monarchies of Europe, while Russia, Prussia and
Austria remained absolute monarchies.

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 Evaluation
• The view of Prof. Fyffe is that “Standing on the boundary line between two ages, the
legislation of Vienna forms a landmark in history.”
• It cannot be denied that the Vienna Settlement of 1815 was not so bad as the Paris
settlement of 1919-20.
• In 1919, Germany was held responsible for all the acts of omission and commission of William
II and was deprived of her territories, colonies, investments, etc., and was made to pay a huge
war indemnity amounting to billions of dollars which was not within her competence to pay.
• It cannot be denied that Napoleon was responsible for acts of wanton aggression and had
disturbed Europe in a very bad way, but France was not held guilty for all his misdeeds.
• Even when Napoleon was defeated for the second time in 1815 at Waterloo, a very mild
treaty was imposed on France. Her frontiers were restricted to those of 1791.

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Rise of Nationalism in Europe

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 Nationalism
• The rise of Nationalism, especially after French revolution, had important impact on the
world including on the redrawing of national boundaries.
• Britain and France were the first nation-states to emerge.
Concept of Nation
• Until the French revolution, except for Britain, the Europe was under the domination of
feudal system and there was no concept of a Nation.
• There were empires with scattered territories ruled by Monarchs, there existed feudal
lords with their estates and there were towns and cities, but no Nation, as we
understand it today.
• The French revolution gave the concept of a Nation, which was sum total of people and
in whom lay the sovereignty.
• Thus, Nationalism came to be represented as self-rule due to the French and American
revolutions.
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 Misuse by Absolute Monarchs
• Further, when Napoleon invaded the rest of Europe, stoked by the
monarchs of Europe, nationalism manifested in form of the desire to
protect the territory against foreign invasion.
• Thus the Monarchs used nationalism to consolidate their hold on power
and the 19th century Europe witnessed aggressive Absolute Monarchies
with focus on extension of territory and expansion of colonial empire.
• After Napoleonic wars, Europe saw waves of pro-democracy revolutions
but Monarchies were opposed to the democratic ideas of French
revolution and they used nationalism as a shield to defend and even
extend their empires.

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 Role of Revolutionary Thinkers
• Modern thinkers contributed a lot to the concept of nationalism. Idea of self-rule and
nationalism were also altering the national boundaries.
• Greece became independent from Ottoman Empire in 1832, while Belgium’s pro-
democracy revolution against United Kingdom of Netherlands helped it attain
independence in 1839.
• The movement for unification of Germany and Italy derived much of their energies
from the ideas of these thinkers.
• Example, Garibaldi and Mazzini played an important role in unification of Italy, while
the English poet Byron wrote and fought for Greek independence.
• These thinkers brought Romanticism to the literary content of those times, which
enthused the people to lend their support to their armies, freedom fighters and
monarchies alike for sake of Nation’s glory.

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 Rise of Nationalism in France
1. The idea of la patrie and le citoyen were emphasised.

2. A new tricolour french flag was introduced.

3. A new estate general was elected

4. Declaration of man and citizen

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 Impact in France: French Revolution of 1830
• The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution led to the overthrow of
King Charles X, the French Bourbon monarch, and the ascent of his cousin Louis Philippe who
himself, after 18 precarious years on the throne, would be overthrown in 1848.

Causes

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Revolutionin
other Parts
of the
world
After
1830
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Causes

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Revolutionin
other Parts
of the
world
After
1848
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World History

Lecture: 12
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Unification of Italy

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 Unification of Italy
• It was a Political and Social movement, agglomerated different states of the Italian peninsula into the
single state of the Kingdom of Italy in the 19th century.
• Began in 1815 with the Congress of Vienna and the end of Napoleonic rule.
• It ended in 1871 when Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy.
• Unification of Italy was a two-step process.
• In the first step, it had to gain independence from Austria and secondly, it had to unite the
consequent independent Italian states into a single unit.
• Mazzini and Garibaldi were revolutionaries who played an important role in this process.
• Mazzini had formed an organization named Young Italy in 1831 for unification of Italy.
• From 1831 onwards, Young Italy repeatedly attempted revolts against the Monarchy but all of them
failed to establish a democratic and united Italy.
• Yet, Young Italy enthused the people for a united Italy under a liberal government.

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 5 Division of Italy
1. Austria ruled the Italian provinces of Venetia and Lombardy in the north

2. Parma, Modena and Tuscany were subsidiary Austrian states under habsburg family.

3. Papal State under Pope

4. Spanish Bourbon family – Naples and sicilies

5. Sardinia- Pidmond under Savoy dynasty.

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 Reasons
1. Common Religions of Italy

2. Common language: Italian

3. Geography: Relatively isolated from entire Europe because of Alps.

4. Exploitation by Austria and France.

5. Role of Napoleon.

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 Dissatisfaction
• After Vienna congress There was a growing discontent towards the foreign rulers; the
Italians had come together in a war against Austria to get back the provinces she had
taken in a previous war.
• In 1820s, secret revolutionary societies called Carbonari became active. The members
of these Carbonari supported the initial failed revolutionary activities for Italian
Reunification called Risorgimento with a dim idea of creating an Italian state.
• They failed mainly because there was no concrete plan and leadership. In such
circumstances, two prominent radical figures in the unification movement appeared
viz. Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi.
• The former was idealistic and the later was practical.

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 Giuseppe Mazzini
• Giuseppe Mazzini was a young man of 26 years, when his activities in the Carbonari led him to be
put in jail. While in prison, he concluded that Italy should be unified.
• He formulated a program for establishing a free, independent, and republican nation with Rome
as its capital.
• After his release in 1831, he went to Marseille (Second-largest city of France), where he organized
a new political society called La Giovine Italia (Young Italy).
• The new society, whose motto was "God and the People", sought the unification of Italy. It had
60,000 followers in the beginning of 1830s.
• He planned a revolution in early 1833. However, the government discovered the plot before it
could begin and many revolutionaries were arrested and executed. Mazzini disappeared and was
tried in absentia and sentenced to death.

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 Continue…
• During the violent year of 1848, revolts broke out in eight states on the Italian
peninsula.
• Mazzini briefly headed a republican government at Rome. He believed that nation-
states were the best hope for social justice, democracy, and peace in Europe.
• However, the 1848 rebellions failed in Italy as they did elsewhere in Europe. The
former rulers of the Italian states drove Mazzini and other nationalist leaders into
exile.
• For many years, he remained in hiding. He made several failed attempts of
resurrection before he died in 1872 of a lung disease.

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 Role of Camillo di Cavour
• The largest and strongest of the Italian states was Piedmont-Sardinia, which was somewhat
favouring to the nationalists.
• Charles Albert became king of Sardinia in 1831 on the death of his distant cousin Charles Felix,
who had no heir.
• he adopted the idea of a federal Italy, led by the Pope in 1848.
• Charles Albert led his forces against the Imperial Austrian army in the First Italian War of
Independence (1848–1849), but was abandoned by Pope Pius IX and Ferdinand II of the Two
Sicilies and was defeated in 1849 at the Battle of Novara, after which he abdicated in favour of his
son, Victor Emmanuel II. Charles Albert died in exile a few months later in the Portuguese city
of Porto.
• Since the democratic idealism of Mazzini had already failed, the nationalists looked towards the
unification of the Italy under the Piedmont-Sardinia as a sensible alternative.

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 Continue…
• In 1852, Sardinia's King Victor Emmanuel II appointed Camillo Benso or Count Camillo di Cavour as
his prime minister. This wealthy, middle-aged aristocrat, worked tirelessly to expand Piedmont-
Sardinia's power.
• Initially, his goal was to strengthen Sardinia's power, not to unite Italy. At first, Cavour's major
goal was to get control of northern Italy for Sardinia.
• Cavour joined the Crimean War in 1855 on behalf of England, France and Turkey and against
Russia. After victory over Russia, the Congress of Paris was held in 1856- condemn the Austrian
rule in Italy. Sympathy of Europe for his cause, particularly that of Napoleon III

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 Continue…
• Napoleon III himself had sympathy for the cause of Italian
unification. He had once been a member of the Carbonari.
• The greatest roadblock to annexing northern Italy was Austria. To
expel the Austrians from the north, Cavour entered into an
agreement with France. France was to provide 200,000 men and
Austria was to be driven out of Italy in exchange it will get nice
and savoy.
• In 1858, the French emperor Napoleon III agreed to help drive
Austria out of the northern provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.
• Thus, a war between the combined French-Sardinian army and
Austria triggered which resulted in the defeat of Austria. Sardinia
succeeded in taking over all of northern Italy, except Venetia,
from the Austrians.

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 Giuseppe Garibaldi
• After control over almost entire northern Italy, Cavour looked at southern parts. He secretly
started helping the nationalist rebels.
• In 1860, a small army of Italian nationalists led by Giuseppe Garibaldi was able to capture Sicily
from the Bourbon Kings.
• This successful expedition is also known as Expedition of the Thousand. From Sicily, Garibaldi
crossed to the Italian mainland and marched north to Rome. He got immense support of the
Volunteers.
• He wanted to capture Rome but Cavour persuaded him not do so, because there was a fear that
the French troops might come to protect the Pope.
• In battle, Garibaldi and his followers always wore bright red shirts. This is why they became
known as Red Shirts.

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 Continue…
• The Expedition of the Thousand ended in a plebiscite in 1860, whereby the voters gave Garibaldi
permission to unite the southern areas he conquered with the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia.
• There was a meeting of Garibaldi and King Victor Emmanuel II arranged by Cavour in Naples.
Garibaldi willingly agreed to step aside and let the Sardinian king rule.
• Thus, this was the last territorial conquest before the creation of the Kingdom of Italy on 17
March 1861.
• King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia was proclaimed the King of Italy. This Kingdom of Italy existed
until 1946 when the Italians opted for a republican constitution.
• In 1866, the Austrian province of Venetia (including city of Venice) became part of Italy.
• In 1870, Italian forces had also taken over the territories of the Papal States.
• With this, the city of Rome came under Italian control. The pope, however, would continue to
govern a section of Rome known as Vatican City.

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 Venetia (1866)
• Italy entered into an alliance with Prussia in 1866 with
a view to secure Venetia from Austria. When the war
started between Austria and Prussia, the Italians also
entered the field.
• However, they were defeated by the Austrian troops,
but their entry into the war facilitated the task of
Bismarck as Austria was forced to fight on two fronts.
• No wonder, the Austrians were defeated in the Battle
of Sadowa and surrendered.
• Bismarck did not make any demand on vanquished
(परास्त) Austria but merely asked the latter to give
Venetia to Italy and the same was done.

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 Rome (1870)
• The unification of Italy was completed in 1870 when
Napoleon III was forced to withdraw the French
troops from Rome which was stationed there since
1849.
• That was due to the fact that Napoleon had to fight
against Prussia and it was necessary to collect troops
from everywhere.
• It was in this way that the unification of Italy was
completed in 1870 as a result of the efforts of the
Italian patriots, foreign help and the force of
circumstances.

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 Challenges of Italy after Unification
• The Unification itself was not a panacea for all problems of Italy. The centuries of separation had
created fierce rivalries among the different Italian provinces.
• The major source of the tension in Italy was that the northern part of the country was
industrialized while the southern part was agricultural. The people of these two regions had such
as difference that they spoke two different versions of the Italian language and scarcely
understood each other.
• The Italian Parliament was soon got filled with disorganized parties and vague politics. There was
a frequent change in the cabinets and the prime ministers.
• In the south, violent peasant revolts broke out because of the economic problems. The northern
parts were also affected by an array of strikes and riots. Thus, by the dawn of the 20th century,
Italy was a poor and wretched state.

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World History

Lecture: 13
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Unification of Germany

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 Unification of Germany: Background
• Germany was a ragbag of 314 states & 1474 estates
i.e. total 1789 independent sovereign powers in
the medieval times. These were held together by
the absolute rule of the emperor and his troops.
• Napoleon had won much of the German area and
converted into 39 states and created Rhine
Federation.
• The 1815 Settlement via the Congress of Vienna led
to a formation of loose grouping called the German
Confederation, still made of 39 states. This German
Confederation was dominated by the two largest
states viz. Austro-Hungarian Empire and Prussia.

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 Causes of the
Unification of Germany

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 Why Prussia Dominated over Austria
1. The population of Prussia was mainly German speaking, thus the waves of Nationalism
actually united Prussia while the Austria-Hungary was tore apart by the ethnic groups.
2. Napoleon was responsible for interest of intellectuals in German unification because his
domination of Germans at will during Napoleonic wars brought wave of nationalistic
reaction. This interest was also heightened by the shame of the Germans inability to drive
out the French. Most of the states, particularly Prussia remained firmly opposed to
Napoleon.
3. Prussia had also shared the glory of victory at Waterloo.
4. Liberal Ideas
5. Industrialized and Economically Developed comparison to Austria and Improved
production
6. Role of Otto von Bismarck
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 Early economic development
1. Prussia was producing more key resources such as coal and iron
than Austria.

2. It surged ahead of its rival in building road and rail networks to

help promote trade

3. Prussia had successfully set up the Zollverein with other German

states - making trade between states easier and more profitable.

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 Reforms to help the workers and peasants

1. Taxes were lowered.

2. The government helped peasants take out loans

3. There was less regulation for the coal and iron industries

3. Workers experienced better working conditions.

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 Improved production

1. Prussia had double the length of railway lines of Austria.

2. Production of iron was five times more than that of Austria.

3. Production of coal was five times more than that of Austria

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 The decline of Austria

1. International Issues: Major Ally Russia denied to help because

Austria didn`t helped in Crimean War (1854-56)

2. Economic issues: Austria could barely compete with the economic

benefits of the Zollverein. southern Europe had not benefited as much
from the Industrial Revolution and spread of the railways.

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 The Revolt of 1848
• The Prussian army was one of the most powerful armies of the times. The emergence of Prussia as a
strong power coincided with the waves of nationalism.
• The tide of nationalism led to several revolts, important among them was that of 1848, when the rioters
in Berlin forced the Prussian king.
• Frederick William IV, to call a constitutional convention: The Frankfurt Parliament was the first freely
elected parliament for all of Germany, elected on 1 May 1848 with the help of German federal election,
1848. The session was held from 18 May 1848 to 31 May 1849: After long and controversial debates, the
assembly produced the so-called Frankfurt Constitution.
• The king called a convention to draw the liberal constitution for the kingdom but refused to become a
constitutional monarch so the revolts remained a failure in 1848.
• Modeled on the House of Lords of the United Kingdom, the Herrenhaus (Upper House) together with
lower house was created following the 1848 revolution with the adoption of the Constitution of the
Kingdom of Prussia imposed by King Frederick William IV on 31 January 1850.

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 Constitutional Crisis of 1861
• In 1861: Wilhelm I succeeded Frederick William as King of Prussia. He moved drastic steps in the
parliament to reform the army and double the military power of Prussia.
• But, the liberal parliament refused him these steps mainly because of the question of payment for
these reforms. This led to a constitutional crisis in Prussia.
• The refusal of the parliament was seen by Wilhelm as a major challenge to his authority. The King
was having support of the strongly conservative Junkers.
• Junkers refers to members of Prussia's wealthy landowning class, who were strongly conservative
and opposed liberal ideas.
• To solve the crisis, in 1862, Wilhelm chose a conservative Junker named Otto von Bismarck as his
prime minister.
• Bismarck, who was a master of Realpolitik' declared with King's approval that he would rule
without the consent of parliament and without a legal budget.

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 Continue…
• Realpolitik is a German term which refers to the politics of reality, where there is no room for idealism in
the power politics. With Realpolitik as his style, Bismarck later became one of the tallest figures of
German history.
• Thus violating the constitution directly, he said that the major issues will not be solved by majority
decisions of the parliament but with Blood and Iron. This 1862 speech is now famous as Blood and Iron
speech.
• "The position of Prussia in Germany will not be determined by its liberalism but by its power ...
Prussia must concentrate its strength and hold it for the favorable moment which has already
come and gone several times. Since the treaties of Vienna, our frontiers have been ill-designed for
a healthy body politic. Not through speeches and majority decisions will the great questions of
the day be decided - that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849 - but by iron and blood (Eisen
und Blut)." From Otto von Bismarck speech given in 1862.

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World History

Lecture: 14
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Unification of Germany

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 PRIMARY Aim of Bismarck

1. To unify the north German states under Prussian control

2. To weaken Prussia's main rival, Austria, by removing it from the German

Federation

3. To make Berlin, not Vienna, the centre of German affairs

3. Countering the demands for reform from the Liberals in the Prussia.

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 Part: I- War With Denmark
• In 1864: Bismarck formed an alliance between Prussia
and Austria. The declared a war on Denmark and quickly
won the two border provinces of Schleswig and Holstein,
thus infusing national pride among the Prussians.
• The other sections of Germany also gave support for
unification of the Germany and for Prussia as head of a
unified Germany.
• After the 1864 victory, Prussia governed Schleswig, while
Austria controlled Holstein.
• But, Bismarck wanted to anyhow curtail Austria and win
the Holstein so he stirred up border conflicts with
Austria.

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 Part: 2- The Seven Weeks War
• The border conflicts led to Austria to declare a war on
Prussia in 1866, which is now known as Seven Weeks War.
• The Kingdom of Italy participated in the war with Prussia,
because Austria held Venetia and other smaller territories
wanted by Italy to complete the process of Italian
unification.
• In return for Italian aid against Austria, Bismarck agreed not
to make a separate peace until Italy had obtained Venetia.
• The war resulted in a decisive victory of Prussians over
Austria. The Austria lost Venetia to Italy and some other
territories including Holstein were taken over by Prussia.

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 Part: 3- War with France
• So, a war was manufactured by Bismarck. In 1870, the
King Wilhelm I of Prussia was on a vacation During
vacation Count Benedetti, French ambassador to Prussia
met with King Wilhelm I.
• The overloads of this French ambassador had instructed
him to present the French demand to the King of Prussia.
• These demands included a promise from the King that
Prussia will not put its candidate for the Spanish throne,
which was vacant at that time.
• The meeting was cool and the King had cordially refused
to make any promise for the indefinite future. After the
meeting, the secretary of King sent a telegram to
Bismarck regarding the accounts of this meeting.

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 Continue…
• Bismarck altered and edited the language of the telegram and published it in such a way that it
appeared that the King insulted the French diplomat. In a reaction to this, France declared a war
on Prussia in July 1870.
• The most important battle in this war was the Battle of Sedan in which there was a quick Prussian
victory and 80,000 men from France including the French Emperor Napoleon III himself were
taken as prisoners. This was the final phase of the unification of Germany.
• As a result of this victory, the nationalistic fever seized people in southern Germany also. They
accepted Prussian leadership.
• On January 18, 1871, at the captured French palace of Versailles, King Wilhelm I of Prussia was
crowned Kaiser or emperor.
• Thus, Bismarck achieved Prussian dominance over Germany and Europe "by blood and iron.

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 Conclusion
• In Germany Bismarck was now the all-powerful Imperial Chancellor. The policy of blood and iron
had succeeded for the time being. Bismarck's skill in diplomacy did not leave him to the end. He
played a great game in the international politics of his day.
• Bismarck made a new alliance with Austria and Italy, Triple Alliance. As now he was beginning
to fear the revenge of the French.
• In 1888 a young man became the German Kaiser or Emperor Wilhelm-ll. He fell out with Bismarck.
And he dismissed Bismarck from his office.
• In this way irrespective of all odds, Bismarck succeeded in unifying Germany and because of
this, he deserves the important place in the history of Germany.

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World History

Lecture: 15
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Industrial Revolution

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History of Methods of Production

What is Industrial Revolution

Factors that facilitated Industrial Revolution

Components of Industrial Revolution

Why Industrial Revolution first in England

Impact of Industrial Revolution

Spread of Industrial Revolution outside England

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 History of Methods of Production
• History of Methods of Production before Industrial Revolution
• The trajectory of the method of production of goods has been like this- from Guild System to
Putting-Out System to Factory System.
• There was decline of the Guild System, when the volume of trade increased further and the
Guilds were unable to cope with the demand as they were unsuited for mass production.
• Putting-Out System - This resulted in coming of Putting-Out System (workshop system or
domestic system).
• Under this system, the raw material and the final product were owned by the merchant and
the worker was only a wage earner.
• The site of work was the home or the backyard of the worker.
• The Merchant would have the responsibility of providing raw material and collected the final
produce.
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 Continue….
• The invention of machines changed everything and even this system
was replaced by what is called as the Factory System.
• Factory System: Under this system, the centre of production shifted
from home to the factory.
• The workers, for the first time now, travelled from home to work-sites
on daily basis.
• They for the first time aggregated in such large numbers under a shed
working on machines.
• The capital was owned by the Capitalist and the worker was just
another factor of production and the capitalist was the owner.

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 What is Industrial Revolution
• Industrial revolution refers to a major change in a country’s method of producing goods and
organizing labour and a movement from agricultural to industrial society; manual labor to use of
machines that lead to greatly increased output and rural society to an urban society.
• Industrial Revolution began in England and soon spread to Continental Europe and North America. It
roughly corresponds to a period between 1750 to 1860.
• Industrial revolution is the revolution in the economic processes of production of goods in the economy,
aided by the technological innovations, and their spread, which gave a boost to the pace at which goods
could be produced.
• Innovations that resulted in mechanized production, development of new sources of powering these
machines, technological forays in fields of communication and transport are some processes, which when
clubbed together are referred to as Industrial revolution.
• It was a revolution because it totally reformed not just the economic realm but also the social and
political realms of the society.

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 Factors that set a background for Industrial Revolution
• The events in England before 1750 set such conditions, which were favourable towards Industrial
Revolution.
1. The rise of capitalism after the end of Feudalism was crucial for Industrial Revolution. This was
so because with capitalism came the desire to make more monetary profits, which could be
achieved by developing new ways to produce more goods at lower costs.
2. There was demand for manufactured goods due to increased population in Britain and the
new ways of life in the growing towns and cities.
3. The village people were migrating to towns as workers for industrial production.
4. This gave a thrust to the quest for new ideas that could increase industrial efficiency. The
Renaissance & Reformation with focus on power of reason had already made a
psychological impact on the people to set out in quest for new ideas.
5. Furthermore, the society in England had moved towards democracy (Glorious Revolution
1688), which allowed greater freedom of thoughts.

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 Continue….
6. Colonies: The accumulation of money from trade with the rest of the world and
colonization ensured that there was money available for reinvestment for capital
formation and for funding the activities of innovators.
7. Long coast line Geography also played a role. Because of being an island, England
had a natural barrier to protect it from the invasions. Unlike France and Germany,
England had natural frontier, which allowed it to enjoy a degree of peace.
8. This made the rulers more pro-democracy as they felt lesser need to be coercive as
they were secure from external security threats.

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Components of Industrial Revolution
Agriculture Revolution

Revolution in Textile Sector

Steam Power

Revolution in Iron Production

Revolution in Transport & Communication

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 Agriculture Revolution
• Another aspect generally missed in the Industrial Revolution is the Agricultural Revolution
that started before the former.
• It involved the production of more cash crops to meet the demands of the British industry.
• The new farm machinery like steel plough and harrow for breaking the ground,
mechanical seed drills, horse-drawn cultivator that replaced hoe and machines for reaping
and threshing reduced the labor requirement in the Agriculture sector.
• The Enclosure Movement was led by the big landlords, who in connivance with the
legislators in Parliament, increased their farm landholdings by taking over the small
landholdings of marginal peasants and the village commons.
• Thus a lot of labor was actually available for the Industry in the towns and the labor
surplus ensured cheaper labor costs and thus more profits to the businessmen.
• The new farm practices like intensive manuring and crop rotation increased the soil
fertility and ensured food security of Britain.

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 Mechanical seed drills
Harrow

Steel Plough

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 Jethro Tull
• Jethro Tull (1674-1741) was one of the first of
these scientific English farmers, who is known
as pioneer in the British Agricultural
Revolution.
• He saw that the usual way of sowing seed by
scattering it across the ground was wasteful
as many of the seeds failed to take root. He
invented the Seed Drill in 1701.
• This horse drawn seed drill sowed the seeds
in neat rows and allowed a larger share of the
seed to germinate thus, boosting crop yields.
This method was later adopted by many large
land owners.

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 Revolution in Textile Sector
• Industrial Revolution started with revolution in the Textile Industry.
• In 1700s, the East India Company was earning lot of profit, to the envy of British businessmen, by
exporting the finished cotton cloth from India into Britain.
• This prompted the English businessmen to import raw cotton from India and convert it into finished
cotton cloth in Britain so they could earn some profit from the booming cotton demand.
• The flying shuttle was invented by John Kay, an Englishman, in 1733.
• When the old machinery like spinning wheel and handlooms could not meet the demand, a series
of innovations occurred.
• The new machines in the Textile industry aided faster spinning of raw cotton into thread.
• Hargreaves was first to develop such a machine- Spinning jenny.
• Arkwright adapted Hargreaves machine to run with water power. Soon, Crompton combined the
positives of the two machines to develop one of his own- Spinning Mule.

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Flying Shuttle

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 Spinning Wheel

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Spinning
Jenny

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 Continue…
• The impact of faster spinning machines was that they allowed the Textile factories to produce
thread that was much finer and cheaper to produce.
• The decreased cost of production increased the profits and soon the machines became very
popular in England.
• Further, in 1785, Cartwright developed the Powerloom, which truly revolutionized the production
of cloth from the thread.
• The term Horsepower has its origin in the Powerloom of Cartwright as this machine was driven by
horses running in a circular motion.
• Later, the powerloom was modified to run using water power as the factories were setup near
rivers and canals to make use of hydropower.
• Cotton Gin was another invention, which made the process of separating the fiber from the seeds
300 times faster than by hand.
• This machine was invented by Eli Whitney in 1793 and it solved the problem of shortage of supply
of raw cotton fiber due to the hand-based slow process of separating cotton fiber from cotton
bales.
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Power Loom

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 Steam Power
• The first crude steam powered machine was built by Thomas Savery, of England, in 1698. Savery built
his machine to help pump water out of coal mines.
• The next stage in the history of the steam engine was a result of the work of Thomas Newcomen, also
of England in 1712.
• Another, and the most significant invention was development of Steam Engine by James Watt, a
Scottish engineer, in 1769.
• Steam Engines gave a big boost to production of goods and consequently led to huge increase in
demand for raw materials.
• They were the real thing which led to mass production because machines based on manpower or
hydropower were much less efficient.
• Soon, the Steam Engines were deployed for running spinning machines and for powerlooms.
• This resulted in England importing five times more raw cotton by 1840.
• Steam Engines were also adapted for use in coal mines to pump out water, which in turn led to an
increase in coal supply.
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 James Watt,
Steam Engine

Thomas Savery, Steam Engine Thomas Newcomen, Steam Engine

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 Revolution in Iron Production
• Another revolution was in Iron production, which ultimately led
to increased and cheaper mechanization of all industrial
processes.
• The Steam power had led to demand for more machinery and
England had huge deposits of iron ore and coal to make steel.
• But where England lacked was in the cheaper mode of
processing raw iron.
• This problem was resolved by the development of Blast
furnaces, which allowed for use of coke instead of charcoal.
• A smelting furnace in the form of a tower into which a blast of hot
compressed air can be introduced from below. Such furnaces are
used chiefly to make iron from a mixture of iron ore, coke, and
limestone.
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 Revolution in Transport & Communication
• Economy is as much about Geography as about processes of production.
• The development of transport corridors in form of rail-road network across
the length and breadth of England and consequently in colonies of British
empire allowed the British industry to hasten the supply of raw material
and finished goods.
• Steam Engine was modified for use in Railways by George Stephenson in
1814.
• The coal could now be transported from the coal mines to the ports via
Railways.
• In 1830, the first passenger train running on steam power made its journey.

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 Continue…
• This invention allowed for greater movement of businessmen, of workers from the
hinterland to the cities and development of a truly connected economy.
• In India, the revolution in railways started in 1853.
• McAdamized Roads i.e. Pakka roads were result of the engineering feat of
McAdam. Better roads allowed for swifter movement of goods.
• The rail-road infrastructure was complemented by the Canal Network building.
• Water transport using steam powered ships was much cheaper than transport
through land.
• Business transactions could be effected from remote locations with the arrival of
Postal services.

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World History

Lecture: 16
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Industrial Revolution

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History of Methods of Production

What is Industrial Revolution

Components of Industrial Revolution

Why Industrial Revolution first in England

Impact of Industrial Revolution

Spread of Industrial Revolution outside England

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 Why Industrial Revolution first in England
• The accumulation of money from trade with the rest of the world ensured that
there was money available for reinvestment for capital formation and for funding
the activities of innovators.
• .

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 Continue…
• Bismarck altered and edited the language of the telegram and published it in such a way that it
appeared that the King insulted the French diplomat. In a reaction to this, France declared a war
on Prussia in July 1870.
• The most important battle in this war was the Battle of Sedan in which there was a quick Prussian
victory and 80,000 men from France including the French Emperor Napoleon III himself were
taken as prisoners. This was the final phase of the unification of Germany.
• As a result of this victory, the nationalistic fever seized people in southern Germany also. They
accepted Prussian leadership.
• On January 18, 1871, at the captured French palace of Versailles, King Wilhelm I of Prussia was
crowned Kaiser or emperor.
• Thus, Bismarck achieved Prussian dominance over Germany and Europe "by blood and iron.

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 Conclusion
• In Germany Bismarck was now the all-powerful Imperial Chancellor. The policy of blood and iron
had succeeded for the time being. Bismarck's skill in diplomacy did not leave him to the end. He
played a great game in the international politics of his day.
• Bismarck made a new alliance with Austria and Italy, Triple Alliance. As now he was beginning
to fear the revenge of the French.
• In 1888 a young man became the German Kaiser or Emperor Wilhelm-ll. He fell out with Bismarck.
And he dismissed Bismarck from his office.
• In this way irrespective of all odds, Bismarck succeeded in unifying Germany and because of
this, he deserves the important place in the history of Germany.

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World History

Lecture: 16
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Industrial Revolution

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History of Methods of Production

What is Industrial Revolution

Factors that facilitated Industrial Revolution

Components of Industrial Revolution

Why Industrial Revolution first in England

Impact of Industrial Revolution

Spread of Industrial Revolution outside England

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 Why Industrial Revolution first in England
• Though Britain took part in many wars during the 1700s. none of these struggles
occurred on British soil. Furthermore, their military and political successes gave the
British a positive attitude. The political stability and general peace in Britain was a
very important factor.
• Increased Good Labour Supply because birth rates increased & death rates
decreased, population mushroomed and skilled and educated workers were
available.
• England was rich in coal, iron ore, waterways, resources from colonies (wool,
cotton). It was rich in water power and coal to fuel the new machines; Iron ore to
construct machines, tools, and buildings; rivers for inland transportation and
harbours from which its merchant ships set sail.
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 Continue…
• Britain had availability of Investment capital from wealthy landowners and merchants. It
had a highly developed banking system contributed to the country's industrialization.
People were encouraged by the availability of bank loans to invest in new machinery and
expand their operations.
• Availability of Markets because colonies provided markets to sell finished goods. New
jobs and wealth created a cycle of new markets (more money made = more money to
spend). Large demand for textiles (demand exceeded supply).
• Support of the Government because political stability due to long surviving
constitutional monarchy. There were Laws to protect businesses. There were Patent laws,
which encouraged investment. There were no internal tariffs.
• There was no rigid class system and work ethic admired.

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 Impact: Positive
• Britain’s economy came to be dominated by the Industrial sector, rather than the Agriculture sector
whose share in the GDP declined. Higher GDP boosted textile exports and raw material imports by
the British businesses. Britain now produced enough coal and pig iron for self-consumption and
exports. Industrial revolution led to emergence of Britain as the top ranking Industrial economy.
• There was increased migration from the villages to the cities in search of employment. The urban
areas now became the centers of production and were no more limited to being the center for
trade and administration.
• There was increase in trade unionism and increased solidarity among the working class. Gradually,
with passage of four acts, the right to vote was extended to many sections of the society including
the workers and by 1929, Britain adopted Universal Adult Franchise.
• Trade Unions were legalized in 1824 and series of factory Acts were passed, like in 1802 and 1819,
which brought in age and working hours restrictions and regulated the employment conditions,
especially of Women and Children.
• In a way, Industrial Revolution increased the penetration of democracy in England.

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 Impact: Negative
• Migration: A downside of this process was the crowding in cities, which led to problems of housing
and sanitation.
• The urban area was now divided into two contrasting components of the slums on one side and the
luxurious homes of the businessmen and the manager class on the other side.
• Migration caused social stress in form of dissolution of social bonds and the moral restraint that the
village life generally places on its inhabitants. Clubbed with poverty this resulted in increase in crimes
in the cities.
• The industrialists saw the workers as cog (दांत) in the machine and as just another factor of
production.
• Their aim was to maximize profits and thus the wages of workers were paltry.
• Little was done for the social security of the workers and the working conditions in the factories
where unsafe machines maimed many.
• Child labor and participation of women in labor force increased, as they were available at cheaper
wages. The working hours were as high as 15 to 18 hours per day.

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 Continue….
• Environmental pollution was also on an increase. This caused many health problems for the
workers.
• The industrial lobby for long ensured that the Parliamentarians did nothing for the welfare of the
workers, which led to development of resentment and many worker movements like of Luddites (a
person opposed to new technology or ways of working) and Chartists developed after Industrial
revolution in England.
• Chartism was a working class movement, which emerged in 1836 and was most active between 1838
and 1848. The aim of the Chartists was to gain political rights and influence for the working
classes.Chartism got its name from the People's Charter, that listed the six main aims of the
movement.
• It is pertinent to remember here, that it was the negative side of the Capitalism of post-Industrial
revolution era, which hastened the arrival of Socialism. Karl Marx developed his ideas by observing
the miserable conditions of workers in England.
• Thus, Industrial Revolution played an important role in emergence of Imperialism

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 Spread of Industrial Revolution outside England
• In Europe, the end of Napoleonic wars in 1815 brought an atmosphere in which the
nations could focus on Industrial development.
• Machines were introduced in many European nations after 1815, but the movements
for democracy, independence and unification of territories didn’t allow Industrial
Revolution to take root till 1871.
• In France, by 1850, the iron industry had started to develop, but the lack of raw material
in form of coal and iron ore limited its progress.
• Germany was second only to Britain in production of steel but was still far behind
Britain.
• After German unification under Bismarck, German industry developed in leaps and
bounds and soon became a rival to the British in production of pig iron and coal.
• Italy also witnessed Industrial revolution post-unification in 1871. It was Russia, which
was last to industrialize.

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 Continue…
• Russia was rich in natural resources but due to lack of capital and free labor because of
serfdom, the process of its industrialization was slow.
• Russian industrial production got a boost when Serfdom was abolished in 1861 and it
borrowed foreign capital.
• But it was only after the 1917 October revolution that Russia underwent true Industrial
revolution.
• Outside Europe, the USA industry started developing after independence from Britain in
1783.
• But since the British policy of Mercantilism had prevented development of indigenous
industry, and USA was engaged in its own political turmoil of Territorial expansion and the
Civil War after President Lincoln banned Slavery, it was only after 1870 that Industrial
production got a big boost.
• USA then emerged as an industrial power and by the World War I was the major supplier of
finished goods to rest world.

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 Continue…
• Japan was the first Asian country to industrialize.
• Industrial Revolution took place in Japan in late 19th century.
• It became a major exporter of steel machinery, metal goods and chemicals from the
traditional exporter of silk, toys and porcelain.
• Thus it can be said that the system of polity, political independence, security from
invasions, the availability of labor and capital along with law and order stability were
the major determinants of the Industrial revolution.
• Britain was the first to industrialize not because it had better intellectuals but due to
existence of favorable conditions as mentioned above.
• When these conditions became prevalent in other countries, they soon embarked upon
Industrial revolution.
• These conditions on the other hand never existed at the same time in colonies like
India.
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Phases of Industrial
Revolution
Steam Engine

Robotics, artificial
intelligence, nanote
chnology, quantum
computing, biotech
Personal computer, nology,
the internet, The Internet of
and information and Things (IoT), 3D
communications printing and autono
technology (ICT) mous vehicles.
Telephone light bulb,
Phonograph, Internal
Combustion Engine.

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World History

Lecture: 17
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Colonization

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 Definition of Colonialism
• Colonialism is the establishment, exploitation, maintenance,
acquisition (लाभ), and expansion of colonies in one territory by
people from another territory.

• It is a set of unequal relationships between the colonial power

and the colony, and often between the colonists and the
indigenous population.

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 Types of Colonization
1. Colony: This was governed internally by the Foreign Power. Example is British Indian territories. The day-
to- day management of the colony was done either directly or indirectly.
2. Direct Control: Using the policy of paternalism the Europeans governed people in a fatherly way by
providing for their needs but not giving them rights. European bureaucrats.
3. Indirect Control: Indirect control relied on existing political rulers. In some areas, the British asked a local
ruler to accept British authority (Suzerainty) to rule. The Imperial power appointed agents or officials to
advise these rulers on local matters.
4. Protectorate: This referred to a country or territory with its own internal government but under the
control of an outside power. Example is British protectorate over the Niger River delta in Africa.
5. Sphere of Influence (SOI): This refers to an area where the European country claimed exclusive privileges
to trade or investment.
6. Economic Imperialism: These were the area where government was independent but economy was
controlled by the private business.

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 Factors of Colonization
1. Industrial Revolution: As European nations industrialized, they searched for new markets and raw
materials to improve their economies.
2. Social Darwinism: In the Social Darwinism theory, the ideas of Charles Darwin about evolution and
"survival of the fittest" were applied to social change. The non-Europeans were considered to be on
a lower scale of cultural and physical development because they did not have the technology that
Europeans had. White Man`s Burden theory.
3. Technological Advancements: Transport communication was greatly improved due to the brilliant
triumphs of modern science and engineering. The consequence was that the conquest and
occupation of distant land became infinitely more feasible. Maxim Gun proved vital in expansion of
European powers in Africa.
4. Population Pressure: Expanding population - Economic distress and periodical recurrence of
unemployment forced people to find new homes and careers abroad.

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 The Jungle Book
(1894),

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 Continue….
5. Surplus Capital: Surplus capital required investment in newly opened up countries where
greater returns could not be easy. Therefore, this sort of economic penetration was often
the forerunner of political control as in the case of Egypt and Morocco etc.
6. Political and Military factors: As the temper of the age grew more militartic, the nations
of Europe came to realise that the colonies might have also a military value.
7. National honour and prestige: The spirit of national pride and desire for prestige supplied
a very strong incentive to colonial expansion. This spirit was especially strong in the two new
states of Italy and Germany. British proudly said that sun never sets in British Empire.
8. Role of Christian missionaries:The missionaries often led the way for the merchants and
then for the military penetration.

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World History

Lecture: 17
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Colonization

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 Definition of Colonialism
• Colonialism is the establishment, exploitation, maintenance,
acquisition (लाभ), and expansion of colonies in one territory by
people from another territory.

• It is a set of unequal relationships between the colonial power

and the colony, and often between the colonists and the
indigenous population.

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 Types of Colonization
1. Colony: This was governed internally by the Foreign Power. Example is British Indian territories. The day-
to- day management of the colony was done either directly or indirectly.
2. Direct Control: Using the policy of paternalism the Europeans governed people in a fatherly way by
providing for their needs but not giving them rights. European bureaucrats.
3. Indirect Control: Indirect control relied on existing political rulers. In some areas, the British asked a local
ruler to accept British authority (Suzerainty) to rule. The Imperial power appointed agents or officials to
advise these rulers on local matters.
4. Protectorate: This referred to a country or territory with its own internal government but under the
control of an outside power. Example is British protectorate over the Niger River delta in Africa.
5. Sphere of Influence (SOI): This refers to an area where the European country claimed exclusive privileges
to trade or investment.
6. Economic Imperialism: These were the area where government was independent but economy was
controlled by the private business.

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 Factors of Colonization
1. Industrial Revolution: As European nations industrialized, they searched for new markets and raw
materials to improve their economies.
2. Social Darwinism: In the Social Darwinism theory, the ideas of Charles Darwin about evolution and
"survival of the fittest" were applied to social change. The non-Europeans were considered to be on
a lower scale of cultural and physical development because they did not have the technology that
Europeans had. White Man`s Burden theory.
3. Technological Advancements: Transport communication was greatly improved due to the brilliant
triumphs of modern science and engineering. The consequence was that the conquest and
occupation of distant land became infinitely more feasible. Maxim Gun proved vital in expansion of
European powers in Africa.
4. Population Pressure: Expanding population - Economic distress and periodical recurrence of
unemployment forced people to find new homes and careers abroad.

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 The Jungle Book
(1894),

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 Continue….
5. Surplus Capital: Surplus capital required investment in newly opened up countries where
greater returns could not be easy. Therefore, this sort of economic penetration was often
the forerunner of political control as in the case of Egypt and Morocco etc.
6. Political and Military factors: As the temper of the age grew more militartic, the nations
of Europe came to realise that the colonies might have also a military value.
7. National honour and prestige: The spirit of national pride and desire for prestige supplied
a very strong incentive to colonial expansion. This spirit was especially strong in the two new
states of Italy and Germany. British proudly said that sun never sets in British Empire.
8. Role of Christian missionaries:The missionaries often led the way for the merchants and
then for the military penetration.

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World History

Lecture: 18
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Colonization

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 History of colonization
• In ancient times, maritime nations such as the city-states of Greece and Phoenicia (Lebanon) often
established colonies to farm what they believed was uninhabited land.
• Another period of colonization in ancient times was during the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire
conquered large parts of Western Europe, North Africa and West Asia.
• The decline and collapse of the Roman Empire saw (and was partly caused by) the large-scale
movement of people (Like Hun- Nomadic people of central Asia ) in Eastern Europe and Asia.
• The Vikings of Scandinavia also carried out a large-scale colonization. The Vikings are best known as
raiders, setting out from their original homelands in Denmark, southern Norway and
southern Sweden.
• "Colonialism" in this context refers mostly to Western European countries' colonization of lands
mainly in the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania; The main European countries active in this form
of colonization included Spain, Portugal, France, the Kingdom of England the Netherlands, and
the Kingdom of Prussia (now Germany), and, beginning in the 18th century, the United States.

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 Continue…..
• Most of these countries had a period of almost complete power in world trade at some stage in the period from
roughly 1500 to 1900.
• Beginning in the late 19th century, Imperial Japan also engaged in settler colonization, most notably
in Hokkaido and Korea. Some reports characterize Chinese activities in Tibet as colonization.

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World empires and colonies 1936

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 Role of Explorations in Colonization
• The profits from trade increased the attraction of the European ports and the merchants made the
ports their center of activity.
• Soon towns developed in coastal areas of the Mediterranean sea and places like Venice & Genoa
increased in prosperity.
• These coastal towns enjoyed freedom from the rural based system of Feudalism.
• The serfs were free in these towns and thus migration from the villages to the towns gained pace.
• The society in these coastal towns was based on money and not land.
• The Kings, who in the Feudal system were dependent on the subordinate lords for military help and
despised the powers of the Feudal Lords and the Church, patronized the merchants by funding their
voyages.
• The merchants in turn aided the King so as to escape the feudal controls where merchants enjoyed
little social status and political rights.

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 Continue….
• The monetary profit became the most important reason for explorations, which brought goods
that could be sold at home at a much higher margin.
• E.g. Vasco Da Gama (1498) found the price of pepper in India to be 1/20 th of the price in Venice.
Spice trade was the most lucrative.
• By mid 13th century, Venice emerged as the primary trade port for spices. From Venice, the spices
were transported to Western and Northern Europe.
• Without direct access to Middle East, the Europeans were forced to pay high prices charged by
Venice. The routes to the east were known by the name of Silk Routes.
• Along with Venice, it was the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople, which acted as a
middle man in this trade with the east.
• These two lay along the trade routes and had power to choke them if they wanted.
• In 1453, Ottoman Empire defeated the Byzantine Empire and choked/blockaded the sea routes.

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 Continue….
The Europeans had to do something about it and this paved the way for Voyages of
Discovery at end of 15th century.
• Thus, before the 16th century it was Italy,
• which dominated the trade with rest of the world owing to its geographical location and
monopoly on the knowledge of sea-routes of commerce.
• But soon, due to the envy of the prosperous Italian trading cities and the blockade put
up by the Ottoman empire, the sailors began journeys with an aim of finding an
alternative route to the East.
• This quest for finding a North West route led to the discovery of Canada by John Cabot
of Britain.
• With the explorations, gradually the geographical map of the world emerged.

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Routes before and After Age of Discovery

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 Technical innovations in Explorations
• Technical innovations played an important role in success of explorers in being able to
sail to the new lands.
• By the end of 15th century, innovations in form of Compass, Astrolabe(it helps in
determining the location of ship), the Art of Mapping and development of better ships
that could travel longer, improved the explorer’s knowledge of geography of the sea.
• They were able to develop accurate maps of sea-routes and gain knowledge of weather
patterns that enabled them to safely reach the new lands.
• The period around the end of 15th century thus came to be known as the Age of
Discovery.
• Christopher Columbus, funded by Spain, went out in search of India but landed up in
Central America in 1492. He had touched the shores of Haiti but mistook it for India.
• This is why he called the natives as Indians and the islands as Indies.

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 Continue….
• In 1498, aided by Portugal, Vasco Da Gama discovered India by traveling from Europe to
India by circumventing the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa).
• America was discovered by Amerigo Vespucci (& not Columbus) around 1500 AD.
• The Portuguese also discovered Philippines in South East Asia.
• These discoveries marked the start of Colonization.
• The new found lands were rich in mineral resources and many had very good natural
harbors which could be developed into ports that could serve as nodal points of trade.
• It’s sought to establish their setup there i.e. they started to form colonies in these new
found lands.
• Thus came into origin, the word, Colonization.
• The profits from the goods imported from the new found lands of America, Asia and
Africa led to a race for exploration.
• Spain and Portugal were soon joined by the Dutch, France and Britain.
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 Colonization- 3G
• The colonization of Asia, Africa and America began with three focuses - Gold, Glory and
God.
• While Gold represented the profits from trade, Glory represented the recognition a
European power received as a world hegemon. With the flag of the Kingdom came the
Missionaries to promote Christianity.
• It is to be noted here that the country which dominated in the realm of sea power was
able to benefit the most out of the Colonial era.
• A larger fleet of merchant ships was a mark of trade volume and spread across external
markets while a strong navy could protect them , attack the vessels of the competitors
and block the sea-routes of commerce.
• Thus, Mercantile capitalism went hand in hand with colonialism, with the latter
providing a safe zone for the former to prosper.

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 Continue….
• The policy of Mercantile capitalism involved attacking merchant vessels of other
kingdoms, blocking trade routes, setting up colonies, placing trade barriers,
monopolizing the trade with the colonies and if unable to colonize, then securing
special trading rights with the new found lands so as to have a trade monopoly.
• The Portuguese had established trade monopoly with Asia after discovery of trade route
to India via Cape of Good Hope in 1498 and thus replaced Italian monopoly on trade
with the east.
• Later, the Portuguese were replaced by the Dutch in Indonesia and by the British in
India.
• Afterwards, the military strength and the sea power aided France and Britain to emerge
as the major colonial powers.

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 Impact
• On one hand, the European countries saw very rapid increase in trade volume and diversity,
while on the other hand, the colonies were ripped off their resources.
• Europe started importing products like spices, which were new to its market and became very
popular. Similar was the case with cotton cloth imported from the east. Spain set up sugar
plantations in Central American colonies, while the Portugal put up the plantation system in
Brazil.
• The indigenous Americans were forced to work for the colonists in the mines and farms. The
mines of Peru, Bolivia and Mexico were exploited with all the wealth exported out to Spain.
• The objective of Colonialism in Asia was trade profit, while Slave Trade was the main reason
in case of Africa.
• In Africa, colonization began early but was limited to the coastal region because the
hindrances placed by the geography limited the expansion of colonial empire to the mainland
Africa.
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 Impact: Slaves
• Slave trade was started by the Portugal as its workers on the plantations were not able to bear the hot
and humid climate of Brazil.
• It hunted down the Black Africans who were physically strong and were used to living in an equatorial
climate and brought them to work on plantations.
• While the Africans worked on the plantations as slaves, the native Americans worked like serfs on the
estates of the colonists.
• Soon the Slave trade was introduced in North America, West Indies and other parts of America by
European powers after colonization.
• Spain introduced the Slave trade first in Haiti in the Caribbean and then in Florida, Mexico, Chile and
other parts of Coastal South America.
• The Slave Trade came to be known as the Trans-Atlantic Slave trade and the Triangular Slave Trade as a
tripod of America, Africa and Europe was established and the Africans were shipped across the Atlantic to

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 Impact: Slaves
• The Slave trade continued for 300 years. Initially at the
end of 15th century it were the individual merchants,
sailors and pirates who conducted the trade but by the
end of 16th century the Slave Trading Companies had
taken over.
• The Black Africans were initially hunted from coastal
Africa as the interiors were out of bound but after the
explorations of the mainland in the 19th century, the
slave hunting extended to whole of Africa.
• The conditions of journey across Atlantic were
inhumane and many Africans died during these
journeys due to lack of hygiene and crowding.
• In the British colony of West Indies nearly 2 million
slaves were imported in 100 years.

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 Impact: End of Slavery Slaves
• Slavery was ended by France after the French Revolution in 1789 mainly because
the revolution was based on ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity.
• The British passed the Slavery Abolition Act in 1833 to end slavery in all of its
colonies, while the USA banned it after the civil war (1861-65).
• The ban on Slavery faced opposition from many quarters. The Dutch settlers of
South Africa opposed the ban.
• Also, the civil war in US was fought between the USA Federal government and the
southern states on the issue of slavery.

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 Relation between Colonialism and Mercantile Capitalism
• Mercantile Capitalism was the British policy in the 18th century.
• The idea was that the Government should regulate the economy at home and colonies abroad so
as to increase the national power.
• This amounted to placing trade barriers and monopoly of trade with colonies to British companies,
with the aim of having a positive balance of payment. The traders wanted Free Trade Agreements
and trade monopolies with countries outside Europe.
• On opposition from the native chiefs and the rulers, these countries were colonized.
• In 19th century, there was a new development. Due to thinkers like Adam Smith, the policy of
Laissez Faire was begun to be implemented.
• It meant less domination of the State in the economic sphere (as during Mercantile Capitalism) and
thus a free market economy. It was a free market economy only in the domestic economy.

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 Continue…
• The whole world was not being converted to a free market (as today, in era of MNCs &
Globalization). The Imperial powers had special rights in areas of trade and investment over most
of their colonies.
• Companies from other countries did not enjoy equal privileges in these colonies and the contracts
of economic projects were secured for companies belonging to the Imperial country.
• By end of 19th century Laissez Faire declined. British economist Keynes published The End of Laissez
Faire in 1926.
• It was due to ills of Laissez Faire- like exploitation of workers and non-intervention of government
even when there was a famine (1880 famine in India-government did not intervene)- that it was
realized that Laissez Faire cannot be followed blindly and the State has to intervene for ensuring
the enjoyment of basic human rights.

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 Difference between Colonialism and Imperialism
• Colonialism is part of Imperialism and Imperialism is a natural extension of Colonialism in the age of
Industrial revolution. Imperialism has the basic feature of political acquisition of a foreign territory.
• Thus according to some authors, Militarism (which implies invasion of a territory for its annexation)
is a must for Imperialism or is a form of Imperialism.In contrast, Colonialism implies domination of
people’s life and culture.
• The main goal of colonialism is extraction of economic benefits from the colony while Imperialism
includes political control.
• Thus, colonialism may be done by companies who secure special trading privileges and setup
trading posts , while Imperialism is done by the state through government diplomacy to acquire
territories, protectorates and spheres of influence and to promote industrial trade and investments.
• Colonialism results in control over life of natives in political, economic, cultural and social spheres. It
is more subtle (चालाक) whereas Imperialism is more formal and aggressive.

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 Continue…
• NCERT uses the term Imperialism as distinct from Colonialism. While the nomenclature followed by
other authors treat Colonialism equivalent to Imperialism, what the NCERT refers to as Imperialism
is called New Imperialism or Neo-Imperialism.
• The basic dividing line is the era of Industrial Revolution. The events after the Industrial Revolution
in the colonial empire building are termed as New Imperialism.
• Now what was new? The New in this New-Imperialism, which started after the Industrial
Revolution in Europe was the race component.
• Race signified the economic competition between the European powers to get hands on to as many
colonies as possible. It was a race for raw material sources and export markets, both of which
would be provided for by the colonies.
• It was also a race for securing sea-lanes of commerce by either colonizing the ports of call or
signing treaties with other nations to provide safe harbors to the merchant vessels.

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 Why this race phenomenon did not occur in as explicit a form before?
• The answer lies in important factors like Industrial Revolution, which spread to the rest of
Europe, USA and Japan in 19th century; the rise of Nationalism which fueled the national rivalries
for quest of economic and military supremacy; and also the decreased geographical space.
• The last factor is interesting and had important bearing for the world peace.
• Earlier there was enough territorial space for the European powers to colonize but in the 19 th
century, except for the interior lands of Africa, nearly the whole world had come under influence
of one powerful nation or the other. Thus, now the major powers of the world could only grow at
expense of one another.
• The colonial powers in the New Imperialism had to use greater force to protect their colonial assets
and secure own frontiers. This made political control in the colonies much more imperative to
ensure an economic control.
• To secure political control, military was required and thus a peculiar feature of the New
Imperialism was the rise of State power.
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 Why this race phenomenon did not occur in as explicit a form before?
• The answer lies in important factors like Industrial Revolution, which spread to the rest of
Europe, USA and Japan in 19th century; the rise of Nationalism which fueled the national rivalries
for quest of economic and military supremacy; and also the decreased geographical space.
• The last factor is interesting and had important bearing for the world peace.
• Earlier there was enough territorial space for the European powers to colonize but in the 19 th
century, except for the

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World History

Lecture: 19
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Colonization

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Relation between Colonialism and Imperialism

Imperialism
A policy of extending a country's
power and influence through
colonization, use of military force, or
other means.

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 Difference
between
Colonialism
and
Imperialism

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 Difference between Colonialism and Imperialism
• Colonialism is part of Imperialism and Imperialism is a natural extension of Colonialism in the age of
Industrial revolution. Imperialism has the basic feature of political acquisition of a foreign territory.
• Thus according to some authors, Militarism (which implies invasion of a territory for its annexation)
is a must for Imperialism or is a form of Imperialism. In contrast, Colonialism implies domination of
people’s life and culture.
• The main goal of colonialism is extraction of economic benefits from the colony while Imperialism
includes political control.
• Thus, colonialism may be done by companies who secure special trading privileges and setup
trading posts , while Imperialism is done by the state through government diplomacy to acquire
territories, protectorates and spheres of influence and to promote industrial trade and investments.
• Colonialism results in control over life of natives in political, economic, cultural and social spheres. It
is more subtle (चालाक) whereas Imperialism is more formal and aggressive.

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 New Imperialism
• The basic dividing line is the era of Industrial Revolution. The events after the Industrial Revolution
in the colonial empire building are termed as New Imperialism.
• Now what was new? The New in this New-Imperialism, which started after the Industrial
Revolution in Europe was the race component.
• Race signified the economic competition between the European powers to get hands on to as many
colonies as possible. It was a race for raw material sources and export markets, both of which
would be provided for by the colonies.
• It was also a race for securing sea-lanes of commerce by either colonizing the ports of call or
signing treaties with other nations to provide safe harbors to the merchant vessels.

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 Why New
• The French Revolution inspired independence movements worldwide.
• Napoleonic wars during the initial years of 19 th century weakened Spain and
Portugal, and consequently, some of their colonies in South and Central America
declared independence.
• Mexico became independent in 1821 from Spain. Simon Bolivar (Venezuelan
military and political leader ) freed Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela and Bolivia
from Spain. Brazil became independent from Portugal by 1824.
• Thus, there was a temporary period of decline in Imperialism after the French
Revolution of 1789, before its rise again in 1870s. So new.

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 Why this race phenomenon did not occur in as explicit a form before?
• The answer lies in important factors like Industrial Revolution, which spread to the rest of
Europe, USA and Japan in 19th century; the rise of Nationalism which fueled the national rivalries
for quest of economic and military supremacy; and also the decreased geographical space.
• The last factor is interesting and had important bearing for the world peace.
• Earlier there was enough territorial space for the European powers to colonize but in the 19 th
century, except for the interior lands of Africa, nearly the whole world had come under influence
of one powerful nation or the other. Thus, now the major powers of the world could only grow at
expense of one another.
• The colonial powers in the New Imperialism had to use greater force to protect their colonial assets
and secure own frontiers. This made political control in the colonies much more imperative to
ensure an economic control.
• To secure political control, military was required and thus a peculiar feature of the New
Imperialism was the rise of State power.
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 Factors responsible for Neo Imperialism
• One of these was the rise of Absolute Monarchies in Italy and Germany, post-unification in 1870s.
This absolutism increased the aggression on part of the state.However, New Imperialism cannot be
attributed solely to the Absolute Monarchies.
• In fact, Britain which had democracy had the largest colonial empire. Thus, all industrialized
regimes, whether democratic or absolute, engaged in Imperialism.
• Military victory over colonies and empire building was not only improving the economy of the
colonial power, but raising the prestige of the rulers as well. It was due to such reasons, for
instance, that Italy and Czarist Russia joined the race for colonies.
• Role of Nationalism: Nationalism rose after the French Revolution (1789). In Britain, France, Germany
and Italy, nationalism resulted in demands for expansion of colonial empires during 1868-72. Also,
the Absolute Monarchies relied on both Imperialism and Nationalism to divert attention of the public,
which was getting exposed to ideas of democracy.
• Role of Industrial Revolution/Industrial Capitalism: Surplus. The development of transport and
communication

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 Factors responsible for Neo Imperialism
• One of these was the rise of Absolute Monarchies in Italy and Germany, post-unification in 1870s.
This absolutism increased the aggression on part of the state.However, New Imperialism cannot be
attributed solely to the Absolute Monarchies.
• In fact, Britain which had democracy had the largest colonial empire. Thus, all industrialized
regimes, whether democratic or absolute, engaged in Imperialism.
• Military victory over colonies and empire building was not only improving the economy of the
colonial power, but raising the prestige of the rulers as well. It was due to such reasons, for
instance, that Italy and Czarist Russia joined the race for colonies.
• Role of Nationalism: Nationalism rose after the French Revolution (1789). In Britain, France, Germany
and Italy, nationalism resulted in demands for expansion of colonial empires during 1868-72. Also,
the Absolute Monarchies relied on both Imperialism and Nationalism to divert attention of the public,
which was getting exposed to ideas of democracy.
• Role of Industrial Revolution/Industrial Capitalism: Surplus. The development of transport and
communication

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COLONIALISM IN AFRICA

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BELGIUM FRANCE PORTUGALS

BRITAIN GERMANY ITALY

IMPACT OF
COLONIALISM

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 Beginning of Colonization in Africa
• Slave Trade has already been discussed in previous handouts.
• African continent was known by the name of Dark Continent till its interior areas were explored in
the 19th century.
• Difficult terrains, non-navigable rivers and other such geographical features ensured that
colonialism had a late entry in mainland Africa and was restricted for a long time to Coastal Africa.
• In the 19th century, publications of the expeditions made by individual explorers raised the interest
among the Europeans.
• These publications included the accounts of the explorers who detailed the wealth of the Central
Africa.
• They were able to chart the courses of important rivers like Congo.

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 Scramble (संघर्ष) for Africa began
• The navigability of rivers and knowledge of their course implied that the European companies and
troops could now reach into the interiors and transport out the mineral wealth to the coasts for
further export.
• King Leopold II of Belgium patronized the explorers and was the first to establish a colony in
central Africa.
• In 1876, he had brought Congo under his control and managed it as his private colony (Congo was
renamed as Congo Free State in 1885).
• His success raised the interest of other European powers and they entered into a quest for colonies
in Africa.
• After colonization of Congo, the Scramble (संघर्ष) for Africa began.
• By 1914 whole of Africa was scrambled among Britain, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy and
Portugal except for Abyssinia (where the Italians were defeated by the nationalists in the 1876
Battle of Adowa).

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• There were many squabbles among the European powers for
territory and trading rights in Africa.
• French and British interests collided in Egypt and Sudan.
• Belgium opposed an agreement in 1884 signed by Britain and
Portugal, demarcating their areas of influence, as it would
have resulted in denial of sea access to Congo.
• Finally, the overlapping claims of European colonists were
resolved through negotiations in different conferences.
• Berlin Conference, held in Germany in 1884-85, was called to
resolve disputes regarding the West and Central Africa,
especially the river valleys of Niger and Congo.
• The conference vowed to end Slavery by the Black and
Islamist powers and this was to be ensured by each
colonial power in their sphere of influence.
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Following were some of the decisions of the Berlin conference (1884-
5):
• It was decided that the Congo Free State will be governed by the International
Association for Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa.
• This association was setup by King Leopold II of Belgium and thus Congo was recognized
as a private colony of King Leopold II (to be taken away from him by the Belgium
government in 1908)
• Freedom of trade and navigation for all was guaranteed in the Congo River Valley.
• Also, no individual nation was to claim any special rights in Congo and King Leopold II
granted freedom of investment to all signatory nations.
• An International Commission was also setup for monitoring of compliance with the
agreement.

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 Scramble for Africa
• France in Scramble for Africa: France established its empire in North-West Africa. After colonizing
Algiers (1830), part of Gambia, and Tunis (1881) it longed for control over Morocco.

• Britain in Scramble for Africa: British had colonies in the south, the east and western Africa. Its
colony of Gold Coast (Ghana) in the West was rich in Cocoa, while Nigeria had large oil reserves.
Suez Canal was managed by a company with shareholding of France and the Governor of Egypt. In
the 19th century, Egypt was under financial stress and it had to sell its shareholding to the British
in 1875. In 1876, Egypt failed to pay the installments of the loan it had taken from Britain and
France. Egypt under economic control. In 1922, Egypt was given independence but Britain
continued to control the Suez Canal.

• Germany in Scramble for Africa: after unification of Germany in 1870. From 1882 to 1884,
Germany was able to colonize South West Africa, the Cameroons and Togoland in Equatorial
Africa and German East Africa. After World War I, the German colonial empire came to an end and
its colonies were distributed among the Allied Powers as Mandates.

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 Continue…
• Italy in Scramble for Africa: Italy, like Germany was a late entrant. It failed to colonize
Tunis because the French took control of it in 1881. It succeeded in colonizing Eritrea in
North Eastern Africa. Through various treaties Italy acquired Eastern Somaliland in
1880s. Abyssinia (Ethiopia) lay between Eritrea and Eastern Somalia. Italy failed to
colonize it and was defeated by the nationalists in 1896. In 1911, Italy occupied Libya
from the weak Ottoman Turkey. In 1935, Italy attacked Ethiopia and took it under its
control. After defeat in World War II, Italy lost all of its colonies.

• Others: Even a small country like Belgium was able to get a share in the African pie. It
first colonized Congo, and then extended its control to Rwanda and Burundi. Portugal
colonies were Angola, Guinea and Mozambique, while Spain had Spanish Morocco,
Spanish Sahara and Spanish Guinea.

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 White settlers became elites

Slavery

Mass killings
Impact
Policy of Divide and Rule

Neglect of Education and Health

Economic development hurt

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World History

Lecture: 20
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Colonization

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 Colonialism in
Central and West
Asia

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 Colonialism in Central and West Asia
• In Central and West Asia, the main rivalry for colonies was between Russia and Britain.
• Russia wanted access to the sea for trade and thus desired to control the ports.
• It followed an expansionist policy, which threatened Britain with respect to the Indian empire.
• The two rivals had strained relations till 1907.
• Russian expansion in Asia began after the Crimean war (1853-56) in which Russia lost against an
alliance of France, Britain, Ottoman Empire and Sardinia (Italy).
• In the Crimean War, Russia wanted expansion of territory at expense of a weakening Ottoman
Empire, while the European powers were against such a Russian expansion as it would threaten
Eastern Europe coming under sway of the Russians.
• In 1858, Russia forced China to hand over huge territory north of the River Amur establishing much
of the modern border between Russian Far East and Manchuria (China). Today China seeks to get it
back from Russia. This gave Russia a port in the Western Pacific.
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Colonialism in Central and West Asia

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Russia in China
Imperial Russia successfully
demanded and acquired some
territory from China in 1858
(in light orange on the map
below) and in 1860 (in dark
orange on the map)

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 Continue…
• To check Russian influence in Tibet, Britain sent troops there in 1904 and acquired control over
Tibet’s foreign policy.
• Russia weakened after the defeat in 1904-5 Russo-Japanese war, made an agreement in 1907 with
Britain and recognized Tibet and Afghanistan as areas of British influence. Thus, British were able
to create a buffer zone between India and Russia.
• In Persia (Iran), as per the 1907 agreement, Northern Iran was recognized as sphere of influence of
Russia, Southern Iran of Britain and the Central Iran was made a buffer zone with equal freedom
for both.
• In Asia, Britain had India, Ceylon, Afghanistan and Burma. Most of the Far East, except China, was
scrambled by 1871. Russia had one-third of the area under its control. In the East Asia, China and
Japan were independent.
• Japan escaped Imperialism and embarked on Industrialization after 1868. It had become imperialist
in 1890s and thus it was China, which became the target of Imperialism in 19 th and 20th century.

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Britain and Russia in Iran

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COLONIALISM IN
CHINA

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 COLONIALISM IN CHINA
• China was discovered by the Portuguese in 1514 and
they established trade relations with China by setting
up a trading center in Canton in 1557.
• But, China followed a policy of seclusion and only
limited trade happened.
• The Opium Wars of 19th century forced China to open
up to rest of the world i.e in trade, inflow of foreigners
and in establishing diplomatic relations.
• Historically, China had national unity and Manchu
Dynasty ruled from 1640s to 1911. From 1840s till 1949,
when Maoists came to power, it witnessed a period of
foreign interference, civil war and disintegration.

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 First Opium War (4 September 1839 – 29 August 1842)
• In the 19th century, China had a weak government in form of Manchu dynasty. Britain had become a major
trade partner but it had a huge trade deficit as China was self sufficient and imported little from the West.
• The British were facing the burden of this trade deficit as the Chinese accepted only precious metals like
Gold as payment for exports to Britain (especially Tea and Silk).
• As a solution to this problem, the British started exchanging Opium as payment. This was opposed by China
and resulted in Opium Wars in 1840-2 and 1858.
• After the first Opium war, British took over Hong Kong and extracted trade concessions from China. They
also established British sovereignty over the trading centers.
• Free trade was imposed on China. This meant that British could trade with any Chinese trader and
custom duties were reduced. Also, a British diplomat was permanently stationed in China.
• British citizens in China could only be prosecuted under the British law. Between the two Opium
wars, other European nations and USA also signed trade agreements with China but the former
desired more favorable treaties, which led to the second Opium war.

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 Second Opium War (8 October 1856 – 24 October 1860)
• Over the issue of the killing of a Missionary second opium war was fought. After the second Opium
War, the trade treaties were revised. Even more Chinese ports were opened for trade.
• The European ships got rights of transit in Chinese rivers and Europeans could freely travel across
China. China was made to guarantee security of life of Missionaries and the latter were given right to
establish Churches anywhere in China.
• Ironically along with all this religiosity import into China, the Opium trade was also legalized.
• After the second Opium War, many more European nations, some South American nations and Japan
established trade relations with China.
• Thus, China was opened up with different imperialist powers gradually establishing their Spheres of
Influences in China.
• In 1858, China was weak. It was losing in the 2nd Opium War and was fighting the Taiping Rebellion.
• In 1858, Russia threatened to attack & thus forced China to hand over huge amount of territory north
of the River Amur.
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 Manchu Dynasty and Warlord Era
• In 1840s, European nations started to force their way into China to take advantage of
trade possibilities.
• Their aim was to make China an exporter of raw material and importer of finished goods.
• Britain was the first to interfere.
• It fought and won the Opium Wars and forced China to end policy of seclusion.
• Other EU nations followed suit and divided China into Spheres of Influences i.e. special
areas of domination where a particular European nation got rights and concessions at
specific ports.
• Then USA intervened in late 19th and early 20th century and imposed an Open Door Policy
where all nations were free to trade with all of China with no one nation dominating its
affairs.

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 Continue….
• Taiping rebellion (1850-64) was a religious-political
movement, which was crushed by provincial armies
of China.
• Loss of territory north of River Amur to Russia in
1858.
• Japan invaded China in 1894-95 and brought parts
of China under its control, especially Manchuria
was brought under Japanese economic influence.
• Boxer Rising occurred during 1899-1900. It was a
violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian revolt. British
deployed Indian soldiers to put it down.
• Japan emerged victorious from the Russia Japan
war of 1904-05 and replaced Russia from areas
under its control in China.
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 Japanese
Colonization

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 Continue…
• From 1916 to 1928, there was no central authority in China and the Generals with
private armies seized control of different provinces. This era is called as Warlord
Era.
• It was Kuomintang or KMT or the Nationalist party, which rose during the Warlord
Era and ended it completely in 1928.
• Sun Yat Sen and later Chiang Kai Shek were its important leaders.
• KMT fought a civil war with Chinese Communist Party which emerged victorious by
1949, establishing a communist form of government in China while Chiang Kai Shek
fled to Taiwan operating a Government in exile.

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Colonialism in
Pacific

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 Beginning of Colonization in Pacific
• By 1900, all Pacific Islands came under Colonial control.
• USA: In 1823, Monroe Doctrine was brought out by USA. It emphasized two things: Policy of
Isolation and Hegemony of US in North and South America.
• It said that US would not interfere in the European affairs or colonies and it would treat any
interference in its backyard (all of America) as an act of aggression.
• But by 1890s, USA emerged as a new Imperialist power. It started to bring areas outside America
under its influence i.e. it extended the notion of its ‘backyard’ to the Pacific and the Far East
(China).
• By 1881, US had started claiming Hawaii Islands as part of American system.
• During the Spanish-US war in 1898 (fought over Cuba, which along with Puerto Rico was the
only Spanish Colony in the Americas):
• Spanish colonies in the Pacific Philippines came under USA attack and consequently annexed.
Spain ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the US. Cuba though made legally independent, its
foreign policy came under US control.
Onlywith
• It was forbidden to make any treaties IASanyNothing Else
other country.
Hawai
Island

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• Hawaii (Pacific) was officially annexed by USA in 1898. (Islands of Guam and Hawaii are
strategically important even today for the present US policy of Asia pivot.)
• Samoan Islands (Pacific) became victim of rivalry for control between USA, Germany
and Britain.
• In 1899 Samoan islands were divided between USA and Germany (Britain was
compensated elsewhere).
• In case of Britain, it were mainly the settlers of New Zealand and Australia who wanted
Britain to colonize more territory around them.
• In the Fiji islands it was on the demand of locals, who resented the autocratic rule, that
Britain took over in 1885.
• In 1885, Britain and Germany divided the Eastern half of New Guinea among
themselves, while Dutch were in control of the Western half.

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World History

Lecture: 21
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Decolonization

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 Definition
Definition: Decolonization is the process by which colonies become independent of the
colonizing country.
In other words, It means that to some extent, a movement began following WWI and
gained momentum after WWII, where people around the world said that people have the
right to govern themselves. However, many of the colonizing countries that lost control of
governments maintained a presence in decolonize territories, often in the form of military.

Forms of colonialism: Colonization takes many forms: from the literal appropriation of
lands to cultural globalization, from political manipulation and armed intervention to
modern versions of economic enslavement.

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 Causes
1. In first world war, European countries gained support by making promise of
Independence or self rule. When they didn`t complied with their promise, demand
gain pace.
2. After World War II, European countries lacked the wealth and political support
necessary to suppress far-away revolts.
3. They could not oppose the new superpowers the U.S. and the Soviet Union‘s stands
against colonialism.
4. Strong independence movements in colonies with the notion of strong Nationalism.
5. Social pressures of "war imperialism" created both peasant unrest and a burgeoning
middle class.
6. The impact of the depression of the 1930s.

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 Global war’s colonial consequences
• Second World War produced disorder and destruction on an unprecedented scale, destabilizing
states and societies across much of the world.
• While Germany and Japan failed in their bids to build vast new empires, the established European
colonial empires (especially Britain, France, and the Netherlands) found their own imperial
authority fatally weakened as well.
• The war simultaneously eroded the foundations of colonial rule as a form of governance, which
increasingly came under challenge from independence movements across Asia and Africa.
• It took around thirty years from the end of the Second World War for Western colonial rule over
non-Western peoples to come to an end, giving way to well over a hundred new nation-states
across the Third World.
• The role of outside actors such as the United Nations and the two postwar superpowers, which
characterized colonialism as outmoded, even immoral, and exerted diplomatic and ideological
pressure to bring it to an end.

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 Waves of Decolonization
• ‘Waves of decolonization’ outlines three phases of decolonization:
1. The first wave begins in the Americas in the late eighteenth century, which
led to the creation of the United States.
2. The second wave of decolonization was made possible by World War I with
the collapse of the Russian, German, Habsburg, and Ottoman Empires.
3. These two waves of decolonization were preludes to Third World (3rd wave)
decolonization and shared recurring themes: global wars between empires as
catalysts of decolonization and violence as an integral element of the process
of transition.

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 First Wave (before 1918)
• The rebellion of the 13 American colonies of the British Empire against British rule. This established the
principles that people have the right to rebel against what they perceive to be unjust rule and
governance in which they have no participation. Britain recognized the independence of the United
States in 1783.
• Determined not to totally lose other settler colonies (colonies where British people settled in large
number, claiming the territory for the British crown regardless of the rights of indigenous people) and
developed a system to grant self-rule within the Empire to such colonies as Canada, Australia and New
Zealand, which became Dominions in 1867, 1901 and 1907 respectively.
• Decolonization also took place within the Ottoman imperial space, beginning with Greece whose
independence was recognized in 1831. Inspired by the new ideal of nationalism stimulated by the
French and American revolutions, provinces in the Balkans revived memories of their medieval
kingdoms and began freedom struggles. One by one, the Ottoman Empire lost its European possessions
until by the start of World War I none were left. After the war, the rest of its empire was distributed
among Britain (Iraq, Jordan, Palestine), France (Syria, Lebanon) and Italy (Libya).

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• The American colonies in the South under
mainly Spanish rule with Brazil under
Portugal began a series of independence
movements.
• The second county in the region to gain its
freedom was Haiti, where a slave uprising
started in 1791.
• The wars for the independence of South
America began in 1806 to and continued
until 1826.
• Venezuela declared independence from
July 5, 1811.

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 Continue….
• Argentina declared independence from July 9,
1816.
• Bolivia gained independence on August 6, 1822
after a war led by Simon Bolivar, after whom
the new republic named itself.
• Chile declared independence September 8,
1811.
• Ecuador gained independence May 34, 1822.
• Colombia ended its independence war on July
20, 1819.
• Brazil became independent September 7, 1822.
• Paraguay became independent on May 15,
1811.
• Peru became independence July 28, 1821.
• Uruguay August 25, 1825.

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 Continue….
• Most Central American
countries gained
independence in 1821,
namely Costa Rica,
Guatemala, Honduras,
Mexico, Nicaragua and
Panama.
• Belize, a British colony,
did not become
independent until 1981.
• Guyana, also British,
became independent in
1966 and Surinam, a
Netherlands colony in
1975.

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 Second Wave (Between two world Wars)
• The start of mass nationalism, as a concept and practice,
would fatally undermine the ideologies of imperialism.
• The Great Depression, despite the concentration of its
impact on the industrialized world, was also exceptionally
damaging in the rural colonies. Agricultural prices fell much
harder and faster than those of industrial goods. From
around 1925 until World War II, the colonies suffered.
• The Russian, German, and Austro-Hungarian empires
collapsed at the end of World War I, and were replaced by
republics. Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and
Czechoslovakia became independent countries.

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 Continue…
• In 1938, Nazi Germany annexed Austria and part of Czechoslovakia, and in 1939,
Nazi Germany and the USSR concluded a pact to occupy the countries that lie
between them.
• The USSR occupied Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, and Germany and the
USSR split Poland in two. The occupation of Poland started World War II.
• Germany attacked the USSR in 1941. The USSR allied with the UK and USA, and
emerged as one of the victors of the war, occupying most of central and eastern
Europe.

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 Third Wave (After Second world War)
• U.S. and Philippines: independence of Philippines was scheduled for 1946 by Tydings
–McDuffie Act of 1934. In 1935, the Philippines transitioned out of territorial status. Its
constitutional convention wrote a new constitution, which was approved by Washington and went
into effect, The Japanese occupation 1942 to 1945 disrupted but did not delay the transition. It
took place on schedule in 1946 as Manuel Roxas took office as president.
• Portugal: Although a small, poor country, Portugal had one of the oldest and largest of the
empires. There was a fierce determination to maintain possession at all costs, and aggressively
defeat any insurgencies. However, Portugal was helpless when India seized Goa in 1961. In 1961,
Revolts spread to Mozambique and Guinea Bissau. Lisbon escalated its repressive measures, and
setting up strategic hamlets. Deeply distrustful of the natives, Portugal sent another 300,000
European settlers into Angola by 1974. In 1974, left-wing revolution inside Portugal destroyed the
old system and encouraged pro-Soviet elements to attempt to seize control in the colonies. The
result was a very long and extremely difficult multi-party Civil War in Angola, and lesser insurrections
in Mozambique.[36]
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 In Asia and Middle East
• India-1946, Ceylon and Burma- 1948
• France refused to grant independence to colonies in Indochina but were defeated in
1954 by Ho Chi Minh and Vietnamese Guerrillas.
• Communism in China under the Red Guards acted as a colonizing agent by seeking to
eliminate traditional cultures and customs.
• Following WWII, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan became independent
• Israel was formed as a state by the United Nations in 1948

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 Cultural, Economic and political impacts of decolonialization:
1. The colonial rule drew arbitrary natural boundaries dividing ethnic and linguistic groups and
natural features, and laying the foundation for the creation of numerous states lacking
geographic, linguistic, ethnic, or political affinity.
2. USA and European world started democratization of these countries. The Soviet Union deployed
similar effort to encourage new nations to join the communist bloc. Some adopted
capitalism(Malayasia, Indonesia) while others socialism(India, Egypt etc)
3. Independent foreign policy: Nonaligned movement started in 1955 to focus on internal
development.
4. Raise of Neocolonialism- the practice of using capitalism, globalization, and cultural forces to
control new countries.
5. The dependency principle evolved- the claim that post-colonial states have no choice but to
accept Western conditions for loans, because they desperately need the money to support their
own domestic policies.

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6. Unlike the colonial time, now they were free and started to revive their old culture. Religious and
ethnic movements facilitated interaction of cultures.
7. Various films, music, fiction, autobiographies, and museum displays were developed to learn the
lessons from the history of colonization and its impacts.
8. Population resettlements like relocation of Jews in Palestine and Sikhs and Muslims in border areas
of India-Pakistan, creating permanent animosity between people.
9. Also few newly independent countries acquired stable governments almost immediately; others
were ruled by dictators or military for decades, or endured long civil wars.
10. Democracies & civil wars: Thoough democratic forms of government were setup in colonies, only
few like india,malayasia and egypt were able to keep their democratic character. In Africa most
countries like angola,Nigeria,zaire etc suffered from civil wars based on ethnic lines and with a
dictator governing the countries.

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 After Decolonization
1. A few newly independent countries acquired stable governments almost immediately;
others were ruled by dictators or military juntas for decades, or endured long civil wars.
2. Some European governments welcomed a new relationship with their former colonies;
others contested decolonization militarily.
3. The process of decolonization coincided with the new Cold War between the Soviet Union
and the United States, and with the early development of the new United Nations.
4. Decolonization was often affected by superpower competition, and had a definite impact on
the evolution of that competition.
5. The colonies were exploited, sometimes brutally, for natural and labor resources, and
sometimes even for military conscripts (जबरदस्ती भर्ती किये गए): Impact Remained.

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World History

Lecture: 22
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Decolonization

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 Third Wave (After Second world War)
• U.S. and Philippines: independence of
Philippines was scheduled for 1946 by
Tydings–McDuffie Act of 1934. In 1935,
the Philippines transitioned out of
territorial status.
• Its constitutional convention wrote a
new constitution, which was approved
by Washington and went into effect, The
Japanese occupation 1942 to 1945
disrupted but did not delay the
transition. It took place on schedule in
1946 as Manuel Roxas took office as
president.

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 Continue…
• Portugal: Although a small, poor country, Portugal had one of the oldest and largest of
the empires.
• There was a fierce determination to maintain possession at all costs, and aggressively
defeat any insurgencies. However, Portugal was helpless when India seized Goa in
1961.
• In 1961, Revolts spread to Mozambique and Guinea Bissau. Portugal escalated its
repressive measures, and setting up strategic hamlets.
• In 1974, left-wing revolution inside Portugal destroyed the old system and encouraged
pro-Soviet elements to attempt to seize control in the colonies.
• The result was a very long and extremely difficult multi-party Civil War in Angola, and
lesser (विद्रोह) in Mozambique.
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• The Netherlands: The Netherlands, a small rich
country in Western Europe, had spent centuries
building up its empire. By 1940 it consisted mostly of
the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia).
• The Netherlands was overrun and almost starved to
death by the Nazis during the war, and Japan sank the
Dutch fleet in seizing the East Indies.
• After 2nd WW, In 1945 the Netherlands could not
regain these islands on its own; it did so by depending
on British military help and American financial grants.
• By the time Dutch soldiers returned, an independent
government under Sukarno, originally set up by the
Japanese, was in power.

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• The Dutch in the East Indies, and at home, were practically unanimous (except for the
Communists) that Dutch power and prestige and wealth depended on an extremely
expensive war to regain the islands. Compromises were negotiated, were trusted by
neither side.
• When the Indonesian Republic successfully suppressed a large-scale communist revolt,
the United States realized that it needed the nationalist government as an ally in the
Cold War.
• Dutch possession was an obstacle to American Cold War goals, so Washington forced
the Dutch to grant full independence.
• A few years later, Sukarno seized all Dutch properties and expelled (निष्कासित) all ethnic
Dutch—over 300,000.

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 Decolonization of Africa
• The decolonization of North Africa, and sub- Saharan Africa took place in the mid-to-late
1950s, very suddenly, with little preparation.
• There was widespread unrest and organized revolts, especially in French Algeria,
Portuguese Angola, the Belgian Congo and British Kenya.
• In 1945, Africa had four independent countries – Egypt, Ethiopia, Liberia, and South Africa.
• After Italy's defeat in World War II, France and the UK occupied the former Italian
colonies. Libya became an independent kingdom in 1951.
• Eritrea was merged with Ethiopia in 1952- Independence 27 April, 1993. Italian Somaliland
was governed by the UK, and by Italy after 1954, until its independence in 1960. By 1977
European colonial rule in mainland Africa had ended. Namibia, Africa's last UN Trust
Territory, became independent of South Africa in 1990.

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• Most independent African countries exist within prior colonial borders. However
Morocco merged French Morocco with Spanish Morocco, and Somalia formed from the
merger of British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland.
• Eritrea merged with Ethiopia in 1952, but became an independent country in 1993.
• Most African countries became independent as republics.
• Morocco, Lesotho, and Swaziland remain monarchies under dynasties that predate
colonial rule.
• Egypt and Libya gained independence as monarchies, but both countries' monarchs
were later deposed, and they became republics.
• African countries cooperate in various multi-state associations. The African Union
includes all 55 African states.

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 Decolonization of Asia
• Japan expanded its occupation of Chinese territory during the 1930s, and occupied Southeast
Asia during World War II.
• After the war, the Japanese colonial empire was dissolved, and national independence movements
resisted the re-imposition of colonial control by European countries and the United States.
• The Republic of China regained control of Japanese-occupied territories in Manchuria and eastern
China, as well as Taiwan. Only Hong Kong and Macau remained in outside control.
• The Allied powers divided Korea into two occupation zones, which became the states of North
Korea and South Korea. The Philippines became independent of the US in 1946.
• The Netherlands recognized Indonesia's independence in 1949, after a four-year independence
struggle.
• India became independent in 1947.

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 Decolonization of Malaya Peninsula
• The area contains
Peninsular Malaysia,
Southern Thailand, and the
southernmost tip of
Myanmar as well as the
city state Singapore.
• Its population comprises
majority Malays and
minorities Chinese and
Indians.

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• When did the British come to Malaysia ? the first came in the late 1700’s. in the late 1800’s the
British east Indian company traded and partly controlled.
• At that time, they began looking for a base in Malaya. In 1786, the British under sir Francis light
occupied Penang and founded Georgetown, and in 1800 they province Wellesley.
• Why? The British were looking towards southeast Asia for new resources. The growth of the china
trade in British ships increased the company’s desire for bases in the region near it, that’s why they
came to Malaya (Malaysia).
• During the British rule of Malaysia Chinese labourers came to Malaya, as miners, merchants and
planters, just like people from sub-Saharan Africa were taken to America as slaves, but it wasn’t as
severe.
• One thing the British in Malaya did successfully was they believed that the Malaya must be
protected from Economic and cultural change, and that traditional class divisions should be
maintained.

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 Continue…
• During WW-II, Malaya was overrun by Japanese troops. After the defeat of Japan in WW-II, the British had
to put down a communist insurgency in the peninsula.
• With increasing anti-colonialism, the British found it pertinent as well as convenient to hand over the
reins of power to indigenous Malay.
• Malaya got its independence from the British on August 31, 1957 through peaceful talks and
negotiations.
• Impact: Moreover, the Malayan government policies of preferential treatment to indigenous Malays
increased social tensions in the region.
• Post British exit, the Malaysian federation including British Malay, North Borneo- Sarawak and Sabah
along with Singapore was created in 1963. Singapore opted out of the federation due to political and
economic differences and became a separate country.
• Apart from the ruins of WW-II, Malay Peninsula had to manage the social tensions, economic issues and
tackle a communist insurgency when British departed from the region.

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 Cultural, Economic and political impacts of decolonialization:
1. The colonial rule drew arbitrary natural boundaries dividing ethnic and linguistic groups and
natural features, and laying the foundation for the creation of numerous states lacking
geographic, linguistic, ethnic, or political affinity.
2. USA and European world started democratization of these countries. The Soviet Union deployed
similar effort to encourage new nations to join the communist bloc. Some adopted
capitalism(Malayasia, Indonesia) while others socialism(India, Egypt etc)
3. Independent foreign policy: Nonaligned movement started in 1955 to focus on internal
development.
4. Raise of Neocolonialism- the practice of using capitalism, globalization, and cultural forces to
control new countries.
5. The dependency principle evolved- the claim that post-colonial states have no choice but to
accept Western conditions for loans, because they desperately need the money to support their
own domestic policies.

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 Continue…
6. Unlike the colonial time, now they were free and started to revive their old culture. Religious and
ethnic movements facilitated interaction of cultures.
7. Various films, music, fiction, autobiographies, and museum displays were developed to learn the
lessons from the history of colonization and its impacts.
8. Population resettlements like relocation of Jews in Palestine and Sikhs and Muslims in border areas
of India-Pakistan, creating permanent animosity between people.
9. Also few newly independent countries acquired stable governments almost immediately; others
were ruled by dictators or military for decades, or endured long civil wars.
10. Democracies & civil wars: Thoough democratic forms of government were setup in colonies, only
few like india,malayasia and egypt were able to keep their democratic character. In Africa most
countries like angola,Nigeria,zaire etc suffered from civil wars based on ethnic lines and with a
dictator governing the countries.

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 After Decolonization
1. A few newly independent countries acquired stable governments almost immediately;
others were ruled by dictators or military juntas for decades, or endured long civil wars.
2. Some European governments welcomed a new relationship with their former colonies;
others contested decolonization militarily.
3. The process of decolonization coincided with the new Cold War between the Soviet Union
and the United States, and with the early development of the new United Nations.
4. Decolonization was often affected by superpower competition, and had a definite impact on
the evolution of that competition.
5. The colonies were exploited, sometimes brutally, for natural and labor resources, and
sometimes even for military conscripts (जबरदस्ती भर्ती किये गए): Impact Remained.

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World History

Lecture: 23
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 Capitalism

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 Capitalism
1. Capitalism is a type of social system that follows the belief of individual
rights.
2. From political perspective, capitalism is the system of laissez-faire (freedom).
3. Lawfully, it is a system of objective laws that is rule of law in contrast to rule
of man.
4. In financial terms, when such freedom is applied to the domain of
production its result is the free-market.
• Earlier, this notion was not clearly explained. Several economists and
theorists assumed that capitalism has existed for most of human history.
• In the Oxford English Dictionary, the phrase Capitalism was first used by
novelist William Makepeace Thackeray, in 1854 in his novel 'The Newcomes',
where he described capitalism as "having ownership of capital and not as a
system of production".

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 Continue…
• During 19th century, capitalism was described by numerous theorists as "an economic
system characterized by private or corporation ownership of capital goods, by
investments that are determined by private decision rather than by state control, and
by prices, production and the distribution of goods that are determined mainly in free
market“.
• Capitalism is commonly elucidated as an economic system where private actors are
permitted to own and control the use of property according to their own interests, and
where the invisible hand of the pricing mechanism coordinates supply and demand in
markets in a way that is automatically in the best interests of civilisation.
• In this system, Government is responsible for peace, justice, and tolerable taxes. There
are three periods of Capitalism: Early, Middle and Late periods

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 Early Period of Capitalism
• Earlier, capitalism was originated in the fourteenth century when a conflict developed
between the land-owning aristocracy (the lords) and the agricultural producers (the
serfs).
• Feudalism subdued the development of capitalism in numerous ways. The serfs were
forced to produce sufficient food for the lords as a result of this the lords had no interest
in the advancement of technology, but rather expanded their power and wealth through
military means.
• There was no competitive pressure for them to revolutionize because they were not
producing to sell on the market.
• The changeover from feudalism to capitalism was mainly driven by the mechanic of war
and not by the politics of prosperity and production methods.

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 Middle Period of Capitalism (Mercantile Capitalism)
• The middle period was Between the 16th and 18th century, when mercantilism was established.
• Mercantilism is described as a distribution of goods that are bought at a certain price and sold at a
higher price in order to generate profits. It requires Positive balance of Trade.
• It provided the basic principles of capitalism in that it was the "large-scale realization of a profit by
acquiring goods for lower prices than to the sell them".
• Policies:

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 Later Period of Capitalism (Industrial Capitalism)
• During the period of 18th century, mercantilism weakened when a group of
economic theorists led by Adam Smith challenged mercantilist principles.
• After the decline in mercantilism, Industrial capitalism emerged in the mid-18th
century due to the huge accretion (एक साथ वृद्धि) of capital under the period of
merchant capitalism and its investment in machinery.
• Industrial capitalism marked development of manufacturing factory system and
led to the global supremacy of capitalist mode of production.
• In the 19th century, capitalism allowed great increase in efficiency. It generated
great social changes, which remained in place during the twentieth century 1776
where it was established as the world's most predominant financial model
after the failure of the USSR.
• In the twenty-first century, capitalism had become an extensively universal
economic system at global scale.

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 Features
1. Individual Ownership of wealth: financial resources are based on private ownership of the means of
production.
2. Workforces are free to work for incomes.
3. Capital is free to earn a return.
4. Both labour and capital are allowed to enter and exit from various business.
5. Capitalism depends upon the pricing mechanism to balance supply and demand in market.
6. It relies on the profit motivation to assign opportunities and resources among contending suppliers.
7. Government and its representatives are responsible to deliver physical security for persons and
property as well as the laws and regulations.
8. Capitalist development is built from investment in advanced technologies that enable to enhance
productivity, where various initiatives are selected through a Darwinian process.

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 Role of State in Capitalism
• Government's approach of intervention in a capitalist system is mainly indirectly. It creates, legitimates,
administers and (रुक रुक कर) updates the various market frameworks that elucidate the conditions in which
the economic actors may obtain and employ capital and labour to produce, distribute, and sell goods and
services. Consequently, economic players receive the right to use their power in competition with others,
subject to predominant laws and regulations.
• State has role - from protecting consumers to protecting producers, and from protecting labour to
protecting capital.
• While positive capitalism depends upon the granting of power to private companies to enter, compete in,
and exit from markets, it also depends upon the state's power to confine the private actors so that they
do not abuse these powers. Private economic actors must be bound by the rule of law, and this rule of law
must be backed by the coercive (रोकनेवाला) powers of the state.
• Capitalist systems typically rely on the state to make direct provision of certain public goods, such as
highways, schools and law enforcement, as well as to refrain from the temptation to own, operate, or
directly control the economic actors.

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 Three Level system in Capitalism
1. On the first level, the markets, firms compete to secure their labour and capital as well as to
serve their customers.
2. In second level, there is basic institutional foundations, including physical and social
infrastructure; physical infrastructure includes, among other things, transportation and
communications, and social infrastructure includes the educational, public health, and legal
systems. Additionally, the second level consists of the agents of the state who enforce the
rules and regulations, including specialized regulators who oversee behaviour in certain
industries.
3. The third level comprises of a political authority typically one with specialized functions such
as executive, legislative, and judicial branches. In turn, a set of political institutions connect
the political authority to the political markets and ultimately to civil society, to which such an
authority is finally responsible.

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 Positives
1. This is an economic growth through open competitive market that provides individuals with far better
opportunities of raising their own income.
2. Capitalism results in a decentralized economic system which is major advantages of capitalism where
individuals are exposed to various options which can lead to competition hence leading to firms producing
only the best.
3. Capitalist economy is believed to encourage innovations in technology and industry.
4. Consumer choice where Individuals choose what to consume, and this choice leads to more competition
and better products and services.
5. Efficiency of economics in which Goods and services produced based on demand creates incentives to cut
costs and avoid waste.
6. Economic growth and expansion. Capitalistic economy increases the gross national product and leads to
improved living standards.
7. It facilitates international trade: People of different countries have come close to each other.

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 Negative
1. Inequality: There tends to be a rise in disparity as benefits of capitalism are not fairly distributed. As
wealth tends to redound to a small percentage of the population, the demand for luxury goods is
often limited to a small percentage of the workforce, one of the main capitalism disadvantages.
2. Irrational Behaviour: People tend to get caught up in hypothetical suds (साबुन का झाग) but disregard
economic fundamentals, leading to illogical behaviour.
3. Monopoly Behaviour: Other major drawback of capitalism is that companies gain monopoly over
power in a free market allows and exploit customers by charging higher prices. They often pay lower
salaries to labours.
4. Immobility: Main issue of capitalism is that a free market is supposed to be able to easily move
factors of from an unprofitable sector to a new profitable industry. However, this is much more
difficult practically. There is extravagant competition which does not confer any corresponding
social benefit.

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 Continue…
5. Exploitation: no attention to social Welfare
6. Child labour
7. Hunger: Population increase
8. Rapid urbanization: Health and sanitation
9. Pollution

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 Effect of Capitalism on Society
1. High Standard of Living
2. Capitalism encourages society to utilize the natural resources more and more. The people exert
themselves maximum for earning money.
3. Exchange of Culture
4. Progress of Civilization: Capitalism is tool to explore new machines and increasing the production of
material goods. Man is today more civilized than his ancestors.
5. Decreasing of Racial Differences: Capitalism has also led to diminish the differences based on race,
doctrine, caste and nationality.
6. Social Inequality
7. Economic Class
8. Environmentally vulnerable class Negatives
9. Individualism: Loss of Collectivism

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World History

Lecture: 24
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 Socialism

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 Communism

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 Socialism: Definition
• "Socialism is an Politico - economic organisation of society in which the material means
of production are owned by the whole community and operated by organs
representative of and responsible to the community according to a general economic
plan, all members of the community being entitled to benefit from the results of such
socialized planned production on the basis of equal rights."
• It was firstly proposed Robert Owen (1771–1858)- In a Paper Dedicated to the
Governments of Great Britain, Austria, Russia, France, Prussia and the United States of
America written in 1841, Owen wrote: "The lowest stage of humanity is experienced
when the individual must labor for a small pittance (भत्ता) of wages from others".
• SOCIALISM IS LIKE A HAT THAT HAS LOST ITS SHAPE BECAUSE EVERYONE WEARS IT. - C.E.M.Joad
• Socialism is chameleon like creed. - Ramsay Muir

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 Socialism
• It emerged after French revolution: Socialism is Politico - economic philosophy considered by public
ownership and centralized planning of all major industries which include manufacturing, services,
and energy, banks and insurance companies, agribusiness, transportation, the media, and medical
facilities.
• In capitalism, these huge enterprises control the economy but are privately owned and operated to
create wealth for their owners by extracting it from working people who are paid only a small
fraction of what their labour produces.
• Socialism turns this around so that the class that produces the wealth can jointly decide how it will
be used for the benefit of all.
• Real socialism is characterized as democratic. It is economic as well as political democracy.
• Socialism prioritizes human needs and eliminates the profit motive that drives war, ecological
destruction, and inequalities based on gender, race, nationality and sexuality. Simply, socialism is
social ownership of means of production, impartiality of income and opportunities for all members.

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 Features of Socialism
1. Public Ownership: Public ownership of the means of production and distribution like all mines, farms,
factories, financial institutions, distributing agencies, means of transport and communications. A small
private sector at villages level for consumption.
2. Central Planning: Under the direction of a central planning authority. It develops various objectives
and targets to be realized during the plan period: how much is to be produced, how, when and where
it is to be produced, and to whom it is to be allocated.
3. Definite Objectives: Definite socio-economic objectives like aggregate demand, full employment, and
satisfaction of communal demand.
4. Freedom of Consumption: Production as per the likings of consumers: socially beneficial commodities.
5. Equality of Income Distribution: The removal of private ownership, No profit motive: free education,
public health facilities, and social security to the masses.
6. Planning and the Pricing Process: Prices fixed by the central planning authority.

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 Positives
1. Greater Economic Efficiency: Economic competence under socialism system is better as compared to
capitalism system. The means of production are controlled and regulated by the central planning
authority towards chosen ends. Capitalism unnecessary- competition.
2. Greater Welfare due to Less Inequality of Income: In a socialist economy, it is observed that there is
less disparity of income as compared with a capitalist economy because of the absence of private
ownership of the means of production, private capital accumulation, and private profit.
3. Absence of Monopolistic Practices: Since under socialism, all means of production are owned by
the state, both competition and monopoly are eradicated. Instead of private monopoly, there is the
state monopoly of the productive system but this is operated for the welfare of the people.
4. Absence of Business Fluctuations: A socialist system is free from business variations. There is
economic constancy because production and consumption of goods and services are controlled by
the central planning authority according to the objectives, targets and priorities of the plan.

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 Negatives
1. Loss of Consumers' Dominance: Consumers do not have the liberty to buy whatever commodities
they want. They can consume only those commodities which are available in department stores.
Often the quantities which they can buy are fixed by the state.
2. No Freedom of Occupation: It is also found that people do not have liberty of occupation in such a
society. Every person is provided job by the state. But he cannot leave or change it. Even the place
of work is allotted by the state. All occupational movements are sanctioned by the state.
3. Mal allocation of Resources: In socialist, there is random allocation of resources. The central
planning authority often commits mistakes in resource allocation because the entire work is done
on trial and error basis.
4. Bureaucratic: A socialist economy is considered as rigid economy. It is operated like a machine.
Therefore, it does not provide the necessary initiative to the people to work hard. People work due
to the fear of higher authorities and not for any personal gain or self-interest.

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World History

Lecture: 25
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 Socialism

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 Communism

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 Communism
• Communism is considered as vital framework in political philosophy. It is a socio-economic scaffold
(रंगमंच) that assists in supporting the establishment of a classless, stateless society based on common
ownership of the means of production.
• According to the principle of communism, main process of resolving problems of classless and
other favouritism in society for the working class is to replace the prosperous ruling class, through
radical action, in order to establish a diplomatic, free society, without classes or government.where
there is no need for governments or countries and no class divisions.
• It imagines a world in which each person gives according to their abilities, and receives according to
their needs. It is usually deliberated as a division of extensive Socialist movement. The main forms
of Communism, such as Leninism, Trotskyism (Leon Trotsky- Russian Revolutionary) and
Luxemburgism (Rosa Luxemburg- Poland), are based on Marxism, but non-Marxist versions of
Communism (such as Christian Communism and Anarchist Communism- southern Ukraine
Makhnovia- Nestor Makhno).

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 Continue….
• Famous philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels during this period. Marx and Engels wrote and
published "The Communist Manifesto" in 1848.
• It was documented in historical records that initially, Communist philosophy was the history of
Socialism.
• In its modern version, Communism evolved of the Socialist movements of 19th Century Europe and
the critics of Capitalism during the Industrial Rebellion.
• The practice of the terms "communism" and "socialism" changed after the Russian Revolution of
1917, when the admittedly Marxist Bolshevik Party in Russia changed their name to the Communist
Party and formed a single party regime that was dedicated to the implementation of socialist
policies under Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1870 - 1924).
• Stalin came with five year plan in 1928. Leon Trotsky (1879 - 1940) Marxist critics of the Soviet
Union, referred to the Soviet system as a "degenerated" or "deformed" workers' state.

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 Positives
1. Communism philosophy upkeeps extensive universal social welfare, such as
enhancements in public health and education.
2. Its theoretical dogmas are beneficial to build equality and strong social communities.
3. Communist ideology promotes universal education with a focus on developing the
proletariat with knowledge, class realisation, and historical understanding.
4. Communism also supports the liberation of women and to end their exploitation.
5. Communist philosophy emphasizes the development of a "New Man” a class-conscious,
knowledgeable, daring, democratic person dedicated to work and social consistency in
contrast to the antithetic "bourgeois individualist" related with cultural backwardness and
social atomisation.

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 Negative
1. An idea of unattainable perfect future - devaluing the past and the present.
2. Philosophy of communism is incomplete. Marx and Engels never devoted much work to show how
exactly a Communist economy would function in practice.
3. Many Socialists throwaway (लापरवाही से कहा गया) the need for a transitory state phase and often
disapprove Marxism and Communism for being too authoritarian.
4. Some opponents have argued that Marx's concept of freedom is really just a defence of dictatorship
and oppression, and not an expansion of liberties as he claimed.
5. Many Socialist reformists take issue with the Marxist requirement for a fierce proletarian revolution
and argued that Capitalism can be reformed by steady democratic changes. Some theorists criticized
concept of Historical Materialism - trying to force the course of history in a particular direction, or
that in practice it leads to Nihilism.
6. Other critics disapproved the ideology of Marxist class and argued that class is not the most
important inequality in history.

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World History

Lecture: 26
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 World War - I

28 Jul 1914 – 11 Nov 1918

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 World in 1914
Europe still dominated rest of the World

Political Systems of the world powers varied

Imperial Expansion after 1880

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 Europe still dominated rest of the World
• Though Europe still dominated rest of the world, important powers like US and Japan had
arisen outside Europe too. Moreover, within Europe, not all European countries were
powerful. It were Germany, France and Britain, which were the major powers. The rest of
Europe was still in the process of economic modernization.
• By 1914, Germany was ahead of Britain in production of pig iron and steel but lagged
behind in production of coal.
• On other hand, France, Italy, Belgium and Austria-Hungary were well behind Britain and
Germany.
• Russia was last to begin with industrialization. In 1914, Russian industry was expanding
rapidly but still its economy was predominantly agricultural and thus, far behind
Germany and Britain. Russia was also witnessing political turmoil. One Russian
Revolution had happened in 1905 and the next took place in 1917.

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 Continue….
• Outside Europe, US and Japan had begun industrialization around 1870s. In 1914, US
produced more pig iron, steel and coal than Germany and Britain.
• It had adopted the Monroe Doctrine in 1823 and by 1914 it had ensured its
domination of all of the Americas but was relatively detached from the affairs of
Europe.
• Japan had emerged as a major exporter of textiles.
• It had defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 and gained recognition
as a major world power.
• Japanese imperialism was directed towards China.
• US policy of appeasement towards Japan had made it a strong rival in the Pacific.
• Thus by 1914, US and Japan both had emerged as Imperialist powers.

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 Political Systems of the world powers varied widely
• There was democracy in US, Britain and France.
• Germany had lower house but the real power lay in office of the Chancellor
and the Kaiser (Emperor).
• Italy was a constitutional monarchy but the Right to Vote was available only to
the wealthy.
• Japan after Meiji Restoration (1868) had brought a constitution in 1889, which
provided for a lower house (Diet).
• But the Diet had limited powers, the Right to Vote was available to only 3% of
the population and the real power was in the hands of the army, navy, the
Emperor (Meiji).
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 Imperial Expansion after 1880
• After Industrial Revolution in the 1870s, many European
nations sought to increase their colonial empire.
• European powers had scrambled the whole of Africa by
1914.
• Although nominally China was a Republic since 1911, after
overthrow of Manchu Dynasty, it had been converted into
an international colony by US, Japan, France, Britain and
Germany.
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 NATIONA
LISM
CAUSES OF
FRICTION COLONIES
CAUSES
OF 2 TRIPLE
ALLIANCE

WITHIN FRICTION

EUROPE Old Rivalry

& POWER
AMBITIONS

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 Colony
• Rivalry for colonies in Africa, Asia and the Pacific.
• Naval rivalry: It was a result of colonial rivalry and was witnessed the
most between Britain and Germany.
• Germany was a late entrant in the race for colonies and wanted to use its
navy to threaten other colonial powers for expansion of German colonial
empire.
• Germany sought to increase its naval strength by citing national defense,
while the British opposed German naval buildup citing that it was only
Britain, which had the right to naval supremacy.
• Britain argued that it deserved a supremacy in naval strength to ensure
continued protection of its colonial empire, which was the largest and
the most spread out by 20th century.

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 Old Rivalry & POWER
AMBITIONS
• Loss of Alsace Lorraine by France to
Germany in the Franco-Prussian war of 1871
was a cause for Germany-France rivalry.
• Russia was suspicious of Habsburg empire’s
ambition in the Balkans.
• Balkan is an area in the north east of
Mediterranean Sea and is populated by
mainly the Slavs.
• The Russian Czarist regime/Romanov
Dynasty also belonged to the group of Slavs
and had its own ambitions in the Balkans.

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 Nationalism
• Serbian nationalism: The Serbs wanted
to integrate the Balkan areas populated
with Slavs into a single Yugoslavia.
• Such a Yugoslavia would have required
secession of certain areas from the
Habsburg empire which had people
from different ethnic groups including
Slavs.
• This demand also incited, other ethnic
groups to demand secession.
• Thus, the idea of Yugoslavia threatened
the integrity of Habsburg empire.

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 2 TRIPLE ALLIANCE
• Europe had divided itself into two
alliances: The Triple Alliance had Germany,
Austria-Hungary and Italy while the Triple
Entente had Britain, France and Russia.
• But these were not very rigid alliances. In
fact, Italy fought on the side of Britain and
France in the World War I.
• The World War I was fought between the
Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary,
Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria) and the
Allied Powers (Italy, Britain, France, Russia
and US).

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 Major events before WW I
MOROCCO CRISIS

BRITAIN – RUSSIA AGREEMENT

BOSNIA CRISIS

AGADIR CRISIS

BALKAN WARS (1ST & 2ND )

ARCHDUKE ASSASSINATION

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 MOROCCO CRISIS (1905-6)
• In 1904-5 Britain and France had signed
Entente Cordiale - स्नेहपूर्ण समझौता (a friendly
understanding or informal alliance) with a
clause that Britain’s control over Sudan and
Egypt would be recognized by France and the
special rights of France over Morocco would
be recognized by Britain.
• Germany became anxious of increasing French
influence in Morocco. It pledged to maintain
independence of Morocco and called a
conference.
• But Italy, Spain, Russia and Britain supported
France in the conference and the latter got
control over Moroccan Banks and Police.
• This was a diplomatic defeat for Germany.
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 BRITAIN – RUSSIA AGREEMENT (1907)
• Britain-Russia Agreement of 1907: It
ended their disputes in Asia.
• Afghanistan and Tibet were recognized as
British spheres of influence and Iran was
divided into three zones with the North
recognized as Russian zone, the central
area as a buffer and the South as British
zone.
• Russia hoped to get British investments
for its industrial development after this
agreement.
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 BOSNIA CRISIS (1908)
• Bosnia Crisis (1908): Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia from the weak
Ottoman empire.
• Bosnia had significant population of Slavs and thus Serbia also longed for
Bosnia as an integral part of future Yugoslavia.
• Serbia called for help from Russia, which tried to organize a conference over
the issue.
• But no conference was held as Britain and France withdrew support to
Serbia when it became clear that Germany would support Habsburg Empire
in case of a military conflict.
• They wanted to avoid a direct military clash with the Germans.
• Russia was not militarily strong to take any action in favor of Serbia.
• After this humiliation, Russia began its militarization so it could help Serbia
if the need arise in future.
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 AGADIR CRISIS (1911)
• Agadir Crisis (1911): When France deployed troops in Morocco, Germany
got anxious of Morocco coming French control. It sent its warships to the
island of Agadir near Morocco.
• It threatened France that if it did not withdrew its troops then Germany will
annex Agadir.
• Britain was worried that if Germany captured Agadir then it would be in a
position to threaten British trade routes.
• Britain again sided with France.
• In a compromise, Germany was given a small strip of land in French Congo
and in return Germany was compelled to recognize French control of
Morocco.
• The German public opinion became bitter against France and Britain, and
this event gave further boost to naval race between Britain and Germany.

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 1st BALKAN WARS (1912)
• 1st Balkan War (1912): Here the Balkan League (Montenegro, Serbia, Greece,
Bulgaria) attacked Turkey and captured most of Ottoman Empire’s territories in
Europe.
• Germany and Britain mediated to bring about a ceasefire.
• In the peace settlement, the Ottoman Empire’s territory in Europe was divided
among the Balkan States.
• Serbia was unhappy as it wanted Albania for this would have provided it with access
to the sea but Albania was made an independent state. Obviously, the Austrian
hand was working through Germany against Serbia.
• Bulgaria was unhappy because most of Macedonia being given to Serbia at the end
of the 1st Balkan war.
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 2nd BALKAN WARS (1913)
• 2nd Balkan War 1913: This was fought against Bulgaria by Greece, Romania, Turkey and
Serbia.
• Bulgaria attacked Serbia because it was unhappy with most of Macedonia being given to
Serbia at the end of the 1st Balkan war.
• After its defeat in the war, Bulgaria lost all territory it had gained from the 1st Balkan war.
• Germany had restrained Austria-Hungary from militarily helping Bulgaria.
• Britain on the other hand, had not come to the aid of Serbs.
• Germany took this as a sign of British detachment with the Russians.
• The result of the 2nd Balkan War was a stronger Serbia, which was now determined to
instigate Croats and Serbs (both are Slavs) of Habsburg Empire for realization of the goal
of Yugoslavia.

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 ARCHDUKE ASSASSINATION
• Assassination of Archduke of Austria Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia (June 1914) : Bosnia had
been annexed by Habsburg empire and the Bosnians were aligned with Serbia.
• A secret society had organized the killing and the Bosnian government was aware of the plot but did not do
anything to stop it.
• The perpetrator was 19-year-old Gavrilo Princip, a member of Young Bosnia(revolutionary movement in
Bosnia) and one of a group of assassins organized and armed by the Black Hand (secret society made by
Serbian military leader).
• This event was definitely an act of terrorism and the anger among the Austrians was justified but Austria-
Hungary took this event as an opportunity to try annexing Serbia. It presented Serbia with a set of demands
with a deadline.
• Serbia accepted most of the demands but not all because accepting all the demands would have amounted
to surrendering the sovereignty of Serbia to Habsburg empire.
• Serbia fearing invasion ordered military mobilization. After the deadline, Austria-Hungary declared war on
Serbia.
• The assassination served as the immediate
Only cause
IASofNothing
the World War
ElseI.
Only IAS Nothing Else
Only IAS Nothing Else
World History

Lecture: 27
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 World War - I

28 Jul 1914 – 11 Nov 1918

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1. Group 1
(Allies): Serbia,
Russia, Britian,
France, USA,
Belgium, Portugal,
Romania. Japan
etc
2. Group 2 (Central
Powers): Austria-
Hungary, Germany,
Turkey, Bulgaria
etc.

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 Causes of WW- 1
SERBIA – AUSTRIA CONFLICT

IMPERIALISM

Web of ALLIANCES

GERMANY BACKING OF AUSTRIA

MISCALCULATIONS

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 SERBIA –
AUSTRIA
CONFLICT
• Definitely the quarrel
between Serbia and
the Habsburg Empire
was responsible for
the outbreak of war
between Serbia and
Austria but not for
World War I.

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 Imperialism
• Naval Race between Germany and Britain increased tensions and
both became rivals.
• By defeating the other in the war at sea, each power had ambition of
establishing naval supremacy once and for all.
• Capitalism was blamed by Lenin as he saw economic rivalry with
profit motive as the root cause of the war.
• Russia made war more likely by backing Serbia. Had Russia allowed
Serbia to deal with Austria alone then Germany may not have
entered the war. Russia always desired influence in the Eastern
Europe.
• But it had genuine concerns as well. Ottoman empire was already
under the influence of Germany and Austria.
• If Serbia had been defeated by Austria then Dardanelles, which
provided an outlet from the Black Sea and thus was crucially
important for Russian trade, would have come under control of
Austria and Germany, who could then have strangled the Russian
trade.

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•
Web of Alliances
It refers to the Alliance System, Europe had organized itself into. This made the allies of each side to
enter the war.
• Once Austria declared war on Serbia after the latter failed to meet all the demands, Russia ordered
full mobilization honoring its alliance with Serbia.
• Then Germany mobilized troops and declared war on Russia because Russia had rejected the
German demand of not mobilizing troops against Austria and Germany had an alliance with Austria.
• Then Germany formed an alliance with Ottoman Empire and declared war on France because
Germany believed that France would enter the war in favor of Russia, honoring the Franco-Russian
alliance of 1894.
• The German War Plan was also known as Schlieffen Plan (Field Marshal Alfred von Schlieffen ), which
aimed at German victory over France in just 6 weeks.
• This was possible only if Germany would attack France through Belgium, which lay between France
and Germany.
• Since Britain was an ally of Belgium and had guaranteed its neutrality, it declared war against
Germany when Belgium was attacked. Japan entered war, honoring its alliance with Britain.
• Thus, all major powers were at war with each other due to the Alliance System.

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 GERMANY BACKING OF AUSTRIA
• German backing of Austria was also crucially important.
• This was probably because the Germans felt encircled by Russia, France and Britain.
• Russia and France had signed an agreement in 1894.
• In 1904, Britain and France who were traditional rivals, signed an agreement of
friendship also known as Entente Cordiale under which they resolved their disputes
regarding colonies in Africa.
• In 1907, Russia and Britain signed an agreement that ended their disputes in Asia.
• Thus by 1907, Germany was anxious due to the growing proximity between the
other major powers in the region, even though technically these agreements were
not military agreements and dealt with territorial disputes and trade & investments.

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 MISCALCULATIONS
• Germany believed that due to France-Russia Agreement of 1894, France will surely fight in favor
of Russia.
• After passive stand of Britain in the 2nd Balkan War, Germany thought that Britain would not
come to the aid of Russia or France.
• Further, Germans miscalculated that the Schlieffen Plan will bring them a quick victory.
• Germans miscalculated that by supporting Austria they would be able to threaten Russia into
neutrality.
• Austria miscalculated that since it had German support, Russia wont come to aid of Serbia.
• Politicians in Germany and Russia felt that mobilization would not necessarily escalate into a
War.
• Cultural belief that war was good, necessary, glorious and the notion of superiority of us over
them rallied the people in favor of war.

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During
the World
War I
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 During the World War I
• The Schlieffen Plan failed as the Germans
failed to defeat the French in the planned
time of 6 weeks.
• After this it was clear that it was to be long
drawn war.
• Trench Warfare and the war at the sea were
the two important features of World War I.
• The Trench Warfare occurred mainly in
France with both sides armies digging
trenches.
• The soldiers used to sit in and fire from the
trenches.

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• Whenever troops charged out of
the Trenches against the enemy,
they were exposed in an open
field and became easy targets of
the enemy.
• In this way, both sides suffered
huge casualties.
• Soon a standoff developed with
both sides stationed in their
respective trenches.
• The life in the trenches was
miserable with water clogging
resulting in diseases and
consequent deaths.
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 War at the Sea
• The Blockade Policy: This was followed mainly by Britain and Germany. It aimed at three things:
1. Blockade of the rival trade routes so the rival is starved out due to the lack of supply of goods
(arms, rations etc.) and is thus forced to surrender.
2. Provide security to own trade routes so that the country which is blockading doesn't itself
starves.
3. For movement of troops.
• Britain was successful in destroying many surface warships of Germany. Allied Blockade caused
problems to the US as the British stopped and searched all ships to prevent Germany from getting
any supplies.
• This slowed down movement of US merchant ships. Also, the US wanted to trade with both the
sides and thus disapproved of Allied Blockade, Germans retaliated with sea mines and submarine
attacks.

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 Continue…
• Once the German surface warships had suffered huge damage at hands of the British navy, the
Germans did not have any other option but to resort to submarine attacks and sea mines.
• But this infuriated US as some of its ships were sunk and in one incident many US citizens onboard a
ship had died. From now on the public opinion in the US was more pro-British.
• Battle of Jutland (1916) - (North Sea coast of Denmark's Jutland Peninsula): This was a battle on the
sea and resulted in further British control of sea surface.

• This left Germany with no option but to use underwater submarines and in an attempt to blockade
the Allies it started the unrestricted submarine warfare.

• Unrestricted Submarine warfare by Germans in Atlantic Ocean in 1917: This was the German
Blockade with an aim to cut off British supply lines and it started attacking ‘all’ ships in the Atlantic.
This policy did not discriminate between neutral ships and the ships of Allies. Unrestricted
submarine warfare was a major reason that catapulted US into the war on the side of Allied powers.

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 USA in war
• When World War I erupted in 1914, President Woodrow Wilson pledged neutrality for the United States,
a position that the vast majority of Americans favored.
• In February 1915 Germany announced unrestricted warfare against all ships, neutral or otherwise, that
entered the war zone around Britain.
• One month later, Germany announced that a German cruiser had sunk the William P. Frye, a private
American vessel. President Wilson was outraged, but the German government apologized.
• On May 7, the British-owned Lusitania ocean liner was torpedoed without warning just off the coast of
Ireland. Of the 1,959 passengers, 1,198 were killed, including 128 Americans.
• The German government maintained that the Lusitania was carrying munitions, but the U.S. demanded
reparations and an end to German attacks on unarmed passenger and merchant ships.
• In August, Germany pledged to see to the safety of passengers before sinking unarmed vessels, but in
November sunk an Italian liner without warning, killing 272 people, including 27 Americans. With these
attacks, public opinion in the United States began to turn irrevocably against Germany.

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 Continue…
• In 1917, Germany, determined to win its war of attrition against the Allies, announced the
resumption of unrestricted warfare in war-zone waters.
• Three days later, the United States broke diplomatic relations with Germany, and just hours after
that the American liner Housatonic was sunk by a German U-boat.
• On February 22, Congress passed a $250 million arms appropriations bill intended to make the
United States ready for war.
• In late March, Germany sunk four more U.S. merchant ships, and on April 2 President Wilson
appeared before Congress and called for a declaration of war against Germany. Four days later, his
request was granted.
• On June 26, the first 14,000 U.S. infantry troops landed in France to begin training for combat. After
four years of bloody stalemate broke America’s well-supplied forces -helped the Allies to victory.

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 End of war
• The leaders of the German army told the German government to end the fighting. Kaiser Wilhelm,
Germany's leader, abdicated (left his job) on 9 November 1918.
• Two days later, Germany signed the armistice and the guns fell silent. People in Britain, France and
all of the countries that supported them, celebrated the end of war - a war that had lasted four
years and four months. In London, a huge crowd gathered in Trafalgar Square.
• When the war finally ended, on November 11, 1918, more than two million American soldiers had
served on the battlefields of Western Europe, and some 50,000 of them had lost their lives.
• World War One ended at 11am on the eleventh day of the eleventh month, in 1918.

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 Consequences of First World War
• Rule of King ended in Germany: Germany became a republic on November 1918. The German
Emperor Kaiser William II fled to Holland.
• Around 1 crore people were killed.
• Unemployment and famine.
• Epidemics.
• The fall of Russian empire after October revolution (1917) which resulted in the formation of USSR
(1922)
• Emergence of USA as a super power.
• Beginning of the end of European supremacy.
• Japan became a powerful country in Asia.
• Poland, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia became new independent states.

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 Continue…
• Baltic countries – Estonia, Latvia and Lithvania – became independent.
• Rule of Ottamans came to an end in Turkey.
• New boundary lines were drawn for Austria, Germany and Turkey.
• Strengthened independence movements in Asia and Africa.
• League of Nations came into being.
• Germany had to return Alsace-Loraine to France.
• German colonies were shared.
• Monarchy was abolished in Germany, Austria, Hungary, Turkey and Russia.
• The harsh clauses of the Treaty of Versailles finally resulted in the Second WW.

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Only IAS Nothing Else
World History

Lecture: 28
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League
of
Nations

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 Beginning of International Organizations
• It is generally believed that the most of the International Organizations are 20th century
phenomenon which started with the establishment of the League of Nations in 1919.
• This is mostly correct but the phenomenon actually started in late 19th century. Some
startling examples of a 19th century organization include the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU), founded in 1865 (originally called the International
Telegraph Union), and the Universal Postal Union, which dates back to 1874. Today both
of these organizations are part of the UN system.
• The International Peace Conference held in The Hague in 1899 established the
Permanent Court of Arbitration, which started its work in 1902.
• It was the first medium for settling international disputes between countries and a
predecessor of the UN's International Court of Justice.

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 The carnage of World War I
• The outbreak of World War I in August 1914 and the carnage that followed showed the limits of this
mechanism by the Permanent Court of Arbitration.
• It also signalled the final end of an international system-the so-called Concert of Europe (Balance of
power)- that had saved the old Continent from the scourge of a major war since Napoleon's
adventures a century earlier.
• Between 1914 and 1918, Europe witnessed the worst killing spree of its already bloody history.
• Almost twenty million people perished in the World War-I. Empires (the Ottoman, the Austro-
Hungarian, and, temporarily, the Russian) collapsed during this period.
• New nations (such as Czechoslovakia Estonia, and Finland) were born.
• The utter devastation of the war led to support for the idea of an international organization. To
many, an international organization with the power to settle disputes before they escalated into
military conflicts appeared to be the answer.

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 The League of Nations
• While the First World War was still underway, a number of
governments and groups had already started developing
plans to change the way international relations were carried
out to try to prevent another such conflict.
• United States President Woodrow Wilson and his adviser
Colonel Edward M. House enthusiastically promoted the idea
of the League as a means of avoiding any repetition of the
bloodshed of the First World War.
• And the creation of the League was a centerpiece of Wilson's
Fourteen Points for Peace. Specifically the final point.
• Amid the carnage, in January 1918, President Woodrow
Wilson outlined his idea of the League of Nations. But
eventually, United States would fail to join the League of
Nations.

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 • The British magazine Punch
satirized Wilson's grand dreams of
world peace through the League of
Nations.
• In this cartoon, Wilson holds out a
very large olive branch marked
'League of Nations' to a dove that
is too small to grasp it.

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 Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points (1918)
1. Abolition of secret diplomacy
2. Free navigation at sea for all nations in war and peace Wilson under pressure from Britain and France
added two more points regarding Germany viz
3. Removal of economic barriers between states disarmament of Germany and war reparations by
Germans for civilian losses caused by them in
4. All round reduction of armaments occupied territories.
5. Impartial adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of the populations concerned
6. Evacuation of Russian territory
7. Restoration of Belgium
8. Liberation of France and restoration of Alsace and Lorraine to France
9. Readjustment of Italian frontiers along the lines of nationality
10. Self government for people of Austria-Hungary
11. Romania, Serbia and Montenegro to be evacuated and Serbia to be given sea access
12. Self government for the non-Turkish people of Ottoman empire and permanent opening of Dardanelles
13. An independent Poland with secure access to Sea
14. A general association of nations to preserve peace

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 Continue…
• The League of Nations (LON) was founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the
First World War. It was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was
to maintain world peace.
• Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant (प्रतिज्ञापत्र), included preventing war through collective
security and disarmament, and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration.
• Other issues in this and related treaties included labour conditions, just treatment of native
inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection
of minorities in Europe. At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had
58 members.
• But the new League was given a devastating blow when the US Senate refused to ratify the
Versailles Treaty. The country never joined the League, making the newly formed organization
permanently handicapped.

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 Why US didn`t Joined
• President Wilson’s intense lobbying efforts on behalf of US membership in the League of Nations
met with firm opposition from isolationist members of Congress, particularly Republican Senators
William Borah and Henry Cabot Lodge.
• They objected most vociferously to Article X of the League’s Covenant, which required all members
of the League to assist any member threatened by external aggression.
• In effect, Article X would commit the United States to defending any member of the League in the
event of an attack.
• Isolationists in Congress were opposed to any further US involvement in international conflicts and
viewed Article X as a direct violation of US sovereignty.
• As a result, the Senate refused to ratify the treaty, and the United States never became a member
of the League of Nations.

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Only IAS Nothing Else
 Success
• 'Nevertheless, after being housed temporarily in London, the League commenced its operations in
Geneva, Switzerland, in 1920.
1. It soon scored some limited successes. In the early 1920s, the League settled territorial disputes
between Finland and Sweden over the Aland Islands (Ruling favored Finland). Between Germany
and Poland over Upper Silesia (Division of silesia), and between Iraq and Turkey over the city of
Mosul (Territory to Iraq- 10% oil to Turkey).
2. The League combated the international opium trade and alleviated refugee crises in Russia with
some success.
3. The League of Nations acted as the umbrella organization for such agencies as the International
Labor Organization (ILO) and the Permanent Court of International Justice (predecessor of today’s
International Court of Justice, ICJ).
4. It also provided a model for the future United Nations.

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Only IAS Nothing Else
Only IAS Nothing Else
 Failure of League of Nations
1. It was dominated by France and Great Britain, Thus League of Nations was an expression of Eurocentric
world and this was also because of the fact that virtually all of Africa. Asia, and the Middle East were
controlled by European imperial powers at that time.
2. The League of Nations accepted mandate system to prepare the "natives" of the different regions for
self-government and independence. Britain in Palestine and France in Lebanon and Syria-were granted
broad authority regarding such preparations.
3. US didn`t joined.
4. Lack of respect it commanded among other great powers: Germany and the Soviet Union were
members, but only briefly: Germany joined in 1926, only to exit the League after the Nazis came to
power in 1933. In 1933 the Soviet Union entered the League. Six years later, after its attack on Finland
in late 1939, the USSR became the only League member ever to be expelled. Then, a time came when
the League of Nations criticized the Japan's occupation of Manchuria. So Japan left the club in 1933. In
1935-36.
5. Policy of Appeasement: global economic crisis of the 1930s & the Great Depression certainly curbed the
enthusiasm of others-France and Britain in particular-to risk lives and resources to fight distant wars.

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 The End
• As the situation in Europe escalated into war, the Assembly transferred enough power to the
Secretary General to allow the League to continue to exist legally and carry on reduced
operations.
• The headquarters of the League, the Palace of Nations (Geneva, Switzerland), remained
unoccupied for nearly six years until the Second World War ended.
• At the 1943 Tehran Conference, the Allied powers agreed to create a new body to replace the
League: the United Nations.
• Many League bodies, such as the International Labour Organization, continued to function and
eventually became affiliated with the UN.
• The final meeting of the League of Nations took place on 18 April 1946 in Geneva. Delegates from
34 nations attended the assembly. it transferred assets worth approximately $22,000,000 (U.S.) in
1946 , including the Palace of Nations to the UN.

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Only IAS Nothing Else
World History

Lecture: 29
Only IAS Nothing Else
League
of
Nations

Only IAS Nothing Else

 Beginning of International Organizations
• It is generally believed that the most of the International Organizations are 20th century
phenomenon which started with the establishment of the League of Nations in 1919.
• This is mostly correct but the phenomenon actually started in late 19th century. Some
startling examples of a 19th century organization include the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU), founded in 1865 (originally called the International
Telegraph Union), and the Universal Postal Union, which dates back to 1874. Today both
of these organizations are part of the UN system.
• The International Peace Conference held in The Hague in 1899 established the
Permanent Court of Arbitration, which started its work in 1902.
• It was the first medium for settling international disputes between countries and a
predecessor of the UN's International Court of Justice.

Only IAS Nothing Else

 The carnage of World War I
• The outbreak of World War I in August 1914 and the carnage that followed showed the limits of this
mechanism by the Permanent Court of Arbitration.
• It also signalled the final end of an international system-the so-called Concert of Europe (Balance of
power)- that had saved the old Continent from the scourge of a major war since Napoleon's
adventures a century earlier.
• Between 1914 and 1918, Europe witnessed the worst killing spree of its already bloody history.
• Almost twenty million people perished in the World War-I. Empires (the Ottoman, the Austro-
Hungarian, and, temporarily, the Russian) collapsed during this period.
• New nations (such as Czechoslovakia Estonia, and Finland) were born.
• The utter devastation of the war led to support for the idea of an international organization. To
many, an international organization with the power to settle disputes before they escalated into
military conflicts appeared to be the answer.

Only IAS Nothing Else

 The League of Nations
• While the First World War was still underway, a number of
governments and groups had already started developing
plans to change the way international relations were carried
out to try to prevent another such conflict.
• United States President Woodrow Wilson and his adviser
Colonel Edward M. House enthusiastically promoted the idea
of the League as a means of avoiding any repetition of the
bloodshed of the First World War.
• And the creation of the League was a centerpiece of Wilson's
Fourteen Points for Peace. Specifically the final point.
• Amid the carnage, in January 1918, President Woodrow
Wilson outlined his idea of the League of Nations. But
eventually, United States would fail to join the League of
Nations.

Only IAS Nothing Else

 • The British magazine Punch
satirized Wilson's grand dreams of
world peace through the League of
Nations.
• In this cartoon, Wilson holds out a
very large olive branch marked
'League of Nations' to a dove that
is too small to grasp it.

Only IAS Nothing Else

 Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points (1918)
1. Abolition of secret diplomacy
2. Free navigation at sea for all nations in war and peace Wilson under pressure from Britain and France
added two more points regarding Germany viz
3. Removal of economic barriers between states disarmament of Germany and war reparations by
Germans for civilian losses caused by them in
4. All round reduction of armaments occupied territories.
5. Impartial adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of the populations concerned
6. Evacuation of Russian territory
7. Restoration of Belgium
8. Liberation of France and restoration of Alsace and Lorraine to France
9. Readjustment of Italian frontiers along the lines of nationality
10. Self government for people of Austria-Hungary
11. Romania, Serbia and Montenegro to be evacuated and Serbia to be given sea access
12. Self government for the non-Turkish people of Ottoman empire and permanent opening of Dardanelles
13. An independent Poland with secure access to Sea
14. A general association of nations to preserve peace

Only IAS Nothing Else

 Continue…
• The League of Nations (LON) was founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the
First World War. It was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was
to maintain world peace.
• Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant (प्रतिज्ञापत्र), included preventing war through collective
security and disarmament, and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration.
• Other issues in this and related treaties included labour conditions, just treatment of native
inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection
of minorities in Europe. At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had
58 members.
• But the new League was given a devastating blow when the US Senate refused to ratify the
Versailles Treaty. The country never joined the League, making the newly formed organization
permanently handicapped.

Only IAS Nothing Else

 Why US didn`t Joined
• President Wilson’s intense lobbying efforts on behalf of US membership in the League of Nations
met with firm opposition from isolationist members of Congress, particularly Republican Senators
William Borah and Henry Cabot Lodge.
• They objected most vociferously to Article X of the League’s Covenant, which required all members
of the League to assist any member threatened by external aggression.
• In effect, Article X would commit the United States to defending any member of the League in the
event of an attack.
• Isolationists in Congress were opposed to any further US involvement in international conflicts and
viewed Article X as a direct violation of US sovereignty.
• As a result, the Senate refused to ratify the treaty, and the United States never became a member
of the League of Nations.

Only IAS Nothing Else

Only IAS Nothing Else
 Success
• 'Nevertheless, after being housed temporarily in London, the League commenced its operations in
Geneva, Switzerland, in 1920.
1. It soon scored some limited successes. In the early 1920s, the League settled territorial disputes
between Finland and Sweden over the Aland Islands (Ruling favored Finland). Between Germany
and Poland over Upper Silesia (Division of silesia), and between Iraq and Turkey over the city of
Mosul (Territory to Iraq- 10% oil to Turkey).
2. The League combated the international opium trade and alleviated refugee crises in Russia with
some success.
3. The League of Nations acted as the umbrella organization for such agencies as the International
Labor Organization (ILO) and the Permanent Court of International Justice (predecessor of today’s
International Court of Justice, ICJ).
4. It also provided a model for the future United Nations.

Only IAS Nothing Else

Only IAS Nothing Else
Only IAS Nothing Else
 Failure of League of Nations
1. It was dominated by France and Great Britain, Thus League of Nations was an expression of Eurocentric
world and this was also because of the fact that virtually all of Africa. Asia, and the Middle East were
controlled by European imperial powers at that time.
2. The League of Nations accepted mandate system to prepare the "natives" of the different regions for
self-government and independence. Britain in Palestine and France in Lebanon and Syria-were granted
broad authority regarding such preparations.
3. US didn`t joined.
4. Lack of respect it commanded among other great powers: Germany and the Soviet Union were
members, but only briefly: Germany joined in 1926, only to exit the League after the Nazis came to
power in 1933. In 1933 the Soviet Union entered the League. Six years later, after its attack on Finland
in late 1939, the USSR became the only League member ever to be expelled. Then, a time came when
the League of Nations criticized the Japan's occupation of Manchuria. So Japan left the club in 1933. In
1935-36.
5. Policy of Appeasement: global economic crisis of the 1930s & the Great Depression certainly curbed the
enthusiasm of others-France and Britain in particular-to risk lives and resources to fight distant wars.

Only IAS Nothing Else

 The End
• As the situation in Europe escalated into war, the Assembly transferred enough power to the
Secretary General to allow the League to continue to exist legally and carry on reduced
operations.
• The headquarters of the League, the Palace of Nations (Geneva, Switzerland), remained
unoccupied for nearly six years until the Second World War ended.
• At the 1943 Tehran Conference, the Allied powers agreed to create a new body to replace the
League: the United Nations.
• Many League bodies, such as the International Labour Organization, continued to function and
eventually became affiliated with the UN.
• The final meeting of the League of Nations took place on 18 April 1946 in Geneva. Delegates from
34 nations attended the assembly. it transferred assets worth approximately $22,000,000 (U.S.) in
1946 , including the Palace of Nations to the UN.

Only IAS Nothing Else

Only IAS Nothing Else
World History

Lecture: 30
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Russian Revolution

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 Introduction
• The Russian Revolution was a series of revolutions in early 20th century that ultimately resulted in
the overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II and the establishment of a communist government.
• During the revolution of 1905, On Bloody Sunday, the Tsar's guards fired upon peaceful protesters,
killing hundreds. Concerned his authority might topple, the Tsar conceded to reforms, including the
establishment of the Duma, a legislative assembly.
• Things calmed down until early 1917, when the February Revolution resulted in the Tsar abdicating
the throne and the installation of a leftist provisional government.
• In October same year, Bolsheviks led by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the provisional government and
established a communist in the October Revolution.
• Shortly afterwards, Vladimir Lenin moved to end Russian involvement in World War-I. On March 3,
1918 the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed, formally ending Russia's participation in the war.

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 Causes: Political
• Slow pace of Reforms under Tsar Alexander II. This Tsar was assassinated by revolutionaries in 1881. He
was succeeded by Alexander III. who was completely anti-reforms.
• Alexander III clung to the principles of autocracy, orthodoxy, and nationality. He considered dangerous to
all who spoke a different language then Russian and worshipped outside the Russian Orthodox Church.
• He imposed strict censorship codes on published materials and written documents, including private letters.
• His idea was to establish a uniform Russian culture so he oppressed other national groups in Russia. Russian
was made official language and other minority languages such as Polish were banned from the Schools.
• Further, Jews were targeted for persecution. Jews could not buy land or live among other Russians.
Universities set strict quotas for Jewish students. Due to his policies, a wave of Pogroms broke out in many
parts of Russia.
• Alexander III was succeeded by Tsar Nicholas II who stubbornly refused to surrender any of his power.
• Pogrom refers to the organized violence against Jews. This term is particularly associated with the Russian
empire and also Germany.

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 Industrial Revolution
• Despite of growth in the number of factories in Russia, the country lagged behind other
European countries.
• To take the country forward, a programme was launched which included higher taxes
and foreign investments, to finance the build-up of Russian industries.
• The economic growth made Russia one of the largest producers of steel in the last
decades of 19th century. The World's largest Railway line was launched in 1904 as Trans-
Siberian Railway.
• Rapid industrialization stirred more discontent among the people of Russia. Growth of
industrialization brought gruelling working conditions, poor wages, child labour and
other such problems. The government outlawed the Trade Unions. There was enormous
gap between rich and poor.

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 Efforts of Mensheviks and Bolsheviks
• Various revolutionary movements grew in the Russian Society inspired the thoughts of Karl Marx.
They had a belief that the industrial class of workers would overthrow the Tsar and then would
form a dictatorship of the proletariat. In 1898, the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was
formed on the lines of Karl Marx.
• In 1903, the revolutionaries got split into two groups viz. Mensheviks and Bolsheviks.
• Mensheviks wanted a broad base of popular support for revolution Led by kerensky.
• Bolsheviks wanted a small number of committed revolutionaries who could sacrifice everything for
a Radical change.
• Leader of Bolsheviks was Lenin. In the early 1900s, Lenin fled to Western Europe to avoid arrest by
the Tsarist regime but he maintained contact with other Bolsheviks. Lenin then waited until he
could safely return to Russia.

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 The Russo-Japanese War 1904
• The Russo-Japanese war of 1904 was one event that showed the Tsar's
weakness and paved the way for revolution.
• Russia and Japan both were imperialist powers. They both competed for
control of Korea and Manchuria. The two nations signed a series of
agreements over the territories, but Russia broke them.
• In retaliation, Japan attacked the Russians at Port Arthur, Manchuria, in
February 1904. Though Russian soldiers and sailors went confidently to war.
The Japanese defeated them. Defeat by a small country like Japan increased
unrest in Russia.

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 First World War
• It put Financial stress.
• The situation of workers and peasants was not good.

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 Major Events: Bloody Sunday 1905
• On January 22, 1905 some 200,000 workers approached the Tsar's Winter Palace in St.
Petersburg with a petition asking for better working conditions, more individual
freedom, and an elected national legislature.
• The Tsar Nicholas II was not present at the palace but his generals were there, who
ordered the soldiers to fire on the crowd.
• Hundred of unarmed workers were killed. This event was called the Bloody Sunday.
The event provoked a wave of strikes and violence across Russia.
• The Tsar Nicholas II opposed reform but in October 1905. he reluctantly promised
more freedom. He approved the creation of the Duma, Russia's first parliament.
• The first Duma met in May 1906. Its moderate leaders wanted Russia to become a
constitutional monarchy like Britain. Hesitant to share his power, the Tsar dissolved
the Duma after ten weeks.

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 Entry in World War-I
• In 1914, Nicholas II decided to drag Russia into World War I. despite the
fact that Russia was unprepared for a war. More than 4 million Russian
soldiers were killed or wounded or taken prisoners.
• In 1905, Nicholas shifted his headquarters to the War Front to
encourage his soldiers. The real government back home came into the
hands of his wife Tsarina Alexandra.
• She ignored the Tsar's chief advisers and came under the influence of
one mysterious Rasputin, a self proclaimed holy man.
• Rasputin claimed to have magical healing powers. He was neither a
monk, nor he was ever officially connected to the Orthodox Church.
• Nicholas and Alexandra's son suffered from haemophilia (No blood
clotting) and Rasputin seemed to ease the boy's symptoms.
• To show her gratitude, Alexandra allowed Rasputin to make key political
decisions. Rasputin opposed reforms and obtained powerful positions
for his close ones and spread corruption. He was assassinated in 1916.

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 March Revolution 1917
• Neither Nicholas nor Alexandra could tackle the enormous
problems on war front as well as domestic fronts. In March 1917,
women textile workers in Petrograd led a citywide strike.
• Thereafter, the riots flared up everywhere. Nearly 200,000
workers swarmed into the streets and government ordered to
shoot the rioters.
• The soldiers initially obeyed the orders but soon sided with them.
They fired at the commanding officers and joined with the rebels.
• The March revolution was a general uprising which forced
Nocholas II to abdicate his throne. A year after, he was executed
by the revolutionaries.
• The leaders of the Duma established a temporary government
under Alexander Kerensky. who decided to continue with the war.
• The decision to continue with the war cost him support from army
as well as civilians. Meanwhile, the Social revolutionaries,
competing for power, formed soviets i.e. the local councils which
consisted of workers, peasants, and soldiers.

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 Return of Lenin - October Revolution
• Meanwhile Lenin returned from Germany after many years in exile.
He reached Petrograd in April 1917. Along with Bolsheviks, he soon
gained the control of Petrograd soviet, as well as the soviets in
other major Russian cities.
• Lenin's slogan—' Peace, Land, and Bread — got widespread appeal.
During October, 1917 (julian calendar)(November as per Gregorian
Calender), the Provincial Government was removed and replaced
with a Bolshevik government in Russia which led to formation of
USSR.
• This was the October revolution which got over in a matter of
hours. Kerensky and his colleagues disappeared from the scene.
Within days after the Bolshevik takeover.
• Lenin ordered that all farmland be distributed among the peasants.
Lenin and the Bolsheviks gave control of factories to the workers.

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 Withdrawal from War
• Boleshevik government also
decided to withdraw from
the war. In March 1918
Russia and Germany signed
the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk,.
• Via this treaty, Russia
surrendered a large chunk of
its territory to Germany and
its allies. The humiliating
terms of this treaty triggered
widespread anger and
objection to the policies of
the Bolsheviks.
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 Russian Civil War
• 7 November 1917 – 25 October 1922
• The opponents of the Bolsheviks
formed a White Army. From 1918 to
1920, civil war raged in Russia between
the Red Army of Bolsheviks and White
army.
• Several countries of West including
United States sent military aid and
forces to Russia to help the White
Army.
• The civil war and the famine that
followed claimed 15 million lives in
three-year struggle and in the famine
that followed.
• The Red Army emerged winner and
crushed all opposition to Bolshevik
rule.
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 The Measures taken by Lenin: Economic Reforms
• In March 1921, Lenin launched the New Economic Policy (NEP). In this policy, he
temporarily put aside his plan for a state-controlled economy.
• He resorted to a small-scale version of capitalism. The reforms under the NEP allowed
peasants to sell their surplus crops instead of turning them over to the government.
Individuals could buy and sell goods for profit.
• The government kept control of major industries, banks, and means of
communication.
• but it let some small factories, businesses, and farms operate under private
ownership. Lenin also tried to encourage foreign investment.

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 Political Reforms
• Russia was a conglomeration of many nationalities and this was seen as an obstacle to national
unity by the Communists.
• Moreover, the Communist leaders also saw nationalism as a threat to unity and party loyalty.
• So, to check nationalism, Lenin organized Russia into several self-governing republics (Soviets)
under the central government.
• Thus, in 1922 the Russia was named the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR), in honor of the councils that helped launch the Bolshevik Revolutioan The new capital of
the union was Moscow. The Bolsheviks also renamed their party to Communist Party.
• In 1924, the Communists created a constitution based on socialist and democratic principles but
the Communist Party held all the power.
• Thus, Lenin had established a dictatorship of the Communist Party, not "a dictatorship of the
proletariat" as Marx had promoted.
• However, due to the new policies and peace that followed, USSR slowly recovered. By 1928, the
country's farms and factories were producing as much as they had before World War I.

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World History

Lecture: 31
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Inter- War Period

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 Introduction
• Just 20 years after First World War, the Second World War broke out in 1939 - the most destructive
war in human history.
• Although very less period of time, but 20 years between the First and Second World Wars were a
period of tremendous changes and upheavals.
• There were various developments in Europe which led to world for the outbreak of the Second
World War.
• A major economic crisis took place during this period which affected almost every part of the world
and, more particularly, the most advanced capitalist countries of the West.
• In Asia and Africa, the period saw an unprecedented awakening of the peoples which found its
fulfillment after the Second World War.
• Understanding of this period is important for the understanding of not only the Second World War
but also the world that emerged after the war.

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 Condition: Inter- War Period
Political Developments
• Germany: Revolution in Germany towards the end of the war which forced the German
emperor to flee the country - Germany became a republic. Another uprising in January
1919 - suppressed- but two leaders - Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, were
assassinated.
• Hungary: Uprising in Hungary - revolutionary government – But over thrown within a
few months.
• Other Countries: Inspired by the Russian Revolution, there were revolutions in many
other countries of Europe such as Finland, and Baltic States of Latvia, Estonia and
Lithuania which had earlier been parts of the Russian empire - But all these revolutions
were short-lived.

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 Continue…
• The political situation in almost every country in Europe was complicated. The period
saw the growth of socialist and communist movement almost every country of Europe
However, within a few years in many countries of Europe, the socialist movements were
defeated and dictatorial governments came to power.
• These governments not only suppressed socialist movements but also destroyed
democracy.
• The emergence of dictatorial governments in Europe in this period had dangerous
consequences not only for the peoples of Europe but for the whole world.
• The most dangerous development was the triumph of fascism in Italy and Germany
which paved the way for the Second World War.

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 Fascism in Italy
• A number of political movements which arose in Europe after the First
World War are generally given the name ‘fascist’ .
• The Italian Fascist movement was founded on March 23, 1919 by Benito
Mussolini. Mussolini was a World War I veteran (पुराना सिपाही), working for the
Socialist newspapers until he broke off and established his new Nationalist
organization, Fasci di Combattimento.
• The common features of these movements were their hostility to
democracy and socialism, and the aim of establishing dictatorships.
• They succeeded, in many countries of Europe, such as, Hungary, Italy,
Poland, Portugal, Germany, Spain. Their success in Italy and Germany had
the most serious consequences.
• The term ‘fascism’ is of Italian origin. It was first used for the movement
which started in Italy under the leadership of Benito Mussolini. Mussolini
had organised armed gangs against socialists and communists in 1919.

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 Causes
1. After unification of Italy, the Italian government had shown little concern for the welfare of the
agricultural and industrial workers whose conditions were miserable in the extreme.
2. It had, instead, plunged Italy into the First World War in the hope of gaining colonies. About 700,000
Italians were killed in the war. The conditions of the people had worsened further. Italy had joined
the war with the aim of gaining colonies. However, the peace tree, ties had failed to satisfy her
ambitions.
3. The growing strength of the socialist movement in Italy posed a threat to the existing system. The
Italian government at the time was dominated by capitalists and landlords. These sections began to
support antidemocratic movements which promised to save them from the danger of socialism as
well as to satisfy their colonial aspirations.
4. Failure of Government: The movement started by Mussolini was one such movement. His armed
gangs were used by landlords and industrialists to organize violence against socialists and
communists. A systematic campaign of terrorism and murder was launched but the government
showed little interest in curbing it.
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 Continue…
5. By declaring war against the German Empire and Austria-Hungary, in exchange for territories (Istria
and Dalmatia), at war's end, upon which the Kingdom of Italy held claims. The disrespect for the
promises caused widespread indignation among Italian nationalists.

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 Mussolini in Power
• In 1921, elections were held in Italy. However, no single party could win a majority and
no stable government could be formed.
• In spite of the terror organized by Mussolini’s gangs, his party could get only 35 seats
while the socialists and communists together won 138 seats.
• On 28 October 1922, he organized a march on Rome. The government of Italy did not
show any sign of resistance against the volunteers of Mussolini.
• Instead, on 29 October 1922, the king of Italy invited Mussolini to join the government.
Thus without firing a shot, fascists under Mussolini s leadership came to power in Italy.
• The takeover of the government by fascists was followed by a reign of terror. The
socialist movement was suppressed and many socialist and communist leaders were
either jailed or killed. In 1926 all political parties except Mussolini’s party were banned.

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 Continue…
• The victory of fascism Italy not only led to the destruction of democracy and the
suppression of socialist movement, it also led to the preparation for war.
• The fascists believed that there could be no harmony between two or more nations.
They glorified war which, according to them, ennobled (सम्मानित) people.
• They openly advocated a policy of expansion and said that nations which do not
expand cannot survive for long.
• The victory of fascism in Italy was neither the result of a victory in elections nor of a
popular uprising.
• The government of Italy was handed over to the fascists because the ruling classes of
Italy considered democracy and socialism as threats to their power.

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 Corporatist economic system
• The Fascist regime created a corporatist economic system in 1925 with creation of
the Palazzo Vidioni Pact, in which the Italian employers' association Confindustria
and Fascist trade unions agreed to recognize each other as the sole representatives
of Italy's employers and employees, excluding non-Fascist trade unions.
• The Fascist regime first created a Ministry of Corporations that organized the Italian
economy into 22 sectoral corporations, banned workers' strikes and lock-outs and in
1927 created the Charter of Labour, which established workers' rights and duties
and created labour tribunals to arbitrate employer-employee disputes.
• In practice, the sectoral corporations exercised little independence and were largely
controlled by the regime and employee organizations were rarely led by employees
themselves, but instead by appointed Fascist party members.

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Features of
Fascism

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 Tenets of Fascism
1. Nationalism : Nationalism is the main foundation of fascism. The fascist view of a nation is of a
single organic entity that binds people together by their ancestry, and is a natural unifying force of
people.
2. Totalitarianism: Fascism promotes the establishment of a totalitarian state. It opposes liberal
democracy, rejects multi-party systems, and supports a one-party state.
3. Economy: While fascism opposed mainstream socialism, it sometimes regarded itself as a type of
nationalist "socialism", to highlight their commitment to national solidarity and unity. Fascists
opposed international free market capitalism, but supported a type of productive capitalism.
4. Action: Fascism emphasizes direct action, including supporting the legitimacy of political violence,
as a core part of its politics.
5. Age and gender roles: Fascism emphasizes youth both in a physical sense of age and in a
spiritual sense as related to virility and commitment to action.
6. Palin genesis (पुनर्जन्म) and modernism: Fascism emphasizes both palingenesis and modernism.
In particular, fascism's nationalism has been identified as having a palingenetic character.

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 Criticism
1. Fascism is deliberately and entirely non-democratic and anti-
democratic.

2. The ideology was merely a by-product of unprincipled

opportunism.

3. Fascism has been criticized for being ideologically dishonest.

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World History

Lecture: 32
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Inter- War Period

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 Nazism in Germany
• Within eleven years of the fascist capture of power in Italy, Nazism triumphed in Germany.
• Nazism which was the German version of fascism was much more sinister than the original Italian
version. The Nazis, under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, established the most barbarous
dictatorship of modern times.
• After unification of Germany: Germany had sought to satisfy her imperial ambitions through war
but she had suffered defeat.
• The outbreak of revolution in Germany towards the end of the First World War led to the collapse
of the German monarchy.
• However, even though Germany became a republic, the forces behind the monarchy the
industrialists, the big landowners and the officers of the army remained quite powerful. The
government of German republic was not able to destroy their power.
• These forces began to turn to the anti democratic forces represented by Nazism to extend their
power and to check the power of the socialist movement.

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 Nazi Party
• Adolf Hitler's rise to power began in Germany in September 1919 when Hitler joined the political party
known as the – DAP (German Workers' Party). The name was changed in 1920 to
the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei – NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers' Party,
commonly known as the Nazi Party).
• Like Mussolini, Hitler had also planned to capture power through a march on Berlin. He was arrested and
jailed, but released long before his term was over.
• In jail he wrote his book Mein Kampf (literal meaning ‘My Struggle’) which expressed some of the most
monstrous ideas of the Nazi movement. He glorified the use of force and brutality, and the rule by a great
leader and ridiculed internationalism, peace and democracy.
• He preached extreme hatred against the German Jews who were blamed not only for the defeat of
Germany in the First World War but for all the ills of Germany.
• He glorified violent nationalism and extolled (प्रशंसा करना) war. The dreadful ideas of the Nazis found favour
with the army, the industrialists, the big landowners and the anti republican politicians. They began to
look upon Hitler as the saviour of Germany.

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 Rise of Nazism
• The Nazis capitalized on the sense of humiliation which many Germans felt at their defeat in
the war and the unjust provisions of the Treaty of Versailles.
• They also exploited the misery of the people which had worsened due to the reparations
which Germany was made to pay to the Allied powers.
• In 1929 occurred the most serious economic crisis which affected all the capitalist countries
of the world.
• As a result of this crisis, eight million workers, about half of the working population of
Germany, were rendered unemployed.
• It was during this period that the Nazi Party, which was no more than a conspiratorial group
in the beginning, began to spread its influence.
• The Social Democratic Party and the Communist Party were powerful parties with huge
following. These two parties, however, failed to unite against the Nazis.

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 Nazi Rule
• The victory of Nazism in Germany, like that of fascism in Italy, was neither the outcome of a
popular uprising, nor the result of a sham march on Berlin such as Mussolini’s on Rome.
• In the elections held in Germany before Hitler came to power, the Nazi Party had polled less votes
than the Socialist and Communist vote put together. It had won only 196 seats out of a total of
about 650. Hitler’s coming to power was the result of political intrigues (साज़िश).
• In spite of his poor showing in the elections, Hitler was appointed the Chancellor of Germany by
the President of Germany on 30 January 1933.
• Within a few weeks, the entire fabric of democracy in Germany was shattered. Soon after coming
to power, Hitler ordered fresh elections and let loose a reign of terror.
• Assassination of anti-Nazi leaders was organized on a large scale. On 27 February 1933, the
Reichstag (Parliament) building was set on fire by the Nazis. The Communist Party Germany was
blamed for the fire and was suppressed.

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 Continue…
• In spite of the terror organized by the Nazis, the Nazi Party could not win a majority of seats
in Parliament. However, Hitler assumed dictatorial powers and, in 1934, became the
President.
• Trade unions were suppressed and thousands of socialists, communists and anti Nazi
political leaders were exterminated (विनाश करना).
• The Nazis started huge bonfires (होलिका) into which the works of some of the best writers of
Germany and other countries were thrown (फ़े कना).
• Besides socialists and communists, Jews were made victims of an organized campaign of
humiliation and violence. Within a few years they were to be completely exterminated.
• Simultaneously, a massive programme of militarization was launched and preparations for
war began. The victory of Nazism was a calamity not only for the German people but for
entire Europe and many other parts of the world. It brought in the Second World War.

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 Factors led to Rise of Nazism in Germany
1. Nazis capitalized on the sense of humiliation which many Germans felt at their defeat in
the war and the unjust provisions of the Treaty of Versailles.
2. They also exploited the misery of the people which had worsened due to the reparations
which Germany was made to pay to the Allied powers.
3. In 1929 occurred the most serious economic crisis which affected all the capitalist
countries of the world. As a result of this crisis, 8 million workers, about half of the
working population of Germany, were rendered unemployed.
4. Social Democratic Party and Communist Party were powerful parties with huge following
but they could not unite against Nazi Party.
5. Ineffectiveness of League of Nations and Policy of Appeasement by western democratic
countries.

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 Comparison between Nazism and Fascism
Similarity Differences
Both were anti communist and supported by Fascism never seemed to take deep roots in Italy as
wealthy capitalist and industrialists. it did in Germany.
Both aimed for totalitarian state and controlled Italian system was not as efficient as Germany.
industry, agriculture and way of life. Italians could not achieve the stated goals of self
sufficiency and removal of unemployment.

Both attempted to make the country self sufficient. Italian system was not as ruthless as that in
Both Emphasized the supremacy of the state Germany and there were no mass atrocities.
Both glorified war, nationalism and cult of the Italian fascism was not anti Jewish or racist.
leader. Rebirth of the nation was given prime
importance

Education was highly supervised: Indoctrination of Mussolini was more successful with his religious
young mind and blind obedience to state was policies.
taught.

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World History

Lecture: 33
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Inter- War Period

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 The Depression
• The Great Depression was the worst economic downturn in the history of the industrialized world,
lasting from 1929 to 1939.
• It began after the stock market crash of October 1929, which sent Wall Street (world's largest stock
exchange in New york) into a panic and wiped out millions of investors.
• Over the next several years, consumer spending and investment dropped, causing steep declines in
industrial output and employment as failing companies laid off workers.
• The fall in the value of shares had created so much panic that in one day 16 million shares were
sold in New York Stock Exchange.
• In some companies, the shares held by people became totally worthless. During the next four
years, more than 9,000 American banks closed down and millions of people lost their life’s savings.
• By 1933, when the Great Depression reached its lowest point, some 15 million Americans were
unemployed and nearly half the country’s banks had failed.

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 Causes
1. The years after First World War had seen a big increase in the production of goods in America. In spite
of this, however, more than half of the population lived at less than the minimum subsistence level.
Throughout the 1920s, the U.S. economy expanded rapidly, and the nation’s total wealth more than
doubled between 1920 and 1929, a period dubbed “the Roaring Twenties.”
2. The stock market, centered at the New York Stock Exchange on Wall Street in New York City, was the
scene of reckless speculation. As a result, the stock market underwent rapid expansion, reaching its
peak in August 1929.
3. By then, production had already declined and unemployment had risen, leaving stock prices much
higher than their actual value. The American economy entered a mild recession during the summer of
1929, as consumer spending slowed. Nonetheless, stock prices continued to rise.
4. Additionally, wages at that time were low, consumer debt was proliferating, the agricultural sector of
the economy was struggling due to drought and falling food prices, and banks had an excess of large
loans that could not be liquidated.

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 Stock Market Crash of 1929
• On October 24, 1929, as nervous investors began selling overpriced shares, the stock market crash
that some had feared happened at last. A record 12.9 million shares were traded that day, known
as “Black Thursday.” Five days later, on October 29 or “Black Tuesday,” some 16 million shares were
traded after another wave of panic swept Wall Street.
• As consumer confidence vanished in the wake of the stock market crash, the downturn in spending
and investment led factories and other businesses to slow down production and begin firing their
workers. For those who were lucky enough to remain employed, wages fell and buying power
decreased.
• Despite assurances from President Herbert Hoover and other leaders that the crisis would run its
course, matters continued to get worse over the next three years. By 1930, 4 million Americans
looking for work could not find it; that number had risen to 6 million in 1931.
• Bank runs swept the United States again in the spring and fall of 1931 and the fall of 1932, and by
early 1933 thousands of banks had closed their doors.

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 Roosevelt Elected
• In 1932, with the country mired in the depths of the Great Depression and some 15 million
people (more than 20 percent of the U.S. population at the time) unemployed, Democrat
Franklin D. Roosevelt won an overwhelming victory in the presidential election.
• Roosevelt took immediate action to address the country’s economic woes, first announcing
a four-day “bank holiday” during which all banks would close so that Congress could pass
reform legislation and reopen those banks determined to be sound.
• He also began addressing the public directly over the radio in a series of talks, and these so-
called “fireside chats” went a long way towards restoring public confidence. “First of all,” he
said, “let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itself.”
• During Roosevelt’s first 100 days in office, his administration passed legislation that aimed
to stabilize industrial and agricultural production, create jobs and stimulate recovery.
• He started a reform Program called: “New Deal.”

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 The New Deal
• The New Deal was a series of programs and projects instituted during the Great
Depression by President Franklin D. Roosevelt that aimed to restore prosperity to
Americans.
• Creation of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) to protect depositors’
accounts and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to regulate the stock
market and prevent abuses of the kind that led to the 1929 crash.
• The Works Progress Administration (WPA), a permanent jobs program that
employed 8.5 million people from 1935 to 1943.
• In 1935, Congress passed the Social Security Act, which for the first time provided
Americans with unemployment, disability and pensions for old age.

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 Impact
1. The Depression resulted in large scale unemployment, loss of production, poverty and starvation.
The estimates of unemployed - between 50 and 100 million. In USA alone, the richest country in the
world, the number of the unemployed exceeded 15 million.
2. Thousands of factories, banks and business enterprises stopped working. The industrial production
fell by about 35 per cent, in some countries by about half. In this crisis while millions were starving,
lakhs of tonnes of wheat were burnt down in some areas to prevent the price of wheat from falling.
3. The economic crisis had serious political consequences. You have read how the Nazis in Germany
exploited the discontent of the people to promote their antidemocratic programme.
4. The only country which was not affected by the economic crisis of 1929- 33 was the Soviet Union.
Thus it led to rise of USSR and attraction towards socialist economy.
5. The economic crisis had worst affected—the economy of the United States. Steps were taken to
improve the conditions of workers and to create employment.

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 Policy of
Appeasement
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 Meaning
• Appeasement was a foreign policy practiced by Britain and France in the 1930’s by which they
yielded to the demands of aggressive nations such as Germany, Italy and Japan in order to avoid
war.
• In other words, it was a conscious effort to, prevent war By removing the causes of tensions.
Concessions were given to the aggressive nations even when this was a violation of international
agreements.
• Britain and France refused to declare war even in the face of naked aggression. The British Prime
minister Chamberlain was the apostle of appeasement.
• Most closely associated with British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, it is now widely discredited
as a policy of weakness. Yet at the time, it was a popular and seemingly pragmatic policy.

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 Reasons
1. The horrors of the First World War and the failure of Western intervention in the Russian Revolution made
Britain and France to come to the conclusion that nothing could be solved by war.
2. It was practiced because of the pacifist public opinion, that is, public opinion in Europe did not want war.
3. Fear of communism: Appeasement was practiced because of the fear of communism. They believed that
communism was a greater danger to Western Europe than Nazism and Fascism.
4. Weakness League of Nations: Britain and France believed that since the League of Nations was weak and
helpless, the only way to settle disputes was by personal contacts or appeasement.
5. Legitimacy: At first Hitler’s aggression was limited to what was legitimately German. For example, the
Rhineland and Sudetenland were inhabited by Germans. It was believed that the aggressors had limited
and genuine demands and that these demands could be met by negotiations.
6. Miscalculation: Chamberlain had false assessment of Hitler and saw Hitler as someone who could easily be
pushed into war. Britain and France appeased Mussolini in the hope of maintaining his friend against
Hitler.
7. No interest involved: It was because Britain had nothing to loose since most of the concessions granted
were out of her sphere of interest.
8. Unpreparedness for aggression: The Anglo- French military unpreparedness in the 1930’s also made them
to practice a policy of appeasement.

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 How Appeasement was Practiced
• In 1931 Japan attacked and occupied the Chinese province of Manchuria but no sanctions nor
military action was taken against Japan.
• In 1934, Hitler started the rearmament of Germany when he announced that he was going to build
the German armed forces to 36 divisions, i.e 600,000 soldiers which was the first violation of the
Treaty of Versailles.
• In 1935, the Anglo- German Naval Treaty was signed by which Britain recognized Germany’s right to
build a naval force equal to 35% that of Britain.
• In 1936 Italy invaded Abyssinia but Britain and France instead went into secret negotiations
with Mussonili. The sanctions that later imposed on him were half- hearted.
• In 1936, Hitler sent troops to the militarized Rhineland, another violation of the Treaty of
Versailles but no action was taken.
• Apart from verbal protest Britain did not take action against Germany when Germany annex
Austria.
• At the Munich Conference of 1938 Chamberlian, Deladie and Mussolini Yielded to Hitler’s
demands and handed the Suddetenland of Czechoslovakia to Hitler. This Paved the way for Hitler to
occupy the rest of Czechoslovakia.

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 The Spanish Civil War
• The first victim of joint German-Italian aggression in Europe was Spain. In the elections held in
February 1936 the Popular Front, formed in order to resist the fascist forces in Spain, won
convincingly.
• The new government started introducing reforms by restoring political liberties, meeting the
peasants’ demand for land by breaking up big estates, and improving the lot of miners and other
industrial workers. A programme of educational development was taken up.
• The Phalange (official name for the Spanish Fascist Party) and other right-wing parties and groups,
representing interests which had kept Spain a backward country, and their allies— the army
generals—now made plans to overthrow the government of the Popular Front and establish a
fascist rule.
• In July 1936, the fascists organised mutinies, supported by most of the Spanish army, both within
the country and in Spanish colonies. The main leader of the mutineers was General Franco, who led
his army from Spanish Morocco to join the rebels in Spain.

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 Civil war continued….
• Three years of brutal war followed. The Nationalists, as the anti-Republican fascist forces and their
allies were called, had in the meantime secured the help of Italy and Germany to overthrow the
Republican government.
• In fact, the civil war in Spain brought the two fascist countries of Europe together and they poured
in vast quantities of arms and ammunition and aeroplanes as well as troops to support the Spanish
fascists.
• The rebels, with foreign support, captured many parts of the country and unleashed a reign of terror
against the peasants and all those who were suspected of being supporters of the Republic. At this
time, Britain, France and USA adopted a policy of non-intervention.
• This policy meant that no aid could reach the Republicans while the German and Italian military
support to Franco continued unchecked. The only country that came to the support of the
Republicans was the Soviet Union.

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 Continue…
• The Republicans organised the defence of the Republic with the help of the citizens, who formed
their militia and fought many fierce battles.
• In November 1936, they heroically defended Madrid, the capital city, and prevented its capture by
Franco’s troops.
• The Spanish Civil War had aroused the conscience of the world. Anti-fascists from over fifty
countries enrolled themselves as volunteers to fight in defence of the Spanish Republic.
• An International Brigade with over 40,000 volunteers was formed and fought in Spain and
thousands of them died on Spanish soil.
• The volunteers included anti-fascist Italians and Germans. The battalion of the German volunteers
was named after Thalmann, the German Communist leader who had been put in a concentration
camp by the Nazis and later murdered.
• The American battalion was named after Abraham Lincoln, the US President who had abolished
slavery in USA.

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 Continue….
• The civil war in Spain was not viewed as merely a Spanish affair but one in which the entire world,
threatened by fascism and aggression, was involved. Jawaharlal Nehru went to Spain to express the
solidarity of the Indian freedom movement with the cause of the Republicans.
• Many writers, poets and artists from different parts of the world fought in the Spanish Civil War and
mobilised world public opinion in support of the Republic.
• Pablo Picasso, the greatest artist of the twentieth century, painted Guernica (Village in northern
Spain bombing), a great work of art. Guernica was a Spanish town which was destroyed by aerial
bombing by fascist planes. The painting, named after the town, was a powerful protest against the
brute force which fascism represented.
• By February 1939, most parts of Spain had fallen to the fascists and Franco’s government was
recognised by Britain and France, and, a little later, by USA.
• The Spanish Civil War is often described as the “Dress rehearsal” of the Second World War in which
the fascist countries tested their new weapons on the battlefields of Spain.

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 Why Dress Rehearsal
• Many countries got involved into The conflict: German and Italian governments actively and blatantly
assisted the Nationalist rebels with troops, material and other support. Great Britain and the United
States tried to maintain and enforce the policy of neutrality, but thousands of British and American
volunteers participated. The Soviet Union supplied limited assistance to the government of the
Spanish Republic
• Testing military tactics: Modern weapons – tanks,dive bombers,strategic bombers,anti tank guns –
were used extensively by both sides during the conflict.
• Protagonists: Spanish Civil War was fought between forces of fascism (the Nationalists, assisted by
Germany and Italian, both fascist at the time) and of democracy (the Republic, with assistance from
people from around the world).
• Appeasement: British and France saw the threat of communist takeover of Spain more threatening
than that of the nationalists and so they did not actively support the republicans. This is similar to
appeasement of Japan and Nazi Germany.

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World History

Lecture: 34
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2nd World War

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2nd World War

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2nd World War:
Causes

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 Introduction
•Just after twenty years of the completion of World War I, the Second World War took place. After
signing the Treaty of Versailles, the condition of Germany became deplorable.
• The financial crisis in Germany coupled with misery and unemployment problem gave rise to Hitler.
Mussolini of Italy and Hirohito (124th Emperor of Japan) of Japan joined hand with Hitler.
• The appeasement Policy of England and France became a failure and then broke out the World War II
of 1939.
• World War II was the deadliest conflict in all of human history. It involved more countries, cost more
money, and killed more people than any other war in human history. Between 50 to 85 million people
died. The majority were civilians.
• It included massacres, the deliberate genocide of the Holocaust, strategic bombing, starvation,
disease and the first use of nuclear weapons in history.
• World War II effectively stopped the world between 1939 and 1945. To this day, it remains the most
geographically widespread military conflict the world has ever seen.

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 How countries came into war
• Although the fighting reached across many parts of the globe, most countries involved shared a
united effort aimed at ending the aggression of the Axis Powers— Germany, Italy, and Japan.
• Despite the fact that Germany and Japan were technically allies, however, they had vastly different
motives and objectives, and their level of cooperation was primarily one of distracting the attention of
each other’s enemies rather than of attaining any specific common goals.
• Therefore, most studies of the war cover the conflicts with Germany and Japan separately, dividing
treatment of the war between the European and Pacific theaters of operation.
• The rise of Nazi Germany and its aggression can be traced directly back to World War I. Following that
war, Germany was economically devastated.
• The Treaty of Versailles unfairly placed the full blame for the war on Germany and demanded heavy
reparations payments in return.
• Although Germany never paid the bulk of these reparations, the treaty humiliated the German
people and obstructed the nation’s efforts to rebuild itself .

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 Continue…
• Then, in the late 1920s and early 1930s, the worldwide Great Depression took a further heavy toll on
the country.
• As resentment and desperation in Germany grew, radical political parties gained in popularity. They
ranged from Communists to right-wing nationalists.
• Among the more extreme activists of the latter category was Adolf Hitler, who had founded the
National Socialist German Workers’ Party (more commonly known as the Nazi Party) in 1920–1921.
• By the time of the depression in Germany, Hitler’s party had more than 100,000 members and was
growing rapidly, and it began participating in parliamentary elections with increasing success.
• In 1933, Hitler pressured the German president, Paul von Hindenburg, into appointing him chancellor
— a position from which he was quickly able to consolidate his power.
• By 1935, Germany had ceased to recognize the Treaty of Versailles and all the restrictions that
accompanied it.

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 Continue…
• In particular, Hitler announced his intention to fully rebuild Germany’s military forces. In
1938, Germany began annexing the territories of neighboring countries, including all of
Austria and most of Czechoslovakia.
• When Germany attacked Poland in September 1939, Britain and France aligned against
Germany, and the war began.
• Like Germany, Japan was severely affected by the Great Depression. Japan relied heavily
upon imported resources and desperately needed more land for its expanding population.
• Japanese military leaders, who at the time had a strong influence over the civilian
government, saw territorial expansion as the best solution.
• As a result, beginning in 1931, Japanese forces began occupying territory in the Chinese
region of Manchuria. By 1937, Japan and China were officially at war.

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 Continue….
• In 1940, the Japanese government announced its intention to establish a “new order in East
Asia,” under which the region would be freed of Western influence and guided by Japan.
• In 1940, Japan signed a formal alliance with Germany and Italy, setting the country on a clear
course to enter World War II.
• In the meantime, the United States, disapproving of Japan’s actions, placed a heavy trade
embargo on Japan, severely restricting its ability to import oil, scrap metal, and other resources
vital to its war effort.
• Japan saw itself facing an impossible crisis, and without prompt and decisive action, total
collapse was inevitable.
• The action Japan chose was a surprise attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on
December 7, 1941. This action brought the United States into World War II in both theaters,
Europe and the Pacific.

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 The War
Begins………
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 Background
1. Anschluss: Anschluss refers to the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany on 12 March 1938. Hitler
claimed that the annexation was supported by his doctrine of Anschluss, or natural political
unification of Germany and Austria. Though gravely disturbed, Britain and France took no action.
Shortly thereafter, Hitler demanded that Czechoslovakia cede to Germany the Sudetenland. The
September 1938 Munich (Germany) Conference was called to address the situation; ironically,
Czechoslovakia was not present. Britain and France agreed to give in to Hitler’s demand later Hitler
occupied whole Czechoslovakia.
2. The German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact: On August 23, 1939, a fateful meeting occurred in Moscow
between German foreign minister Joachim Von Ribbentrop and Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav
Molotov. Afterward, they announced publicly that Germany and the USSR had signed the German-
Soviet Nonaggression Pact to prevent hostilities between the two countries.
• However, the ministers kept secret the fact that, they also agreed that they would attack Poland
and divide it half , with a further provision that the USSR would take over Lithuania, Latvia, and
Estonia without German interference.

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 Outbreak of War: The German Invasion of
Poland
• Germany’s invasion of Poland came quickly and with
overwhelming force. The attack began on September 1, 1939,
with heavy air strikes followed by a rapidly advancing ground
invasion.
• Hitler referred to the strategy as Blitzkrieg, or “lightning war.” The
object of the blitzkrieg strategy was to shock the opponent so
severely that there would be little resistance, allowing the
country to be overrun quickly, with minimal German losses.
• The primary obstacle to the German invasion force proved to be
the Polish capital of Warsaw, which did not surrender until
September 27, after a prolonged siege. By this time, all of
western Poland was firmly under German control.
• Just two weeks after the German invasion began, Soviet troops
invaded Poland from the east, on September 17, 1939.

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 War Continued…
• September 3, 1939 : Honoring their guarantee of Poland’s borders, Great Britain and France declare war on
Germany.
• November,1939 – March, 1940 : The Soviet Union invades Finland, initiating the so-called Winter War.
• 1940: Germany invades Denmark and Norway. Denmark surrenders on the day of the attack; Norway
holds out until June 9.
• June 10, 1940 : Italy enters the war. Italy invades southern France on June 21.
• July 1940–October 1940 : The air war known as the Battle of Britain ends in defeat for Nazi Germany.
• September 27, 1940 : Germany, Italy, and Japan sign the Tripartite Pact.
• June 1941–November 1941 : Nazi Germany and its Axis partners (except Bulgaria) invade the Soviet Union.
And drive on Moscow by October. A Soviet counteroffensive drives the Germans from the Moscow suburbs
in chaotic retreat.
• December 7, 1941 : Japan bombs Pearl Harbor.
• December 8, 1941: The United States declares war on Japan, entering World War II.
• April 30, 1945 : Hitler commits suicide. May 7, 1945 : Germany surrenders to the western Allies.
• August 6and 9, 1945: United States drops an atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. August 14,
1945, Japan formally surrenders, ending World War II.
•
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 Consequences of World War II
1. The End of the European Age.
2. The rise of the US to superpower status.
3. End of imperialism.
4. End of dictatorship in Germany and Italy.
5. Germany was divided into West Germany and East Germany. West Germany was controlled by
Britain, France and USA. East Germany by USSR.
6. The expansion of the Soviet Union and its rise to superpower status.
7. The beginning of the nuclear age.
8. The rise of nationalism and independence movements in Asia and Africa.
9. Economics problems – Unemployment, low growth etc.
10. Emergence of two power blocks – USA and USSR. This resulted in cold war.
11. Emergence of third world Countries.
12. A renewed effort to secure lasting peace through international organizations. For example: UNO
was set up in 1945

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World History

Lecture: 35
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 Cold War

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 Meaning of cold war
• A cold war is a state of conflict between nations that does not involve
direct military action but is pursued primarily through economic and political
actions, propaganda, acts of espionage or proxy wars waged by surrogates. This
term is most commonly used to refer to the Soviet-American Cold War.
• The surrogates are typically states that are "satellites" of the conflicting nations,
i.e., nations allied to them or under their political influence.
• Opponents in a cold war will often provide economic or military aid, such as
weapons, tactical support or military advisors, to lesser nations involved in
conflicts with the opposing country.

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 Introduction
• A major feature after the end of the Second World War was the antagonism (विरोध) between United
States & Soviet Union & the armed confrontation between the military blocs headed by them for
almost four decades.
• Since the end of the First World War, the United States had emerged as the strongest power in the
world. After the Second World War, her power had grown still more compared with the European
powers who dominated the world for centuries.
• This was both in spheres of economic & military strength. After US acquired atom bomb, its power
further strengthened.
• Next to the United States the mightiest power in the world after the Second World War was Soviet
Union. It had suffered more than any other country in the war. However, in spite of these losses,
her power and prestige had increased.
• During the war, Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union had together fought against the
fascist countries. Many declarations issued during the war which aroused hopes of peace all over
the world.
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 Continue….
• However, the war was hardly over when conflicts and tensions began to emerge between Britain
and the United States on the one hand and the Soviet Union on the other.
• The relations between them began to deteriorate and came to be characterized by what has been
called the Cold War.
• Gradually, the Cold War became more intense and the world was divided into two major blocs —
the United States and West European countries forming one bloc and the Soviet Union and the
socialist countries of Eastern Europe forming the other.

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 When did it started
• 1954: just after 2nd WW
• 5th March, 1946: Speech made by Winston Churchill’s in Fulton, Missouri, USA in 1946. Churchill had
announced that an iron curtain has descended across the continent of Europe. He accused the Soviet
Union of trying to control Eastern Europe.
• 12th March, 1947: Truman Doctrine- Harry Truman announces Truman Doctrine and the provision
of aid to Greece.
• 5th June, 1947: General George C. Marshall announces the Marshall Plan- Three months later
George C. Marshall, Truman's Secretary of State, announced details of what became known as the
Marshall Plan or the European Recovery Program (ERP). Marshall offered American financial aid for
a programme of European economic recovery. The European Recovery Program came to an end on
31st December, 1951. It its three year existence, the ERP spent almost $12,500,000,000. It was
succeeded by the Mutual Security Administration.

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 Capitalism vs communism

Causes of
Cold war

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 Causes

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 Causes
1. The USA delayed opening a second front in France until 1944 - the USSR refused to support the
Polish army during the Warsaw Uprising of August 1944. British and US officials excluded the
Soviets from secret talks with the Germans to secure the surrender of their troops in Italy.
2. In August 1945 the USA detonated two atomic bombs over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki. US President Truman did not inform Stalin of his intent to deploy nuclear weapons.
Through his spy network, Stalin had known about Truman’s nuclear weapons for months.
3. In 1949, the USSR tested its first atomic bomb. This led to a race between the two superpowers to
amass the most powerful nuclear weapons with the most effective delivery systems. In 1953, both
the USA and the USSR were testing hydrogen bombs.
4. The ideological schism that had developed since World War One was clear at the peace conferences
of Yalta (Crimea) and Potsdam (Germany) in 1945. The aim of the conferences was to help the allies
decide what would happen to Europe, and in particular Germany, at the end of World War Two.

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 Continue..
5. Disagreements over Germany: In July 1945 at the Potsdam Conference, the USA, the USSR and Britain
agreed to divide Germany into four zones, until the country was secure enough to be re-unified. The USSR
was to receive most of the reparation payments from Germany to compensate for the country's losses.
However, Stalin wanted to destroy the German economy to ensure that Germany could never rise
again. Conversely, the Western Allies wanted Germany to be strong enough that it could contribute to
world trade. In June 1948, Stalin closed all land routes into Berlin, blocking the Western Allies. On May
12th 1949, after 322 days, Stalin lifted the blockade.
6. The crisis over Korea: During World War Two, Korea had been occupied by the Japanese. After the
defeat of Japan in 1945, the Korean peninsula was divided at the 38th Parallel, in preparation for
elections and reunification. The communist north was led by Kim Il Sung, the non-communist south by
Syngman Rhee. The US developed the 'domino theory. In 1950, with support from Russia and China,
Kim Il Sung invaded South Korea. The North Korean People's Army (NKPA) easily defeated the Republic
of Korea's army (the ROKs). By September, the NKPA had conquered almost the whole of South Korea.

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 Continue..
• The US secured a mandate from the UN to take action against North Korean forces. The Russians
were boycotting the UN at the time so could not veto this move.
• In September, UN troops, led by US General MacArthur, landed in Korea and drove the NKPA back.
By October, the UN forces had almost conquered all of North Korea.
• In November 1950, Chinese People's Volunteers attacked and drove the Americans back.They
recaptured North Korea, and advanced into South Korea.
• The Americans landed more troops and drove the Chinese back to the 38th parallel. The war went
on as border clashes until 1953. At this point America's new president, Eisenhower, offered peace,
but threatened to use the atomic bomb if China did not accept the offer.
• The US realised they could halt the spread of communism using military strength. A new frontline
in the Cold War had been drawn in Asia.
• This was another area where capitalism and communism met and remains a source of political and
economic tension to this day.

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 Military Blocs by USA
1. In 1949, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed for defense against the
Soviet Union. A NATO army was created which established its bases in many countries of
Europe
2. In 1954 South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was setup with United States, Britain,
France, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, the Philippines and Pakistan as members.
3. In 1955 the Baghdad Pact signed. It consisted of Britain, Turkey, Iraq, Pakistan & Iran.
United States established its military bases all over the world for use against what it
considered the danger of communist aggression.
• When there was a revolution in Iraq in 1958, that country withdrew from Baghdad Pact which
had been named after capital of Iraq, the name of Baghdad Pact was then changed to the
Central Treaty Organization (CENTO)

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 Warsaw Pact
• As against these Western & Western sponsored alliances, the Soviet Union and the
socialist countries of Europe – Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria
and the German Democratic Republic formed the Warsaw Pact.
• Under this pact, the Soviet Union stationed her troops in these countries.
• However, Soviet Union & other members of the Warsaw Pact did not have any
military bases in other parts of the world.
• The Soviet Union had treaties of friendship and mutual assistance with China.
• These alliances and the military bases came to be looked upon by countries, which
were not members of the alliances, as a danger to peace and to their
independence. Most of the countries of Asia and Africa which had won their
freedom refused to join these alliances.

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 Role of Non Aligned Movement During Cold War
• Many newly independent nations of Asia and Africa as well as many nations in other continents did
not like the military blocs. They began to follow a policy of nonalignment with any military bloc.
Their emergence played a very important role in reducing the intensity of the Cold War and in
creating an atmosphere of peace.
• Most of the newly independent countries of Asia and Africa refused to join the Cold War.
• They considered the formation of military blocs as a serious danger to peace and to their
independence.
1. The Bandung Conference was a meeting of Asian and African states, which took place on April 18–24,
1955 in Bandung, Indonesia.
2. As a movement, however, non-alignment was formally launched at the Belgrade conference in 1961.
3. The founding fathers of the Non-Aligned Movement were: Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Sukarno of
Indonesia, Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, Gamal Abdul Nasser of Egypt and Kwame Nkrumah of
Ghana. Their actions were known as ‘The Initiative of Five‘.
4. The basic premise of the NAM revolves round 4Ds viz. Decolonisation; Development, Detente and
Disarmament.

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 Arms Race During Cold War
• There was the race for deadlier weapons of destruction. For about four years after the Second World
War, only the United States possessed atomic weapons. In 1949, Soviet Union tested her first atom
bomb.
• A few years later nuclear weapons which were thousands of times more destructive than the atom
bombs used against Japan, were developed.
• The testing alone of these bombs created serious hazards to life.
• Many movements were launched in all parts of the world to demand a ban on the testing and
manufacture of nuclear weapons.
• Most of the leading scientists such as Einstein & Linus Pauling also supported this demand.
• However, the arsenals of nuclear weapons in the world went on increasing. There are so many
nuclear weapons in the world today that the world can be destroyed many times over.
• Along with the nuclear weapons and many other kinds of weaponry, new bombers, submarines and
missiles have been developed which can carry these weapons over thousands of kilometers.

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World History

Lecture: 36
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Conflict: Cuban Missile Crisis

• Soviets Planned to deploy nuclear missiles in Cuba, in striking

range of Florida.
• President Kennedy responded with a naval blockade of Cuba &
two sides were at the brink of war.
• After 13 days standoff (16 Oct 1962 – 28 Oct 1962), Soviets
removed the missiles.

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Conflict: Cuban Missile Crisis: Outcome

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Conflict: Vietnam War (1960s – 1975)

Kennedy elected in 1960,

increased no of advisers to
1600
Lyndon Baines Johnson
wanted to send ground
force.
Tonkin Gulf Incident- 1964

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Conflict: Vietnam War (1960s – 1975)

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 Conflict: Vietnam War (1960s – 1975)

Impact
The Army of the
Republic of Vietnam
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 End of Vietnam War
• U.S. President Richard Nixon began troop withdrawals in 1969. His plan, called the
Nixon Doctrine, was to build up the ARVN so that it could take over the defense of South
Vietnam. The policy became known as "Vietnamization".
• Beginning in 1970, American troops were withdrawn from border areas where most of the
fighting took place and instead redeployed along the coast and interior.
• In 1971 Australia and New Zealand withdrew their soldiers, and U.S. troop count was further
reduced to 196,700, with a deadline to remove another 45,000 troops by February 1972.
• In 1972, the North Vietnamese launched a massive invasion of South Vietnam. The South
Vietnamese forces reeled under the attack, but eventually prevailed with the help of U.S.
airpower. After extensive negotiations and the bombing of North Vietnam in December 1972,
the Paris Peace Accords were signed in January 1973.
• Under the provisions of the Accords, U.S. forces were completely withdrawn. Unfortunately,
this did not end the war for the Vietnamese and the fighting continued until April 1975 when
Saigon fell to the communists.
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Conflict: Prague spring 1968

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 Continue…

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 Continue…

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 The Detent
• Détente (a French word meaning release from tension) is the name given to a period of improved
relations between the United States and the Soviet Union that began tentatively in 1971 and took
decisive form when President Richard M. Nixon visited the secretary-general of the Soviet Communist
party, Leonid I. Brezhnev, in Moscow, May 1972.
• Both countries stood to gain if trade could be increased and the danger of nuclear warfare reduced.
• Nixon’s trip to China had also heightened the Soviets’ interest in détente; given the growing antagonism
between Russia and China, Brezhnev had no wish to see his most potent rivals close ranks against him.
• Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT-I)- May 26, 1972- to limit the number of nuclear missiles in their
arsenals. Other: cooperative research in a variety of areas, including space exploration; and expanded
commerce.
• Nixon’s successor in the talks, President Jimmy Carter (1977 to 1981), supported SALT-II (1972 to 1979)-
curtail the manufacture of strategic nuclear weapons, but also pressed a military buildup and a human
rights campaign, which cooled relations between the countries – Failed because of Soviet
Invasion in Afghanistan.
• With the election of Ronald Reagan (1981 to 1989), who emphasized military preparedness as the key to
Soviet-American relations, détente as Nixon had envisioned it came to an end.

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Conflict: Afghan invasion 1979

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Soviet Invasion

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USA`s Intervention

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Soviet Withdrawal

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 Conflict: Star Wars
• The United States launched a programme of developing
new and even more deadly weapons, popularly known as
the Star Wars.
• The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), also known as Star
Wars, was a program first initiated on March 23, 1983
under President Ronald Reagan.
• The intent of this program was to develop a sophisticated
anti-ballistic missile system in order to prevent missile
attacks from other countries, specifically the Soviet Union.
• These weapons would have meant taking the conflict into
outer space and launching attacks from there.
• However, the world situation began to improve after the
mid 1980s and by the end of the 1980s it could be said with
much certainty that the era of Cold War had came to an
end.

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 Impact of Cold War
1. This had many adverse consequences for democracy, and freedom movements in the colonies. The
freedom movements in many countries began to be considered unsympathetically by countries which
were not themselves colonial powers but were aligned to the colonial powers. For example, United
States supported France in suppressing the freedom movement in Indo China.
2. Countries which wanted to pursue an independent policy and promote relations with the Soviet Union
were looked upon with suspicion.
3. All these factors made the international situation tense as in some areas it resulted in wars and in many
other areas it led to prolonging of conflicts. Example- Vietnam, Korea, Afghanistan.
4. The growing tension in the world was worsened by the setting up of military blocs. Example- NATO and
Warsaw Pact.
5. Speedy development of Space research and Space race.
6. Speedy militarization and Armament.
7. Disintegration of USSR.

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World History

Lecture: 37
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 Introduction
• The Russian Revolution of 1917 ended the Russian empire. This was
followed by Russian Civil War which finally resulted in the formation
of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922.
• The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was a loose
confederation of 15 republics with Russia as the leader.
• USSR was a strong bloc with great control over global politics from
1922 to 1991, when it was disintegrated into smaller units.

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• The Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics (USSR) had
a total of 15 republics before
its disintegration in 1991.
Russia was one of the
republics.
• 1. Armenia 8. Latvia
2. Azerbaijan 9. Lithuania
3. Belarus 10. Moldova
4. Estonia 11. Russia
5. Georgia 12. Tajikistan
6. Kazakhstan 13. Turkmenistan
7. Kyrgyzstan 14. Ukraine
15. Uzbekistan

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 The Socialist Bloc or Second World
• USSR ≠ Socialist Bloc.
• Not to be confused with USSR; these are east Europeans countries, which showed
allegiance to USSR and socialist/communist principles.
• USSR was the leader of the socialist bloc. (So Socialist bloc is the super set and USSR
is the subset, to make it simple)
• Most of these countries were under Fascist rule during second world war, when
USSR liberated them, they came under USSR control.
• Warsaw pact was the military alliance which kept the socialist group together.
(Remember – NATO, the military alliance for capitalist countries)

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 Problems with USSR
1. Bureaucratic and authoritarian system.
2. Lack of democracy.
3. Lack of freedom of speech.
4. One party system (communist) – unaccountable to the people.
5. Dominance of Russia; neglect of the interests of other republics.
6. High expenditure on defense, low on infrastructure and
technology.

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 Disintegration of the USSR : Major Events
• Crisis in the Socialist bloc : People in many east European countries started protest against
their own governments and USSR. Without the right intervention from USSR at the right
time, communist governments in the second world collapsed one after the other.
• The fall of Berlin Wall: Germany was divided after the second world war – among the
socialist USSR and the capitalist western regimes. The fall of Berlin led to a series of events
including the disintegration of the USSR.
• Economic and political reforms in USSR : Gorbachev identified the economic and political
problems of USSR, and started a series of reforms, with the intention to revive economy.
This was a deviation from the communist policies, and was more closely associated with
the market economy. Many communist leaders in USSR opposed reforms initiated by
Gorbachev. They encouraged a coup in 1991.

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 He was General Secretary of its governing
Communist Party from 1985 until 1991.
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 Disintegration of the USSR : Major Events
• Coup: The coup of 1991- Eastern and Central Europe- Poland, Bulgaria, Romania,
Czechoslovakia.
• Opposition against the coup : Boris Yelsin who won popular election in Russian
Republic. Freedom for republics became the slogan. Boris Yeltsin and the pluralist
movement advocated democratization and rapid economic reforms while the hard-
line Communist elite wanted to thwart Gorbachev’s reform agenda.
• Power shift from Soviet center to republics: Republics like Russia, Ukraine, Belarus
emerged powerful. They declared that the soviet union was disbanded.

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 Factors which led to the disintegration of the USSR
1.Economic Weakness: The weakness of the economy was the major cause of
dissatisfaction among the people in USSR. There was sever shortage of consumer items.
The reason for economics weakness were the following: Huge military spending,
Maintenance of satellite states in Easter Europe, Maintenance of the Central Asian
Republics within the USSR.
2. Political Un-accountability: The communist party regime (single party rule) for
around 70 years turned authoritarian. There was widespread corruption, nepotism and
lack of transparency. Gorbachev’s decision to allow elections with a multi-party system
and create a presidency for the Soviet Union began a slow process of democratization
that eventually destabilized Communist control and contributed to the collapse of the
Soviet Union.

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 Factors which led to the disintegration of the USSR
3. Gorbachev’s reforms: Once people started to enjoy freedom under Micheal
Gorbachev’s reforms, they demanded more. The demand grew into a big force
which turned difficult to control. The people wanted to catch up with the west
quickly.
4. Rise of nationalism: Rise of nationalism among countries like Russia, Baltic republics
(Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Ukraine, Georgia etc. is the most important and immediate
cause of disintegration of the USSR. The national feeling was strong among the more
prosperous areas in USSR and not in Central Asian republics. Ordinary people among
prosperous republics didn’t like to pay big price to uplift the backward Central Asian
republics.

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 Consequences
1. The fall of second world.
2. The period marked the end of many communist regimes in response to
mass protests.
3. End of cold war: End of arms race, end of ideological confrontations.
4. Change in power equations: Unipolar world, capitalist ideology, IMF,
World Bank etc.
5. Emergence of new countries and new alliances – Eg: Baltic countries
aligned with NATO.

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