Unit Five

Politics, Economy And Social Processes From The Early

Sixteenth To The End Of The Eighteenth Centuries
Major developments of the period include expansion of trade,
conflicts between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
Sultanates and foreign interventions; the population
movements of the Afar, the Somali, the Argoba and the
Oromo; religious expansions, interaction of peoples and the
resultant integration across ethnic and religious diversities.
Besides, it discusses. Finally, thisocieties and states in different
parts of Ethiopia and the Horn that underwent through
different historical processes. It also discusses the Gondarine
Period (1636-1769), Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855) including
the Yejju rule (1786-1853).
 5.1. Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of
Adal and After
• The revival of long-distance trade caused
competition and struggle for control over the trade
routes between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
principalities. This was followed by a series of wars,
which were depicted as wars for religious
supremacy in historical accounts of Christian and
Muslim clerics. While mal-administration and
exploitation of periphery made military mobilization
possible, religion provided ideological justification for
the wars.
• In its actual truth political supremacy and
economic interest of controlling the long distance
trade routes were the major reasons behind the
conflict.
• However, the interest to control trade routes lay
at the heart of the conflict between the Christian
Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates that
continued for over two centuries, culminating in
the wars between the Christian Kingdom and the
Sultanate of Adal that lasted from 1529 to 1543.
Ahmad Gragn
• The origins of Imam Ahmed, “the lefthanded,” are
obscure. He was born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa and
Jigjiga and raised by his devout Muslim kin in one of the
oases on the route to Zeila. He was a devout Muslim. He
soldiered for Garad Abun of Adal, who during his few
years in power called for Islamic Puritanism.
• According to local tradition, the Imam withdrew to the
countryside, upon the death of his source of inspiration,
Garad Abun, and started calling for devotion to the
teachings of Islam.
• After Imam Ahmad’s rise to power under circumstances
discussed above, the battles were not just fought for
control of the long-distance trade route going through
Zeila but mainly because there was environmental
pressure among the Afar and Somali pastoralists
pushing to approach Harar and the Christian Kingdom.
• It was one of the Imam’s remarkable achievements in
leadership that he mobilized the pastoralist
communities of the Afar, the Somali, the Harla,
Harari and others to a common cause.
• He convinced them not to fight amongst
themselves but to unite and expand to the
Christian Kingdom and resolve their pressing
material needs while at the same time
guarding Islamic doctrines and practices from
the infiltration of any alien religious doctrine.
• He was able to gain acceptance as Imam and
consolidated his army to fight the Christian
Kingdom.
• Meanwhile, Lebne-Dengel (r.1508-1540) was enthroned when he was
only 11 years old. Assisted by the elderly mother Queen Elleni and due
to internal conflicts in Adal, the Christian state initially retained its
interest and advanced into Muslim territory scoring victories in the
early 16th c. As a result, most of the Muslim Sultanates including Adal
were made tributaries to the Christian Kingdom.
• Shortly, Adal fell to Imam Ahmed’s army. By the time Imam Ahmed
was strong enough for military confrontation in 1520, he refused to
pay tribute and this was followed by a campaign against the
Christian Kingdom in 1527.
• The Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled the territories
including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata and
putting the Christian Kingdom at risk.
• In 1528, realizing the rising threat, Lebne-Dengel mobilized
a vast force from his domain and installed about 50km east
of what is now Addis Ababa. In addition to logistical
problems, the leadership of the army of Christian Kingdom
failed to adopt a common strategy to defeat Adal’s force.
• But the Imam’s army had also an excellent leadership
characterized by better mobility and flexible tactics with a
unified command. As a result, the larger and well-equipped
Christian army was defeated in one of the most decisive
engagement at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near
present day Mojo.
• After the victory, the Imam’s army made a large-scale
control of the territories of the Christian Kingdom
including Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and moved as far
north as Mereb Melash.
• By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila to
Massawa on the coast, including the Ethiopian interior.
• As he penetrated deep into the Christian Kingdom,
Imam Ahmed established a civil administrative
bureaucracy constituted from his own men and newly
recruited personnel from the Christian territories.
• One of the most illuminating figures during the war
was the wife of the Imam, Bati Del Wanbara. She
was the daughter of a Muslim military commander of
Adal known as Mahfuz.
• Tradition claimed that Del Wanbara had encouraged
her husband to avenge the death of her father. She
accompanied her husband throughout his expeditions.
• Indeed, she delivered her two sons during the
campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat and present-day
Tigray, respectively.
• On the part of the Christian Kingdom, the military set back
forced the reigning king, Lebne Dengel, to retreat finally
dying in 1540 as a fugitive.
• His son and successor, Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559),
continued to face the wars this time with more intensity as
Imam Ahmed had received Turkish musketeers.
• In the meantime, based on earlier request made by Lebne
Dengel in 1535, about four hundred Portuguese soldiers,
armed with matchlocks arrived in the Christian court in
1541.The force was led by Christopher da Gama, the
youngest son of Vasco da Gama.
• However, in August 1542 the Christian army was defeated at
Ofla, southern Tigray. In the battle, about 200 Portuguese were
killed and their leader Christopher da Gama was beheaded.
• An important anecdote that should be mentioned here is the role of
Lebne-Dengel's wife Seblewongel. She is said to have been
participated in the war against Imam Ahmed in 1542 when the
army of the Christian Kingdom lost almost half of the Portuguese
soldiers.
• After the success, Imam Ahmed was confident about his army’s
ability to repulse any future attack that can be made by the force
of the Christian Kingdom. Due to this reason, he sent his allies
back home and let his army camp.
• On the part of the Christians, preparations were made for
final confrontation under the leadership of Emperor
Gelawdewos (r.1540-59).
• The Queen mother, Seble-Wongel, advised the reigning
emperor how to prepare and march for the battle of
Woyna-Dega. Due to limited resources, the monarch
employed hit and run strategy, which severely affected
Imam’s army.
• Finally, On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was
encamped near Lake Tana, he was attacked and killed
after a fierce fighting at the battle of Woyna-Dega.
• Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to
Gelawdewos and he was tolerant towards them to promote
national conciliation and to develop revival of smooth
relations with the Muslim world. Besides, Gelawdewos was
able to restore many of the pre-1520s territories and
tributary regions.
• The king attempted to reconsolidate the state through
campaigns to different areas and camping Chewa (regiment)
in border areas. By the early 1550s, Gelawdewos had
established a strong Christian Kingdom.
• However, the control over the Muslim dominated areas
was not an easy task. In the period, the growing
challenge to the Christian state came from the
retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal, the
Ottoman Turks, Jesuit interlude, and Oromos
advance into the center.
• Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn al Waazir
Mujahid was ready to wage war against the Christian
state for revenge. In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur
confronted Gelawdewos and killed the king himself.
• Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563) who succeeded Gelawdewos
defeated the Turks' force and reclaimed territories in the
coast including Dabarwa.
• However, in the early 1560s, one of the conspirators Yishaq
revolted and allied with the Turks against him ( Minas).
• Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to defend his
territory from the Turks while fighting with the Agaw,
Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama, Enarya and the Oromo. The
emperor then marched to the north, defeated Turkish forces,
and restored the territories.
•The Muslim-Christian conflict had resulted in a
number of consequences. For instance,
Consumed huge human lives and material cost
Both the Muslim Sultanate and Christian Kingdom
were weakened thereby paving the way for an easy
infiltration and success of the Oromo population
movement
The destruction and burning of churches and
mosques with their precious heritages
In its positive outcomes, the war had arguably resulted in
cultural interaction among the peoples of Ethiopia.
Linguistic and religious interactions accompanied by
intermarriages among peoples of various cultural groups
were one of these manifestations in the long history of
Ethiopia and the Horn.
The foreign powers such as Portuguese and the Ottoman
Turkish intervened in the internal affairs of the country and
catalyzed the war.
In the subsequent period due to the teaching of the
Portuguese Catholics religious controversy was created
within the EOC etc.
• Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the
Indian Ocean between Portugal and the Ottoman Turks
gave the prolonged conflict between the Christian
Kingdom and the Muslim principalities a global
dimension.
• Middle Eastern powers including the dominant Ottoman
Empire who were the intermediaries of the international
trade were adversely affected by the discovery of a new
sea route to India by Vasco da Gama in 1498.
• From the first decade of the 16th c, messengers were sent.
• However, actual military alliance did not take place because
Ethiopia was not a sea power to give a meaningful maritime
support to Portugal against the Ottoman Turks. On its part,
the Christian Kingdom asked Portugal’s military assistance
against its Muslim rival.
• Having noticed the movement of diplomatic missions
between the Christian Kingdom and Portugal, the Turks gave
moral and military support to Imam Ahmed.
• In 1540, the Imam turned to his Muslim ally, Turkey, for
assistance and regional Ottoman authorities provided two
hundred Muslim musketeers and ten cannons.
 5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious
Controversies
• The rulers of the Christian Kingdom may have
regarded an alliance with Roman Catholicism as a
tactic to secure sufficient modern weaponry and
training to restore its lost territories.
• As a result, in 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along
with their bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came to
Ethiopia to expand Catholicism.
• The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two
different and therefore separate, natures of Christ-
divine and human, which was contrary to Monophysite
theology of Ethiopian Orthodox Church, through
union or Tewahedo had a perfect human nature
inseparable from the divine.
• The leading members of the mission who played key
role in efforts to evangelize the country include Joao
Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and
Alfonso Mendez.
• The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor
Gelawdewos (r.1540-59), hoping that the rest of the society
would follow suit. Gelawdewos listened and engaged in
doctrinal debates with the missionaries, but he was not
prepared to give-up. Instead, he defended the teachings of
Orthodox Christianity in a document entitled the Confession
of Faith.
• Minas (r.1559-1563) and Sertse-Dengel (r.1563-1598) who
succeeded Gelawdewos(1540-1590) one after the other,
were too busy fighting against the Oromo and the Turkish
forces to engage the Jesuits in their courts.
• The Jesuits got relative success with Emperor Za-Dengel (r.
1603-4), who was said to have been sympathetic to
Catholicism. Yet Za-Dengel’s reign was too short for the
Jesuits to effect the desired result.
• Za-Dengel was overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1604-7), who met
a similar fate in the hands of Susenyos (r. 1607-32).
• Susenyos who was challenged by provincial leaders who
refused to pay tribute, integrated the Oromo with the
forces of the central government to consolidate his power
and stabilize the country.
• Probably as a means to resolve this problem, Susenyos
sought for an alliance, which he got through the
diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez.
• In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism and
announced it to be state religion later in 1622.
• In the meantime, in 1617-18 several anti-Catholic
voices mounted following the changes in liturgy and
religious practices.
•Even worsened the situation, with the monarch’s consent,
another Spanish Jesuit, Afonso Mendez ordered:
 Reconsecration of Orthodox priests and deacons and
rebaptism of the mass.
 Suspension of Old Testament customs such as male
circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath.
 Prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez, fasting on
Wednesdays and Fridays, reverence/honoring or
worshiping for Ethiopian saints and the Holy Ark of
Covenant (Tabot).
• Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork/pig, Latin Mass
and Gregorian calendar to be adopted.
• Thus, the catholic reforms led to revolts headed by the
ecclesiastics and the nobility. Even loyal followers of the
emperor including his own son Fasiledas (r. 1632-1667)
were opposed to the changes initiated by the Jesuits.
• Due to the above factors, after 1625, controversies,
rebellions, repressions mounted and the state came to the
verge of falling apart. In a battle in June 1632, large
number of peasants lost their lives in one day.
• Finally, emperor Susenyos abdicated the throne in favor
of his son Fasiledas, who reversed the Catholic
transformation, and restored the EOC in to its former
position.
•Consequently, after he came to power Fasiledas did the ffng:
Restored the position of EOC as the state religion, and
by doing so Fasiledas was able to restore peace and
order.
Expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts
including Susenyos’ brother and the most fervent
supporter of Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos.
Fearing another religious conflict, Emperor
Fasiledas introduced a “closed-door” policy,
which isolated the country from all Europeans
for about a century and a half.
Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe
remained effective until the beginning of the 19 th
c with the exception of secret visits by a French
Doctor Charles Jacques Poncet and the Scottish
traveler James Bruce in 1700 and 1769,
Conversely, he initiated and adopted a policy of close
diplomatic relations with the Islamic world and
formed an alliance with the neighboring Muslim states
to ensure that no European crossed into the Christian
Kingdom.
As a result, in 1647, he concluded an agreement with
the Ottoman Pasha at Suakin and Massawa to the
effect that the latter should block any European from
entering in to his territory.
•In the subsequent period, the Jesuit
Catholics intervention triggered
doctrinal divisions and controversy
within the Ethiopian Orthodox
Church that was divided into disputant
sects and reached its peak during the
Zemene Mesafint (1769-1855).
•Those disputant sects were:
i. Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first
in eternity as a Divine Being the eternal birth and second,
born again from St. Mary into the world as a perfect man
and perfect divinity united in one nature, thus Tewahedo
(United). It was dominant in Tigray and Lasta.
ii.Qibat (Unction) was developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine
and accepted the eternal birth as the first birth of Christ,
but claimed that at the moment of his incarnation ( ende sew
siga melbes), when he was born into the world, Holy Ghost
anointed him. This sect was dominant in Gojjam.
III.Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through
Grace) taught that Christ was first born in eternity as
divine being, was born again in the womb of St.
Mary and anointed by Holy Ghost. This sect was
dominant in Gonder and Shawa.
• However, this problem was finally resolved at the
Boru Meda Meeting held in 1880s under Emperor
Yohanes iv where Tewahido doctrine was declared to
be the only doctrine of the Ethiopian Orthodox
Tewahido Church as a national religion.
 5.3. Population Movements

• The movements of people from one place to another have

been played important roles in shaping the history of
Ethiopia and the Horn.
• population movements occurred in the Horn due to various
reasons, in varied scales and followed different directions
• In Ethiopia and the Horn, the causes of the movements
could be attributed to the region's long socio-political
conditions involving military conflicts, drought and
demographic factors.
• The Major outcomes of population movements
during the period under consideration include;
religious, ethnic and linguistic interactions and
intermingling of peoples.
intermarriage of peoples, change of abode/
residences, original culture and evolution of
new identities.
 5.3.1. Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar, and Somali
• The military conflict between the Christian Kingdom and
the Sultanate of Adal in the last fifteenth and the early
sixteenth centuries for reasons of political supremacy and
economic domination mainly controlling the long
distance trade routes was partly responsible for the
population movement of the Argoba, Afar and Somali who
moved back and forth in response to the ongoing military
conflicts. In addition, pressure on the environment was a
major factor for the population movement.
 i. The Argoba
• The Argoba were major agents of Islamic expansion,
trade and Muslim state formation in the Horn. For
instance, the sultanate of Shewa and Ifat were established
by the Makhzumite and Walasma Dynasties respectively
• Towards the end of the thirteenth century, the sultanate of
Shewa moved further to the east as the result of the
pressure from the Christian Kingdom. The sultanate of
Ifat, in which the Argoba were dominant, became the
center of Muslim resistance.
• The area inhabited by the Argoba was also a target of the
expanding Christian Kingdom and was the major center of
conflict due to the fact that the major caravan trade routes
passed through it. Thus, on the eve of the wars of Imam
Ahmed al Ghazi, the Argoba joined the Afar and the
Somali against the Christian Kingdom.
• As a result, the Christian-Muslim rivalry and the conflicts
thereof led to the destruction of sultanates and dispersion
of the people. The enduring effect of the conflict can be
observed from the fragmented settlement patterns of the
people.
 ii.The Afar

• Before the 16th c, due to drought, the Afar moved

towards the east until they reached the middle Awash.
Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed
through the Afar's territory.
• As a result, the region was the center of competition
between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
sultanates to control the trade routes.
• The conflict inevitably pressurized the Afar to move into
different directions to avoid the risk of the conflicts.
 iii. The Somali
• Their territory lay in the region traversed by major trade
routes during medieval period. Prior to the 16th c wars
between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
Sultanates, there was environmental pressure on Somali
inhabited areas.
• The population movement of the Somali was a strong
force behind the military strength of the Imam.
However, the population movement of the Somali did not
last for long as they returned to their home base following
the defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543.
5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
A. The Gadaa System
• The Oromo population movement of the 16th c cannot be
better understood without considering the Gadaa system.
• The Gadaa system was the socio-political and economic
institution through which the Oromo socially organized
themselves, administered their affairs, defended their
territories, maintained law and order, and managed their
economies.
• Studies do not clearly indicate when and how the
Gadaa system emerged. However, it is clear that for
long the society organized their politics, economy,
social, cultural, and religious affairs through the Gadaa
institution.
• The account by Abba Bahrey indicates that during the
early sixteenth century, the system fully functioned
because of which the Oromo were well organized.
Thus, it is reasonable to think that the Oromo had
practiced the Gadaa system long before the sixteenth
century movement.
• Recent studies based on the Gadaa calendar and
Gadaa centers suggest that the system evolved from
the earlier Cushitic age-set social organization.
• Time computation and recording history was based
on the eight-year segment of time. In the system,
eight years represented one Gadaa period, 5-
gadaa periods or 40 years represented one
generation and nine generations represented an
era.
• Accordingly, the earliest eras of Gadaa but still obscure were
those of Bidiri Dhoqqe. Prior to the beginning of Gadaa
Borana-Barentu around 1450 AD, the Oromo passed through
known eras of Taya, Tasaa, Munyo, Suftu, Maddile, Abroji,
Dhittacha and Warra-Daye (warden), each of which survived
for an era.
• Gadaa was interrupted and revitalized during various eras
because of various internal and external factors. Example, the
Borana-Barentu Gadaa was instituted after interruption for
nearly two generations. It was revived in 1450 at Madda
Walabu that became the central Chaffe (assembly) and seat
• The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy such
as periodic succession, power sharing to prevent a one-
man rule and representation of all lineages, clans and
confederacies. It also served as a mechanism of socialization,
education, maintenance of peace and order, and social
cohesion. In addition, Gadaa constituted rules of arara
(conflict resolution), guma (compensation), and rakoo
(marriage).
• The Gadaa system organized the Oromo society into age-
grades and generation sets delineating members' social,
political, and economic responsibilities.
• In the system, ten age grades and five classes
operated in parallel. The system provided a socio-
political framework that institutionalized
relationship between seniors and juniors and
egalitarian relations among members of a grade.
• The system helped the members of age-sets to
develop a consistent and stable sense of self and
others.
• The following table shows a common version of age-
grades and roles associated to them.
Age-grades and their roles

Gadaa-grade Age Roles

Dabale birth-8 years
socialization
Game 9-16

Folle 17-24 military training, agriculture etc

Qondala 25-32 military service

Raba Dori 33-40 candidates for political power

Luba 41-48 leaders of Gadaa government
Yuba 49-80
senior advisors, educators and ritual
leaders
• The Gadaa/Luba assumed power for eight years. The
head of the government was known as Abba-Gadaa
literally “father of the period” who was assisted by
several elected representatives from among the generation
set. These included:
Abba Bokku (father of scepter),
Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly),
Abba-Dula (war leader),
Abba Sera (father of law),
Abba Alanga (judge),
Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other councilors.
• In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played
indispensable roles in power transfer and legitimizing the
ruling gadaa class.
• Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution,
which helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity. Women
from childhood to old age i.e. guduru (pre-pubescent), qarre
(adolescent, ready for marriage), kalale (wives of Luba and
Yuba) and cifire (wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years) were
believed to have sacred power. They involved in occasions
like power transfer, conflict resolution, thanks-giving and
others. The kalale were also privileged to support and advise
the ruling class.
•
The Gadaa system functioned by the cyclical power transfer from one
Gadaa class to the next every eight years. With some minor differences
in nomenclature in different parts of Oromo territories, the
five Gadaa classes (generation sets) are listed below:

Fathers Sons
Melba Harmufa
Mudena Robale
Kilole Birmajii
Bifole Mul’ata
Michille Dulo
 B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
• A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the
Oromo population movement of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries.
i. Natural factors: include demographic pressure and
subsequent need for land to accommodate the growing
human and livestock population.
ii.Manmade factors: the conflict between the Christian
Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates from the thirteenth to the
sixteenth centuries might have pressurized mainly pastoral
Oromo groups to leave the lands they inhabited for other
areas.
• In the early decade of the sixteenth century, when the
population movement began, the Oromo were already
organized under Borana and Barentu confederacies.
• The Oromo forces took northern direction and passed
through a corridor between Mount Walabu and Lake
Abbaya. When they reached half way between Lakes
Abbaya and Hawassa, they took westward and
penetrated across the Bilatte River to the
southwest. Then they headed northwards to the
lakes region of the Rift Valley.
• From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought 12Butta wars. Accordingly,
i. The first Gadaa i.e Melba (1522-1530) fought and
defeated Christian regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil and
occupied Bali
ii. Mudena (1530-8) reached the edge of Awash River.
iii.The Kilole (1538-46) controlled Dawaro after defeating
Christian regiment Adal Mabraq
iv.Bifole (1546-54) advanced to Waj and Erer.
v.The Michille (1554-62) scored victory over Hamalmal's
force at Dago, and Jan Amora forces as well as Adal led
by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo.
vi.The Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina and
Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc.
vii.In 1574, Sartsa Dingil’s (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj Halibo
defeated Robale gadaa (1570-78) at Woyna Daga, but Robale
recovered by defeating Zara’a Yohannis’ force.
viii.The Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama
to Wolaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment.
ix.The Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya
and Tigray.
x. In the early 17th c, the Dulo (1594-1602), the last two called
Melba (1603-10), and Mudena (1610-18) expanded to West and
Northern parts of the Horn of Africa while others like the Warday
moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and Majertin in Somalia.
• In the course of their movement into various regions,
different Oromo branches established Gadaa centers.
Accordingly, Oda Nabee of Tulama, Oda Roba of Sikko-
Mando (Arsi), Oda Bultum of Itu-Humabenna, Oda Bisil of
Mecha and Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha became major
Gadaa centers. Other places, which became Gadaa centers,
were Gayo of Sabbo-Gona, Me'e Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi
of Ilu, Oda Hulle of Jimma, Oda Garado of Waloo, etc.
• Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of
Guji, Makko-Bili of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of Jimma and
others established Gadaa centers and laid down cardinal laws
in their respective areas.
• However, various Oromo groups kept their relations through the
office of Abba Muda (the father of anointment) seated at Madda
Walabu and formed alliances during times of difficulty. Besides,
they obeyed similar ada (culture) and sera (law) through sending
their delegates to Madda-Walabu, the central chaffe until the pan-
Oromo assembly was forbidden in 1900 due to the political
influence of the Ethiopian state.
• In due course, Gadaa devised effective resource allocation
formula including land. Land holding system to regulate resource
and their interaction among different clans is known as the
qabiyye system. The system established rights of precedence
(seniority) in possession of land.
5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious Diversities
• The political, social, and economic processes of the medieval
period were the major factors for the people's interactions across
regions. Such interactions occurred during peace and conflict
times. The cases in point were the trade contacts and conflicts to
control trade routes, religious expansion, and territorial expansion
and population movements.
• Some of the major consequences of the interactions were:
 integration of peoples across ethnic and religious diversities in
Ethiopia and the Horn.
Population movement of the period relatively covered
extensive geographical areas in the region. It involved
diverse ethnic groups, cultures, and religions from
south to north and from east to west.
Territorial and religious expansion by the Christian
kingdom diffused Christian tradition from north to the
south.
The wars of Imam Ahmed and the population
movements of the Argoba, the Afar and the Somali
caused the expansion of Islam into the central parts of
One consequence of the Oromo population
movement was that it put an end to the wars
between the Christian and Muslim states as well as
the southward expansion of the Christian state.
At larger scale, the Oromo contact with diverse
peoples in the sixteenth century brought far-reaching
integrations among peoples across ethnic and
religious background.
The Oromo integrated non-Oromos through two adoption
mechanisms: Guddifacha and Moggasa. Guddifacha
refers to the adoption of a child by a foster parent. In this
system, the child enjoyed equal rights and privileges with
a biological child. Moggasa was a system of adopting non-
Oromos commonly known as Oromsu. It was the practice
of incorporation of individuals or groups to a clan
through oath of allegiance/adherence with all the rights
and obligations that such membership entailed. Moggasa
was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on behalf of the clan.
The adopted groups gained both protection and material
benefits.
The interactions also resulted in an exchange of socio-
cultural values and institutions. A number of peoples in the
neighborhood of the Oromo adopted Gadaa system and
Oromo language. Likewise, the Oromo adopted and
adapted cultures and traditions of the people with whom
they came into contact. The case in point is the adoption
of monarchical systems and the integration of the
Oromo to the Christian and Muslim cultures. It is
important to mention the rise of nobles in the northern
Oromo in politics particularly during the Gondar
period, Zemene-Mesafint and the making of modern
Ethiopia. etc
 5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and
Western Regions
• It is not possible in the space of a brief teaching
module such as this to provide an exhaustive detail
of societies and states in eastern, central, southern,
and western parts of the country in the period. That is
why here we see some of them. The selection of
states for discussion also considered availability of
sources and treatment in earlier sections.
 5.5.1. Peoples and States in the East
i. Somali
• The Somali practiced pastoral economy and moved b/n
places for centuries possibly in search of sufficient pasture.
• Historically, a council known as shir governed the society.
The decision making process was highly democratic in
which all-adult males were allowed equal access and
participation. It governed wide-ranging affairs including
resource allocation, marriage, trade and crime.
• As a component of shir, the guurti (a council of elders)
was the highest political council mandated with resolving
• Some evidences witness about the Somali:
Ibn Said (1214-86), an Arab geographer, noted that Merca
town located in the southern Somali coast near Shabele
River was a capital that brought large number of Somalis
together during the thirteenth century.
The songs celebrating King Yeshaq's (r. 1413-30) military
success depicts that the Somali lived close to the Christian
Kingdom.
Somali contingents also played important role in the
victories of the Sultanate of Adal against the Christian
kingdom.
 ii. Afar
• The Afar predominantly lived in northeastern Ethiopia and in
northern Djibouti, although some have also inhabited southern
part of Eritrea. The Afar people were first mentioned by Ibn
Said. During the thirteenth century, they occupied the lowland
territory near Bab el-Mandeb.
• The Afar had an indigenous governance system known as
Makabanto, which has some elements of democracy. The land
inhabited by the Afars was home for many historical cities such as
Maduna and Abasa.
• Following the collapse of the power of Sultanate of Adal in the
sixteenth century, the Afar established their sultanates like Awsa,
• Awsa Sultanate succeeded the earlier Imamate of Awsa in the
middle Awash. The latter polity had come into existence in 1577,
when Mohammed Jasa moved his capital from Harar to Awsa.
• At some point after 1672, Awsa declined and temporarily ended
in conjunction with Imam Umar Din bin Adam's recorded
ascension/rise to the throne. The Sultanate was subsequently
reestablished by Kedafo around 1734, and was thereafter ruled
by his Mudaito Dynasty.
• Primary symbol of the Sultan was silver baton/stick.
• Awsa’s economy mainly depended on Bati Ginda’e trade route.
Later it became center of Islamic learning led by preachers like
Tola Hanfire.
 iii. Argoba
• Early reference to the people of Argoba is insufficient.
There are two versions on the origin of the people of
Argoba. The first version holds that they descended from
the followers of the Prophet Mohammed who came to the
Horn of Africa and settled at Ifat.
• The second version claims that the origin of the Argoba is
not related with Muslim-Arab immigrants. More plausibly,
the Argoba are one of the ancient peoples in the region that
accepted Islam very early from religious leaders who came
from Arabia.
 V. The Emirate of Harar
• Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers in the region of
Ethiopia and the Horn. In the sixteenth century, Harar
became the capital of Walasma of Adal replacing Dakar
until 1577 when it was shifted to Awsa due to the pressure
from the Oromo.
• Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim used Harar as a center from
where he launched his campaigns into the Christian
kingdom in 1527. Later during the reign of Emir Nur
Mujahid, Harar became a walled city where the sultanate
• In the mid seventeenth century, Emir Ali ibn Da’ud
(r. 1647-62) in cooperation with the Oromo
established a dynasty which was to rule for nearly
two centuries and a half.
• It was strengthened by Amirs like Abdul Shakur
(1783-94). The Amir’s council, Majilis engaged in
supervising Mosque land, Waqf, and offering other
assistance to the Amir.
• The emirate grew in importance to be a steady center
of Islamic culture and power.
• Its authority was established over the surrounding
Oromo and Somali through trade, inter-marriage, and
expansion of Islamic teachings. Egyptians were
attracted by such a prominence that they sent an
expeditionary force in 1875 and controlled the
emirate for nearly a decade.
• Although it was later restored, and ruled by Amir
Abdulahi, as the last emir of the Sultanate for two
years, Emperor Menilek’s expansion to the region
shortly followed in 1887.
 5.5.2. Peoples and States in Central and South-Central Parts
i. The Kingdom of Shewa
• The Kingdom of Shewa was formed by a Menz ruler Negasi
Kristos (r.1696-1703) and eventually controlled districts like
Asandabo, Debdabo, Mafud and Yifat. Shewa’s economy was
mainly based on agriculture supplemented by trade and craft.
• The second king was Merid Azmatch Sebestie/Sebastyanos
(r.1703-18). Abuye/ Abiyye (1718-45) made Haramba, his
capital and tried to subjugate the surrounding Oromo before he
was killed by the Karrayu Oromo.
• In addition to his unsuccessful attempts to control the Afar and
Abitchu Oromo, Amaha Iyesus/ Amayyes (r.1745-75) declared
authority over Bulga, Efrata, Menz and Tegulet with his capital
at Doqaqit which later shifted to Ankober.
• Asfa-Wosen (r.1775- 1808) conquered Antsokia, Asbo, Gedem,
Gishe, Merhabete, Morat and Shewa Meda.
• The dynasty became very strong under Negus Sahle-Sellasie
(r.1813-47), the grandfather of Emperor Menilek II. During his
reign, many travelers visited Shewa and he even signed “treaty of
friendship and commerce” with the British in 1841. Near the
capital, Ankobar, there was an important trade center in Aleyu
Amba administered by the Shewan court.
 ii.Gurage
• The Gurage are divided into the Western and
Northern Gurage.
The Western are also known as Sebat Bet Gurage
and include: Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gumer
(Inamor, Enner, Endegegna and Gyeto).
The Northern are variously known as Kistane,
Aymallal or Soddo Gurage. Additional groups
included Dobbi, Gadabano and Masqan.
• The Gurage had traditional system of governance
developed over centuries known as the Yajoka Qicha
among the Sebat Bet Gurage and the Gordanna Sera
among the Kistane.
• They had no centralized leadership. Power was
vested in clan or lineage groups.
• The Gurage grow different types of crops and
domesticated animals. The staple crop in Gurage
land is enset.
 iii.Kambata

• By about 1550-70, four communities of separate origin

coalesced/merged to form the contemporary state of Kambata.
 The first one, Kambata in the narrow sense, had its original
homeland around Mount Hambericho in the heartland of
Kambata territory.
 The other three namely the Dubamo, Donga and Tembaro trace
their homeland from Sidama highlands.
• The people were ensete farmers sharing similar culture and
speaking the same language called Kambatissa, which belongs to
the Highland East Cushitic family together with Qabena, Halaba,
Hadiya, Sidama, Gedeo and Burji groups.
• Emperor Yeshak (r.1413-30) annexed Kambata proper and
controlled the area between Omo and Bilate Rivers, which he
incorporated into the Christian Ethiopian Empire.
• In 1532, the region was captured by Imam Ahmed’s army,
which furthered the interaction of peoples. At the end of the
sixteenth century, the groups were recognized as and conscious of
the name Kambata related to one of the seven dominant clans
(Kambata Lamala) in the region.
• The Kambata had a traditional administrative institution called the
Hambericho Council. The council had seven members each
representing the seven clans in the region. With a king at the top,
the council ruled Kambata until the late nineteenth century.
 iv.Hadiya
• The origin of the state of Hadiya goes back to the thirteenth
century. The Hadiya language belongs to the Highland East
Cushitic family.
• It was mentioned in the Kebre-Negest (Glory of the Kings) and it
referred to the area west of the Islamic states in the federation of
Zeila.
• The people were heterogeneous both linguistically and
culturally. Semitic-speaking agricultural people dominated
north of the state while the southern part was largely
inhabited by Cushitic-speaking pastoral communities. There
was a considerable Muslim population.
• By about 1332, the ruler of the Christian kingdom, Amde-
Tsion, subjugated Hadiya after defeating its ruler,
Amano who supported by a Muslim “prophet” Bel’am
aligned with the then leader of Ifat, Sabraddin to confront
the Christian force.
• From the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries, Hadiya’s
political importance was considerable with sizable
population and vast territory.
• In 1445, a Hadiya Garad (king) called Mahiqo rebelled
against Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) and was
consequently replaced by his uncle Bamo.
• To stabilize the situation, Zara-Yaqob made a political
marriage. Accordingly, Princess Elleni, from Hadiya,
who became an important historical figure, married
Emperor ZaraYaqob. Another Hadiya leader, Garad Aze
refused to pay tribute to Emperor Sartsa-Dengel(r.1563-
98), but was suppressed in 1568/9.
• The relation between Hadiya and the Christian Kingdom
was interrupted following the wars between the latter and
Adal and the Oromo population movement until Hadiya’s
incorporation into the Imperial state of Ethiopia in the late
nineteenth century.
• After these two major historical events especially the
latter, Hadiya’s population became more diverse.
• However, descendants of the old Hadiya can be
traced from four different linguistic clusters: the
Oromo, the Sidama, the Kabena and Alaba, and the
Hadiya proper with its sub-groups-the Mareko,
Lemu, Soro, Shashogo and Badowacho.
 5.5.3. Peoples and States in the South
i. Sidama
• Historically, the Sidama have been living in the southern
parts of Ethiopia occupying lowlands of about 1500 m a.s.l
in the Great East Africa Rift Valley that cut through Lakes
Hawasa and Abaya up to 3000 m a.s.l in the eastern
Sidama highlands of Arbegona, Bansa and Arroressa
districts.
• Agriculture was the basis of Sidama’s economy while
Enset and coffee are their important staple food and cash
• The Sidama had an indigenous system of governance led by the Mote
(king) who exercised political and administrative authority in
consultation with the council of elders called Songo. Songo members
raised any agenda for discussion within the council and submitted their
decisions to the Mote for approval.
• The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society was the Woma who was
selected for his ability as a peacemaker, bodily perfection, oratorical
ability, wisdom and caution.
• The Woma could not participate in war or cattle raiding as he was
considered a man of peace. The Woma handled cultural matters such as
offering sacrifices to the spirits. He also performed other rituals such as
circumcision and marriage.
• Sidama society was divided into generation-sets called Luwa.
The system had five grades each lasting for eight years. These
are Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa and Mogissa.
• Candidates for Luwa received a five-month military training
and war songs like gerarsha under the leadership of the gaden
with his deputy called Ja’lawa. The gaden settled disputes within
his Luwa, besides handling the defense of Sidama society
together with the Mote.
• Another important institution of Sidama society is Seera. Seera
was the social unwritten constitution of the Sidama people
governing social life based on the Sidama moral code, halale (the
ultimate truth) to judge the right and wrong.
 ii.Gedeo
• Contradictory traditions exist regarding the origin of the Gedeo
people. The dominant tradition relates the ancestors of the Gedeo
to Daraso, who was the older brother of Gujo (father of Guji
Oromo). Accordingly, the seven major Gedeo clans descended
from the seven sons of Daraso.
• The Gedeo shared a very close language with Sidama, and their
economy was based on the cultivation of enset.
• The Gedeo clans were grouped in two houses, namely:
 shole batte (senior house) where the first four clans belonged
including more than 25 sub-clans.
 sase batte (junior house) where the last three belonged having
• Each clan was exogamous and was assigned for particular duty
such as ritual, traditional medicine or leadership.
• The Gedeo had a culture of traditional governance system called
baalle, that worked with age classes and ranking. The baalle had
seven grades with a 10-year period each creating a 70-year
cycle.
• Sasserogo was a federation of three territories; Sobbho, Ributa
and Rikuta sharing one Abba Gadaa who leaves office every
eight years to be replaced by a new holder with the next age set at
baalle ceremony. It was at this ceremony that all positions ranging
from the top, Abba Gada down to Hayitcha were assumed.
 iii. Konso
• The name Konso is invariably used to refer one of the ancient peoples in
Ethiopia and the Horn who spoke affa Konso (Konso language) and their
land. Its literal meaning is a “heavily forested hill/ area.”
• Konso attracted the attention of local and international researchers
interested in human evolution, as it is one of the earliest human settlement
sites in the world.
• Agriculture was and remains to be the major economic activity of the
Konso. Farmers practiced a fairly balanced and integrated system of
specialized agricultural technology. They adopted soil conservation
techniques notably the construction of terraces and selecting plant
varieties that withstood harsh climatic conditions. Besides agriculture,
Konso’s economy depended on bee keeping and craftworks.
• Until the late nineteenth century, the Konso people lived in walled villages
(paletas) which were further divided into wards called Kanta.
• Each village was ruled by a council of elders called hayyota who were
selected through direct participation of male members of the village.
Membership to the council was not hereditary but rotated every eighteen
years.
• Konso appear to be the clan or lineage group and generation set, Tselta.
Tselta had fixed cycle of years starting from birth, although they varied
across villages eighteen in Karat, nine in Takati and five in Turo. The major
function of the generation set was informing the responsibilities expected of
each age group.
• The Konso were divided into nine exogamous clans namely Toqmaleta,
Elayta, Saudata, Pasanta, Kertita, Ishalayta, Mahaleta, Tikisayta and
Argamyta.
 5.5.4. Peoples and States in Southwestern Part
i.Wolayta
• According to local traditions, before the emergence of Wolayta as
a political unit, the area was inhabited by different communities
such as the Badia, Badiagadala and Aruja.
• Their powerful kingdom first emerged as a state in the thirteenth
century called Wolayta Mala established by its ruler Motalami.
From the thirteenth to the late fourteenth and from fifteenth the
late nineteenth centuries, two successive dynasties ruled
Wolayta were both the Wolayta-Malla and the Wolayta Tigre
respectively. According to their tradition, the later called Tigre
because it was supposedly founded by Tigreans from northern
Ethiopia.
• At the apex of the social and political hierarchy was the Kawo
(king), assisted by a council of advisors. All land was nominally
owned by the king who granted it to his dependents. In practice,
land relationships were ordered according to three basic principles
of social organization i.e. kinship, polity and social status.
• Accordingly, rights over land were vested in the lineage group,
the crown (royal estate) and the nobility. There were also
communal lands allocated for grazing and social gatherings to
which all members of the society except artisans had equal
access. Except those who worked on the royal estate, all
landholders paid tribute to the kawo, king. The dominant food
crop was enset (Enset Ventricosum).
 ii. Kafa
• According to traditions, this powerful kingdom emerged in the
fourteenth century. Around mid seventeenth century, the state
had come to prominence.
• The ruling Minjo dynasty and the medieval kingdom of
Ennarya had close contact. The Oromo expansion might have
forced the ruling house of Ennarya to flee south of the Gojeb
which as a result brought Christianity and the royal title called
Tato to Kafa.
• The Tato was assisted by a council of seven advisors called
Mikrecho. The Mikrecho served to moderate the power of the
king but they played important roles in succession as well.
• From the seventeenth to the eighteenth centuries, the kingdom
expanded to Bonesho, Mashengo, Maji, Nao, She and
Chara. At the apex of the administration of the kingdom was
the Tato with his major political center at Bonga. Another seat
of power was Andarcha, seven miles to southeast.
• Kafa’s economy was based on the cultivation of enset on
peasant farms supported by trade. Besides working on their
land, peasants rendered free labor service and tilled royal
estates with the support of slaves who were acquired through
raiding or trading, or as payment for debt.
• They traded with the Gibe Oromo states and the
major trade items, such as musk, coffee, slaves,
Ivory, gold, honey-wax, and civet were exported via
markets like Tonkolla, Tiffa, Qeya etc.
• The Kafa had a tradition of digging deep trenches
called Kuripo as defensive barrier. The Gojeb also
served as natural protection against external invasion
and it might have contributed to their relative
independence until 1897 when annexed by Emperor
 iii. Yem
• The Yem state was located along the eastern banks of the Gibe
or to the northeast of the Kafa kingdom. Its economy combined
agriculture, trade and crafts.
• Initially, an indigenous dynasty called Dida or Halmam-Gamma
ruled Yem from its palace in Dudarkema/Zimarma near Oya, in
the vicinity of Bor Ama Mountain.
• The Amno (king) of Yem acted as a political leader and chief
priest with attributes of divinity.
• A state council of 12 members named Astessor with its
chairperson Waso assisted the Amno in administering the state.
• Erasho were the provincial governors and they were responsible
for digging ditches called bero and erecting nearly fifty-meter
wooden or iron pillars at the center of the kingdom around Brisi
Bita. So that the war father, the Nomiaw, could patrol the
surroundings. Special messengers, Wosi carried orders from Amno
down to district chiefs, Gagna and vice versa.
• In the fourteenth century, the last King Oyokam/Amo Dasha was
overthrown by people from the north who founded a new dynasty
called Mowa (Howa) with its center at Angari.
• In the 19th c, the neighboring state of Jimma Abba Jifar tried to
control the Yem which itself was absorbed into the Imperial state of
Ethiopia under Emperor Menilek II towards the end of the century.
 iv. Gamo
• Historically, the Gamo inhabited areas from Lakes Chamo and Abaya to
the Gughe Mountain and beyond.
• Gamo’s physical landscape can be divided into two: the geze (highland) and
the bazo (lowland).
• The Gamo people had/have a set of interrelated indigenous laws called the
Woga. The laws had their origin in a belief that everything was connected
and bound in a delicate balance. It was a traditional socio-cultural
management system that governed everything beginning from
interpersonal and family relationships to the conservation and
preservation of pasture, forest, soil, and water.
• The cultivation of enset had been central to the subsistence of
Gamo highlands while maize and sweet potato were staple food
crops in the lowlands. Other crops grown in the highlands
included barely, wheat, teff, peas, beans and cabbage. Besides
farming, most farmers kept cattle for food, farming and
manure, which they needed for successful agriculture. Craft
making, pot making, tanning and metalworking were other
modes of the subsistence system.
• The Gamo people had developed their own indigenous knowledge
and technologies in manufacturing different types of tools and
weapons, traditional musical and funeral instruments, weaving
colorful textiles etc.
• The first mention/reference of the Gamo in written records dates
back to the 15th c in the praise songs of King Yishak (r.1413-30).
The song mentioned the Gamo as one of the tributary states to the
monarch.
• Between the 16th and the 16th c, the Gamo lived in scattered
settlements & organized in different communities called Dere.
• The dere were politically autonomous villages (units) but shared
three essential features. These were:
1. each dere had kawo (hereditary ruler) who also offered sacrifices
and symbolized the unity of the people.
2. every dere had its own initiates called halaqa and;
3. every dere had its own assembly place called dubusha, where
communal matters were discussed and disputes resolved.
• Access to politico-ritual status among the Gamo people
was made possible through initiation or election & baira,
a system of seniority. The two systems functioned both in
opposition to each other as well as complementarily. For
instance,
a)Through initiation or election the dulata (assembly)
elected married men to positions that were known by
different names from one dere to another. In some dere it
was called halaqa, in others it was known by the name
huduga or maga. Election to this office was open to all
married able men and accorded representatives with
provisional political authority.
• The dulata had an institutional authority to give decisions on
different social, political and many other important matters. The
assembly had also the power to impose sanctions as penalty on
individuals or groups who committed serious crimes or
violated the community’s social regulations&cultural values.
b) The second system, the baira, was ascribed and largely based
on genealogical seniority according to primogeniture. The
Gamo people were distributed in agnatic/paternal clans each
having a system of individual genealogical hierarchy. The
baira (senior) of the clan had a privilege over lineage
members. The baira made animal sacrifice on behalf of their
juniors at all levels of the community.
• The senior sacrificer of the dere is the kawo. The
concept of kawo refers to the first rank status, with
variable attributes and he was legitimatized by birth
and primogeniture.
• The kawo represented the unity of dere and played
an important role in relations with the outside world
or their neighbors.
 v. Dawuro
• Dawro people who lived in the mountainous and plateau areas at
the central, and lowland and plain at Gojeb and Omo river
basins livelihood was based on mixed agricultural activities.
The language of Dawuro people is Dawurotsuwa, a sub-group of
the Omotic family.
• Historically, Dawuro land had been inhabited by three major
clans namely Malla, Dogolla, and Amara which altogether were
regarded as Gok’as or K’omos.
• A political alliance through royal marriages was one important
factor that facilitated the movement of people from neighboring
territories into Dawuro.
• By about 1700, the Kawuka dynasty had created a big
state from a great number of petty chieftainships on the
territory between the Gojeb and Omo rivers in the north,
east and south and the Kafa high mountains in the west.
• Among the rulers of the Kawuka dynasty of Dawuro, Kati
Irashu and Kati Halala were famous. Kati Halala was the
grandson of the king of Kafa. During his reign, Dawuro
incorporated Konta. He is known for his stone
fortifications, which he oversaw to defend his territories
from outsiders.
 Vi. Ari
• The Omo River basin had been home to different groups of
people since early times. These included the Ari,
Dasenech, Tsemayi, Erbore, Hamer, Surma, Meniet,
Nyangatom, Bodi, Male, etc.
• Major economic activities in the region were sedentary
agriculture, pastoralism and handcrafts.
• The language of the Ari people is called Araf, which is one
branch of the Omotic language family. The people were
sedentary agriculturalist.
• The society was organized into ten independent clan
based chiefdoms. Hereditary clan chief known as Babi
headed each of these chiefdoms.
• The clan chief was entitled with both political and ritual
authorities over the people of his respective domain.
• The clan chief was assisted by officially appointed
prominent figures in the administration of the political
unit.
• The assistants included Godimis (religious leaders), Zis
(village heads) and Tsoikis (intelligence agents of Babi).
 5.5.5. Peoples and States in the West
i.Berta and Gumuz
• The Berta people inhabit the present Beni-Shangul Regional
State. The earliest record of Berta settlement in this region dates
from the sixteenth century.
• The Berta people speak the Berta language (a branch of the Nilo-
Saharan linguistic group) as their mother tongue.
• In addition to the Berta, the Beni-Shangul is home for the
Gumuz. They are mentioned by the Scottish explorer James
Bruce.
• Islamic influence had been strong on the Berta and other Nilotes
because of their trade and social contacts with the northern Sudan.
 ii. Anywa
• Historically, the Anywa predominantly inhabited areas along Pibor, Sobat, Gila,
Akobo, Agwei, Oboth, Baro, and Alwero Rivers on the western borderlands of the
present-day Gambella region.
• They speak a language called Dha-anywaa, a sub-branch of the Nilo- Saharan language
family.
• The Anywa had an indigenous administrative system whereby each village lived under
a chief called Kuaari who along with the nobles, Nyiye, managed the distribution of
farm and grazing fields, settled disputes etc with the community.
• Although local traditions mention a certain person by the name Oshoda as the founding
father of the Anywa, the administration of the territory was not centralized.
• Economically they were engaged in small scale cultivation, fishing and hunting.
While most Anywa practiced Christianity, they also believed in traditional religion.
 iii. Nuer
• Historically, the Nuer lived in areas that extended across the
savannas and marshes of the Bahr el-Ghazal and the Upper
Nile regions of the Sudan.
• Nuer’s economy was cattle breeding supplemented by crop
production.
• The Nuer had an age-set system combining social and political
functions. Nuer boys had to pass through a rigorous test and a
series of rites connected with it before they were initiated into
adulthood.
• Since the 9th c, they had been largely settled in the plains of
Gambella along the Sobat and Baro Rivers and parts of the Sudan.
 iv. Majang
• The Majang formed the southern end of the Nilo-Saharan
settlement that covered the escarpment of the Oromo
inhabited highlands to the Baro plains. Linguistic evidence
relates the origin of the Majang to the Boma plateau in South
Sudan.
• Gradually, they moved northwards and settled in forested
areas of western Ethiopia. By mid 12th c, their settlement
extended to areas near Dembi-Dollo in the north.
Economically, the Majang practiced shifting cultivation and
animal husbandry, including beekeeping, hunting and
fishing.
 V. The Kunama
• The Kunama people also called the Baza are one of the ancient
inhabitants of western Eritrea on the Gash and Tekkeze Rivers
and in today’s northwestern and western Tigray.
• The Arab traveller al-Ya‛qubi in 872 A.D. mentions the kingdom
of Baza, which is a self-designation of the Kunama.
• The Kunama had a customary institution called sanga-anene
where the office was held only by male members of the society
that transmitted hereditarily, mandated with the administration
of the society, including granting asylum to new comers in the
sanctuary of their compounds and performing rituals as part of
reconciliation process in case of homicides.
5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint
5.6.1. The Gondarine Period ( 1636-1769)
A. Political Developments
• The early beginning of the period of Gondar began from the reign of
Emperor Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598),who was the second successor of
Gelawdewos( 1540-59) next to King Minas ( 1559-63), when the political
center of Ethiopian emperors shifted to Gondar area. Emperor Sartsa-
Dengle established royal camp at Enfranz in 1571.
• Emperor Susenyos (r. 1607-32) also tried to establish his capital near
Gondar in such places as Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo.
• Finally Gondar was founded as a permanent royal seat in 1636 when
Emperor Fasiledas (r. 1632-1667) established his political seat there.
• Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three successive
emperors: King Fasiledas (r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and Iyasu
I (r.1682- 1706).
• Some of the major reforms during these periods were:
 the restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion,
 the establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni to resolve
problems stemming from power rivalry.
 Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a separate quarter
for Muslims at Addis Alem.
 His successor, Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system, introduced a
system of land measurement called qallad in Begemder, taxes, and
customs, and revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code).
• The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under the leadership
of his own son, TekleHaymanot, ushered in political instability in
Gondar involving intrigues and poisoning of reigning monarchs.
• King Tekle-Haymanot ( r.1706-08) was crowned in 1706 before the death
of his father and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708.
• Tewoflos ( r. 1708-1711) was again killed in 1711 by Yostos (r.1711-1717),
who was also poisoned in 1717 and replaced by King Dawit III, ( r.1717-
1721) who himself was poisoned and replaced by King Bakafa in 1721.
• King Bakafa ( 1721-1728) tried to restore stability with the support of his
followers and his wife Etege Mentewab until he was incapacitated in 1728.
The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased involvement of the
Oromo in Imperial politics and the army within the Imperial court.
• Etege Mentewab ( 1728-1768): as a regent of her successive sons’
reigning periods of Iyasu II and Eyoas, together with her brother Ras-
Bitwaded Walda Le’ul (1732-1767) dominated the Gondarine court
politics. Walda Le’ul was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II (r.1730-
55) and Iyoas (r.1755-69).
• Following the death of Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le’ul in 1767, Etege
Mentewab was challenged by Wubit Amito, her daughter-in-law ( Eyasus’s
wife) from Wollo.
• To counter the growing power of the Wollo Oromo in the royal court,
Mentewab sought the alliance of Ras Mika'el Sehul of Tigray who was
politically astute/smart and militarily powerful.
• Mika'el Sehul came to Gondar accompanied by large number of strong
army and succeeded in stabilizing the situation but refused to return to
Tigray although demanded by Iyoas. This was followed by political and
military intrigue and the killing of Iyoas and his replacement by an old man
Yohannes II by Ras Mika'el Sihul.
• Soon in the same year Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his son
TaklaHaymanot II (1769-77) on power. This marked the onset of the
period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855).
 B. Achievements of the Gondarine Period
• Gondar became the center of state administration, learning,
commerce, education, art, and crafts for more than two
centuries. The first three kings were successful not only in
political affairs but also in cultural developments.
• This enabled Gondar to repeat the splendors of Aksum and
Lalibela. The cultural achievements of the period led some
writers to describe Gondarine period in history as
Ethiopian Renaissance.
• The major cultural achievements of the period were:
Architecture: Gondar served as a permanent capital,
for about one hundred fifty years
• The Gonderine kings built significant secular buildings like
castles, bridges, residences, bath, library, towers,
fortifications and churches of various size and shapes.
in addition to the most impressive building known as Fasil
Gemb, there are different palaces corresponding to
Emperor Fasiledas, Yohannes I, Iyasu I, Dawit
III, Bakafa and Regent Queen Mentewab.
• The Gondarine style of architecture may have started before the reign of
emperor Fasiledas during the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle at about
1586, as could be seen from his palace at Guzara near Enfranz.
• Emperor Sartsa-Dengel is said to have built a very fine bridge near his
palace at Guzara, and Emperor Susenyos likewise erected a bridge over
Blue Nile at Alata.
• The architectural styles of Fasiledas castle usually have two strides and
almost square, circular domed corner towers. His contribution also includes
the building of bridges.
• Painting: this period is known as for the production of a wealth of
religious paintings on manuscripts and on wood, ornaments, weapons and
other accessories. The churches built by Queen Mentwab were known for
their beautiful paintings, cross and art works.
• Besides the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of Ethiopian Saints
and the Litanies, many other kinds of illuminated manuscripts were also
produced. Gondar is also known for its traditional medicine, music and
poetry.
• Trade and Urbanization: Gondar was a commercial center that connected
long distance trade routes of the southern region with Massawa and
Metemma in the Ethio-Sudan border. Gold and salt were used as medium
of exchange.
• With spread of urbanization, the city became residences of foreign
communities like Indians, Greeks and Armenians. It was also served as
religious center of Christians, Muslims and Bete-Israel. Besides, it served
as the center of Ethiopian Orthodox Church until the middle of the
nineteenth century. The city had an estimated 60,000-70,000 population.
 5.6.2. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
• The period lasted from the time Ras Michael Sehul "assassinated“
king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855, when Kasa Hailu was crowned as
Tewodros II.
• During the Zemene-Mesafint the actual political power was in the
hands of different hereditary regional war lords, not at the
hands of the nominal crowning kings at Gondar.
• Ras Mika’el who was a king-maker in the period attempted to
dominate the other regional lords. These measures made him
highly unpopular because of which coalitions of lords of
Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta and Wollo fought and defeated him at
the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771. Under the reigns of his
• The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint
strong hereditary regional/provincial war lords ruled
were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir, Lasta,
Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa.
• As compared to others, the “Yejju dynasty” was the
leading power during the Zemen-Mesafint with the
center at Debre-tabor.
• Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered as
the founder of “Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
• Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-
1825) who made incessant struggle against Ras Walde-
Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of
Agame. In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8),
defeated Hayle-Mariam Gebre of Simen. Maru of
Dambiya was also killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in 1827.
• The period of Zemene Mesafint was brought to an end by
Kasa Hailu of Qwara or the later Emperor Tewodros II
through a series of battles that lasted from 1840s to 1855.
• The Major features and characteristics of Zemene-Mesafint include:
absence of effective central government;
 the growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
 the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern
Ethiopia;
 rivalry and competition among regional lords to assume the
position of king-maker;
 establishment of fragile coalitions to advance political interests;
 Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional
role of unifying the
state due to doctrinal disputes;
 Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “closed-door” policy