Unit- 4

Psychology and Criminal Behaviour

 Criminal Behaviour

Criminal behavior refers to any activity that violates the laws of a given society or jurisdiction, and is
typically considered harmful to individuals or the larger community. Criminal behavior can take many
forms, including theft, assault, drug use or distribution, sexual offenses, and murder.

Crime is an act of person which is contrary to the norms of the society and against the law. Tappan
(1947) defined crime as “an intentional act in violation of the criminal law committed without defense
or excuse, and penalised by the state as a felony or misdemeanor”.

Criminal behavior, particularly violent and antisocial behavior, is considered to be a major social
problem with complex causes. It is known that a myriad of environmental, social, and psychological
factors are associated with increased risk of convictions for this type of criminality.
There are many factors that can contribute to criminal behavior, including social, psychological, and
biological factors. For example, individuals who grow up in poverty or experience social disadvantage may
be more likely to engage in criminal behavior as a means of survival or to gain status in their community.

Additionally, certain psychological traits, such as impulsivity or lack of empathy, may increase an
individual's likelihood of committing a crime.

Biological factors may also play a role in criminal behavior. For example, studies have found that
individuals with a history of violent or aggressive behavior often have reduced activity in certain areas of the
brain, such as the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for decision-making and impulse control.

Criminal behavior is a complex phenomenon, and there is no single cause that can explain why individuals
engage in criminal activities. it's often a combination of various individual, social, and environmental
factors that contribute to criminal behavior.

Additionally, not all criminal behavior is equal in terms of severity or motivation, and there may be a range
of factors that influence whether an individual commits a crime, including individual circumstances,
environmental factors, and the perceived consequences of the behavior.
Sign and symptoms of criminal behavior
1. Aggressive outburst and physical aggression.
2. Low self-control
3. Violence toward people and animals.
4. defiance and sensation seeking
5. Social withdrawal, isolation
6. Fascination with weapons
7. Pathological and Compulsive lying
8. Absence of guilt and fear
9. Victimization, Cruel behavior and No Empathy Towards Others
10. Criminal Peers:
11. Anti-social values:
12. Personality and other psychological abnormality (conduct, AS perso., Bipolar, schizo., phobia.,
etc.)
13. Substance
 Psychopathy
Psychopathy is a personality disorder characterized by a range of traits and behaviors, including superficial charm,
lack of empathy or remorse, impulsivity, and a tendency to engage in manipulative or deceitful behavior.

Psychopaths suffer from Antisocial personality disorder, lack of empathy is evident, no conscience and are often
delusional.

People with psychopathy typically have a disregard for social norms and rules, and may engage in criminal or
reckless behavior without feeling guilt or remorse.

Psychopaths is relatively rare and occurs in 1% of the general population and is more commonly diagnosed in men
than women.

Psychopaths can be very manipulative and pernicious in their abuse of people around them.

They are obsessively organised and give off the impression of normal in their social relationships, often forming
symbiotic and parasitic relationships.
The terms sociopath and psychopath are used interchangeably, however these are similar but not same.

Famous psychopaths are- Jeffry Dahmer, Buffalo Bill (silence of the lambs), Clyde Barrow
Psychopathy is considered a type of personality disorder, which means it is a long-standing pattern of behavior and
thought that deviates from cultural and societal norms. It is generally thought to arise from a combination of genetic
and environmental factors, including childhood abuse or neglect, a lack of parental bonding, and other traumatic
experiences.

The concept of psychopathy is often associated with criminal behavior, but it is important to note that not all
psychopaths are criminals, and not all criminals are psychopaths. However, research has shown that psychopathy is
more prevalent among criminals than in the general population.

Diagnosing psychopathy typically involves a comprehensive evaluation by a mental health professional, including
interviews, psychological testing, and a review of the person's history and behavior.

Treatment for psychopathy is challenging, and there is no known cure.

Some approaches may focus on managing specific symptoms or behaviors, such as anger management or impulse
control, while others may involve therapy to help the person understand and manage their emotions and
relationships with others.
Personality Disorders
A personality disorder is a type of mental disorder in which you have a rigid and unhealthy pattern of
thinking, functioning and behaving. A person with a personality disorder has trouble perceiving and relating
to situations and people. This causes significant problems and limitations in relationships, social activities,
work and school.

Personality disorders are a group of mental health conditions that involve long-term patterns of thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors that deviate significantly from cultural expectations and lead to problems in social,
work or personal settings.

These patterns are deeply ingrained and often inflexible, making it difficult for individuals to adjust to
different situations or relationships. Personality disorders can also cause significant distress for the
individual and for those around them.
 Types of Personality Disorders
There are 10 recognized types of personality disorders grouped into three clusters based on similar characteristics:

Cluster A (Odd or Eccentric Behavior): Paranoid, Schizoid, and Schizotypal personality disorders.

Cluster B (Dramatic or Erratic Behavior): Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic, and Narcissistic personality disorders.

Cluster C (Anxious or Fearful Behavior): Avoidant, Dependent, and Obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.

Symptoms of personality disorders can vary widely, but common features include difficulty forming and maintaining
relationships, trouble regulating emotions and behavior, and a distorted self-image or perception of others.

Diagnosis of personality disorders often involves a comprehensive psychiatric evaluation, including a review of
personal history and mental health symptoms.

Treatment for personality disorders may involve psychotherapy, medication, or a combination of both, depending on
the specific condition and individual needs.
Cluster A- The Odd and the Eccentric
Cluster A personality disorders are a group of mental health conditions characterized by odd or eccentric behavior
and thoughts. The three types of personality disorders that fall under this cluster are:

1. Paranoid Personality Disorder: characterized by a pervasive distrust and suspicion of others, often leading
to unfounded beliefs that others are out to harm or deceive them.
2. Schizoid Personality Disorder: characterized by a lack of interest in social relationships and a preference for
solitary activities. Individuals with this disorder may appear emotionally detached or indifferent to others.
3. Schizotypal Personality Disorder: characterized by odd beliefs, magical thinking, and unusual perceptual
experiences. Individuals with this disorder may also have difficulty forming and maintaining relationships
and may display eccentric behavior or speech patterns.

People with cluster A personality disorders may struggle with social interaction, have difficulty understanding and
expressing emotions, and may exhibit behaviors that are considered unusual or eccentric. Treatment for these
disorders typically involves a combination of psychotherapy and medication, and aims to help individuals improve
social skills, manage symptoms, and enhance their overall quality of life.
 Cluster B - Dramatic, Erratic
The personality disorders in this cluster are characterized by overly dramatic and emotional thinking and/or behavior. People with the
following disorders often struggle with impulse control.
● Anti-Social Personality disorder causes one to lack empathy, that is concern for the feelings of others. Individuals with
antisocial personality disorder are irritable, aggressive, impulsive, and unapologetic for their actions. However, these
individuals typically have no problem developing relationships… though they are short-lived due to the aforementioned
tendencies.
● Borderline Personality Disorder is characterized by an individual’s absent sense of self, which triggers feelings of
desolation and fears of abandonment and neglect. People who are diagnosed with this disorder typically have unstable
relationships and emotions, as well as outbursts of anger, violence, and impulsive behavior.
● Histrionic Personality Disorder leaves individuals feeling worthless, useless. They rely solely on attracting attention and
receiving approval from others for their wellbeing; they may come across as charming or act inappropriately seductive.
Furthermore, these individuals are sensitive to criticism and rejection.
● Narcissistic Personality Disorder is characterized by feelings of entitlement and a need to be admired or even worshipped.
These individuals lack empathy and have no problem exploiting others to achieve their goals; if they feel disrespected or
obstructed, they often react with anger and revenge
 Cluster C- Anxious, Fearful

The final cluster is marked by anxiety-ridden thoughts and behaviors. People with these personality disorders have serious fears that
inhibit their everyday:

● Avoidant Personality Disorder makes people believe they’re inferior and inadequate human beings. These individuals are

terrified of being criticized, embarrassed, or rejected; and due to these fears, they avoid social interaction. They restrain

themselves even in relationships with their closest loved ones.

● Dependent Personality Disorder is characterized by a lack of self-confidence and the individual’s need to be cared for.

Not only do they need help making important life decisions, but they require help making mundane decisions on a day-to-

day basis. Their biggest fear is abandonment, and they do whatever it takes to ensure upkeep of their relationships.

● Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder causes individuals to become preoccupied with details, lists, organization,

rules, and so on; it is characterized by the utmost perfectionism and productivity that can very well hinder one’s

relationships. People with obsessive-compulsive personality disorder are usually cautious and controlling to a fault.
Treatment and Recovery

Unfortunately, there are no known cures for personality disorders and the same goes for a majority of mental illnesses. However, there
are multiple ways to effectively treat personality disorders and help these individuals better handle the harmful symptoms that come
with their given illness. While the best treatment methods can vary for each personality disorder, the following are promising options
that have proven to help:

1. Psychotherapy: This kind of therapy allows individuals suffering from personality disorders to learn more about their

condition and talk about their harmful thoughts and behaviors, their moods, and their feelings. The therapist helps them

cope with the harmful effects of the given disorder and also better manage the illness. Cognitive behavioral therapy,

interpersonal therapy, and family-focused therapy all fall into the category of psychotherapy; a mental health profession can

help determine what kind of psychotherapy is best for an individual and their condition.

2. Medication: While there aren’t any medications specifically approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat

personality disorders, there are multiple psychiatric medicines that can help with the symptoms that come with an

individual’s personality disorder. These include antidepressants, mood stabilizers, anti-anxiety medications, and

antipsychotic medications.
Psychological Assessment and its importance
Psychological assessment is the process of gathering information about a person's psychological functioning, typically through the use
of standardized tests, interviews, and observations.

The information gathered during a psychological assessment is used to evaluate a wide range of mental health concerns, including
mood and anxiety disorders, personality disorders, cognitive deficits, and developmental disorders.

Psychological assessment can be conducted by a licensed clinical psychologist, a psychiatrist, or other qualified mental health
professionals.

The importance of psychological assessment lies in its ability to provide a comprehensive understanding of a person's psychological
functioning, including strengths, weaknesses, and areas of concern. A psychological assessment can help to diagnose mental health
conditions, develop treatment plans, and monitor treatment progress. It can also be used to provide guidance in making important life
decisions, such as career choices, educational goals, and relationship issues.

Psychological assessment is particularly important for individuals who may be experiencing significant emotional or behavioral
difficulties, as it can provide a more accurate understanding of the underlying issues and help to identify appropriate treatment
options.
It can also be helpful for individuals who may be struggling with interpersonal or career issues, as it can provide
insight into their strengths and weaknesses, as well as areas for improvement.

In addition, psychological assessment can be used in a variety of settings, including schools, workplaces, and
medical settings, to assist with a wide range of concerns, such as identifying learning disabilities, assessing
cognitive functioning, and evaluating capacity for decision-making.

Overall, psychological assessment is an important tool for helping individuals achieve optimal mental health and
well-being, and can provide valuable insights into a person's psychological functioning that can help guide
treatment and improve outcomes.
Serial killers
Serial killers are individuals who have committed a series of murders, typically targeting multiple victims over a period of time. These

killings are often premeditated and carefully planned, with the killer frequently exhibiting a pattern of behavior or modus operandi.

The motivations behind serial killing can vary, but some common factors include a desire for power and control, a need to fulfill sexual

fantasies, or a desire for attention or notoriety. Many serial killers also have a history of childhood abuse or trauma, and may have

struggled with mental health issues such as antisocial personality disorder, psychopathy, or borderline personality disorder.

Serial killers often display certain behavioral characteristics that can be used to identify them. These may include a lack of empathy, a

tendency to manipulate or charm others, and a history of cruelty to animals or other violent behavior. They may also display certain

patterns in their killings, such as targeting victims who share similar characteristics, using a particular type of weapon, or following a

particular routine in their attacks.

Law enforcement agencies often use psychological profiling and other investigative techniques to help identify and apprehend
serial killers. These may include examining crime scenes and evidence, conducting interviews with witnesses and potential
suspects, and analyzing patterns in the killer's behavior.

Serial killing is a rare phenomenon, but it can have a significant impact on both the victims and their families, as well as the
wider community. Understanding the motivations and behavior patterns of serial killers can help to prevent and identify these
types of crimes, and can also aid in the development of effective treatments for individuals who may be at risk of becoming a
serial killer.

Famous serial killers - Ted Bundy, John Wayne Gacy, H.H Holmes, Harold Shipman, Jack the Ripper, David Berkowitz,
Jeffery Dahmer, Aileen Wuornos, Nithari killer, Raman Raghav, cyanide mallika, Amardeep Sada (Bihar’s youngest serial
killer)
 Psychology of Terrorism
One key factor that is often associated with terrorism is the role of ideology or belief systems. Many terrorists are motivated by strong
political or religious beliefs, and see their actions as a means of advancing a particular cause or ideology. This can be particularly
powerful when combined with a sense of grievance or injustice, such as perceived oppression or marginalization of a particular group.

Another important factor is the role of group dynamics and socialization. Terrorist organizations often provide a sense of belonging and
identity to their members, and use various techniques to reinforce group cohesion and loyalty. These can include rituals, shared
experiences, and a sense of purpose or mission.\

Mental illness is not a critical factor in explaining terrorist behavior. Also, most terrorists are not “psychopaths.”

Other psychological factors that may contribute to terrorism include the desire for revenge, the need for recognition or attention, and
a sense of power or control over others.

Additionally, some individuals may be drawn to terrorist activities as a way of escaping personal problems or feelings of inadequacy.

It's also important to note that not all terrorists have the same psychological profile, and that there is a great deal of individual variation
in the motivations and behaviors of those involved in terrorist activities. Nevertheless, by understanding the psychological factors that
can contribute to terrorism, it may be possible to develop more effective strategies for preventing and addressing this complex issue.
Not all extremist ideologies promote violence, nor are all extremists violent. One might
ask whether the ideology is driven more by promotion of the “cause” or destruction of
those who oppose it.

The powerful, naturally-occurring barriers that inhibit human killing can be eroded either
through outside social/environmental influences or by changing how one perceives the
situation.

Terrorist groups, like all social collectives, have certain internal (e.g., mistrust,
competition) and external (e.g. support, inter-group conflict) vulnerabilities to their
existence
Biological factors of Crime
The relationship between biology and crime is a complex topic that has been the subject of much debate among researchers. While it is generally
accepted that biological factors play a role in criminal behavior, the extent of their influence remains a matter of controversy.

Here are some of the biological factors that have been associated with criminal behavior:

1. Genetics: There is evidence to suggest that genetics can influence criminal behavior. Some studies have found that certain genes are
associated with a higher risk of criminal behavior, particularly those involved in regulating mood and impulse control.
2. Brain abnormalities: Abnormalities in the structure or functioning of the brain have been linked to criminal behavior. For example,
damage to the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for decision-making and impulse control, has been associated with increased
aggression and criminal behavior.
3. Hormones: Hormones, particularly testosterone, have been linked to criminal behavior. High levels of testosterone have been associated
with increased aggression and risk-taking behavior, both of which are factors that can contribute to criminal behavior.
4. Environmental factors: Environmental factors, such as exposure to toxins, can also impact criminal behavior. For example, exposure to
lead has been linked to increased aggression and criminal behavior.

It is important to note that while these biological factors can contribute to criminal behavior, they do not determine it. There are many other factors,
such as social and psychological factors, that can also influence whether someone engages in criminal behavior. Additionally, many individuals
who have these biological factors do not engage in criminal behavior.
Psycho-Social Factors

Psycho-social factors refer to the combination of psychological and social factors that contribute to criminal
behavior. These factors can be divided into two broad categories: individual-level factors and social factors.

Individual-level factors refer to the unique characteristics of an individual that may contribute to criminal
behavior. Some of the most commonly studied individual-level factors include:

1. Personality traits: Certain personality traits, such as impulsivity, low self-control, and lack of empathy,
have been linked to criminal behavior.
2. Mental health: Individuals with mental health disorders, particularly those who are not receiving proper
treatment, may be more likely to engage in criminal behavior.
3. Substance abuse: Substance abuse and addiction can impair judgment and decision-making, leading to
criminal behavior.
4. Genetics: Some research suggests that there may be genetic factors that contribute to criminal behavior.
Social factors refer to the environmental and social influences that can lead to criminal behavior. Some of the most

commonly studied social factors include:

1. Poverty: Individuals who live in poverty may be more likely to engage in criminal behavior as a means of
survival.
2. Family factors: Dysfunctional family dynamics, such as neglect, abuse, and domestic violence, can contribute
to criminal behavior.
3. Peer influence: Peer pressure and
4. Cultural factors: Cultural norms and values can influence attitudes towards crime and criminal behavior.

It is important to note that criminal behavior is complex and multifaceted, and no single factor can fully explain why

some individuals engage in criminal behavior while others do not. A better understanding of the psycho-social factors

that contribute to criminal behavior can help inform prevention and intervention efforts aimed at reducing crime and

promoting positive behavior.

Abuse
Abuse is the mistreatment or maltreatment of a person, typically by someone in a position of power or trust, which
can result in physical, emotional, sexual, or psychological harm.

It can take many forms, such as physical violence, emotional or psychological manipulation, sexual assault, neglect,
or financial exploitation.

Abuse can occur in a variety of settings, including homes, workplaces, schools, nursing homes, and healthcare
facilities.

The impact of abuse can be long-lasting and may result in physical injuries, emotional trauma, and negative
changes in behavior, mood, and thinking.

The psychological impact of abuse can be extensive and long-lasting, affecting various aspects of an individual's
mental health and well-being
 Child Abuse

Child abuse refers to any action or inaction that causes harm, potential harm, or the risk of harm to a child, whether intentional or not.

Child abuse can take many different forms, including:

1. Physical abuse: This occurs when a caregiver or parent causes physical harm to a child, such as hitting, slapping, punching,
kicking, burning, or otherwise injuring the child. Physical abuse can cause physical injuries such as bruises, broken bones, and
even death.
2. Sexual abuse: This refers to any sexual activity that a child is not able to understand or give consent to, or that violates the laws
or social taboos of society. This includes any sexual contact, penetration, or exposure to sexual content or materials. Sexual
abuse can cause physical and psychological harm and can have long-lasting effects on a child's development and well-being.
3. Emotional abuse: This type of abuse is also called psychological abuse, and it involves behavior that harms a child's emotional
or mental development. This can include verbal abuse, such as name-calling, belittling, or insulting a child, as well as other
forms of emotional abuse, such as ignoring or rejecting a child, withholding affection or love, or exposing a child to violence or
other traumatic experiences.
4. Neglect: This occurs when a caregiver or parent fails to provide a child with the basic necessities of life, such as food, shelter,
clothing, or medical care. Neglect can also include leaving a child alone for long periods of time or failing to provide adequate
supervision or attention.
Psychological Impact of Abuse
Some of the common psychological effects of abuse:

1. Low self-esteem: Abusive experiences can leave an individual feeling helpless, hopeless, and worthless, resulting in a lack of
confidence and self-esteem.
2. Anxiety and fear: Individuals who have experienced abuse may develop anxiety disorders and phobias, such as post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD) or panic disorder. They may also feel fearful of people and situations that remind them of the abuse.
3. Depression: Abuse can lead to symptoms of depression, such as feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and worthlessness.
4. Trust issues: People who have been abused may struggle with trusting others, especially those in positions of authority or power.
5. Guilt and shame: Abuse can lead to feelings of guilt and shame, even though the individual was not responsible for the abuse.
6. Anger and irritability: People who have experienced abuse may feel angry or irritable, and have difficulty controlling their
emotions.
7. Substance abuse: Some individuals who have experienced abuse may turn to alcohol or drugs as a way of coping with the
emotional pain.
8. Eating disorders: Some individuals who have experienced abuse may develop eating disorders, such as anorexia or bulimia.
9. Suicidal thoughts and behaviors: People who have experienced abuse are at a higher risk of experiencing suicidal thoughts and
behaviors.
Juvenile Delinquency
Violation of law by a child is called Juvenile Delinquency. Delinquency is an antisocial and criminal behaviour committed by a person
who is under the age of 18; that is, who is not an adult. Juvenile delinquency is also called delinquency. When a person reaches
adulthood, antisocial and criminal behaviour done by him can be said as a crime. Thus, we can say that juvenile delinquency is the child
and adolescent version of the crime.

Juvenile delinquency is driven by the negative consequences of social and economic development, in particular economic crises,
political instability, and the weakening of major institutions (including the State, systems of public education and public assistance,
and the family).

This behavior may include acts such as vandalism, theft, assault, drug use, underage drinking, and other illegal activities. Juvenile
delinquency is a serious problem that affects individuals, families, and communities.

Juvenile delinquency shows two general types of behaviours:

1. Status offense- offenses are not criminal in nature but are considered abnormal for the children.
2. Delinquent offense

Status offenses are not considered to be good for children and adolescents. Because of the age of the offender, these behaviours are
proscribed. If these offenses are committed by adults, behaviours are not illegal. Drinking or possessing alcohol, consuming tobacco,
running away from home, truancy or not attending school without any good reason, and violating curfew are examples of status
offenses.
There are many different factors that can contribute to juvenile delinquency, including poverty, neglect or abuse,
exposure to violence or crime, family dysfunction, peer pressure, and mental health issues.

Additionally, some minors may be more likely to engage in delinquent behavior due to a lack of opportunities for
education, employment, or social support.

Juvenile delinquency can have a range of negative consequences for both the juvenile and society. In addition to the
immediate harm caused by criminal behavior, delinquency can lead to a lifetime of criminal activity and may result
in imprisonment, as well as financial and social costs for communities.

Addressing juvenile delinquency involves a range of strategies, including prevention programs, early intervention,
and effective rehabilitation programs for juveniles who have engaged in delinquent behavior.
Causes of Delinquency
There are many factors that can contribute to juvenile delinquency, including:

1. Family problems: Children who grow up in households with parental conflict, domestic violence, neglect, or substance abuse
are at a higher risk of becoming delinquent.
2. Peer pressure: Young people who associate with delinquent peers may feel pressure to engage in criminal behavior to fit in or
gain respect.
3. Socioeconomic factors: Poverty, lack of education, and unemployment can increase the risk of delinquent behavior, as young
people may turn to crime to meet basic needs.
4. Substance abuse: Drug and alcohol use can impair judgment and lead to criminal behavior.
5. Mental health issues: Mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety, or conduct disorders can contribute to delinquency.
6. Trauma: Exposure to violence or other traumatic events can have a lasting impact on a child's mental health, leading to
delinquent behavior.
7. Lack of positive role models: Young people who lack positive adult role models may have difficulty developing the skills
needed to make positive choices.

Juvenile delinquency is a complex issue and there can not be a single cause behind the delinquent behaviour of the child. The causes
varies from individual to individual and most often it's the combination of several factors.
Juvenile Sex offenders
Juvenile sex offenders are individuals who have engaged in sexual behavior that is considered illegal, inappropriate, or harmful, and who are under

the age of 18. In many cases, juvenile sex offenders are not fully aware of the consequences of their actions, and they may not fully understand the

harm that they are causing to others.Juvenile sex offenders can engage in a range of sexually harmful behaviors, including sexual assault, sexual

harassment, exposure, and other forms of sexual misconduct. They may also engage in behaviors that are not considered criminal, but that can still

be harmful, such as engaging in sexual behaviors that are not age-appropriate.

The causes of juvenile sex offending are complex and can be influenced by a range of factors, including a history of abuse or neglect, exposure to

sexual material, and other forms of trauma. Many juvenile sex offenders also have difficulties with impulse control, social skills, and other areas of

functioning that can contribute to their offending behavior.

When a juvenile sex offender is identified, it's important to provide them with appropriate treatment and support to address their behavior and

prevent future harm to others. This may include therapy, counseling, and other forms of intervention to help the individual understand the

consequences of their behavior, develop healthy coping strategies, and learn how to make positive choices in the future. Additionally, the criminal

justice system may become involved, and the offender may be required to participate in sex offender treatment programs or be placed on probation

or other forms of supervision.

Theories related to offending
There are many theories of offending that attempt to explain why individuals engage in criminal behavior. Here are some of the most
prominent theories:

1. Biological Theories: These theories suggest that criminal behavior is influenced by genetics, brain chemistry, or other biological
factors. For example, some researchers have found that individuals with lower levels of serotonin in their brains are more likely
to engage in impulsive and aggressive behavior.
2. Psychological Theories: These theories focus on the role of individual differences in criminal behavior. For example, some
theories suggest that individuals who have experienced childhood trauma or have personality disorders may be more likely to
engage in criminal behavior.
3. Social Learning Theories: These theories suggest that criminal behavior is learned through observation and reinforcement. For
example, individuals may learn criminal behavior from their peers or family members who engage in criminal activities.
4. Strain Theories: These theories suggest that individuals may engage in criminal behavior as a result of experiencing strain or
stress. For example, individuals who are unable to achieve their goals through legal means may turn to criminal behavior as a
way to achieve their goals.
5. Control Theories: These theories suggest that criminal behavior is the result of a lack of social controls, such as family, school,
and community. For example, individuals who lack strong social ties and are not closely monitored by others may be more likely
to engage in criminal behavior.
6. Labeling Theories: These theories suggest that criminal behavior is the result of societal reactions to certain behaviors. For
example, individuals who are labeled as "criminals" may begin to see themselves as such and be more likely to engage in
criminal behavior in the future.
Moral Reasoning Theory
Moral reasoning theory, also known as cognitive-developmental theory, was developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg. This theory
suggests that moral reasoning is a cognitive process that develops through a series of stages, each more advanced than the previous one.

According to Kohlberg, there are three levels of moral development, each with two stages:

Preconventional Level: In this level, moral reasoning is based on the consequences of behavior. The two stages are:

Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation - individuals in this stage base their moral decisions on avoiding punishment.

Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation - individuals in this stage make moral decisions based on their own self-interest, but they
also take into account the interests of others.

Conventional Level: In this level, moral reasoning is based on social norms and expectations. The two stages are:

Stage 3: Good Boy/Girl Orientation - individuals in this stage make moral decisions based on what will please others and avoid
disapproval.

Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation - individuals in this stage base their moral decisions on following rules, laws, and authority figures.
Postconventional Level: In this level, moral reasoning is based on individual principles and values. The two stages are

Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation - individuals in this stage make moral decisions based on principles of justice and fairness.

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation - individuals in this stage make moral decisions based on abstract principles of justice
and respect for human dignity, which they have developed through critical thinking and reflection.

According to Kohlberg, most individuals develop to the conventional level, with only a minority reaching the postconventional level.
However, he believed that individuals could continue to develop their moral reasoning throughout their lives.

Moral reasoning theory has been influential in the study of moral development and has been applied to many areas of psychology and
education. However, the theory has also been criticized for its emphasis on individual decision-making and its limited attention to the
social and cultural contexts in which moral reasoning takes place.