* General Zoology

The animal Kingdom

Vertebrates and the

Invertebrates

By: Ma. Nina R.

Eder
 Science - refers to a system of acquiring
*

knowledge. This system uses observation and

experimentation to describe and explain natural
phenomena. The term science also refers to the
organized body of knowledge people have gained
using that system. Less formally, the word science
often describes any systematic field of study or the
knowledge gained from it.
What is the purpose of science? Perhaps the most
general description is that the purpose of science is to
produce useful models of reality.
*Zoology - is the scientific study of the characteristics and
classification of animals. It is one of the branches of biology,
and therefore it is also referred to as animal biology.
*Scientific Method – is an organized way of figuring out.
*Means of acquiring knowledge scientifically.
*Six Parts or Steps
1. Purpose/Question- What do you want to
learn? An example would be, "What
doorknob in school has the most germs ?"
or "Do girls have faster reflexes than
boys?" or "Does the color of a light bulb
affect the growth of grass seeds?"
2. Research- Find out as much as you can.
Look for information in books, on the
internet, and by talking with teachers to get
the most information you can before you
start experimenting.

3.Hypothesis- After doing your research, try

to predict the answer to the problem.
Another term for hypothesis is 'educated
guess'. This is usually stated like " If I...(do
something) then...(this will occur)"
4. Experiment - The fun part! Design a test
or procedure to find out if your hypothesis is
correct. In our example, you would set up
grass seeds under a green light bulb and
seeds under a red light and observe each for
a couple of weeks. You would also set up
grass seeds under regular white light so that
you can compare it with the others. If you
are doing this for a science fair, you will
probably have to write down exactly what
you did for your experiment step by step.

5. Analysis- Record what happened during

the experiment. Also known as 'data'.
6.Conclusion - Review the data and
check to see if your hypothesis was
correct. If the grass under the green
light bulb grew faster, then you proved
your hypothesis, if not, your hypothesis
was wrong. It is not "bad" if your
hypothesis was wrong, because you still
discovered something!
7. Theory - proven hypothesis
8. Law - proven theory
General Zoology Branches
Morphology - the study of form and structure of animals
Cytology - the study of the internal structure of animals
Histology - the study of the structure and function of
the tissues
Physiology - the study of the different functions of
various organs in the body
Embryology - the study of the development of the egg
after fertilization
Genetics - the study of heredity and variations
Ecology - the study of the relationship between
different animals, organisms and the surrounding
environment
Geology - the study of earth and life as recorded by
fossils in rocks
*Animal-Specific Zoology Branches

*Since zoology encompasses the study of animals, fish,

insects, crustaceans and other organisms, zoology
branches can also be broken down by a specific species
or type of animal. Some of the animal-specific branches
of zoology include:

* Protozoology - the study of unicellular organisms

* Parazoology - the study of sponges
* Cnidology - the study of coelenterates
* Helminthology - the study of parasitic worms
* Nematology - the study of nematodes
* Entomology - the study of insects
*Carcinology - the study of crustaceans
* Myrmecology - the study of ants
*Lepidopterology - the study of butterflies and moths
*Conchology - the study of molluscs
*Torpedology - the study of skates and rays
*Batracology - the study of frogs
 Some of the other zoology branches that you may have
an interest in when studying zoology or attending a
zoologyschool, include:
* Phenology - the study of animals as they are affected by
seasonal changes
* Ethology - the study of animal behavior
* Phrenology - the study of mental faculties of the brain
* Epidemiology - the study of the transmission of diseases
* Torentology - the study of disease of embryos
* Immunology - the study of immunity to diseases
* Pharmacology - the study of the effects of medicines and
organisms
* Exobiology - the study of existence of life in outer space
* Cryobiology - the study of the effects of low
temperatures on certain organisms and species
 What are the different
theories about the origin of
1. Abiogenesis
life?
In the natural sciences, abiogenesis - also known as
spontaneous generation - is the study of how life on
Earth could have arisen from inanimate matter. This
is also referred to as the "primordial soup" theory of
evolution. On earth evidence is clear life began in
water, such as some warm shallow sea or deep
ocean thermal vent, as a result of the combination of
chemicals from the atmosphere and the production
of amino acids. These molecules in turn formed
proteins, and a gradual cascade of ever more
complex self-replicating molecules until cells formed.
Ultimately all species trace their origin back to two
or three original forms.
* Abiogenesis (life from non life) is not actually a
working theory yet, but when a workable
mechanism is proposed it will be incorporated into
the theory of evolution.
2. Special Creation
According to this concept, all the different forms of
life that occur today on planet Earth have been
created by a God, gods, or extraterrestrial beings.
This idea is found in the ancient scriptures of
almost every culture. According to Hindu belief,
Lord Brahma, the God of Creation, made the living
world in accordance to his wish. According to the
Christian, Jewish and Islamic belief, God created
this universe, plants, animals and human beings in
about six natural days. Others interpret the "six
days" of Genesis as six epochs. The Sikh tradition
says that all forms of life including human beings
came into being with a single word of God.
*3. Biogenesis
*The belief that living things come only from
other living things (e.g. a spider lays eggs,
which develop into spiders). It may also refer
to biochemical processes of production in
living organisms. The Law of Biogenesis,
attributed to Louis Pasteur, states that life
arises from pre-existing life, not from
nonliving material.
* Pasteur's (and others') empirical results were
summarized in the phrase Omne vivum ex
vivo, Latin for "all life [is] from life", also
known as the "law of biogenesis".
*4. Theory of Chemical Evolution
*This theory is also known as
Materialistic Theory or Physico-
chemical Theory. According this theory,
the origin of life on earth is the result of
a slow and gradual process of chemical
evolution that probably occurred about
3.8 billion years ago. This theory was
proposed independently by two
scientists - A.I.Oparin, a Russian
scientist in 1923 and J.B.S Haldane, an
English scientist, in 1928.
*5. Theory of Catastrophism
*This theory on the origin of life is simply a
modification of the theory of Special
Creation. It states that there have been
several creations of life by God, each
preceded by a catastrophe resulting from
some kind of geological disturbance.
According to this theory, since each
catastrophe completely destroyed the
existing life, each new creation consisted of
life form different from that of previous
ones. French scientists Georges Cuvier
(1769-1832) and Orbigney (1802 to 1837)
were the main supporters of this theory.
*6. Inorganic Incubation
*Proposed by Professor William Martin, of Düsseldorf
University, and Professor Michael Russell, of the
Scottish Environmental Research Centre in Glasgow,
this theory states that Instead of the building blocks
of life forming first, and then forming a cell-like
structure, the researchers say the cell came first and
was later filled with living molecules. They say that
the first cells were not living cells but inorganic ones
made of iron sulfide and were formed not at the
Earth's surface but in total darkness at the bottom of
the oceans. The theory postulates that life is a
chemical consequence of convection currents
through the Earth's crust and, in principle, could
happen on any wet, rocky planet.
*. Endosymbiotic Theory
*This theory, espoused by Lynn Margulis, suggests
that multiple forms of bacteria entered into
symbiotic relationship to form the eukaryotic cell.
The horizontal transfer of genetic material
between bacteria promotes such symbiotic
relationships, and thus many separate organisms
may have contributed to building what has been
recognized as the Last Universal Common
Ancestor (LUCA) of modern organisms. James
Lovelock's Gaia theory, proposes that such
bacterial symbiosis establishes the environment
as a system produced by and supportive of life.
His arguments strongly weaken the case for life
having evolved elsewhere in the solar system.
*8. Panspermia - Cells From Outer Space
*Some scientists believe that the simplest life-forms,
whole cells (especially microbial cells), have been
transported to the Earth from extraterrestrial sources.
In this way, a process called panspermia (means
seeds everywhere) might have initiated life on Earth.
Most mainstream scientists have not supported
panspermia, but early challenges have been thwarted
in recent years due to discoveries such as terrestrial
microbes that survive in extreme environments and
incredibly aged yet viable microorganisms found in
ancient rocks. In addition, water (essential for life)
has been discovered on other planets and moons,
and organic chemicals have been found on
meteorites and in interstellar debris.
*9. Cosmogony
*Cosmogony is any theory concerning the coming
into existence or origin of the universe, or about
how reality came to be. In the specialized context of
space science and astronomy, the term refers to
theories of creation of the Solar System. For
example, Greek mythology and some religions of
the Ancient Near East refer to chaos, the formless
or void state of primordial matter preceding the
creation of the universe or cosmos in creation
myths. Cosmogony can be distinguished from
cosmology, which studies the universe at large and
throughout its existence, yet does not inquire
directly into the source of life or its origins.
*10. Marine Theory
*The Marine Theory suggests that life may
have begun at the submarine hydrothermal
vents; their rocky nooks could then have
concentrated these molecules together and
provided mineral catalysts for critical
reactions. Even now, these vents are rich in
chemical and thermal energy that sustains
vibrant ecosystems.
*11. Electric Spark Theory
Electric sparks can generate amino acids
and sugars from an atmosphere loaded with
water, methane, ammonia and hydrogen,
as was shown in the famous Miller-Urey
experiment reported in 1953, suggesting
that lightning might have helped create the
key building blocks of life on Earth in its
early days. Over millions of years, larger
and more complex molecules could form.
*12. Tribal and Mythological
*Though not strictly scientific from our modern
definition, ancient lore can be considered as the
'scientific' belief of its day, as it attempted to
explain what was observed. From the tribes of
ancient times to the mythologies of more modern
cultures, there are countless stories of how life
began. Some are based in pagan, or polytheistic,
beliefs, while others are based on creation
resulting from a single deity, or monotheism. This
collection of myths, legend and tribal knowledge
handed down over generations is the collective
expression of how we humans attempt to explain
our world and our place in it.
*The following are the key characteristics that
animals share ;

1. All animals are multicellular, which means

that their bodies are made up of multiple cells.
In this way, animals differ from single-celled or
unicellular organisms (such as bacteria,
archaea, protozoa, single-celled algae, and
single-celled fungi). Animals are not the only
organisms that are multicellular, land plants
and some species of algae and fungi also are
multicellular. So although multicellularity is a
characteristic shared by all animals, it is not a
characteristic unique to animals.
*in most animals, - cells are organized into
different tissues that perform different
functions. During the development of an
animal, cells differentiate so they can
perform specific functions. Groups of cells
that work together to serve a common
function are called a tissue. There are four
basic types of tissue that animals have.
These include nervous tissue, epithelial
tissue, connective tissue, and muscle tissue.
One exception to this characteristic is the
sponges. Although sponges are animals,
their cells are not organised into true
tissues.
*All animals are eukaryotes which means
they are made up of complex cell that have
membrane-bound nuclei and organelles.
Animals are eukaryotes, this means animals
are made up of cells that have a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles such as
mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, and
ribosomes.
*The DNA contained in a eukaryotic cell is
linear and is organized into chromosomes.
Although all animals are eukaryotes, not all
eukaryotes are animals. Plants, fungi, and
protists—organisms that are not animals—
are nonetheless eukaryotes.
*Most animals undergo sexual reproduction. Sexual
reproduction is the process by which an organism
creates new offspring. The process involves the
combination of the genetic material from two
individuals.
*Sexual reproduction is not a characteristic that is
unique to animals—other organisms such as
flowering plants, fungi and bacteria also undergo
sexual reproduction. Additionally, not all animals
undergo sexual reproduction.
*A small number of animals produce offspring by a
process known as asexual reproduction.
*Since sexual reproduction involves the combination
of genetic material of two individuals, it results in
genetic variation between parents and offspring. This
genetic variation is an important factor in the
process of natural selection.
*Most animals are capable of movement. Although
there are some exceptions, most animals are motile,
or capable of movement. There are some animals—
such as sponges, some annelids, brachiopods,
bryozoans, tunicates, corals, and hydras—that are
sessile, or fixed in place, throughout much of their life
cycle. But even these animals are motile during some
stages in their development. Animals move using a
variety of methods—fish swim, birds fly, wolves run,
snails slide, and snakes slither. Some animals, such as
sea stars and slugs, move very slowly while others,
such as cheetahs and sailfish move at an impressive
clip. Movement enables animals to avoid predators,
capture prey, and colonize new habitats.
*Most animals are diploid. The terms
diploid and haploid are used to
describe how many copies of genetic
material are contained within a cell.
In diploid cells, there are two full sets
of the cell's genetic material, in
haploid cells, there is only one full set
of the cell's genetic material. Most
animals are made up of diploid cells.
*All animals are heterotrophs which means they ingest plants
and other organisms as a way to get their carbon the energy
they need to live.
* All living things need carbon to support the basic processes
of life such as growth, development, and reproduction. There
are two ways an organism can get the carbon they need: by
obtaining it from their environment (in the form of carbon
dioxide) or by feeding on other organisms (and obtaining
carbon from the organic materials that make up the other
organism).
*Organisms that obtain carbon from their environment are
called autotrophs; green plants are examples of autotrophs.
Green plants take energy from the sun and use it along with
carbon available in the atmosphere in the form of carbon
dioxide to produce sugar, a simple organic compound.
Organisms, such as animals, that obtain carbon by ingesting
other living organisms are called heterotrophs; animals are
examples of heterotrophs. All animals must ingest other
organisms (such as plants or animals) to obtain the carbon
they need to live.