REPRODUCTIO

N
Somatic Cells
Most of the cells in our bodies
are SOMATIC cells

They contain two sets of

chromosomes

We describe it as being
DIPLOID

One set from each parent

O
ur cells contain 46
chromosomes

23 from each parent

 Gametes

Sex cells are called gametes

They contain one set of

chromosome

Our gametes contain 23

chromosomes
Process of gamete formation through meiosis in
They will be a mixture of
the germ cells (ovaries and testes) is called chromosomes from each
Gametogenesis parent
Gametes
Male Female

Plants Pollen Ova

Animals Sperm Ovum

 Fertilisation

gamete gamete
Somatic cell

Meiosis is a type of
Gametes are cell division that Fertilisation is a This restores the
produced by halves the fusion of chromosome number
meiosis chromosome gametes
number
External fertilisation

Ø Suitable for animals that mate in water

Ø Many eggs
Ø The sperm are able to swim through the water
to
fertilise the eggs
Ø The eggs do not have shells
Internal fertilisation

ØSuitable for animals that mate on land

ØFew eggs
ØThe sperm are placed inside the female
ØThe eggs have shells
ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction requires just one
parent and does not involve the
production of gametes.

Not every plant grows from a seed.

Some plants, like ferns and mosses,
grow from spores. Other plants use
asexual vegetative reproduction and
grow new plants from rhizomes or
tubers.
We can also use techniques like taking
cuttings to make new plants.
The Life Cycle of
Plants
Flower
Growth Formation Pollination

Germinat Fertilisatio
ion n
Seed
Disper
sal
Gymnosperms: These seeds do not
contain fruit or flowers; their seeds
are stored in cones(seeds are naked
not protected inside flower or fruit).
Male cones make pollen, which is
carried to female cones by the wind.

FLOWER
STRUCTU
RE
A flowering plant is
an angiosperm, which is
any plant that produces
a flower or fruit (seeds
are protected inside the
fruit or the flower)
 Carpel;Female part of a Plant
• T​ he function of the female parts is to catch the
pollen and deliver the sperm inside the pollen
to the egg/ovule that is waiting to be
fertilized. They also house the eggs.
• Carpel is the name for the whole female part.
• The stigma is the top of the carpal. It's sticky
to catch the pollen.
• The style is a long tube that attaches the
stigma to the ovary. The pollen will eventually
slide down the tube to fertilize the egg.
• The ovary is at the end of the style. It's where
the ovule, or egg, is waiting to be fertilized.
The fertilized ovule becomes a seed, and the
ovary matures and forms the fruit to guide the
newly-formed seed on the next step of its
journey.
 Stamen;Male part of a Plant
• The function of the male parts of
flowering plants is to produce pollen
grains.
• The pollen grains contain sperm
which will fertilize the egg and
create a seed to sprout the next
generation of plants.
• The name for the whole male part is
the stamen.
• The anther produces the pollen
grains that contain the sperm
needed for fertilization.
• The filament supports the anther.
Pollination
Pollination

Pollination is the
transfer of pollen from the
STAMEN of a flower to the
STIGMA.
 Self and Cross Pollination
• Self-pollination occurs when the pollen from
the anther is deposited on the stigma of the
same flower, or another flower on the same
plant.
• Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from
the anther of one flower to the stigma of
another flower on a different individual of the
same species.
Wind Pollination
 Flowering plants that donot bear fruits also
have seeds

• Once the flowers begin to die

back, you will notice green
ovaries at bottom of the
flower, begin to swell forming
seed pods which contains the
seeds. Eg rose

seed pods
https://youtu.be/y-emlY6DBH8
The names or
these groups are
derived from the
number of
cotyledons or seed
leaves that the
embryonic
seedling has within
its seed. A
monocot,
abbreviation for
monocotyledon,
will have only one
cotyledon and a
dicot, or
dicotyledon, will
have two
cotyledons.
Seed Dispersal
Seeds are dispersed away from each other and from the parent plant
so that there is less competition. The most common methods of
seed dispersal are:
■ Wind e.g. dandelion, sycamore fruits are light and have extensions
which act as parachutes or wings to catch the wind
■ Animal internal e.g. tomato, plum, raspberry, grape have
brigthly
coloured and succulent fruits which contain seeds with
indigestible coats which allow the seeds to pass through the animal
undigested
■ Animal external e.g. goose grass, burdocks, the fruits have
hooks
which atach them to the fur of passing animals
■ Explosive/self proppelled e.g. pea pod, jasmine flower
seed pod. The pod bursts open when ripe, projecting the seed
away from the plant
 GERMINATION
Development of a new plant from a seed is called germination
Factors Affecting Germination

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=taaiH3XdSxw
 Factors Affecting Germination
Water:
• It is extremely necessary for the germination of seeds. Some seeds are
extremely dry and need to take a considerable amount of water, relative
to the dry weight of the seed.This is known as imbibition.
• Water provides dissolved oxygen for the growing embryo, softens the seed
coats and increases the seed permeability.

Oxygen:
• It is required by the germinating seed for metabolism and is used as a part
of aerobic respiration until it manages to grow green leaves of its own.
• Oxygen can be found in the pores of soil particles, but if the seed is buried
too deep it will be deprived of this oxygen.
Temperature:
• For a seed to germinate, it requires a moderate temperature of around 20-30°C.
Temperature affects germination in two primary ways: moisture and enzyme
activity.
• A warmer climate may increase evaporation and decrease moisture or denature
enzymes.
• Quite obviously different seeds require different optimum temperatures. There
are some seeds which require special requirements either lower or higher
temperature between 5 to 40°C.
pH:
• If water is too acidic, calcium, magnesium and potassium levels are reduced.
• Calcium is required for cell growth, magnesium for chlorophyll formation and
potassium for synthesizing proteins.
• If water is too alkaline, calcium builds up, effectively cutting off the flow of
nutrients to plants' roots.
• The activity of enzymes in plants is also influenced by pH .
 • The process of seed
germination triggers
under the above
mentioned favourable
conditions.
• The seeds undergo rapid
expansion and growth of
the embryo and
subsequently rupturing
the covering layers along
with emergence of the
radicle.
https://apps.explorelearning.com/gizmos/laun • This radicle emergence
ch-gizmo/378 is considered the
completion of
Rate of germination: number of seeds that germinated germination.
100 • Once the shoot appears
total number of days
plant needs other
factors aswell for
Percentage germination: number of seeds that germinate 100 growth.
total number of seeds
Growth rate: growth (change in stem length or no. of leaves) 100
total number of days
 The Life Cycle of
Animals
Maturity Sexual
Growth
Intercour
se *

Birth
** Fertilisation
Embryo
Grows

** or hatching * Many animals carry

out external
fertlisation
 ADOLESCENCE
A stage of gradually showing
physical growth and emotional,moral and social
development.
• Hormonal changes (emotional roller coaster)

Emotional • Strong need of independence

• Inability to communicate true feelings
• Feelings of infatuation often mistaken as love

•Puberty begins (growth of genitals, breasts, menstruation or sperm

Physical production
•Possibility of body exploration with others
•Possibility of sexual intercourse and pregnancy

•Friendship, family, love, and support are important

Social
•Closeness of same-sex friends
•Attraction to opposite sex
•Friendship and peer acceptance is important
•Future goals-plans for education

•Decision-making skills develop

Moral •Ability to think logically and reason

•Further development of moral conscience through questioning authority
and
personal beliefs
 Is the stage of development, which
introduces adolescence. It is a time of

PUBERTY transition or change.

• The PITUITARY GLAND is a small

BOTH: pea-shaped ball located at the base
-Skin becomes Oilier
-acne may develop -
of the brain. It is responsible for
Increased perspiration
-growth in height -
beginning the process of PUBERTY.
growth in mass

The gland secretes hormones

FEMALES: MALES:
-face fills out -arms/legs more muscular which triggers the sex hormones in
-fat shaped on upper arms, -shoulders broaden
Buttocks, hips, thighs -voice deepens females (Ovaries) and in males
-enlarged breasts
-hair growth:
-hair growth: Face,
Underarms, chest, (testicles)
underarms, legs, arms, leg
Pubic area Pubic area.
-ovulation begins -growth in genitalia -
-menstruation begins sperm production
 Hormones

Female Male

Oestrogen Progesterone Testoste

rone

Responsible for the Promotes sexual development and Responsible for the creation of
creation of Ova helps prepare the uterus for muscle, and the male sexual
implantation of a fertilized egg reproductive cell; Sperm.

Males and females produce both Testosterone and Oestrogen. The

difference is that women have more oestrogen in their system
than men, and men have more testosterone in their system than
Male Reproductive System
Urinary
bladder

Part Function

Penis Placement of sperm into

the vagina

Testes Production of sperm

Seminal Adds fluid to the sperm
vesicles

Prostate Adds fluid to the sperm

Sperm duct or Transports sperm to the

vas urethra
deferens
Urethra Transports sperm to the
end of the penis during
(ejaculation)
SPER
M
CELL
Female reproductive system
Oviduct Ovary
Part Function

Oviduct or fallopian tube Transport of the ova at

or uterine tube the site of fertilisation

Ovaries Where ova are stored

and released

Cervix The entrance to the

uterus that dilates
during birth
Vagina Receives the sperm
during sexual
intercourse

Uterus Also known as the

womb – where the
foetus develops
Zona pellucida
or jelly coat

OVUM
, EGG
or
Oocyte
 Follicle and Oocyte(egg)
• A follicle is a small sac of fluid in the ovaries that contains a developing
egg. There is one egg, ovum or oocyte per follicle.
• Women begin puberty with about 300,000 to 400,000 eggs. Each
monthly menstrual cycle, a number of follicles, each containing an egg,
are selected to grow and mature. However, most of this group of
follicles do not reach maturity and degenerate.
• Each month, one follicle is selected and goes on to maturity.
• When this follicle has matured and grown to the right size the follicle
ruptures and releases the egg(ovulation), which is now ready to be
fertilised.
• This is usually around 14 days after the beginning of the menstrual
cycle. Follicles secrete hormones which trigger different stages of the
menstrual cycle.
 Male/Female Reproduction-Key Terms
■ Penis: Contains urethra, becomes erect to enable sexual intercourse

■ Ejaculation: urine is sealed off, secretions from prostate gland, seminal vesicles are mixed and expelled. (about one
quarter ounce of semen)

■ Sperm: male reproductive cell, about 400 million in each ejaculation

■ Erection: Small reservoirs in penis fill up with blood due to nervous stimulation

■ Impotence: male sexual inadequacy, no erection, premature ejaculation

■ Testicles: two glands that manufacture sperm

■ Vas deferens: 2 carry sperm to be stored in the seminal vesicles

■ Urethra: Tube that carries both urine and semen in the male; urine in the female

■ Scrotum: external sack holding the testicles

■ Prostate Gland: Supplies a fluid in which the sperm swim

■ Clitoris: At front of vagina; center of sexual stimulation for females

■ Hymen: membrane at the opening of the vagina

■ Vagina: Cavity where penis is placed during intercourse; also serves as birth canal.

■ Uterus: thick walled womb where baby develops

■ Ovaries: 2 glands that produce female reproductive eggs called OVA

■ Fallopian Tubes: 2 receive the ova and pass them to the uterus

■ Menstruation: discharge of the lining of the uterus. App. every 28 days

■ Fimbra: lacy fingers at the end of the fallopian tubes.

■ Cervix: lower end of the uterus; site of cancer

Sexual Intercourse
• The biological purpose of sexual intercourse is
to place the sperm as close as possible to the
ovum to optimise the chance of fertilization.

• The ovum is wafted down the fallopian tubes

(oviducts) by small hair called cilia.

• The sperm has to swim through the cervix,

uterus and part of the way up the fallopian tubes.

• Only a very small proportion of the sperm will

reach the ovum.
Fertilisation
1. The membrane of the head of the sperm
fuses with that of the ovum.
2. Changes to the zona pellucida (jelly coat
surrounding the ovum) prevents the entry of
another sperm to the fertilized egg.
3. The male nucleus containing 23
chromosomes fuses with the female nucleus
which also contains 23 chromosomes.
4. The fertilised ovum is now called a zygote
and contains 46 chromosomes.
5. Half the sperms contain a Y chromosome,
resulting in a boy and the other half
contain an X chromosome resulting in a
girl.
Twins:Identical and Fraternal

To form identical or
monozygotic twins, one
fertilised egg (ovum) splits
and develops into two
embryos with exactly the
same genetic information.

To form fraternal or
dizygotic twins, two eggs
(ova) are fertilised
separately by two sperms
and produce two
genetically unique children.

2 ovums
https://youtu.be/dwtFYOLFeNw
If Ovum is Not Fertilized and Implanted
in the Uterus it leads to
Mensturation………
Uterine lining! Should I Stay or
Leave Yes:
No:
Pregnancy Menstruation
(Uterine lining takes
stays) place(Ute
rine
lining shed)

Fertilisation
Ovulation

The process of releasing an egg into the

fallopian tube is called OVULATION
 1. Where does fertilisation occur?
2. Define the following words:
– Zygote
– Blastocyst
– Fertilisation

Questions 3. How does the ball of cells travel

towards the uterus?

4. Why is it important that it does

not take any longer for the
blastocyst to implant in the wall of
the uterus?

If implantation does not occur, the endometrium breaks down and

sheds, along with the blastocyst, as part of the menstrual cycle.
However, if a blastocyst does implant, then the endometrium
remains in the uterus, and together with uterine tissue, becomes
the maternal portion of the placenta
 THE
In a girl,
MENSTRUAL menstruation starts
from the age of 10
•CYCLE
Cycle begins with the shedding of to 15 when she
Endometrium attains puberty and
this beginning is
known as
menarche.
• This shedding leads to a hemorrhage called
The ending of
MENSTRUATION (4-5days)
menstruation is
known as
• Every 28 days in the female body but can menopause which
vary from 28 to 30 days. takes place at the
age range of 50.
https://youtu.be/ayzN5f3qN8g
 THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

30 day cycle Cycle begins (days 1-5)

Lining becomes
Uterus lining very
thicker as egg travels
thin (days 6-9)
towards uterus (days
15-30) (Less or no
mucus)

(As the egg starts

maturing mucus
production begins)

Uterus lining begins

thickening & ovulation
takes place (days 10-
14)
DURING MENSRUATION (Days 1-5): Menstruation
occurs and the lining of the uterus, with a small
amount of blood, leaves the body. At this time
another egg is maturing in the ovary.

AFTER MENSRUATION (Days 6-15): The lining of the

uterus repairs itself and once again prepares for a
fertilized egg. Around days 13-15 and egg is released
from an ovary. This is called OVULATION.

BEFORE MENSTRUATION (Days 16-30): If the egg

is fertilized by the male sperm cell, it embeds
itself in the wall of the uterus.
If the egg is not fertilized, the blood vessels in the wall
of the uterus shrink & break down.
Menstruation begins again.
 Phases of the Menstrual Cycle and hormonal regulation

The menstrual cycle has three main phases as most scientists

consider menstruation as part of follicular phase
• Follicular (before release of the egg)
• Ovulatory (egg release)
• Luteal (after egg release)

However others consider these as four phases separately

mentioning menstruation phase.

Menstrual phase: Day 1, uterus lining which is prepared for

implantation starts to shed which can last between 3 to 10 days.
 Release of hormones
Negative feedback
from pitutary and
from ovaries
ovaries

1 3 4
7
5
1
LH
2 releases
estrogen

Released egg goes

into oviduct and
waits for
fertilisation
6 Releases
progestron and
estrogen for
development of
uterine lining
 Follicular Phase;FSH and Estrogen
• When the follicular phase begins, level
of estrogen and progesterone are low. As a result, endometrium
break down and sheds, and menstrual bleeding occurs.

• About this time, the follicle-stimulating hormone level increases

slightly, stimulating the development of several follicles in the
ovaries. Each follicle contains an egg.

• Later in this phase, as the follicle-stimulating hormone level

decreases, usually only one follicle continues to develop.

• This follicle produces estrogen. Estrogen levels increase steadily.

 Ovulatory Phase;Estrogen and LH
• Increase in estrogen sends signals to pituatary to release
LH. Luteinizing hormone stimulates egg release (ovulation),
few hours after the surge begins. FSH and LH are used in
fertility treatment

• The estrogen level decreases during the surge, and

• The progesterone level starts to increase.

• The end of the follicular phase along with the ovulation

period defines the fertilisation period.
 Luteal phase;Estrogen and Progesterone
• During the luteal phase, luteinizing hormone and follicle-
stimulating hormone levels decrease.

• The ruptured follicle closes after releasing the egg and

forms a corpus luteum, which produces progesterone.

• During most of this phase, the estrogen level is high.

• Progesterone and estrogen cause the lining of the uterus to

thicken more, to prepare for possible fertilization.
• If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum degenerates and
no longer produces progesterone, the estrogen level decreases,
the top layer of the lining breaks down and sheds and
menstrual bleeding occurs (the start of a new menstrual cycle).
• If the egg is fertilized and implants in the uterus, placenta
releases HCG(human chorionic gonadotrophin) also known as
pregnancy hormone(causes morning sickness) to prevent
degeneration of corpus luteum.
• The corpus luteum continues to function during early
pregnancy. It helps maintain the pregnancy by release of
progesterone.
• Estrogen and progesterone are used in the contraceptive pill.
Combinations of estrogen and progesterone work by preventing
ovulation.
Summary; Phases of the Menstrual Cycle

Occuring
simultaneoulsy
Summary; Hormonal Regulation of the menstrual
cycle
If Ovum is Fertilized and Implanted in the
Uterus it leads to Pregnacy………
§ CONCEPTION or FERTILIZATION is when sperm and egg fuse
 An ovum will be present if ovulation has occurred. If an egg is not
fertilized within 24 hours it dies.
§ Sperm can live in the female body for up to 4 days!
§ Only one sperm may penetrate the egg
§ The fertilized egg is termed a ZYGOTE
§ The zygote takes 4-6 days to travel to the uterus
§ IMPLANTATION is when the zygote burrows into the
lining of the uterus (Endometrium) it develops into an
EMBRYO (5-8 days after conception)

§ The embryo is defined as the developing pregnancy from

the time of fertilization until the end of the eighth week of
gestation, after which it becomes known as a FOETUS
(meaning offspring) till birth.
Placenta & Amnion
Amnion
• The amnion is a
membrane
surrounding the
fetus.
• It contains the
amniotic fluid mainly
made of fetus's urine
(commonly known as
water bag)
• It provides a moist
environment and
protection from
bumps.
• It ruptures at the
onset of birth and
the amniotic fluid is
released.
 Placenta
• The placenta is an organ that develops in the uterus during
pregnancy from outer cell mass.
• The placenta attaches to the wall of the uterus, and the baby's
umbilical cord arises from it.
• The organ is usually attached to the top, side, front or back of
the uterus. In rare cases, the placenta might attach in the
lower area of the uterus. When this happens, it's called a low-
lying placenta.
• Placenta has maternal surface towards the uterus which has
uterine vessels(mum’s vessels) and a foetal surface towards
the foetus which has umbilical cord carrying umbilical
vessels(foetal vessels).
The
placenta
• Produces the hormone
HCG after egg implants in
uterus that prevents
degeneration of corpus
luteum and also leads to
morning sickness.
• Produces Progesterone
that maintains the
uterine wall.
• Provides nutrients and
oxygen.
• Removes urea and carbon
dioxide.
• Maternal and foetal blood
come close together but do
not mix
https://youtu.be/bQioHx12JuY
Placental
Adaptations….
Ø Placenta produces
progesterone that
maintains pregnancy
Ø Chorionic villi increase
the surface area for the
exchange of substances.
Ø Substances pass across
the placenta by diffusion.
Ø The placental membrane
acts as a barrier to
pathogens (disease).
Ø Antibodies do not pass
across the membrane so
the first milk or
colostrum is important.
Ø Alcohol and drugs can
pass across the
placental membrane
 Infertility
Infertility refers to the inability to have children using natural methods. It can occur
in both men and women, and there are many different causes:

Male infertility ​Female infertility

Low sperm count No ovulation or problems with ovulation

Defective sperm Fallopian tube obstruction

Sperm incompatible with cervical mucus Uterine abnormalities which make it

difficult for the embryo to implant

Nowadays, there are many assisted reproduction techniques used to help people who
have infertility problems to have children.

Invitro fertilzation FSH and LH can be

Fusing sperm and egg in lab Artificial insemination given to treat
Introducing semen directly into infertility.
the cervix,uterus or fallopian
tubes
https://youtu.be/P27waC05Hdk
 Contraception
• Contraceptive methods can be used to avoid getting pregnant
during sexual intercourse.
• There are natural and artificial methods of contraception.
• Natural methods take into account the cyclical character of
female fertility, and require that the couple adapt their sexual
activity to the woman’s menstrual cycle. These methods are a
lot less reliable than other types of contraception.
• Artificial methods are used to prevent fertilisation at any time.
They do not involve adapting sexual activity to the menstrual
cycle. These can use hormonal or non hormonal
contraceptives.
https://youtu.be/Zx8zbTMTncs
 Definition:
An infectious disease that has
been passed on through sexual

Sexually contact. The causes of STDs are

bacteria, parasites and viruses.

Transmi Examples:

tted
• Chlamydia
• Genital Herpes
• Gonorrhoea
Diseases • Hiv/Aids
• Human
Papillomavirus
(HPV)
• Syphilis
• Most STDs affect both men and women, but
in many cases the health problems they
cause can be more severe for women.

• If a pregnant woman has an STD, it can cause

serious health problems for the baby.
If you have an STD caused by bacteria or
parasites, your health care provider can treat
it with antibiotics or other medicines.

• If you have an STD caused by a virus, there is

no cure. Sometimes medicines can keep the
disease under control. However, some STDs
can lead to death.

• Correct usage of latex condoms greatly

reduces, but does not completely eliminate,
the risk of catching or spreading STDs.
 AIDS
• HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is a virus that attacks cells that help
the body fight infection, making a person more vulnerable to other
infections and diseases.

• It is spread by contact with certain bodily fluids of a person with HIV, most
commonly during unprotected sex (sex without a condom or HIV medicine
to prevent or treat HIV), or through sharing injection drug equipment.

• If left untreated, HIV can lead to the disease AIDS (acquired

immunodeficiency syndrome).

• The human body can’t get rid of HIV and no effective HIV cure exists. So,
once you have HIV, you have it for life.
 Syphilis
Syphilis is caused by the bacteria Treponema pallidum. It is a
sexually transmitted infection (STI). If it's not treated, it can cause
serious and potentially life-threatening problems.

Symptoms can include;

• small sores (ulcers) can develop on penis, vagina, or around
anus– these are usually painless
• sores in other areas, including in mouth or on lips
• a rash on the palms of hands and soles of feet that can
sometimes spread all over your body – this is not usually itchy
• white patches in mouth
• flu-like symptoms, such as a high temperature, headaches and
tiredness
• swollen glands
• patchy hair loss on the head, beard and eyebrows
 Prohibitions in Intimacy
Only Halal(allowed) after Marriage(nikkah). Physical love between
husband and wife is considered as an act of worship.
However few acts remain Haram (sinful; stictly forbidden) even after
marriage like
• Anal intercourse
• Intercourse during mensturation
• Watching Pornography

https://www.youtube.com/wa
tch?v=9hwhVQuA7bI&list=RD https://www.youtube.com/watc
9hwhVQuA7bI&start_radio=1 h?v=Bb8p6idwiuQ
&rv=9hwhVQuA7bI&t=235
Prohibitions in Intimacy
 Disadvantages of Pornography
• Pornography is documented prostitution
• Addiction (dopamine surge)
• By becoming a viewer you become a supporter of
prostituition
• Ruins mind and soul,may lead to anger and frustration
• Unrealistic expectations in real life relations leading to failed
marriages.
• If you are tempted to disobey your Allah or feel
ungrateful about any aspect of your looks,body
shape etc. Think for a moment…..

One minute change in one base, in one gene, in one

out of 46 chromosomes, inside a nucleus,in a cell that
can’t be seen with a naked eye can lead to a LIFETIME
ABNORMALITY……
Be grateful; Thankyou