Unit 4

Dinesh Pant
 We will study
• Concept and Definition • Caste in Nepal Caste Discrimination
of Social Structure • Social Class • Theoretical Perspectives
• Necessity and • Social Mobility of Stratification
Universality of Social • Marriage
Structure • Life Chances
• Social Stratification in • Family
• Elements of Social
Structure Rural and Urban Society • Education: Role of
• Factors and Bases of education in society
• Social Stratification
Social Stratification • Religion
• Caste System
• Inter-Caste • Economy
• Characteristics of Caste Discrimination and Intra- •
System Politics
Concept and Definition of Social
Structure
• Various sciences investigate "structure" in their specific
domains.
• Examples: Atomic physics (atoms), chemistry
(molecules), crystallography (crystals), anatomy and
physiology (organisms).
• In sociological and social anthropological studies, "social
structure" focuses on the general characteristics of
social arrangements involving human beings.
• Fundamental concept in sociology, explored to
understand ordered arrangements of social phenomena.
Concept and Definition of Social
Structure
• Original English meaning related to "building construction"
or "arrangement of parts."
• By the 16th century, it expanded to refer to interrelations
between parts of any whole, notably in anatomical studies.
• Herbert Spencer popularized the term in sociology after
1850, applying it to society using biological analogies.
• After World War II, 'Social Structure' gained popularity in
social anthropological studies.
• Became a versatile term applicable to various ordered
social phenomena.
Concept and Definition of Social
Structure
• Durkheim, Morgan, Marx, and others provided their own interpretations of
'social structure.'
• George Murdock, A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, and Claude Levi-Strauss
popularized the concept in modern times.
• Murdock's use implies a building analogy or a dead organic model
dissected for demonstration.
• Radcliffe-Brown sees society as comparable to a living organism or a
working mechanism.
• Society has a life of its own, not an object but akin to a creature.
• Study of structure involves exploring the interdependence of component
parts within a system.
• Focus on understanding how these parts "work" in relation to each other
and contribute to the functioning of the whole system.
 Concept and Definition of Social
Structure
Some Definitions
The concept of social structure has been defined in different ways by different thinkers. We may consider some
of these definitions:
• Radcliffe-Brown defines social structure as "an arrangement of persons in institutionally controlled or
defined relationships, (such as the relationship of King and subject, or that of husband and wife)".
• In the British social anthropological circles the term social structure is used to refer to "a body of principles
underlying social relations, rather than their actual content".
• Morris Ginsberg regards social structure as "the complex of principal groups and institutions which
constitute societies".
• In current sociological usage the concept of social structure is applied to small groups as well as larger
associations, communities and societies.
• Thus, Ogburn and Nimkoff are of the opinion that "In society, the organisation of a group of persons is the
social structure. What the group does is the function." They use the terms 'social organisation' and 'social
structure' almost interchangeably.
In a loose manner, the term 'social structure' is used to refer to any recurring pattern of social behaviour.
Concept and Definition of Social
Structure
• Many sociologists define 'social structure' as "the enduring, orderly, and
patterned relationships between elements of a society.“
• Disagreement exists regarding what qualifies as an "element" in social
structure.
• Elements, according to A.R. Brown, are general and regular relationships
between people.
• S.F. Nadel identifies roles as the elements of social structure.
• Many sociologists, especially functionalists, consider 'social institutions' as
the elements of social structures.
• Social institutions are seen as necessary or "functional prerequisites" for
the survival of a society.
• Without these institutions, it is believed that no society can endure or
function effectively.
Necessity and Universality of
Social Structure
• Human beings must be social to survive.
• Man is a member of a social species that cannot survive
without organized groups and societies.
• Societies develop a culture to meet shared needs,
including biological, economic, social, psychological,
etc.
• Minimum needs lead to the universality of basic
structures in societies.
• These structures result in general functions essential for
the survival of human societies.
 Necessity and Universality of
Social Structure
• Sociologists identify a few kinds of structures or groups
present in all societies.
• These structures are independent of a society's ethos,
history, or cultural variability.
• The nature of specific structures may vary (e.g.,
monogamous or polygamous family, democratic or
totalitarian government, capitalist or socialist economy).
• Despite variations, there is always some structure
contributing to essential and universal functions.
• Functions are crucial for the survival and functioning of
human societies.
 Elements of Social Structure
Sub-groups of Various Types:
• Society is a large group consisting of people.
• Various sub-groups exist within this larger system,
including political, economic, religious, educational, and
familial groups.
• Sub-groups persist longer than individual members, and
some types of sub-groups endure beyond specific
examples.
• Example: A family may continue to exist even after the death
of its members.
• Social norms define roles and obligations within these
 Elements of Social Structure
Roles of Various Types:
• Social structure encompasses not only sub-groups but
also roles.
• Roles are present within both the larger societal system
and the sub-groups.
• Roles and sub-groups are interrelated, with role
occupants expected to fulfill obligations to other role
occupants.
• Example: Husband's obligations to wife and children in a
family, or a teacher's obligations to students, principal, and
management in a college.
• The interrelated sub-groups are subject to social norms.
 Elements of Social Structure
Regulative Norms Governing Sub-groups and Roles:
• Social norms govern sub-groups and roles.
• Two types of social norms exist: obligatory (relational) and permissive
(regulative).
• Obligatory norms specify positive obligations, but these obligations
vary among roles and sub-groups.
• Example: Family obligations differ from those of a business firm.
• Regulative norms specify permissible actions, indicating what role
occupants "must," "may," or "must not" do.
• Regulative norms apply universally, irrespective of roles or sub-groups.
• Example: Prohibiting the use of threats or violence to influence others,
regardless of one's role.
 Elements of Social Structure
• Cultural Values:
• Every society has its own cultural values.
• Values measure goodness or desirability and emotionally
commit individuals or groups.
• Values help integrate personalities and systems of interaction,
providing a means for conflict resolution.
• Integration of Elements:
• Values are closely related to norms and can be considered
"higher-order norms."
• Each element (sub-group, role, social norm, or value) may be
termed a "partial structure."
 Social Stratification
• Differentiation is a fundamental law of nature, evident in human society.
• Human society is heterogeneous, with individuals differing in physical
appearance, intellectual capacity, morality, philosophy, mental
attributes, economic status, religious beliefs, and political affiliations.
• While bodily structure may be equal, diversity and inequality exist
across various aspects of human life.
• No two individuals are exactly alike, leading to inherent diversity in
society.
• Societal stratification is the result of arranging individuals in terms of
superiority, inferiority, and equality.
• Stratification involves a vertical scale of evaluation, placing people in
different strata or layers.
 Social Stratification
• Those in the top stratum possess more power, privilege, and
prestige than those in lower strata.
• Society engages in comparisons and rankings of individuals and
groups, such as in mate selection, employment, neighbor
interactions, and friendships.
• These social evaluations involve valuations, reflecting collective
judgments within a group.
• Roles within society are also differentiated and evaluated, with some
roles considered more important or socially valuable than others.
• Stratification is a process of interaction and differentiation, where
certain individuals come to be ranked higher than others based on
societal perceptions and values.
 Social Stratification
Some Definitions
• Ogburn and Nimkoff: "The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in
a more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification.“
• Gisbert: "Social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups of
categories linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and
subordination.“
• Melvin M. Tumin: Social stratification refers to "arrangement of any social group or
society into a hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to power,
property, social evaluation, and/ or psychic gratification.“
• Lundberg: "A stratified society is one marked by inequality, by differences among
people that are evaluated by them as being lower' and 'higher"
• Raymond W. Murry: "Social stratification is a horizontal division of society into
'high' and 'lower' social units".
 Social Stratification
• Social stratification is a universal phenomenon
present in all societies.
• Differentiation occurs based on factors such as age,
sex, and personal characteristics.
• No society can be considered purely equalitarian, as
there is always some level of stratification.
• P.A. Sorokin wrote in his 'Social Mobility' that
'Unstratified society with real equality of its members,
is a myth which has never been realised in the history
of mankind.'
 Social Stratification
• All societies display a system of hierarchy, positioning members
in higher or lower, superior or inferior positions relative to each
other.
• The concepts of 'social differentiation' and 'social stratification'
are used to describe the classification and gradation of
individuals within society.
• Differentiation involves the classification of individuals based on
specific traits, which can be physical or biological (e.g., skin
color, physical appearance, age, sex) or social and cultural (e.g.,
differences in etiquettes, manners, values, ideals, ideologies).
• Differentiation acts as a sorting process, grading people based
on their roles and status in society.
 Social Stratification
• Stratification tends to perpetuate these differences in status,
solidifying individuals within the societal structure.
• Through the stratification process, people become fixed in
their positions within the social hierarchy.
• In some cases, such as the caste system, status may become
hereditary, passing down through generations.
• Differentiation can be considered the initial stage preceding
stratification, where individuals are sorted and classified into
distinct groups.
• It's important to note that not all differentiation necessarily
leads to stratification in society.
 Caste System
• The term 'caste' is derived from the
Spanish and Portuguese word 'caste,'
meaning 'breed' or 'lineage.'
• The Portuguese initially used the term
'caste' to describe the divisions in the
Indian caste system.
• 'Caste' also signifies 'race' or 'kind,' adding
to the bases of the Indian caste system,
along with the division of labor and
 Caste System
• The caste stratification in Indian society (Read as Indian
Sub-continent) originated from the 'Chaturvarna' system,
which divided Hindu society into four main varnas:
Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
• The Chaturvarna doctrine was prevalent during the Vedic
period and was primarily based on the division of labor
and occupation.
• The caste system is derived form of the original Varna
system, with varnas and castes being distinct entities.
• While Varnas were limited to four, castes are numerous,
with hundreds and thousands of variations, highlighting a
significant difference between the two systems.
 Caste System
• Sir Herbert Risely: Caste is a "collection of families, bearing a common name, claiming a common
descent, from a mythical ancestor, human and divine, professing to follow the same hereditary
calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homo-
geneous community."
• MacIver and Page: "When status is wholly predetermined so that men are born to their lot
without any hope of changing it, then the class takes the extreme form of caste."
• C.H. Cooley: "When a class is somewhat strictly hereditary, we may call it a caste. "
• A. W. Green: "Caste is a system of stratification in which mobility up and down the status ladder,
at least ideally may not occur".
• Ketkar: "A caste is a group having two characteristics; (i) membership is confined to those who are
born of members and includes all persons so born, (ii) the members are forbidden by an
inexorable social law to marry outside the group."
• D.N. Majumdar and T.N. Madan have said that caste is a "closed group'.
Characteristics of Caste System
Caste as a Hierarchical Division of Society
• Hindu society is gradational, divided into castes and
subcastes.
• Hierarchy involves a sense of 'highness' and 'lowness,' with
Brahmins at the top and 'untouchables' at the bottom.
• Acceptance of this hierarchy is widespread, but disputes may
arise about the positions of intermediary castes.
Characteristics of Caste System
Caste as a Segmental Division of Society:
• Hindu society is segmented into distinct 'castes' with defined
boundaries.
• Individual status is determined by birth, not by personal
achievements or selection.
• Caste membership is unchangeable, unacquirable, inalienable,
unattainable, and nontransferable.
• Each caste has its own way of life, customs, traditions, practices, and
rituals.
Characteristics of Caste System
Restrictions on Food Habits:
• Caste system imposes restrictions on food habits, varying from caste
to caste.
• Acceptance of certain foods is often decided by caste, with
distinctions like 'pakka' and 'kachcha' food.
• Brahmins historically dominated the hotel industry due to their
accepted food preparations.
Characteristics of Caste System
Restrictions on Social Relations:
• The caste system limits the range of social relations through
the concept of 'pollution.'
• Touch of a lower caste may be considered defiling for a
higher caste individual.
Social and Religious Disabilities of Certain Castes:
• Lower caste individuals historically faced civil, social,
religious disabilities.
• Harijans or 'untouchables' were socially separated and
denied access to public facilities, educational rights, legal
representation, and religious places.
Characteristics of Caste System
Civil and Religious Privileges of Certain Castes:
• Higher caste individuals, particularly Brahmins, enjoyed
social, political, legal, and religious privileges.
• Brahmins were exempt from many of the disabilities faced
by lower castes.
Restrictions on Occupational Choice:
• Occupations were associated with caste, with some
considered superior and sacred, while others were viewed
as degrading.
• Certain professions like weaving, shoe-making, and
scavenging were considered 'degrading,' while education
and priesthood were prestigious.
Characteristics of Caste System
Restrictions on Marriage:
• Caste system imposes endogamy, with individuals required to marry
within their caste or subcaste.
• Inter-caste marriages were strictly forbidden, and even today, they
are not widespread.
 Caste in Nepal
• During 1st century Kirat ruled in Nepal without a varna system.
• Reliance on Mundhum as their scriptures.
• 1st Century Onwards: Arrival of Buddhist and Hindu Rulers
• Arrival of rulers such as Shakya, Videha, Koliya, Lichhavi, and Malla.
• Aryan Khas people migrate to western Nepal, tracing their roots to Iran.
• Aryan Khas society identified as animists, worshiping Masto and practicing
Matawali tradition.
• No varna system in the Aryan Khas society of that era.
• Introduction of the varna system with the arrival of Hindu rulers and their
subjects.
 Caste in Nepal
Caste System in Newar Community
• Early 2nd Century: End of Kirat Rule and Rise of Lichhavis
• Kirat rule without a varna system comes to an end.
• Hindu Lichhavis from India take over, particularly in the Bagmati
valley.
• Introduction of the varna system - "four varna and eighteen jāt."
• By 600, untouchability becomes an addition to the varna system.
 Caste in Nepal
• Then comes Malla rule and Hinduization intensifies
• Malla rule begins after the Lichhavi era.
• Mallas intensify Hinduization initiated by Lichhavi rulers.
• King Jayasthiti Malla (reign 1360-1395) invites Brahman figures
to the Bagmati valley.
• Division of Nepali society into "four varna and sixty-four jāt."
• Strict imposition of untouchability during the Malla rule.
 Caste in Nepal
Caste in Aryan Khas People
• Difficulty in confirming the extent of varna system implementation outside Kathmandu
valley.
• King Ram Shah of Gorkha introduces "four varna and thirty-six jāt" system, revealing
status in western Aryan Khas states.
• Aryan Khas likely entered Nepal around the 5th century, but their Hindu status lacks
evidence.
• Evidence suggests Indian Hindu Vedic Aryans merged with existing
Aryan Khas rulers.
• Hinduization process affected the entire Aryan Khas society, integrating
the varna system.
• Matawali Aryan Khas might be descendants who resisted or were not
Hinduized during this process.
 Caste in Nepal
Caste in Madheshi People
• Specific processes of how the system reached the Nepali Tarai are not fully explored.
• Evidence suggests its presence in areas like Mithila, part of Tarai/Madhesh.
• Janak dynasty of Videha around 1000 BC designated as Kshatriya in scriptures.
• King Janak convened a Brahman assembly, indicating the existence of the varna system in
Mithila.
• Legends, like Sahales in the 5th to 6th century, opposing the caste system.
• Suggests firm establishment of the varna system in the Mithila region by the 6th century.
• By the time of Buddha, the varna system with untouchability had penetrated the western
Tarai.
• Particularly evident in the Lumbini area.
 Caste in Nepal
• Spread through three directions: from Bagmati valley with Lichhavi
rulers, from western Aryan Khas states, and from Indian-origin Hindu
Vedic Aryans.
• Complex processes of how it reached the Tarai region require further
exploration
• Prithvi Narayan Shah expanded Gorkha (to form Nepal) with the
slogan of making it the "Asali Hindustan" (true land of Hindus).
• Declared the Hindu varna system as the official religion under his rule.
• After unification by Prithvi Narayan Shah, the feudal state persisted in
maintaining the varna system.
 Caste in Nepal
Reasons for Continuation and Expansion of Varna
System
• Prevention of Rebellions:
• Essential to prevent possible rebellions by defeated groups
against the newly formed empire.
• Division of these groups through the varna system was seen
as a means to prevent unity and resistance.
• Capture of Means of Production:
• The newly formed state, emerging as an Aryan Khas high-
caste feudal state, aimed to control all means of production.
• Varna system served as an ideological tool to justify the moral
superiority of the Aryan Khas high caste.
 Caste in Nepal
Muluki Ain (First Formalized Legal Code of Nepal)
• Jang Bahadur Rana introduced the Muluki Ain in 1854, a
legal caste code.
• Aimed at defining social relationships among different
caste groups in Nepal.
• The government, under Jang Bahadur Rana, aimed to
amalgamate three historically and regionally
independent caste hierarchies:
• Parbatiya (Hill),
• Newar,
• Terai (Plains).
 Caste in Nepal
• Muluki Ain was a significant tool for social engineering,
using legal codes to shape and redefine social relations.
• Intended to institutionalize a caste system that cut
across historical and regional caste distinctions.
• The legal code aimed at standardizing social
relationships among diverse caste and ethnic groups.
• The Muluki Ain had a lasting impact, influencing social
dynamics and relationships in Nepal.
• Contributed to the shaping of the modern caste system
in the country.
Caste in Nepal
Caste in Nepal
 Social Class
• Principal type of social stratification in modern civilized
countries.
• Universal nature, in contrast to Indian Sub-continent's
unique caste system.
• Term 'class’ laso represents groups like professors,
artists, engineers, doctors, students, etc.
• Also used to denote the quality of things (good, better,
best).
• Predominantly used in sociology to represent social
stratification.
 Social Class
Definitions
• P. Gisbert: A social class is 'a category or group of persons having a definite status in society which
permanently determines their relation to other groups’.
• Ogburn and Nimkoff: 'A social class is the aggregate of persons having essentially the same social
status in a given society’
• Maclver and Page: 'A social class is any portion of the community marked off from the rest by social
status’.
• Max Weber: social classes are aggregates of individuals 'who have the same opportunities of
acquiring goods, the same exhibited standard of living’.
• Lapire: 'A social class is culturally defined group that is accorded a particular position of status within the
population as a whole’.
Thus, it is clear that social class is a segment of society with all the members of all ages and both the
sexes who share the same general status. As Maclver says, whenever social intercourse is limited by
the consideration of social status by distinctions between higher and lower, there exists a social class.
 Social Class
Nature and Characteristics of Social Class
1. Class-A status group
• Social class is a status group within a society.
• Connected to different statuses shaped by diverse activities,
vocations, and pursuits.
• Applicable to societies with multiple strata.
• Concept of social status can create physical and mental distinctions
among individuals.
 Social Class
2. Achieved Status and Not Ascribed Status
• Achieved status, not ascribed, defines class in the
system.
• Birth is not the determinant; individual achievements
primarily influence status.
• Class system allows for the possibility of changing or
improving one's status.
• Factors such as income, occupation, wealth, education,
and lifestyle determine an individual's status.
 Social Class
3. The Class System is Universal.
• Class is almost a universal phenomenon.
• The class system appears in all the modern complex societies of the
world.
• It is a phenomenon that is absent only in the smallest, the simplest,
and the most primitive of societies.
• All other soceities of any size have a class structure.
 Social Class
4. Mode of Feeling.
• In a class system we may observe three modes of feelings.
• There is a feeling of equality in relation to the members of one's own class
• There is a feeling of inferiority in relation to those who occupy the higher status in the socio-
economic hierarchy.
• There is a feeling of superiority in relation to those who occupy the lower status in the hierarchy.
• This kind of feeling develops into class consciousness and finally results in class
solidarity.
• Class consciousness is "the sentiment that characterises the relations of men towards
the members of their own and other classes."
• It "consists in the realisation of a similarity of attitude and behaviour with members of
other classes."
 Social Class
5. Element of Prestige
• Each social class holds a distinct status in society.
• Status is closely tied to prestige within the social structure.
• The relative position of a class is determined by the level of prestige
associated with its status.
• Ruling or wealthy classes typically enjoy superior status and prestige
compared to commoners or the poor.
• Prestige is influenced by various factors such as knowledge, race or
descent purity, religion, wealth, heroism, bravery, and other
qualities.
• Evaluations of these qualities vary across societies and change over
time within the same society.
 Social Class
6. Element of Stability
• A social class is relatively a stable group.
• It is not transitory nor unstable like a crowd or a mob.
• Though status in the case of class is subject to change, it is to some
extent stable.
• Status in the case of class may undergo radical changes in
extraordinary circumstances i.e., in times of wars, revolutions,
economic, political and social crisis and so on.
 Social Class
7. Mode of Living
• Social class distinguished by customary modes of behavior or "life-styles."
• Life-styles encompass:
• Mode of dress.
• Type of residence and neighborhood.
• Recreational choices.
• Cultural products enjoyed.
• Parent-child relationships.
• Media exposure (books, magazines, TV shows).
• Social circle.
• Transportation and communication choices.
• Spending habits.
• Life-styles reflect class-specific preferences, tastes, and values.
 Social Class
8. Social Class an Open Group
• Social classes are 'open groups".
• They represent an 'open' social system.
• An open class system is one in which vertical social mobility is possible.
• This means there are no restrictions, or at the most only very mild
restrictions are imposed on the upward and downward movement of
individuals in the social hierarchy.
• However, a completely open class system and a completely closed class
system are only hypothetical.
 Social Class
9. Social class an Economic Group.
• The basis of social classes is mostly economic, but they are not mere
economic groups or divisions.
• Subjective criteria such as class-consciousness, class solidarity and
class identification on the one hand, and the objective criteria such as
wealth, property, income, education, occupation, etc., on the other,
are equally important in the class system.
• Classes, thus, are not merely economic groups, they are something
more than these.
 Social Mobility
• Social mobility involves movement between social statuses or
positions.
• Examples include:
• Poor individuals becoming wealthy.
• Bank peons advancing to become bank officers.
• Farmers transitioning into ministerial roles.
• Petty businessmen evolving into prominent industrialists.
• Conversely, social mobility can involve regression, such as:
• A successful businessman facing bankruptcy.
• The ruling class being ousted from office.
• Social mobility signifies the dynamic potential for individuals or
groups to shift within the social hierarchy.
 Social Mobility
Types of Mobility
(i) Vertical Mobility:
• This mobility refers to the movement of people of groups from
one status to another.
• It involves change in class, occupation or power.
• For example, the movement of people from the poor class to
the middle class, from the occupation of the labourers to that of
the bank clerks, from the power position of the opposition to that
of the ruling class.
 Social Mobility
(ii) Horizontal Mobility
• Horizontal Mobility is a change in position without the change in
status.
• It indicates a change in position, within the range of the status.
• For example, an engineer working in a factory may resign from his job
and join another factory as an engineer and may work in more or less
the same capacity. Similarly, a teacher may leave one school to join
another as a teacher.
 Social Mobility
• Nature, form, intensity, and magnitude of social mobility
depend on the type of social stratification.
• Class and caste represent the two main types of stratification.
• Limited opportunities for social mobility in both systems due to
radically different factors determining individual statuses.
• The way individuals obtain their statuses is closely linked to the
nature of social mobility.
• In the caste system, status is determined by birth, and as birth
cannot be changed, the associated status remains unalterable.
• However, caste exogamy and political intervention can cause
social mobility.
 Life Chances
• Life chances is a sociological theory which refers to an
individual's opportunities to improve their chances of
“doing well” for themselves and improve their quality of
life.
• This can include their life expectancy, educational
attainment, finances, career, housing, health, etc.
physical and mental health.
• Factors that impact life chances in sociology include:
Social class, Gender, Ethnic and cultural group, Sexual
orientation, Age, (Dis)ability, Religion and so on.
Social Stratification in Rural and
Urban Society
Social Stratification in Rural Society
1.Land Ownership: In many rural societies, access to and ownership of land play a
significant role in determining social status. Those who own large tracts of land often
enjoy higher social status and power.
2.Occupation: The type of occupation individuals are engaged in also contributes to
social stratification. For example, farmers and landowners may be considered more
prestigious than laborers.
3.Caste and Tradition: In some rural societies, especially in parts of Asia, social
stratification is deeply rooted in caste systems or traditional hierarchies. People are
often categorized based on birth, and mobility between social classes is limited.
4.Education: Limited access to education in rural areas can contribute to social
stratification. Those with higher levels of education may have more opportunities for
social mobility.
5.Community and Social Networks: Social interactions within small communities play
a crucial role. Tight-knit communities may have their own hierarchies based on factors
such as family reputation, connections, and local influence.
Social Stratification in Rural and
Urban Society
Social Stratification in Industrial Society:
1.Occupational Hierarchy: In industrial societies, occupational status becomes a key
factor. Professionals, managers, and skilled workers often hold higher social positions
compared to unskilled laborers.
2.Income and Wealth: Industrial societies often witness a significant gap in income and
wealth. Executives and business owners may accumulate substantial wealth, leading to
increased social stratification.
3.Education and Meritocracy: Education becomes a more critical factor in social mobility
in industrial societies. Meritocracy, where individuals rise based on their skills and
achievements, is often emphasized.
4.Urbanization: Industrial societies are typically characterized by urbanization. Urban
areas tend to have a more diverse population, leading to increased social interactions
and potentially greater opportunities for social mobility.
5.Social Class: Class distinctions become more pronounced in industrial societies, with
clear divisions between the upper, middle, and lower classes. This classification is often
based on a combination of factors such as income, occupation, and education.
Factors and Bases of Social
Stratification
• Bases or factors of social stratification denote levels of
differentiation in a society.
• Natural inequalities, such as age, sex, and color, transform
into social inequalities as society attributes meanings to them.
• Age, sex, and color, initially natural distinctions, become bases
for social stratification due to societal interpretations.
• Empirical findings suggest that sociologists identify three
primary bases of stratification: wealth, power, and prestige.
• These three bases intertwine to create a complex web of
social stratification, shaping the dynamics of social
interactions and opportunities within a given society.
Factors and Bases of Social
Stratification
Class
• Class denotes differentiation based on wealth, representing
economic disparities within society.
• Economic differentiation is closely tied to technological
advancements and changes in the mode of production.
• Wealth generation is a result of shifts such as the transition from
hunting and food-gathering economies to settled agriculture.
• Another example is the shift from agriculture-based economies to
those centered on manufacturing and industry.
• Social stratification emerges as a consequence of these shifts,
altering the principles governing the organization of social
hierarchy.
Factors and Bases of Social
Stratification
• Economic progress leads to the accumulation of wealth,
including food grains, cattle, metals, minerals, and
currency.
• Groups with greater control over economic resources and
wealth are ranked higher in society.
• Possession of more wealth becomes a criterion for social
ranking, influencing the status of groups within the
societal hierarchy.
• Landless workers or industrial workers, with limited access
to wealth, find themselves ranked lower in social
stratification based on class.
Factors and Bases of Social
Stratification
Power
• Power signifies differential access within society, encompassing political,
social, and various other forms of power.
• Higher-status groups or those with greater wealth often exercise more
power, but distinctions exist between the principles of privilege and
coercion.
• The principle of privilege is based on a group's ability to use coercive
means for conformity to actions, values, and beliefs.
• Max Weber's concept of power in social stratification emphasizes that it
allows individuals or groups to impose their will through legitimate
coercive methods.
• The state serves as a notable example, possessing sovereign authority
to impose its will on society's citizens.
Factors and Bases of Social
Stratification
• Legitimacy in the exercise of power, when widely accepted and
institutionalized, transforms power into authority.
• Authority, as a concept, is defined as legitimate power within the
context of social stratification.
• Power becomes integrated into social stratification when its functions
and social ramifications are influenced by political processes.
• The state's active role in shaping social stratification principles is
exemplified by policies like positive discrimination or job reservations
based on caste or tribal affiliations.
• Max Weber underscores the importance of politics, political parties,
and their role in optimizing access to power within the framework of
social stratification.
Factors and Bases of Social
Stratification
Status
• Status pertains to the distribution of prestige or social
honor in a society.
• In the context of social stratification, status involves
ranking groups based on their relative position in terms of
honor or respect.
• Honor is a qualitative attribute inherent in members of a
status group, typically enjoyed by virtue of birth.
• Attributes inherited by birth, such as honor, are considered
ascribed and cannot be acquired through individual effort.
Factors and Bases of Social
Stratification
• The principle of social stratification based on status is
often referred to as the principle of ascription.
• Caste in our country serves as a pertinent example of
status groups within the social structure.
• The qualities defining status groups are more aligned
with values, beliefs, legends, and myths perpetuated in
societies over time.
• These attributes are less tied to principles achievable
through economic, political, or cultural efforts.
Factors and Bases of Social
Stratification
• The principle of social stratification based on status is
often referred to as the principle of ascription.
• Caste in our country serves as a pertinent example of
status groups within the social structure.
• The qualities defining status groups are more aligned
with values, beliefs, legends, and myths perpetuated in
societies over time.
• These attributes are less tied to principles achievable
through economic, political, or cultural efforts.
 Inter-Caste Discrimination and
Intra-Caste Discrimination
Inter-Caste Discrimination
• Inter-caste discrimination refers to the unequal treatment,
prejudice, and biases experienced by individuals based on their
caste identity in relation to individuals from other castes.
• In many societies, particularly in South Asia, caste systems have
historically defined social structures, leading to the
marginalization and mistreatment of certain caste groups by
others.
Characteristics
• Historical Roots: Inter-caste discrimination has deep historical
roots, with caste systems traditionally placing certain castes in
positions of power and privilege while marginalizing others.
 Inter-Caste Discrimination and
Intra-Caste Discrimination
• Social Hierarchy: Caste systems typically establish a rigid social
hierarchy, where individuals from higher castes are accorded more social
status, economic opportunities, and privileges compared to those from
lower castes.
• Social Exclusion: Discrimination often manifests as social exclusion,
limiting social interactions, marriage prospects, and community
participation for individuals from marginalized castes.
• Economic Disparities: Inter-caste discrimination contributes to
economic disparities, as certain castes historically had access to better
economic opportunities, education, and resources.
• Legal Interventions: Many countries, such as India, have implemented
legal measures and affirmative action policies to address inter-caste
discrimination. These policies aim to provide equal opportunities and
mitigate historical injustices
 Inter-Caste Discrimination and
Intra-Caste Discrimination
Intra-Caste Discrimination
• Intra-caste discrimination refers to the unequal treatment and
disparities experienced by individuals within the same caste or
social group.
• While caste systems traditionally emphasize unity within a caste,
internal hierarchies and power struggles can lead to
discrimination within the group.
Characteristics
• Power Struggles: Intra-caste discrimination often involves
power struggles within a caste, where certain individuals or sub-
groups may exploit their status to dominate and marginalize
others.
 Inter-Caste Discrimination and
Intra-Caste Discrimination
• Social Hierarchies: Despite being part of the same caste, individuals
may experience discrimination based on factors such as economic
status, education, or regional differences.
• Occupational Differences: In some cases, individuals within the
same caste may discriminate against each other based on their
occupations or economic standing, perpetuating disparities.
• Cultural Practices: Discrimination within a caste can be reinforced by
cultural practices and beliefs, creating divisions and limiting social
mobility for certain sub-groups.
• Challenges in Legal Interventions: Legal mechanisms addressing
intra-caste discrimination may be less explicit compared to those
addressing inter-caste discrimination. As a result, combating
discrimination within a caste may require a more nuanced approach.
 Theoretical Perspectives of
Stratification
Functionalist Perspective
• Functionalism in sociology examines how society's parts operate and
suggests that different aspects of society exist because they serve a needed
purpose.
• Social stratification, according to the functionalist perspective, serves a
function in society.
• The Davis-Moore thesis (1945) argues that the greater the functional
importance of a social role, the greater must be the reward associated with
that role.
• Social stratification represents the inherently unequal value of different
types of work in society.
• According to Davis and Moore, certain tasks are more valuable and require
higher skill levels, deserving higher rewards in terms of income, prestige,
and power.
 Theoretical Perspectives of
Stratification
• The theory suggests that rewarding more important work with
higher levels of compensation encourages individuals to work
harder and longer.
• Job importance, according to Davis and Moore, is determined by
the degree of skill required. More skilled jobs are considered more
important.
• The degree of skill required also influences the scarcity of
qualified individuals to perform certain jobs.
• Melvin Tumin (1953) countered the Davis-Moore thesis,
questioning what determines a job's degree of importance.
• Tumin argued that the thesis fails to explain inequalities in the
education system, race, or gender.
 Theoretical Perspectives of
Stratification
• Social stratification, according to Tumin, can prevent qualified individuals
from pursuing certain roles due to a relative lack of opportunity.
• The Davis-Moore thesis is critiqued for not explaining why individuals in
certain roles, such as media personalities with little education or talent,
become famous and wealthy.
• The thesis also does not address why individuals in essential roles, like
doctors or teachers, may not earn as much as others in less critical roles.
• Despite being open to debate, the Davis-Moore thesis suggests that
social stratification is necessary to promote excellence, productivity, and
efficiency in society.
• Davis and Moore believed that the stratification system serves society by
providing individuals with something to strive for, benefiting everyone to
a certain extent.
 Theoretical Perspectives of
Stratification
Conflict Perspective
• Conflict theorists critique social stratification, arguing that it benefits only some
individuals, perpetuating inequality in society.
• Examples like a basketball player earning millions while a public school teacher
earns much less highlight the disparities emphasized by conflict theorists.
• Conflict theorists, drawing on Karl Marx's work, believe that social stratification
stems from people's relationship to production.
• Marx, during the industrialization era, saw a clear division between bourgeois
capitalists who owned production facilities and proletariats who worked in
them.
• Proletariats performed manual labor, earning meager wages, while capitalists
reaped profits and accumulated wealth.
• Marx argued that this division led to deep alienation, isolation, and misery for
the working class, oppressed by the money-driven bourgeoisie.
 Theoretical Perspectives of
Stratification
• While working conditions have improved, conflict theorists
assert that the strained relationship between employers and
employees persists.
• Capitalists still own the means of production, maintaining a
system that enriches business owners and keeps workers
economically disadvantaged.
• Conflict theorists contend that this stratification creates ongoing
class conflict, with opposing interests between the wealthy and
the working class.
• In today's economy, conflict theorists might argue that economic
disparities, such as during a recession, result from the greed of
capitalists at the expense of working people.
 Theoretical Perspectives of
Stratification
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
• Symbolic interactionism uses everyday interactions to explain
society.
• It examines stratification from a micro-level perspective, focusing on
how people's social standing influences their daily interactions.
• People tend to interact primarily with others of similar social standing
due to social stratification.
• Social stratification leads individuals to live, work, and associate with
others who share their income level, educational background, racial
background, and even preferences in food, music, and clothing.
• The built-in system of social stratification groups people together,
influencing their social circles and interactions.
 Theoretical Perspectives of
Stratification
• Social standing affects relationships, making it uncommon
for individuals of different social classes to form connections,
as seen in rare instances like a royal prince marrying a
commoner.
• Symbolic interactionists emphasize that people's
appearance reflects their perceived social standing.
• Housing, clothing, transportation, hairstyles, accessories,
and personal style serve as visible indicators of social status.
• These symbols play a role in shaping social interactions,
influencing perceptions, and contributing to the
maintenance of social stratification.
 Marriage
• Marriage is one of the universal social institutions.
• It is established by the human society to control and regulate the sex
life of man.
• It is closely connected with the institution of family.
• In fact, family and marriage are complementary to each other.
• Marriage is an institution of society which can have very different
implications in different cultures.
• Its purposes, functions and forms may differ from society to society,
but it is present everywhere as an institution.
 Marriage
Definition of Marriage
There is no definition which adequately covers all types of human marriage. It has given a
number of definitions and explanations among which the following may be noted.
• Edward Westermarck in his "History of Human Marriage" defines marriage as "the more or
less durable connection between male and female lasting beyond the mere act of propagation
till after the birth of offspring".
• Malinowski says that marriage is a "contract for the production and maintenance of children".
• According to Robert H. Lowie, "Marriage is a relatively permanent bond between permissible
mates".
• Broadly speaking, however, marriage may be defined as "a socially sanctioned sex relationship
involving two or more people of the opposite sex, whose relationship is expected to endure
beyond the time required for gestation and the birth of children".-Duncan Mitchell's "A
Dictionary of Sociology".
• Alfred McClung Lee writes, "Marriage is the public joining together, under socially specified
regulations of a man and woman as husband and wife".
 Marriage
Characteristics of Marriage
Universality of Marriage:
1.Found among pre-literate and literate societies.
2.Social rule in some cultures (e.g., condemned celibacy in Japan,
unmarried called 'half persons' in Korea, obligatory sacrament
among Hindus).
3.Examples like the Todas of Nilagiri refusing funeral rites for
unmarried girls.
Relationship Between Man and Woman:
4.Marriage is a union between one or more men and one or more
women.
5.Social rules vary regarding who should marry whom and how many.
 Marriage
Enduring Marriage Bond:
1.Marriage signifies a long-lasting bond between husband and
wife.
2.Extends beyond mere sexual relationships, excluding casual
or unsanctioned liaisons.
3.Hindu belief in marriage as a sacred, unbreakable bond even
after death.
Social Approval of Marriage:
4.A union gains marital status only with societal approval.
5.Socially approved marriages become legal contracts.
 Marriage
Association with Ceremony:
1.Marriage gains social recognition through ceremonies with
rites, rituals, customs, and formalities.
2.In some cultures, it receives religious sacraments and
blessings.
3.Examples include Hindu rituals like Homa, Saptapadi,
Panigrahana, Mangalya-Dharana.
Creation of Mutual Obligations:
4.Marriage imposes rights and duties on both spouses.
5.Mutual support obligations for the husband, wife, and their
children
 Marriage
Functions and Importance of Marriage
Regulation of Sex Life:
1. Marriage is a powerful instrument for regulating human sex life.
2. Controls and regulates the powerful sexual impulse in humans.
3. Often referred to as the "license for sex life."
4. Prohibits incestuous relationships (father-daughter, mother-son, brother-
sister).
5. Places restrictions on premarital and extramarital sex.
Establishment of the Family:
6. Marriage leads to the establishment of a family.
7. Couples are encouraged to establish a family for procreation.
8. Determines the descent of newborn individuals.
9. Inheritance and succession follow the rules of descent.
 Marriage
Economic Cooperation:
1.Enables division of labor based on gender.
2.Husband and wife distribute and divide work, even in modern
industrial societies.
3.Couples may work outside the family to enhance economic
status.
Emotional and Intellectual Interstimulation:
4.Brings life partners together, fostering intense love and
affection.
5.Deepens emotions and strengthens companionship.
6.Facilitates intellectual cooperation between partners.
 Marriage
Social Solidarity:
1. Marriage unites individuals of the opposite sex and their
respective families, groups, and kindreds.
2. Reinforces friendship between groups through marriage.
3. Encourages marriage between different groups, castes,
races, classes, religions, languages, etc., to minimize social
distance and strengthen solidarity
 Marriage
Forms of Marriage
The main forms of marriage are Polygamy (Polygyny, Polyandry, Group Marriage) and
Monogamy.
1. Polygyny
• One man marries more than one woman simultaneously.
• More popular than polyandry but less universal than monogamy.
• Practiced in ancient civilizations (Hebrews, Assyrians, Babylonians, Indians).
• Widespread among primitive tribes, often limited to wealthier classes.
• Examples: Eskimo tribes, Crow Indians, Hidatsa of North America, African Negroes.
• Also observed among Nagas, Gonds, and Baigas in India.
• Permitted in the Muslim community.
 Marriage
Polygyny is of two types: (i) Sororal Polygyny and (ii) Non-Sororal Polygyny.
• Sororal Polygyny is a type of marriage in which the wives are invariably the sisters.
It is often called 'sororate’.
• The Latin word 'Soror' stands for sister. When several sisters are simultaneously,
or potentially the spouses of the same man, the practice is called 'sororate’.
• It is usually observed among the tribes which pay a high bride price. The death of
the wife or her childlessness is compensated by supplying a new spouse who is
generally the younger sister of the deceased woman.
• Non-Sororal Polygyny as the term indicates, is a type of marriage in which the
wives are not related as sisters.
• For social, economic, political and other reasons, both the types are practised by
some people.
 Marriage
Causes of Polygyny
• More Women, Less Men:
• Polygyny is likely when there's an excess of females over males.
• Imbalance in sex-ratio, even if temporary, may lead to polygynous
practices.
• Examples include Plains Indians and Eskimos.
• Economic Advantage:
• Some African tribes (e.g., Longos and Thongas) practice polygyny for
economic reasons.
• Women contribute to family income, and additional marriages can
alleviate domestic workload.
• First wives may encourage second marriages for economic relief.
 Marriage
• Women as Badges of Distinction:
• Social status among some tribes is measured by the number of wives a man
has.
• Greater number of wives enhances prestige.
• Historical examples include early kings marrying multiple women for prestige.
• Childlessness of the First Wife:
• Polygyny may result from the first wife's inability to bear children.
• Childless wife may suggest or insist on the husband marrying again.
• Constancy of Sex Urge in Man:
• Men have a constant susceptibility to sex stimulation throughout the year.
• Polygyny provides opportunities for continuous sexual satisfaction.
• Reflects the idea that polygyny caters to the persistent sexual needs of men.
 Marriage
• Other Factors. In addition to the above, the following factors also favour
polygyny.
• Taste for variety. Men go after several women for they have a taste for variety.
• Enforced Celibacy. Sex relations with a woman during her menstrual, pregnancy and
lactation periods are tabooed. This enforced celibacy is a case in favour of polygyny.
• Earlier Ageing of the Female. Among some tribes men marry more women because
they believe that ageing is faster in women.
• Desire for More Children. The desire for more children on the part of men also
supports polygyny. The African 'Guni' and 'Hihi' tribals practise polygyny for this
reason.
• Captured Women in wars and fights are normally taken and enjoyed by the
victorious men as their additional wives.
• Men may also marry more women to establish their masculinity.
 Marriage
• Polyandry Overview:
• Marriage of one woman with several men.
• Less common than polygyny.
• Practiced among Tibetans, Marquesan Islanders, Bahama of
Africa, Samoan tribals, Tiyan, Toda, Kota, Khasa, Ladakhi Bota
tribes in India.
• Nairs of Kerala were previously polyandrous.
• Types of Polyandry:
• Fraternal Polyandry:
• Several brothers share the same wife.
• Known as alelphic or fraternal polyandry.
• Practice called "levirate" among the Todas.
 Marriage
• Types of Polyandry:
• Non-Fraternal Polyandry:
• Husbands do not have a close relationship before marriage.
• Wife spends time with each husband sequentially.
• No claim over the wife by other husbands while she is with one.
• Examples include Nair polyandry and Tibetan polyandry.
• Distinguishing Features:
• Polyandry can be fraternal or non-fraternal.
• Important to differentiate from temporary practices like "wife-sharing" or "wife-lending" common
among primitive
• Causes of Polyandry
• No universal generalisations can be made with regards to the causes of polyandry.
• Still factors such as scarcity of women, the desire to keep the property intact, heavy bride price, poverty
and the sterility of men, etc., are favourable to polyandry though not always.
 Marriage
Group Marriage
• Theoretically involves the marriage of two or more women with
two or more men.
• Rare in practice; husbands and wives are shared among the group.
• Children are considered the offspring of the entire group.
• Found in some tribal societies in Australia, India, Tibet, and Sri
Lanka.
• Children recognize all men in the group as their fathers and all
women as their mothers.
• Debate about the existence of group marriage; some consider it
almost extinct.
 Marriage
Monogamy
• Form of marriage: one man marries one woman.
• Most widespread among both primitive and civilized societies.
• Almost universal in present times.
• Practiced among various tribal communities: Kadars, Santals, Khasis, Canella,
Hopi, Iroquois, Andaman Islanders, Veddas of Ceylon, Sevangas of Malaya, and
others.
• Long historical presence.
• Westermarck suggests monogamy is as old as humanity.
• Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle recommended monogamous marriage.
• Ancient Romans and Spartans recognized and practiced monogamy.
• Ancient Jews, Christians, and Indians emphasized monogamy.
• Ancient Hindus regarded monogamy as the most ideal form of marriage.
 Marriage
Advantages of Monogamy
• Universally Practicable:
• One-to-one ratio (one man to one woman) makes monogamy
practicable in almost all societies.
• Provides marital opportunity and satisfaction to all individuals,
unlike polygyny or polyandry.
• Economically Better Suited:
• Polygyny is economically challenging for ordinary income
individuals.
• Monogamy adjusts better to poverty as it doesn't require the
financial means to support multiple spouses.
 Marriage
• Promotes Better Understanding Between Husband and
Wife:
• Monogamy fosters the highest type of love and affection between spouses.
• Contributes to family peace, solidarity, and happiness.
• Multiple marriages may lead to unhappiness and misery, according to
Vatsayana, an authority on "Kama Sutra."
• Contributes to Stable Family and Sex Life:
• Monogamous families are more stable and long-lasting.
• Free from conflicts commonly found in polyandrous and polygynous
families.
• Reduced scope for sexual jealousy; stricter regulation of sex relations.
• Herbert Spencer notes that monogamy is more stable, leading to a
stronger family bond.
 Marriage
• Helps in Better Socialization:
• Better understanding between spouses allows for greater attention to the
socialization of children.
• Children receive special attention and care.
• Polygyny may result in the husband's inability to fully devote himself to each
wife and child due to their numerousness.
• Aged Parents are not Neglected:
• Monogamy ensures proper protection and care for old parents.
• Polygyny may lead to neglect of older wives in favor of younger ones.
• Provides Better Status for Women:
• Women have a higher social status in monogamy.
• In modern societies, women enjoy almost equal social status with men.
• Polygyny often relegates women to a lower position, with unrecognized rights
and the risk of easy divorce.
 Marriage
Endogamy
• Endogamy is a rule of marriage in which the life partners are to be selected within the group. It is
marriage within the group, and the group may be caste, class, tribe, race, village, religious group, etc.
• Thus, we have caste endogamy, class endogamy, subcaste endogamy, race endogamy, tribal
endogamy and such other forms

Exogamy
• Exogamy is almost the opposite of endogamy.
• Exogamy is a rule of marriage in which an individual has to marry outside his own group.
• It prohibits marrying within the group.
• The rule of exogamy insists that the so-called blood relatives shall neither have marital connections nor
sexual contacts among themselves.
• Near relatives are not supposed to marry among themselves.
• But the degree of nearness differs from community to community. In Melanesia and Australia among
some people, a son may marry his father's wife if she is not his direct mother.
• Similarly, marriage of cousins is allowed among Muslims.
 Family
• The family is considered the most important primary group
in society.
• It is the simplest and most elementary form of society,
providing the first and most immediate social environment
for a child.
• The family plays a crucial role in the development of basic
attitudes in individuals.
• It exerts a constant influence on individuals from birth to
death.
• Every individual grows up in a family and becomes a
member of one throughout their life.
 Family
• The family, as an institution, is universal and exists in all
societies, primitive or modern.
• The origin of the family is unknown, but it is presumed
to be a permanent component of society.
• The purpose is to acquire sociological knowledge about
the family as a social phenomenon, not to provide
advice on family relations.
• The study focuses on the family as an association and
institution without giving counsel on personal happiness
within marriage.
 Family
The meaning of family can be explained better by the following definitions:
1. M.F. Nimkoff says that "Family is a more or less durable association of
husband and wife with or without child, or of a man or woman alone, with
children".
2. Burgess and Locke. "Family is a group of persons united by ties of marriage,
blood or adoption constituting a single household interacting and
intercommunicating with each other in their respective social roles of
husband and wife, father and mother, son and daughter, brother and sister,
creating a common culture".
3. Eliot and Merrill: Family is "The biological social unit composed of husband,
wife and children".
4. MacIver: Family is "a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently precise and
enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children".
 Family
General Characteristics of the Family
• A Mating Relationship. A family comes into existence when a man and woman establish
mating relation between them.

• Selection of Mates. Wife or husband may be selected by parents or by the elders, or the
choice may be left to the wishes of the individuals concerned. Various rules govern this
selection.

• A Form of Marriage. The mating relationship is established through the institution of

marriage. Marriage is an institutional arrangement made by the society according to
which the individuals establish marital relationships among themselves. Marriage may
assume any one of the forms-monogamy, polygamy, polyandry or group marriage.

• A System of Nomenclature. Every family is known or recognised by a distinctive name.

 Family
• A Way of Tracing the Descent. Every family has its own mode of tracing the descent.
Descent refers to the social recognition of biological relationship between individuals.
Descent may be traced through the male line (Patrilineal Descent) or through the
female line (Matrilineal Descent) or through both the lines (Bilateral Descent).

• A Common Residence. Family requires a home or a household to live in. After the
marriage the wife may reside in husband's parental home (Patrilocal or Virilocal
Residence) or she may stay in her parental home to which the husband pays
occasional visits (Matrilocal or Uxorilocal Residence) or both of them may establish a
separate home of their own (Neolocal Residence).

• An Economic Provision. Family provides for the satisfaction of the economic needs of
its members.
 Family
Features:
• Universality: Murdock's analysis of over 250 societies concludes that
the family is universal, existing in all human societies due to sex
needs, reproduction urges, and economic requirements.
• Emotional Basis: Grounded in emotions and sentiments, the family is
built upon impulses like mating, procreation, maternal devotion,
fraternal love, and parental care.
• Limited Size: As a primary group, the family has a necessarily limited
size, often considered the smallest social unit, influenced by
biological conditions.
• Formative Influence: The family is the earliest social environment
that shapes, trains, and educates the child, emotionally conditioning
them and serving as the 'nursery of human nature.'
 Family
Functions of Family
Maclver classifies the functions of family into two types: Primary and Secondary functions.
Primary Functions
• Sex drive is powerful in humans, and the family regulates sexual behavior through
marriage to provide a stable basis for satisfaction.
• Reproductive activity, common to animals, is regulated by the family, introducing
legitimacy and stability.
• Family institutionalizes the process of reproduction, contributing to the propagation of
species and the continuity of the human race.
• The family is crucial for the production and rearing of children, offering needed
protection and efficient upbringing.
• It serves as the primary institution for the maintenance of children, owing to its
effectiveness in child-rearing.
 Family
• The family provides a home for its members, satisfying the strong desire for a home
environment.
• Despite births in hospitals, homes remain the primary nurturing space for children,
offering comfort, protection, and peace.
• The family ensures both biological and cultural continuity, transmitting ideas, customs,
traditions, and values across generations.
• It acts as an agent of socialization, preparing individuals for participation in the larger
society and shaping their personalities.
• The family confers ascribed statuses, including age and sex as biological ascriptions,
and social ascriptions related to ethnicity, nationality, religion, residence, class,
politics, and education.
• The family meets both physical and mental needs, providing emotional satisfaction
and security.
• Affection in the family, especially in parental relationships, is crucial for an individual's
well-being, and lack of affection can adversely impact an infant's ability to thrive.
 Family
Secondary Function
Economic Functions:
• Traditionally, the family served as an economic unit, producing
goods within the household.
• Industrialization has shifted the center of production from
home to the factory, altering the family's economic role.
• Modern families are more focused on consuming rather than
producing, with members engaged in individual economic
activities outside the home.
• Despite changes, the family remains embedded with the
institution of property.
 Family
Educational Functions:
• The family provides the foundation for a child's formal
learning, imparting social attitudes and habits crucial
for adult participation in social life.
• Basic training in social interactions learned within the
family extends to interactions with school authorities,
religious leaders, and other agents of social control.
• As the child grows, intelligence, emotions, and social
habits develop beyond dependence on the family.
 Family
Religious Functions:
• The family serves as a center for religious training,
teaching children various religious virtues and values.
• Homes were historically centers of religious quest,
passing on moral standards and spiritual guidance to
the next generation.
• Foundations for moral standards that guide children
throughout their lives are laid down within the family.
 Family
Recreational Functions:
• Recreation was historically family-based, fostering close
solidarity through activities like reading aloud, family
reunions, church socials, singing, dancing, and indoor
games.
• Elders and children often organized social gatherings and
recreational activities within the family.
• Modern recreation is increasingly organized outside the
family, with activities such as movies, sports events, and
plays designed for individual or peer-group participation
rather than family-wide involvement.
 Family
TYPES OR FORMS OF THE FAMILY
Sociologists have spoken of different forms or types of family. They have
taken into consider- ation different factors as the basis for the
classification of the family. A few classifications can be mentioned.
• On the basis of marriage family has been classified into three major
types: (i) Polygamous or Polygynous Family. (ii) Polyandrous Family, and
(iii) Monogamous Family.
• On the basis of the nature of residence family can be classified into three
main forms: (i) Family of Matrilocal Residence, (ii) Family of Patrilocal
Residence, and (iii) Family of Changing Residence.
• On the basis of ancestry or descent family can be classified into two
main types: (i) Matrilineal Family, and (ii) Pratrilineal Family.
 Family
• On the basis of the nature of authority family can be classified into
two main types. (i) Matriarchal Family, and (ii) Patriarchal Family.
• On the basis of size or structure and the depth of generations family
can be classified into two main types: (i) the Nuclear or the Single Unit
Family, and (ii) The Joint or the Undivided Family.
• On the basis of the Nature of Relations among the family members
the family can be classified into two main types: (i) The Conjugal
Family which consists of adult members among whom there exists sex
relationship, and (ii) Consanguine Family which consists of members
among whom there exists what is known as "blood relationship"-
brother and sister, father and son, etc.
 Family
Matriarchal Family
• Matriarchal family, also known as mother-centered or mother-dominated
family.
• The mother or woman is the head, exercising authority and owning
property.
• Descent traced through the mother (matrilineal).
• Daughters inherit the mother's property and succeed both the mother and
sons.
• Children's status determined by the mother's status.
• Matrilocal residence, where the wife stays in her mother's house after
marriage.
• Husband may also stays in his sister's house, making occasional visits to
the wife's house.
 Family
Patriarchal Family
• Patriarchal family, also called father-centered or father-dominated
family.
• The father or eldest man is the head, exercising authority and
owning/administering family property.
• Known for its patriarchal structure where the father's voice and
opinion hold final authority.
• Recognized through the male line (patrilineal).
• Only male children inherit the father's property.
• Eldest son may have special rights and usually succeeds the father.
• Children are acknowledged as the offspring of the father, with
minimal recognition of the mother.
 Family
• Patrilocal residence, where sons continue to stay with the father in his
house even after marriage.
• Wives join the husband's family, and women hold a secondary position,
dependent on the men.
• Children are raised in their father's family.
• Father or eldest male member holds dominant authority.
• Dictates terms for other family members and makes major decisions.
• Members are subordinated to him, and questioning his authority is not
allowed.
• Owner and manager of family property.
• In early days, patriarch had absolute authority, including the ability to
sell or kill family members; also held authority in religious matters.
 Family
Nuclear Family
• Universal social phenomenon composed of husband, wife, and immature
children forming an autonomous unit separate from the community.
• Comprises husband, wife, and their children.
• Children leave parental home after marriage, establishing a separate
household.
• Independent and free from elders' control.
• Minimal interdependence due to physical distance between parents and
married children.
• Common in modern industrial societies, exemplified by the American family.
• Two kinds of nuclear families:
(a) Family of orientation (born and brought up).
(b) Family of procreation (established through marriage).
 Family
Joint Family
• Also known as 'undivided family' or 'extended family.'
• Typically includes members from at least three
generations.
• Members comprise husband, wife, married and unmarried
children, as well as married and unmarried grandchildren.
• Constituted the basic social institution in many traditional
societies.
• Prevalent, particularly in non-western societies.
 Family
Definition of Joint Family
• The joint family is a mode of combining smaller families into larger family
units through an extension of three or more generations including at least
grandparents, parents and children.
• The joint family is one which consists of members related through blood
and spread over several generations living together under a common roof
and working under a common head.
• The definition given by Smt. Iravati Karve seems to be more satisfactory.
According to her, the joint family may be defined as "a group of people who
generally live under one roof, who eat food cooked at one hearth, who hold
property in common, and who participate in common family worship and
are related to each other as some particular type of kindred"
 Family
Characteristics
• Consists of three or more generations, including grandparents,
parents, and children.
• May also include extended family members like uncles, aunts,
cousins, and great-grandsons.
• Members typically reside together under the same household.
• Some members might live separately due to accommodation,
education, or employment issues.
• Joint preparation and consumption of food in a common
kitchen.
• Associated with various religious rituals and practices.
 Family
• Each family may have its deity (Kula devata) and religious
traditions.
• Joint ownership of property, resembling a cooperative institution.
• Head of the family manages family property like a trustee.
• Total earnings pooled into a family treasury for meeting
expenses.
• In patriarchal families, the eldest male member typically
exercises authority.
• Superordination of the eldest member and subordination of
others is a characteristic.
• Commands of the eldest member are usually obeyed.
 Family
• Head of the family, often the eldest, arranges marriages for members.
• Individual's right to select a life partner is undermined.
• Younger members traditionally accept decisions, but modern trends consider
their feelings.
• Joint families tend to be larger by nature.
• Members strongly identify with family.
• Each member has duties and obligations toward the family.
• Senior-most member acts as a guide for others.
• Historically, joint families were mostly self-sufficient.
• Met economic, recreational, medical, and educational needs internally.
• Rural agricultural joint families were particularly self-reliant.
• Modern joint families are no longer self-reliant due to changing circumstances
 Family
Sociological Perspectives on Family
Functionalist Perspective
• Functionalist theorists see the family as fulfilling specific societal needs.
• These needs include socializing the young, regulating sexual activity
and procreation.
• The family provides physical care for members, and psychological
support and emotional security.
• According to functionalism, families meet these needs and ensure a
consensus of values in society.
• Family viewed as a mutually beneficial exchange: women receive
protection, economic support, status in return for emotional and sexual
support, household maintenance, and offspring production.
 Family
• Traditional marriages: men receive housework, nurturing, food
service, and sexual partnership from women.
• Families provide care for children and teach them societal and
family values.
• The family regulates reproductive activity and cultural sanctions
about sexuality.
• Disruption and change in societies lead to family disorganization,
weakening social cohesion.
• Some analysts view the family as "breaking down" under societal
strains.
• Rapid social change fosters disorganizing forces, impacting the
family structure.
 Family
• Other institutions have begun to take on roles originally
performed by the family.
• Schools and caregivers now share in physical care and
socialization of children.
• Diminishment of family functions leads to further social
disorganization.
• The family's reduced role in integration into society leads to
social issues.
• The family's structure is influenced by societal templates.
• High rates of divorce, female-headed, and single-parent
households result from social disorganization
 Family
Conflict Perspective
• Conflict theory views the family as a system of power
relations reflecting and reinforcing societal inequalities.
• Focuses on how families are impacted by class, race,
and gender inequality.
• Sees families as units where advantages and
disadvantages of race, class, and gender are acquired.
• Considers families crucial in maintaining societal
inequality by being vehicles for acquiring property and
social status.
 Family
• Emphasizes that families in the United States are
shaped by capitalism.
• Views the family as vital to capitalism for producing the
workers the system requires.
• Asserts that personalities within families are molded to
meet the needs of a capitalist system.
• Families socialize children to be obedient, subordinate
to authority, and good consumers.
 Family
• Highlights how families serve capitalism by teaching
capitalist habits, such as money management.
• Conflict theorists depict the family as an institution
subject to conflicts and tensions present in society.
• Families are not isolated from broader societal issues;
struggles like racism, class inequality, sexism, and
homophobia play out within family life.
 Family
Symbolic Interactionist Approach
• Symbolic interaction emphasizes the importance of meanings in
social interaction.
• Scholars studying families from this perspective take a microscopic
view.
• Focus on how individuals define and understand their family
experiences.
• Examines the negotiation of family relationships, including tasks
like housework, child care, and balancing work and family life.
• Marriage, from a symbolic interactionist standpoint, involves
forming new relationships and identities with specific societal
meanings.
 Family
• Changes in marriage, whether abrupt (e.g., name change) or
subtle (e.g., altered treatment by others), are socially constructed.
• Symbolic interactionists view the marriage relationship as
evolving through societal definitions and self-definitions of married
partners.
• Recognizes that roles within families are not fixed but evolve as
participants define and redefine their behavior toward each other.
• Symbolic interaction provides insight into changes in families by
analyzing new meaning systems and the evolution of family forms
over time.
• Each theoretical perspective used for family analysis illuminates
different aspects of family experiences.
 Education: Role of education in
society
• Education is a fundamental activity in all human societies.
• The continuity of society relies on transmitting culture to the young
generation.
• Every new generation needs training to ensure the continuation of
cultural traditions.
• Various societies have distinct ways of fulfilling the need for transmitting
culture, with "education" being a common approach.
• The term "education" is derived from the Latin word "educare," meaning
to 'bring up' or 'bring forth.'
• Education aims not only to impart knowledge but also to develop habits
and attitudes for facing the future successfully.
• Varro emphasized the roles of different figures in the education process:
midwife brings forth, nurse brings up, tutor trains, and master teaches.
 Education: Role of education in
society
• Plato believed the end goal of education was to develop the beauty and perfection
within the pupil, achieving a sound mind in a sound body.
• According to Aristotle, education aims to develop human faculties, especially the
mind, for the contemplation of truth, goodness, and beauty, leading to perfect
happiness.
• Peter Worsely notes that social and technical skills are acquired through deliberate
instruction, constituting a significant part of children's waking activities.
• Education is a substantial allocation in the budgets of developed and developing
countries.
• It employs a large workforce and plays a crucial role in modern industrialized
societies.
• The Sociology of Education has emerged as a branch of sociology, reflecting the
growing recognition of the importance of educational institutions in contemporary
societies
 Education: Role of education in
society
Definition of Education
• Durkheim conceives of education as "the socialisation of the younger generation".
He further states that it is "a continuous effort to impose on the child ways of
seeing, feeling and acting which he could not have arrived at spontaneously"
• Sumner defined education as the attempt to transmit to the child the mores of
the group, so that he can learn "what conduct is approved and what
disapproved....how he ought to behave in all kinds of cases: what he ought to
believe and reject".
• F.J. Brown and J.S. Roucek say that education is "the sum total of the experience
which moulds the attitudes and determines the conduct of both the child and the
adult'.
 Education: Role of education in
society
• James Welton in Encyclopaedia Britannica (11th Edition) writes that education
consists in "an attempt on the part of the adult members of human society to
shape the development of the coming generation with its own ideals of life".

• A.W. Green writes: "Historically, it (education) has meant the conscious training of
the young for the later adoption of adult roles. By modern convention, however,
education has come to mean formal training by specialists within the formal
organisation of the school."

• Samuel Koenig: "Education may also be defined as the process whereby the social
heritage of a group is passed on from one generation to another as well as the
process whereby the child becomes socialised, i.e., learns the rules of behaviour of
the group into which he is born".
 Education: Role of education in
society
Education as Social Process
• Education refers to deliberate instruction or training.
• Human behavior in society is shaped by training rather
than impulsive or instinctive actions.
• Some equate education with socialization, while others see
it as transmitting cultural norms to younger members.
• Another interpretation views education as an ongoing
effort by individuals to acquire more knowledge.
• The three interpretations emphasize education as a
continuous process.
 Education: Role of education in
society
• Education refers to deliberate instruction or training.
• Human behavior in society is shaped by training rather than impulsive or
instinctive actions.
• Some equate Socialization, as a form of social learning, is continuous throughout
life.
• Learning about society and fellow beings is an ongoing and never-ending process.
• Social learning begins at birth and continues until death, adapting to changing
groups and roles.
• Education as an agent of cultural transmission is also continuous, contributing to
the growth of culture.
• Cultural elements are passed from generation to generation through family,
school, and various associations.
• Education, whether formal or informal, has played a role in cultural transmission
since ancient times.
 Education: Role of education in
society
• The pursuit of knowledge is continuous, with knowledge being boundless
and limitless like an ocean.
• No one has mastered or exhausted knowledge, and there is a limit to
human understanding.
• The universe, both natural and social, is complex and mysterious, driving
the continuous human endeavor to acquire more knowledge.
• Education is seen as a continuous and endless endeavor, a lifelong
process.
• education with socialization, while others see it as transmitting cultural
norms to younger members.
• Another interpretation views education as an ongoing effort by
individuals to acquire more knowledge.
• The three interpretations emphasize education as a continuous process.
 Education: Role of education in
society
• The pursuit of knowledge is continuous, with knowledge being boundless
and limitless like an ocean.
• No one has mastered or exhausted knowledge, and there is a limit to
human understanding.
• The universe, both natural and social, is complex and mysterious, driving
the continuous human endeavor to acquire more knowledge.
• Education is seen as a continuous and endless endeavor, a lifelong
process.
• education with socialization, while others see it as transmitting cultural
norms to younger members.
• Another interpretation views education as an ongoing effort by
individuals to acquire more knowledge.
• The three interpretations emphasize education as a continuous process.
 Education: Role of education in
society
• Education, as a social institution, holds great
importance in modern industrialized societies.
• Philosophers, from ancient sages onward, have
dedicated attention to education, resulting in various
theories about its nature and objectives.
• Significant functions of education include:
 Education: Role of education in
society
1.Completing the socialization process by addressing aspects the
family might leave undone.
2.Transmitting the central heritage, including beliefs, skills, art,
literature, philosophy, and more.
3.Forming social personalities that fit into the culture, contributing to
societal integration.
4.Reforming attitudes absorbed by children, eliminating unfounded
beliefs and prejudices.
5.Providing practical education for occupational placement and
livelihood, emphasizing vocational training.
6.Conferring status, where one's class position is correlated with the
amount and type of education received.
 Education: Role of education in
society
1.Encouraging the spirit of competition through rankings and
comparisons among students.
2.Training in skills required by the economy, ensuring a match
between education and economic needs.
3.Fostering participant democracy by promoting literacy, enabling
full participation in democratic processes.
4.Imparting values through the curriculum, extracurricular activities,
and informal relationships among students and teachers.
5.Acting as an integrative force by communicating values that unite
different sections of society.
6.Providing values and orientations specific to certain occupations,
such as medical practitioners or industrial professionals.
 Education: Role of education in
society
• Education is recognized as an agent or instrument of social
change and development.
• Social change can occur due to:
• Changes in human needs.
• Failure of existing social systems or institutions to meet human
needs.
• Introduction of new materials suggesting better ways of meeting
human needs.
• Social changes are responses to changes in the social and non-
social environment, as noted by Maclver.
• Education initiates social changes by altering outlooks and
attitudes, and by changing patterns of social relationships.
 Education: Role of education in
society
Education instrument of Social Change
• Education is recognized as an agent or instrument of social
change and development.
• Social change can occur due to:
• Changes in human needs.
• Failure of existing social systems or institutions to meet human needs.
• Introduction of new materials suggesting better ways of meeting human
needs.
• Social changes are responses to changes in the social and non-
social environment, as noted by Maclver.
• Education initiates social changes by altering outlooks and
attitudes, and by changing patterns of social relationships.
 Education: Role of education in
society
• Historically, education focused on transmitting a way of
life, serving more as social control than as an instrument
of social change.
• Modern education, unlike traditional education for static
societies, focuses on imparting empirical knowledge in
science, technology, and specialized fields.
• Education's relationship with religion has evolved; it is now
more secular and independent.
• Francis J. Brown notes that education changes societal
behavior, enabling individuals to participate effectively in
society and contribute to its progress.
 Religion
• Religion is a long-standing phenomenon with an unknown
beginning, indicated by Neanderthal burial practices.
• Religion is universal, found in all societies, past and present.
• Religious beliefs and practices vary widely.
• Religion and morality are key in social control, influencing laws,
customs, conventions, and fashions.
• Religion plays a significant role in various aspects of social life,
including economic, political, philosophical, scientific, and artistic
domains.
• Religious dogmas have shaped economic activities, political
movements, property transactions, education, ideology, scientific
discoveries, and art.
 Religion
• Religion is based on cultural needs and has greatly contributed to human
development.
• Religion centers around faith in supernatural forces and is often tied to
emotions like fear, awe, or reverence.
• Many societies have institutions, officials, forms of worship, ceremonies,
sacred objects, tithes, pilgrimages associated with religion.
• In modern societies, religious leaders have developed complex theologies
explaining humanity's place in the universe.
• Religion is closely linked with morality and has established rules of
conduct.
• World religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam are central to extensive cultural systems
dominating societies for centuries
 Religion
Definitions
• Durkheim in his book The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life defines religion as a
"unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set
apart and forbidden."
• James G. Frazer, in his The Golden Bough considered religion a belief in "powers
superior to man which are believed to direct and control the course of nature and of
human life."
• Edward Sapir, an American anthropologist, says that "the essence of religion consists in
man's never-ceasing attempt to discover a road to spiritual serenity across the
perplexities and dangers of daily life".
• MacIver and Page have defined, "Religion as we understand the term, implies a
relationship not merely between man and man but also between man and some higher
power."
 Religion
• According to Ogburn, "Religion is an attitude towards
superhuman powers.“
• Max Muller defines religion as "a mental faculty or disposition
which enables man to apprehend the infinite".
• Thomas F. O'Dea, a functional theorist, defines religion as "the
manipulation of non-empirical or supra-empirical means for non-
empirical or supra-empirical ends". He further adds, "Religion
offers what is felt to be a way of entering into a relationship with
the supra-empirical aspects of reality, be they conceived as
God, gods, or otherwise".
 Religion
Components
• Belief in Supernatural Forces: Religion involves belief
in supernatural or superhuman forces. Polytheists worship
multiple forces, while monotheists believe in a single,
omnipresent, omniscient, and omnipotent God. Worship
methods vary among different believers.
• Man's Adjustment with the Supernatural Forces:
Humans seek to align themselves with these supernatural
forces through prayers, hymns, and other acts of worship,
believing that disrespect or negligence could lead to
disaster.
 Religion
• Acts Defined as Righteous and Sinful or Sacred and the
Profane: Religion differentiates between righteous (sacred) and
sinful (profane) acts. Righteous acts are encouraged and believed
to bring positive results, while sinful acts are denounced and
thought to lead to negative consequences. Concepts of heaven
and hell are often based on these distinctions.
• Some Methods of Salvation: Each religion has its own concept
of salvation. Buddhism refers to it as Nirvana, a state of union
with the divine. Hinduism calls it Mukti or Moksha, a release from
the cycle of birth and death, with paths like Yoga Marga, Jnana
Marga, Bhakti Marga, and Karma Marga for attaining it.
 Religion
Functions
• Religion Provides Religious Experience: The primary function
of religion is to offer religious experiences such as prayer,
worship, and meditation. These activities allow individuals to
express awe, reverence, and gratitude to a higher power,
facilitating personal growth, sociability, and creativity.
• Religion Provides Peace of Mind: Religion offers individuals
peace of mind, especially during personal or collective crises. It
helps develop character and provides emotional support,
consolation, and reconciliation in times of uncertainty, promoting
established values and reinforcing morale.
 Religion
• Religion Promotes Social Solidarity, Unity, and Identity:
Religion strengthens social bonds by upholding traditions and
uniting people through common faith, values, and rituals. It
plays a crucial role in shaping individual and collective
identities, particularly in times of rapid social change, acting
as a unifying force in society.
• Religion Conserves the Value of Life: Religion preserves
and reinforces life values, including moral, spiritual, and social
values. It influences the behavior of younger generations
through institutions like family and religious organizations,
sacralizing the norms and values of society and prioritizing
group goals over individual impulses
 Religion
• Religion as an Agent of Social Control: Functions as an
informal means of social control by prescribing rules of
conduct and using concepts like spirits, ghosts, taboos, and
religious doctrines to regulate human behavior. Notions of
hell and heaven strongly influence people's actions, providing
disciplinary value and methods to reintegrate those who
violate norms.
• Priestly Function of Religion: Contributes to societal
stability and order by establishing a relationship with the
divine through various forms of worship and beliefs. Provides
emotional security, offers authoritative teachings to avoid
conflicts, and supports the maintenance of the status quo.
 Religion
• Religion Promotes Welfare: Encourages sympathy,
mercy, cooperation, and mutual help among people.
Fosters philanthropic attitudes, reinforces group
belonging, promotes art, culture, and character
development along positive lines.
• Religion Provides Recreation: Offers recreational
activities like religious lectures, dramas, music,
festivals, and art exhibitions. Aims to alleviate sorrow
and fear, providing relief to troubled minds through
various religious rituals and celebrations.
 Religion
• Religion Explains Individual Suffering and Integrates
Personality: Offers explanations for individual suffering and
helps integrate personality by providing goals beyond
worldly experiences. Cultivates faith that transcends
failures, offering rituals to alleviate guilt and instill hope for
divine grace.
• Religion Enhances Self-Importance: Expands the self-
concept to an infinite level by relating it to the cosmic
design or the divine. Belief in unity with the infinite elevates
the self, making individuals consider themselves as noble
creations of God, thus enhancing their sense of grandeur
and elevation
 Religion
Dysfunction
• Religion Inhibits Protests and Social Changes: Provides
emotional consolation, hindering protests and impeding beneficial
social changes. Postpones reforms, leading to explosive resentments
that may result in costly revolutions. Historical conflicts in Europe
and America led to positive reforms, with religion sometimes
inhibiting such conflicts.
• Hampers Society's Adaptation to Changed Conditions:
Imposes outdated norms and values, hindering society's functional
adaptation to changing conditions. Example: Medieval Church's
refusal to legitimize money-lending at interest impeded capitalist
development. Similar conflicts exist today, like in traditional Muslim
views on interest and Catholic views on birth control.
 Religion
• Increases Conflict and Hinders Realistic Solutions: Through its
prophetic function, critiques institutional norms but may become
unrealistic, hindering practical action. Religious demands for reform might
be utopian, rendering compromise impossible. Intolerance during the
Reformation period led to extremism, impeding compromise.
• Impedes Development of New Identities: Religious identification can
be divisive, fostering animosity and opposition along religious lines.
Religious wars after the Reformation highlighted this divisive element,
similar to how ideologies like communism and nationalism divide groups
along identity lines.
• Fosters Dependence and Irresponsibility: Encourages dependency on
religious institutions and leaders rather than individual responsibility.
People often seek advice from religious figures instead of competent
experts, potentially hindering individual development and maturation.
 Religion
Morality
• Morality and religion are fundamental social
institutions.
• Both are recognized as effective guides for human
behavior, formulating rules of conduct.
• Each has its own distinct code of conduct.
• Religious ideas are embedded in the religious code,
while moral ideas are embodied in the moral code.
• Both serve as powerful means of social control.
 Religion
• Morality deals with rules of conduct, prescribing good behavior
and prohibiting undesirable actions.
• Moral values are dynamic, creative, and significant driving
forces behind human actions.
• Concepts such as justice, honesty, fairness, righteousness,
conscientiousness, disinterestedness, prudence,
incorruptibility, freedom, and mercy are purely moral concepts.
• These moral values have the capacity to deeply influence and
change the course of society.
• Political and social movements often revolve around such
moral values.
 Religion
Difference between Morality and Religion
• Religion and morality both prescribe and control human
behavior.
• Behavior in religion is guided by internal pressure,
known as 'fear of God'.
• In morality, behavior is guided by the 'pressure of
conscience'.
• The authority behind religious standards is divine, with
God as the sanction.
 Religion
• Disobeying religious standards is believed to incur
God's displeasure and is considered a 'sin'.
• The authority and sanction behind morality come from
society, not from a divine source.
• Morality governs conduct towards fellow beings, not
towards God.
• Morality does not rely on external sanctions; its
sanction is internal.
• Disobeying moral standards incurs society's
displeasure, not God's.
 Religion
Forms of Religious Organisations
Churches:
• Formal organizations seen as primary and legitimate religious institutions.
• Often integrated into the secular world and may have close ties to the state.
• Organized as complex bureaucracies with a division of labor and roles for
groups within.
• May have formally trained clergy and professional staff.
• Some churches, known as megachurches, have memberships numbering
into the thousands.
• Megachurches may use technology to broadcast services on large screens
or even television.
 Religion
Sects:
• Groups that break off from established churches.
• Emerge when a faction questions the legitimacy or purity of the
parent group.
• Tend to place less emphasis on organization and more on the
purity of members' faith.
• Many sects form as offshoots of existing religious organizations.
• Admit only truly committed members who do not compromise
their beliefs.
• Some sects have emotionally charged worship services, while
others may be more stoic.
 Religion
Cults:
• Intense religious groups devoted to a specific cause or charismatic leader.
• Often arise within established religions but may exist outside the mainstream.
• Common for tension to exist between cults and the surrounding society during
development.
• Cults attract those who feel a longing for meaningful attachments and spiritual
satisfaction.
• Seldom develop elaborate organizational structures but are close-knit communities.
• Held together by personal attachment and loyalty to the charismatic leader.
• Cult leaders are typically believed to have special powers or unique revelations.
• Charismatic leaders in cults are usually men, as they are more likely to be seen as
possessing the qualities associated with charismatic leadership .
 Economy
• The economic system is a social institution responsible for the
production and distribution of goods and services.
• It addresses three fundamental questions faced by all societies:
• What goods and services to produce and in what quantities?
• How to utilize limited resources (land, water, minerals, fuel, labor) for
production?
• For whom to produce goods and services?
• The answers to these questions significantly impact a society's
culture and social structure.
• For example, prioritizing production of military equipment over consumer
goods can lower citizens' standard of living.
• The approach to producing goods and services affects the nature of work,
its organization, satisfaction levels, and the status it provides.
 Economy
• Decisions about distribution influence wealth, income, and
prestige distribution, affecting the social stratification system.
• Throughout history, societies have varied in their responses to
economic survival challenges:
• The earliest organized social life was in hunting and gathering
economies.
• This evolved through pastoral, horticultural, agrarian, and industrial
modes of production.
• Advanced nations are now moving towards a postindustrial social
organization.
• Shifts in production, distribution, and consumption of goods and
services often accompany changes in family, religious, and
political institutions.
 Economy
There are three economic systems in the contemporary world:
Capitalist Economy, Socialist Economy and Mixed Economy.
Capitalist Economy
• Capitalism defined as an economic system with private
ownership and a focus on profit and wealth generation.
• In capitalism, people invest capital in businesses to produce
goods or services for sale in the market.
• Investors in businesses are entitled to a share of profits after
covering production and distribution costs.
• These profits are often reinvested to improve or expand the
business.
 Economy
• Business owners hire workers, paying them wages.
• Prices for raw materials, products, services, and wages are influenced by
supply and demand and competition.
• High demand with low supply typically leads to higher prices; excess
supply with lower demand usually results in falling prices.
• Competition among businesses for customers can lead to lower prices and
higher quality products or services.
• Workers with rare, in-demand skills and training tend to earn higher
wages.
• Wages are also influenced by job market competition; scarcity of jobs can
lead to lower wages.
• In times of high unemployment, workers may accept lower wages,
allowing businesses to maintain or increase profits without raising wages
 Economy
Socialist Economy
• Socialism defined as an economic system with
government ownership, emphasizing equal sharing of
work and wealth in society.
• Goods and their production are often government-
owned or "state-run" in socialism.
• All production, including services, is considered a social
product in socialism.
• Contributors to the production of goods or services are
entitled to a share in the benefits from their sale or use.
 Economy
• Governments play a crucial role in controlling property,
production, and distribution to ensure fair shares for all
members of society.
• Socialism aims to benefit society collectively, in contrast
to the individual focus of capitalism.
• Socialists argue that capitalism leads to inequality and
unfair distribution of wealth, with individuals exploiting
power at the expense of society.
• Socialism, ideally, seeks to control the economy to
address and prevent issues inherent in capitalism
 Economy
Mixed Economy
• Mixed economic system combines elements of both capitalism
and socialism.
• Protects private property and permits economic freedom in capital
use.
• Allows government intervention for social objectives.
• Public and private sectors coexist, sometimes competing for
limited resources.
• Private sector retains profit-seeking motives but faces regulatory
measures.
• May involve nationalization of industries providing public goods.
 Politics
Politics and Nature of Politics as an Social Institution
• Politics is a fundamental social institution critical for
organizing and governing societies.
• It involves the process of making collective decisions for
resource allocation, conflict management, and establishing
community behavioral rules.
• Politics spans formal government structures and informal
community power dynamics.
• Central to politics is the distribution of authority, law
creation and enforcement, and public affairs administration.
 Politics
• The nature of politics is multifaceted, rooted in complex human interactions and
societal organization.
• Characterized by power struggles, as various individuals and groups seek
influence over decision-making.
• Political systems vary widely, including democracies, monarchies, authoritarian
regimes, etc.
• Political ideologies and philosophies significantly influence the aims and values
of political systems, affecting policy and resource distribution.
• Acts as a medium for expressing and mediating a society's diverse interests.
• Enables participation in the political process through elections, political parties,
and advocacy groups.
• Offers a platform for individuals to voice concerns and impact public policy.
• Susceptible to corruption, manipulation, and power abuse, posing challenges to
justice and equality in political systems.
 Politics
Power and Authority
• Power and authority are integral concepts in understanding social structures and
governance.
• Power is the ability of individuals or groups to influence or control the behavior
of others.
• Manifests in various forms, including physical force, economic control, or
persuasive ideas.
• Inherent in all social relationships and institutions, playing a pivotal role in
shaping interactions.
• Authority is a specific form of power recognized as legitimate within a given
context.
• Often institutionalized through laws, traditions, or formal positions in
organizations or governments.
• Implies a recognized right to command with an obligation for others to comply.
 Politics
• Authority can be charismatic, traditional, or legal-rational, reflecting its basis of
establishment.
• The relationship between power and authority is complex, with legitimate
authority often using power to enforce decisions.
• Effective governance requires a balance between power and authority, with
legitimacy providing stability.
• Misuse of power without legitimate authority can lead to coercion, resistance,
and challenges to the social order.
• Power and authority are distributed across various institutions in societies
(governments, legal systems, economic structures).
• The distribution influences social order, justice, and individual freedoms.
• Understanding power and authority nuances is essential for analyzing social
systems, shedding light on decision-making, rule enforcement, and community
stability.
 Politics
Types of Political System
• Political systems are crucial for understanding how societies organize government
and manage public affairs.
• Essential for undergraduate students in political science to understand basic types of
political systems: democracy and authoritarianism.
• Democracy is characterized by the rule of the people, with power vested in the
citizenry.
• Governmental decisions in democracies are made directly by people or through
elected representatives.
• Features of democracy include free and fair elections, protection of individual rights
and civil liberties.
• Democracies have checks and balances within the government, ensuring
accountability to citizens.
• Emphasis in democracies on equal participation, transparency, and adherence to the
rule of law.
 Politics
• Authoritarianism involves a concentration of power in a single leader or
small group.
• Authoritarian regimes often maintain power through exclusion of
challengers and control measures like surveillance and censorship.
• Lack of democratic checks and balances in authoritarian systems, with
restricted freedoms of speech, press, and assembly.
• Some authoritarian governments may hold elections, but these are often
not free or fair.
• Real political competition is typically absent in authoritarian regimes.
• Many political systems display characteristics of both democracy and
authoritarianism to varying degrees.
• Some democracies can exhibit authoritarian tendencies, and some
authoritarian regimes may use democratic processes for legitimacy
Thank You