DECISION MAKING AND

PROBLEM SOLVING
• Decision-making and problem-solving are the hallmark of
our existential conditions as human beings.
• They are closely related in the sense that a given decision
generates problems in its turn and conversely.
• The general distinction between the two is that in problem-
solving usually a single solution is what is required.
• The required solution can usually be of two distinct kinds
namely; analytic and synthetic.
 Cont.
• The analytic problems are the ones in which the focus is on the
achievement of an unknown goal through a known process. The synthetic
problems are the ones that consist in the design of a new process to achieve
a required known goal, for example, devising a proof for a known theorem.
• But in case of decision-making there are usually several possibilities among
which we are needed to pick one as the optimal solution under the current
circumstances.
• What is common to the two activities (i.e. Decision making and Problem
solving) is that they usually involve some degree of novelty which requires a
measure of creativity.
 Cont.
• In ordinary circumstances decision-making and problem-
solving are never so thought-provoking but in certain
critical moments they require very careful engagement of
the mind. Failure to do this results in common regrets
such as I wish I knew better, I wish I had not listened to so
and so, I wish I had thought about it a little bit longer, etc.
• Here we propose a model that can be heuristic in
conducting problem-solving and decision-making in a
more rational way. It is a complex process which involves
the following steps:
 Cont.
• 1) Identify the problem (problem solving) or the goal (for
decision making)
• 2) Analyze the problem or goal
• 3) State the problem/goal clearly
• 4) Think of the possible solutions to the problem/means for
achieving the goal
• 5) Consider the consequences of each solution/decision
• 6) Isolate the set with the least adverse effects
 Cont.
• 7) Set the determinants such as who, when, how, cost,
knowledge required to solve the problem/achieve the goal
• 8) Select the best solution/decision from the set in terms of the
determinants
• 9) Design an algorithm (specific and systematic steps needed
to have the problem solved/the goal achieved
• 10) Implement the solution/decision
• 11) Evaluate the outcome of implemented solution/decision
Condensed steps of Problem in a
flow chart
 Key dispositions in problem
solving
• Open-Mindedness: Being open-minded means being receptive to different
ideas, perspectives, and solutions. It involves suspending judgment and
considering alternatives, even if they initially seem unconventional.
• Humility and Flexibility – an excellent problem solver must develop a
humble attitude, which inspires confidence in the people he/she works with.
Being aware of the fallible nature of human knowledge and ability, they
seek advice and assistance, where necessary, and are ready to recast their
ideas and methods to suite their goals. Equally, they change tools and tact
according to the dynamism of their work environment, reaching for the
right tool when required. They are flexible, and can shift perspectives
quickly and easily, without breaking rules.
…Key dispositions in problem
solving
• Persistence: Problem-solving can be challenging and time-
consuming. Persistence is the disposition to keep working on a
problem even when faced with setbacks or obstacles. It involves
determination and the willingness to try different strategies.
• Collaboration: Collaborative problem solving involves working
with others to address complex issues. This disposition includes
effective communication, active listening, and the ability to
contribute to a team's efforts while respecting diverse
viewpoints.
…Key dispositions in problem
solving
• Social Intelligence – an excellent problem solver and decision
maker understands and develops ways of connecting with people,
and tries to find happy – middle solutions. He/she is empathetic, and
understands people’s sensitivities, tries to be helpful each time an
opportunity presents itself.
• He/she makes certain that the social integration in his/her
environment is harmonious and is rid of the kind of tensions that may
create difficulties in solving problems and making critical decisions.
They are emotionally balanced, and are, always on the lookout, lest
their biases/prejudices stand on their way to good judgment.
…Key dispositions in problem
solving
• Forecasting/embracing the future – strategic problem solvers
and decision makers see beyond the obvious details before them,
and tend to anticipate future scenarios for advanced
preparedness.
• Building acumen and resilience for problem solving and decision
making begins with the ability to imagine different problem
possibilities which can occur. This arises out of a habit of paying
attention to what is going on around one (keeping eternal
vigilance), and anticipating potential new trends, as one watches
out for new possibilities and opportunities.
…Key dispositions in problem
solving
• Resilience: Resilience is the ability to bounce back from
failures or setbacks in problem solving. It involves
maintaining a positive attitude and using setbacks as
opportunities for growth and learning.
• Ethical Considerations: Ethical problem solving involves
considering the moral implications of potential solutions.
This disposition ensures that solutions align with ethical
principles and values.
…Key dispositions in problem
solving
• Clarity of Purpose – problem solvers start at the end. They know
exactly what they want to achieve before they begin and
determine appropriate actions, based on how it will help them
achieve their aim.
• Listening and Communication ability – a problem solver must
listen actively, and take note of all what is said, without
considering some information as minor or insignificant. Guarding
against the temptation of dismissing information as irrelevant is a
disposition that a strategic problem solver and decision maker
must cultivate and maintain.
…Key dispositions in problem
solving
• Methodological Skepticism – problem solvers are
tentative, and seek verification before adopting positions.
They are not quick to endorse solutions, until the proof of
their efficacy is beyond reasonable doubt. They are not
dogmatic in approach to problem solution and decision
making. Their focus is in creating as many options of
problem solving and decision making as possible, and not
on being right.
 PRACTICAL PROBLEM SOLVING
• Problem Solving is a practical thing, and requires knowledge
of practical skills and strategies. The mastery of a few of these
skills and strategies is of practical significance for effective
and efficient solutions of problems.
• Below, we are going to consider some of these skills and
strategies. We must warn, though, that these are not quick fix
strategies, or strategies which shall work for us, as though by
automation.
• We must, each, work on inculcating and mastering their use.
 Cont.
• You are, therefore, encouraged to commit them to memory,
through practice. This might take longer for some people than
for others. The trick is to try your best, at your speed, to
imbibe them.
• When trying to solve a problem, the following approach is
suitable:
• Identify the cause (or causes) of the problem.
• Find ways to eliminate these causes and prevent them from
recurring.
Useful techniques in problem
solving
• Root cause analysis (RCA): This is is a systematic
process and methodology used to identify the underlying
causes of problems or incidents, rather than just
addressing their symptoms.
• It is a problem-solving technique employed in various
fields, including business, engineering, healthcare, and
safety management, to understand and eliminate the
fundamental reasons behind undesirable events or issues.
• The primary goal of root cause analysis is to prevent the
recurrence of problems by addressing their root causes.
 Cont.
• Once the real causes of a problem have been identified, eliminating them is
often a much easier task. Hence, identifying a problem’s cause is paramount.
A problem is often the result of multiple causes at different levels. Causes can
be classified as one of the following:
• 1) Symptoms. These are not regarded as actual causes, but rather as signs of
existing problems.
• 2) First-level causes. These are causes that directly lead to a problem.
• 3) Higher-level causes. These are causes that lead to the first-level causes.
While they do not directly cause the problem, higher-level causes form links in
the chain of cause-and-effect relationships that ultimately create the problem.
 Cont.
• Some problems often have compound causes, where
different factors combine to cause the problem. For a
satisfactory solution to any problem, the primary objective
in the search for the solution is to:
• FIND THE ROOT CAUSE!
• The root cause is “the evil at the bottom” that sets in
motion the entire cause-and-effect chain causing the
problem(s).
 Cont.
• Once you have identified the root cause of a problem, for effective
solution to the problem, ELIMINATE THE ROOT CAUSE!
• 1) If you attack and remove only the symptoms, the situation can become
worse. The problem will still be there, but there will no longer be an
easily recognized symptom that can be monitored.
• 2) Eliminating first- or higher-level causes may temporarily alleviate the
problem, but the root cause will eventually find another way to manifest
itself in the form of another problem.
• When you have removed the root cause, monitor the symptoms to help
ensure that the problem will not recur.
 Key steps involved in a root cause analysis:

• Define the Problem or Incident: Clearly define the problem or

incident that needs analysis. This step involves gathering information,
specifying the issue's scope, and understanding its impact.
• Collect Facts/Data: Collect data and information related to the
problem or incident. This can include reports, records, interviews,
observations, and any other relevant sources of information.
• Identify Possible Causes: Brainstorm and identify potential causes of
the problem. These causes are often categorized into multiple levels,
such as immediate causes (symptoms), underlying causes (contributing
factors), and root causes (fundamental reasons).
 Cont.
• Determine Root Causes: Among the identified causes, focus
on identifying the root causes, which are the fundamental
factors that, if addressed, can prevent the problem from
occurring in the future. Root causes are often deeper and less
obvious than immediate or contributing causes.
• Cause-and-Effect Analysis: Use tools like fishbone diagrams
(Ishikawa diagrams) or causal factor charts to visualize the
relationships between causes and effects. This helps in
understanding the complex interactions among various factors.
 Cont.
• Verify Root Causes: Verify the identified root causes by
gathering evidence and conducting further analysis.
Ensure that the root causes are based on facts and data
rather than assumptions or opinions.
• Recommend Corrective Actions: Develop a list of
corrective actions or recommendations aimed at
addressing the root causes. These actions should be
specific, actionable, and tailored to prevent the
recurrence of the problem.
 Cont.

• Implement Corrective Actions: Put the recommended

corrective actions into practice. Assign responsibilities, set
timelines, and monitor the progress of implementation.
• Evaluate Effectiveness: After implementing the corrective
actions, evaluate their effectiveness in preventing the
problem from recurring. This step may involve ongoing
monitoring and measuring to ensure sustained improvement.